









































Pa
ge

 
1



Pa
ge

 
52

American Journal of   
Environment and Climate (AJEC)

Adverse Effects of  Human Activities on Forest Reserves in Ghana: Lessons of
Experience from the Yenku Forest Reserve in the Central Region

Emmanuel Kojo Sakyi1, Stephen Kwame Ameko2*

Volume 4 Issue 1, Year 2025
ISSN: 2832-403X (Online) 

DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i1.3727
https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec

Article Information ABSTRACT

Received: September 12, 2024

Accepted: October 16, 2024

Published: January 29, 2025

This study examines the threat posed to sustainable forest management of  human activities 
of  communities within the Yenku Forest Reserve in the Central Region of  Ghana. The 
reserve was identified for the study because it is the largest forest reserve has the highest 
number of  fringe communities and is one of  the most degraded forest reserve in the Winneba 
Forest District. Da, and observations and semi-structured were deployed for soliciting series 
of  individual semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and observations were 
deployed to solicit data from residents within the fringe communities of  the Yenku forest 
reserve. The findings of  the study are that farming, charcoal burning, hunting, and harvesting 
of  non-timber forest products are the major human activities and constitute the livelihood 
and survival of  the fringe communities. The consequence of  these human activities is the 
continuous degradation of  the land, a decline of  soil fertility, soil erosion, deforestation, and 
forest degradation, wildfires, and depletion of  wildlife. The interviewees reported that they 
have little or no role to play when the issue of  sustainability comes up in the management 
of  the Yenku Forest Reserve. It emerged from the study findings   that traditional authorities 
within the fringe communities and all relevant stakeholders needed to be actively engaged in 
the making of  decisions regarding the Yenku forest reserve so as to integrate local peoples’ 
knowledge and livelihood objectives and strategies into the choices made and to improve the 
management of  forest resources.

Keywords
Climate Change, Environment 
and Forest, Forest Reserve, 
Sustainable Forest

1 University of  Ghana Business School, Ghana
2 Utah State University, Ghana
* Corresponding author’s e-mail: s.k.ameko@usu.edu

INTRODUCTION
The Yenku Forest Reserve falls within the Southern 
savanna dry forest zone of  Ghana. It contains many Non-
timber Forest Products (NTFP’s) on which most local 
people in the fringe communities of  the reserve depend 
for their livelihood. According to Amoah (2004) Evidence 
from a recent socio-economic sustainability survey of  the 
fringe communities indicates that the reserve abounds in 
various flora and fauna with about twenty three species 
of  very high commercial value (Amoah, 2004). The 
survey revealed the Yenku Forest and its eviron have over 
the years experienced devastating encroachment from 
human activities from the fringe communities with the 
catchment areas of  the Gomoa East and West District 
Assemblies.  These human activities have adversely altered 
affected the sustainability of  forest resources, the Carbon 
Cycle and human survival. Over exploitation of  forest 
economic resources, especially fuel-wood/firewood, illegal 
hunting of  animals/birds, preponderance of  traditional 
farming practice of  ‘slash and burn’ farming and charcoal 
production are among the dominant human activities 
responsible for the decimation of  the Yenku forest. 
Even though earlier studies suggest that the communities 
are aware of  the various human activities ongoing in the 
forest, the effects and implications of  their activities for 
the sustainability of  the forest appeared not to have come 
to the attention of  the people. This means that majority 
of  the local people were aware of  their illegal activities 
in the reserve, but are ignorant of  the dangers posed 

by those activities. Socio-economic sustainability survey 
however did not address the local people’s perception 
about the sustainability of  the forest and how the effects 
of  their activities and its implications pose challenges to 
sustainable management of  the reserve. There is no doubt 
about these human activities due to persistent annual 
wildfires in the reserve despite the numerous wildfire 
educational campaigns by the Winneba Forest District 
during the dry season. The socio-economic survey 
(Amoah, 2004) revealed also that 97.8% of  respondents 
were aware of  the existing laws relating to protection of  
forest reserves and 82% of  them confirmed that the laws 
were enforced, offenders arrested by forestry officials and 
arraigned before the law courts for prosecution and items 
involved confiscated. It is within this context that this 
study seeks to examine the extent to which local people 
in the forest fringe communities perceive the challenges 
of  sustainable management of  the Yenku Forest Reserve 
through the effects of  human activities.
The study objectives were to:
• Identify the various types of  human activities ongoing 

in the reserve and its effects on the reserve;
• Gauge the level of  knowledge and awareness of  the 

local people about the effect of  their activities on the 
Yenku Forest and climate;
• Explore the views of  the local people about issues of  

sustainable management of  the Yenku Forest Reserve.
• Examine the problems of  sustainable management in 

respect of  the reserve.



Pa
ge

 
53

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec

Am. J. Environ. Clim. 4(1) 52-63, 2025

MATERIALS AND METHODS 
The Yenku Forest Reserve forms the Forest Management 
Unit 29 of  the forest reserves under sustainable forest 
management systems in Ghana. It was Gazetted as a 
constituted forest reserve on 6th April, 1940 under 
Forests Ordinance Cap 122. The reserve is located 
approximately on latitude 00 40’E and 0038’W. The total 
area of  the reserve is 2,120hectares with a perimeter of  
29.37km. The reserve has two adjoining blocks, A and 
B. Block A consists of  a natural forest and plantation 
forest covering 913.2ha and 912.7ha respectively with 
part of  the plantation being used as sacred grove. Block 
B consists of  a research plot of  area 274.77ha under the 
management of  the Forest Research Institute of  Ghana 
(FORIG). There is a rocky hill of  natural forest covering 
an area of  19.3ha (Amoah, 2004). 

The entire reserve falls within the Gomoa East and 
West District Assemblies, with headquarters at Afransi 
and Apam, respectively. The Yenku Forest Reserve 
however, falls in the Winneba Forest District under 
Forestry Administration in Ghana. The reserve is owned 
by Gomoa Otsew-Jukwa Stool land under Gomoa 
Ajumako Traditional Council. There are nine (9 fringe 
communities of  the reserve namely Onyadze, Ostew-
Jukwa, Mankoadze, Bewadze, Aseibu, Oguakrom, Gomoa 
Dahom, Amenfi and Gomoa Lome. The inhabitants are 
predominantly farmers. The dominant farming activities 
are food and vegetable crops and animal rearing. The local 
people are also involved in reforestation programmes in 
collaboration with the Forest Services Division, office 
at Winneba. The major illegal forest activities in the 
communities are firewood cutting, charcoal production, 

Figure 1: Map of  study area showing the Yenku Forest Reserve



Pa
ge

 
54

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec

Am. J. Environ. Clim. 4(1) 52-63, 2025

hunting and, farming which contribute immensely to 
livelihoods and income of  the local people. The study 
spanned the period of  June-December 2013.
The two (2) districts have two main vegetation zones, the 
coastal savannah and the moist semi-deciduous forest. 
The former consists mainly of  grassland and trees of  
patches of  scrub, while the latter is characterized by tall 
trees interspersed with grass cover, shrubs and soft woody 
species. The districts experience two rainfall patterns - 
major rainy season (April - July) and minor rainy season 
(September - November). Mean annual rainfall ranges 
between 70 and 90cm in the southern coastal belt and 
90 to 110cm in the northern and northwestern semi-
deciduous forest areas. However available statistics reveals 
a fluctuating rainfall pattern. Its mean annual maximum 
and minimum temperatures of29°C and 26°C occur in 
February to March and August respectively. The relative 
humidity is influenced by the presence of  large water 
bodies like the ocean, rivers, lagoons and streams. The 
relative humidity ranges between 70% and 80%. (www.
gomoawest.ghanadistricts.gov.gh). The topographic map 
of  the study area is shown in figure 1 above.
The case study research design was used for this study. 
Case studies are in depth or intensive descriptions and 
analysis of  a single unit or bounded systems such as 
an individual, programme, event, group, intervention 
or community (Tagoe, 2009). The study employed the 
qualitative approach through focus group discussion in 
a free and relaxed manner. This enabled the participants 
to give elaborate, in-depth information and new 
innovative ideas on issues concerning human activities 
and their implications on sustainable forest management. 
Discussions were recorded with a voice recorder and 
the information extracted afterwards. Field observations 
and notes also formed part of  the data collection. The 
recorded version gave in-depth information on the issues 
discussed. Data on trends of  forest vegetation cover 
change from 1990 to 2010 were also collected from 
CERGIS. The data collected was therefore analyzed 
thematically.
The study population comprised farmers, firewood 
cutters, hunters and charcoal producers from the nine 
(9) fringe communities of  the reserve. This portion of  
the population was chosen for the study because they are 
those local people who encounter the forest reserve in 
their normal life situations each day in the course of  their 
businesses.
The sample size for the study consisted of  eight (8) 
farmers and two (2) hunters making ten (10) people 
drawn from each of  the nine (9) fringe communities of  
the reserve. Four (4) farmers double as firewood cutters 
and charcoal producers. Addis et al. (2005) recommends 
6-8 people for focus group discussions at a time. The total 
sample size for the study was ninety (90) people from all 
the nine (9) fringe communities. The views and ideas of  
the focus group were asked for on their perception on 
impact of  human activities on sustainable management 
of  the Yenku Forest Reserve, and ways to improve and 

enhance the forest resources for present and the future 
generations. 
The purpose sampling procedure was employed to ask 
for information from the farmers within each of  the 
local fringe communities. This is because they directly 
encounter the forest daily for farming, firewood cutting, 
charcoal production and hunting activities in the reserve. 
The snowball technique was also used to select farmers 
who double as firewood cutters and charcoal producers. 
This made a fair representation of  the ten (10) members 
of  each focus group in respect of  various activities.
The qualitative method was employed by the researcher 
in gathering data for the study. A qualitative research 
allows for probing which helped to generate the needed 
information for the study. Interview guide was used 
to obtain in-depth information about various human 
activities in the reserve and the perception of  the 
respondents on human induced climate change issues. 
The focus group discussions were recorded with a voice 
recorder and extracted for data analysis. As part of  the 
data collection approaches, the author gathered field 
notes by spending one (1) hour to observe various field 
activities in the Yenku Forest Reserve afterdiscussionsin 
each community. The focus group discussions lasted for 
one (1) hour to two (2) hours. One question was asked at 
a time and any group member with an idea was allowed to 
answer whilst being recorded. This was followed through 
until a question was exhausted. The Akan language was 
used in all discussions since most of  the farmers did not 
understand the English Lanaguage.
Information gathered using the questionnaire guide was 
analyzed as follows; 
Firstly, the audio-taped raw data was transcribed and field 
notes taken during data collection were examined. In 
preparing the data for analysis the field notes were typed. 
The data was sorted and arranged thematically depending 
on the source and categorization of  the information. The 
researchers read through the information to obtain key 
ideas and themes and sub-themes that emerged from 
individual and group interviews and observation from the 
field. The thematic data were computed with particular 
attention to the dominant themes and their validity and 
reliability of  the frequencies within the data. The detailed 
analysis of  the data gathered then started with coding the 
various themes and sub-themes. The data analysis process 
included segregation of  the dominant themes, sub-theme 
and text data collection, separating of  specific sentences, 
and labeling text data according to the respondents’ views.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Human Activities in the Reserve
It was revealed through the interviews that the 
communities visit the forest reserve frequently for various 
reasons including farming, hunting, and collection 
of  non-timber forest products (NTFPs). The elderly 
amongst the local people said they usually visit the forest 
to collect medicinal plant parts. Some respondents said 
they enter the forest to hunt grass cutters and antelopes 



Pa
ge

 
55

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec

Am. J. Environ. Clim. 4(1) 52-63, 2025

who feed on their food crops during the farming seasons.
However, majority of  respondents at the discussion 
disclosed that between 2002 and 2009 the Forest Services 
Division had been releasing degraded portions of  the 
forest for agroforestry purposes under the National 
Plantation Development Programme of  successive 
governments. This module is termed Modified Taungya 
System (MTS) by the Forest Services Division where 
forest fringe community farmers are allowed to plant 
food crops within tree plantations until the tree canopy 
closes usually within three (3) years. However, this 
programme was stopped in 2009 and the farmers now 
have difficulties in their farming activities. Most of  the 
respondents complained of  land hunger as a major 
threat to their livelihoods since they are basically food 
crop farmers who depend on subsistence farming for 
household income. Under the MTS, farmers provide 
labour for land clearing, tending, and protection of  the 
plantations to its rotation period. 
There is also a Benefit-Sharing Agreement (BSA) with the 
farmers, stool land owners and communities to take 40%, 
15% and 5% share respectively of  the produce from the 
plantations, whiles the Forest Services Division will take 
40%. This arrangement under the MTS gave them the 
legitimate rigth to enter the reserve to farm for survival. 
The respondents further mentioned that illegal farming 
stopped entirely during the period of  2002-2009. This is 
because it was difficult for people who were not involved 
in the plantation project to sneak into the forest and 
farm. Protection of  the forest was therefore enhanced 
according to the respondents. A total area of  171.23ha 
was planted with tree species including Cedrella, Cassia, 
Teak, Ceiba and Mahogany in the reserve under the MTS.
On charcoal production, the respondents indicated that 
they used to carry tree stems, branches and stumps 
from the areas they clear during the farming season to 
burn charcoal outside the forest reserve. However, some 
lamented that even after the MTS stopped, people usually 
burn charcoal using trees from the reserve. On the other 
hand, the elderly of  those who collect medicinal plant parts 
said they use them for treatment of  ailments and other 
diseases like stomach aches, broken limbs and malaria. It 
was however, revealed by some of  them that though the 
area is rural, the use of  medicinal plant is not much and 
this is due to fading out of  traditional means of  healing 
to orthodox medicine which has made the young ones 
ignorant about most effective medicinal plants in the forest.

It was also realized from the discussion that NTFPs were 
collected from the forest in different proportions and for 
several purposes. Majority of  them harvest the NTFPs 
for personal use while others sell their harvest from the 
forest especially those who do not farm in the forest. The 
reason for total dependence on the forest for NTFPs is 
that what they want cannot be obtained outside the forest 
from farmlands which are rather more devastated than the 
forest. This shows that majority of  people harvest due to 
the fact that what they want cannot be obtained outside 
the forest. Steps should therefore be taken to ensure that 
those products that can be cultivated outside the reserve 
are done especially tree planting on farmlands to recover 
lost vegetation, improve soil fertility and enhance NTFP 
production.
The variety of  products collected are mushrooms, 
medicines, chew sticks, pistles, bushmeat, snails, firewood, 
and building posts, among others. Quantities collected 
could not be estimated, hence a proper way of  estimate 
in the form of  a quota should be adopted and enforced if  
collection of  products from the forest will be permitted 
and sustained. The respondents further indicated that 
daily quantities of  NTFPs collected over the past 30 years 
were much higher than what they collect today from the 
forest. The implication here is that, everyone who entered 
the forest in one way or the order collects something 
from the forest, be it fauna or flora and this has gone on 
for generations.

Implications of  Human Activities
The respondents indicated that the Yenku Forest Reserve 
used to be so flourishing with trees with very green 
vegetation cover over the past 30 years and that farming 
lands outside the forest were also very fertile. They 
conceded that, overexploitation of  NTFPs and farming 
activities have resulted in deforestation and degradation 
of  the forest which also resulted in inadequate rainfall 
in the area. They lamented that even the little rain that 
occur in the reserve comes with heavy storms. Majority 
also cited wildfires as the other reason for the degradation 
of  the forest. The respondent information on the status 
of  the forest cover over the past 30 years is confirmed by 
data analysis from the Centre for Remote and Geographic 
Information Services (CERSGIS) at the University of  
Ghana, Legon which depicts a matrix of  land cover 
changes over the past 30 years from 1990 – 2010 in the 
Yenku Forest Reserve in the table 1 below.

Table 1: Matrix of  land cover by class values for the year 1990, 2000 and 2010
Class Value / Year 1990 2000 2010

Land cover % Land cover % Land cover %
Closed savanna woodland with dense 
herbaceous cover

470.61 21.14 195.12 8.76 25.52 1.15

Open savanna woodland with dense 
herbaceous cover

1053.45 47.32 1127.44 50.64 987.12 44.34

Dense herbaceous / grassland cover 524.34 23.55 535.23 24.04 658.50 29.58
Grassland /shrubs cover 139.14 6.25 217.26 9.76 298.20 13.39



Pa
ge

 
56

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec

Am. J. Environ. Clim. 4(1) 52-63, 2025

The matrix indicate the trend of  depletion of  the natural 
closed Savanna woodland forest with dense herbaceous 
cover of  the Yenku Forest Reserve as 21.1%, 8.8%, and 
1.2% for the years 1990, 2000 and 2010 respectively. The 
dense cover in terms of  area has reduced from 470.6ha 
to 195.1ha and 25.5ha respectively over the 30 year period 
which is very remarkable. The open Savanna woodland 
area with dense herbaceous cover has on the other hand 
increased from 47.3% in 1990 to 50.6 in 2000 but further 
reduced to 44.3% in 2010 with respective trends of  area 
coverage of  1053.4ha, 1127.4ha and 987.1ha. The dense 
herbaceous and grassland cover increased from 524.3ha, 

535.2ha to 658.5ha with percentage increase from 23.5%, 
24.0% and 29.6% for 1990, 2000 and 2010 respectively with 
a sharp increase recorded between 2000 and 2010. This 
might have been captured by the satellite to include the 
plantation established between 2002 – 20009. Grassland 
and shrub cover has also increased as 6.2%, 9.8% and 
13.4% for the period under review whilst bare surface 
and short grass cover has also increased tremendously as 
1.7%, 6.8% and 11.5% for the same period. The maps in 
figures 2, 3 and 4 depict the classified satellite images of  
forest cover changes for the years 1990, 2000 and 2010 
respectively in the Yenku Forest reserve.

Bare surface/short grass cover 38.79 1.74 151.28 6.80 257.00 11.54
Total 2226.33 100.00 2226.33 100.00 2226.34 100.00

Source: CERSGIS, 2013

Figure 2: Map of  the project area in 1990 depicting the nature of  the forest cover



Pa
ge

 
57

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec

Am. J. Environ. Clim. 4(1) 52-63, 2025

Figure 3: Map of  project area in 2000 showing changes in forest cover since 1990



Pa
ge

 
58

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec

Am. J. Environ. Clim. 4(1) 52-63, 2025

Figure 4: Map of  project area in 2010 showing changes since 1990



Pa
ge

 
59

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec

Am. J. Environ. Clim. 4(1) 52-63, 2025

The general implication is that the natural forest cover 
is ever dwindling and this according to the study may 
possibly be due to over exploitation of  forest resources, 
encroachment for farming and wildfires. However, 
records at the District Forestry Office indicate that a 
total of  171.23ha was planted through the MTS by the 
fringe communities in the reserve between 2002 and 
2009 with various tree species such as cedrella, cassia, 
teak, Mahogany and ceiba. The implication here is that 
most of  the plantations have failed over the last five (5) 
years when the programme was stopped. The failure 
may b due to wildfire outbreaks, inadequate rainfall or 
poor supervision and maintenance by the Forest Services 
Division and the fringe community farmers respectively.

Local People’s Level of  Knowledge About Climate 
Change 
Some respondents indicated that they are aware of  
the climate change phenomenon through Community 
Education by the Forest Service Division Office at 
Winneba. They recounted the effect of  Climate Change 
to be excessive heat from sunlight, drought, variability 
in rainfall patterns and the effect of  sea waves from salt 
water along the coast which has resulted in corrosion of  
metallic roofs and damage to buildings. They indicate 
that salt from sea waves might also be the cause of  plant 
diseases and death in the forest area. It is evident from 
records at the Winneba Forest District office that most 
of  the trees in a 16.0ha plantation of  teak were attacked 
and killed in 2011 at the Bewadze portion of  the reserve 
by an unknown cause but no research has been conducted 
yet to find out the actual cause.
A few of  the respondents however, attributed the causes 
of  climate change to the “making of  God” who has 
promised that drastic changes may occur towards the end 
of  man’s existence on the earth.

Community Perception on Challenges of  Sustainable 
Management  
The respondents are aware that the forest reserve 
protects the environment in which they live and 
provide them with many products and hence the dire 
need to protect the reserve. They also conceded that 
they as fringe communities are in part responsible for 
the degradation of  the forest. However, they indicated 
that they do not have enough land for farming outside 
the reserve. Again, infrastructure development and 
expansion of  their communities as population growth 
increases has also taken part of  their previous farmlands 
which hither to were close to settlements. There are no 
encroachments for buildings in the reserve yet. Majority 
of  the respondents expressed their willingness to work 
with the Forest Services Division in the protection, 
development and sustainable management of  the reserve. 
This they said could be in the form of  Community Forest 
Committees to protect against illegal forest activities. 
They reiterated the fact that there used to be Community 
Forest Committees between 2003 and 2007 but collapsed 

due to lack of  incentives to protect the forest.
The respondents also realized major challenges which 
force them into the forest as lack of  employment leading 
to inadequate household incomes, hunger, inability to pay 
for education and health facilities and low crop yields on 
off-reserve farmlands. They accepted that the reserve is 
the property of  stool land owners and the communities 
and that the Forest Services Division holds the forest in 
custody for its sustainable management and conservation, 
for the benefits of  all segments of  society.

Respondents’ Suggested Actions to Address 
Sustainable Forest Management
The respondents suggested ways to improve sustainable 
management of  the Yenku Forest Reserve through 
collaboration with holistic community involvement 
in all aspects of  forest protection, development 
and management. They suggested intensive all year 
community education by the Forest Service Division 
(FSD) with particular emphasis on the importance of  
forests and the consequences of  deforestation and forest 
degradation to present and future generations, especially 
in schools and at social gatherings. They accepted the fact 
that law enforcement by Forest Services Division (FSD) 
and punitive measures may deter people.
They however, suggested alternative measures to 
revisit land allocation to communities for agroforestry 
programme and suggested that there must be frequent 
visits to the community by Forest Service Division (FSD) 
to deter people from entering the reserve. The work of  the 
Forest Services Division is however, not to deter people 
but to work in collaboration with the communities and 
civil society to enhance forest protection and productivity 
in the national interest.
The respondents also suggested timely benefit sharing 
of  the established plantations under the MTS from 
2002 to 2009 by the communities and FSD. The study 
indicates that agreement have been signed with the stool 
land owners but yet to be signed by the government 
representatives to make it operational. The major 
hindrance is that farmers failed to maintain the plantations 
as part of  their commitment hence the operations cost 
such as weeding, climber cutting, protection and patrols 
were borne by the Forest Services Division and this needs 
time for discussions on the agreement which had already 
been signed.
They also suggested that felling permits and plantation 
quotas be granted by Forest Services Division to 
community groups to extract wood for charcoal 
production to generates income in at least those 
plantations they established with Forest Services Division 
and future plantations. They lamented that they do not 
benefit from outside contractors who are often given 
permit to operate in the area. The respondents also 
suggested alternative livelihoods such as grass cutter, pig 
and sheep rearing and the use of  drought resistant food 
crops as part of  future incentives in forestry projects in 
the area.



Pa
ge

 
60

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec

Am. J. Environ. Clim. 4(1) 52-63, 2025

The respondents also suggested that Forest Services 
Division should train them in NTFP cultivation outside 
forest reserve and also streamline permits for NTFP 
collection from the reserve to avoid illegalities. The 
study however, revealed that people simply do not collect 
permits for want of  money to pay permit fees.

Discussion of  Findings
The discussion of  findings of  this research for the purpose 
of  clarity was done on the mojor challenges to sustainable 
forest management in the Yenku Forest Reserve. These 
were community agroforestry programme in sustainable 
forest management, unsustainable, unregulated and illegal 
harvesting of  NTFPs, communication, education and 
public awareness in sustainable forest management.

Agro-Forestry and Community Livelihoods in Forest 
Management
The numerous benefits that trees provide can be sustained 
in productive landscapes by integrating them into 
agricultural systems – a practice known as agroforestry. 
Agroforestry is defined as “a land-use system in which 
woody perennials (trees, shrubs, palms, bamboos) are 
deliberately used on the same land management unit 
as agricultural crops (woody or not), animals or both, 
either in some form of  spatial arrangement or temporal 
sequence” (ICRAF n.d.). 
Farmers have practiced agroforestry for centuries. 
Agroforestry focuses on the wide range of  working trees 
grown on farms and in rural landscapes. Among these are 
fertilizer trees for land regeneration, soil health and food 
security; fruit trees for nutrition; fodder trees that improve 
smallholder livestock production; timber and fuelwood 
trees for shelter and energy; medicinal trees to combat 
disease; and trees that produce gums, resins or latex 
products. Many of  these trees are multipurpose, providing 
a range of  benefits. As a considerable environmental 
benefit, agroforestry landscapes have higher biodiversity 
per unit than agricultural landscapes, and they offer 
habitats to numerous rare species. The gradual, mosaic-
like interfaces between forest and agricultural land offer 
a wide range of  different habitats. The use of  a balanced 
population of  predators controlling pest outbreaks is 
one key element of  the benefits of  agro-forestry, e.g. in 
combination with organic farming. 
Agro-forestry contributes to human well-being through 
a number of  ways: by providing additional income, 
by increasing food security through a higher diversity 
of  agricultural products (e.g. fruits, nuts, medicinal 
plants and edible oils), by providing fuelwood and 
construction material and thus reducing deforestation, 
and by stabilizing soil and water tables. Agroforestry can 
contribute to gender equality and equitable sharing of  
biodiversity benefits by providing negotiation support 
for women and rural residents when negotiating land 
use rights. It increases accessibility to medicinal trees, in 
particular for the rural poor (e.g. the majority of  Africa’s 
population uses trees and shrubs as their main source of  

medication). It also provides a buffer against expected 
impacts of  climate change by increasing the diversity and 
resilience of  agricultural landscapes. Many of  the trees 
used in agroforestry systems are multipurpose, providing 
a range of  the above mentioned benefits. This is similar 
to the findings by Akponikpe et al. (2010), where farmers 
believed that climate change started 15 years ago in Ghana
 
Unsustainable, Unregulated and Illegal Harvesting 
of  NTFPS in Forest Management
Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and other forest 
ecosystem services are largely omitted from government 
development strategies. This is unfortunate, as NFTPs and 
forest services such as medicinal and food plants, clean 
water, rattan, bushmeat and bamboo play an important 
role in rural livelihoods and local and national economies, 
and yet are mostly under-represented in development 
strategies and in national databases (SCBD 2008). The 
omission of  NFTPs from government development 
strategies and policies makes them more susceptible to 
unsustainable, unregulated and unauthorized harvesting, 
of  such products from the forest.
Local empowerment of  resource users is a potential key 
strategy to achieve long-term sustainability. However, 
the transfer of  rights has to be coupled with the transfer 
of  responsibility for the conservation of  the resource, 
in accord with the resources’ characteristics (e.g. 
biodiversity) as a national and global good. At the same 
time, one cannot credibly transfer rights to NTFPs to local 
communities without addressing rights to other resources 
such as timber and mining products. No universal 
solutions exist to solve the problem of  unsustainable 
NTFPs harvesting in tropical forests. Approaches must 
be nation, site and context-specific, based on a detailed 
knowledge of  biodiversity patterns and the ecology of  the 
flora and fauna species, and be tailored to local cultural, 
socioeconomic and political conditions (Nasi et al. 2008).

Communication, Education and Public Awareness 
in Sustainable Forest Management
One of  the core principles of  Sustainable Forest 
Management (SFM) is that it reflects a diverse range of  
societal values in reference to forest conservation and 
use. For this reason, the active and informed participation 
of  communities and stakeholders affected by forest 
management decisions is critical to the credibility and 
sustainability of  management processes. Public awareness 
raising and communication activities play a critical role 
in informing and educating the public, thereby allowing 
them to more effectively participate in SFM decision-
making (Hesselink et al., 2007).
SFM requires the support at varying times and places from 
different government departments, NGOs, indigenous 
and local communities, business and industry, scientists, 
women’s groups, youth, and community-based groups. 
To work with these different groups, communication, 
education and public awareness (CEPA) are crucial 
instruments to build trust, understanding and shared 



Pa
ge

 
61

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec

Am. J. Environ. Clim. 4(1) 52-63, 2025

agreements for action and to reduce conflict. CEPA is 
needed to help people work together and innovate, and 
spread information, knowledge, values and goals. CEPA 
supports capacity development so that various actors can 
take responsibility for forest biodiversity. It should be 
recognized that effective public awareness raising requires 
a planned systematic approach to really understand the 
interests of  stakeholders and beneficiaries. Approaches 
need to be tailor-made to the local context, culture and 
traditions of  the local communities.

Summary of  Findings
The nation’s forest reserves have been encroached upon 
especially by their fringe communities. The forest, which 
used to preserve the diversity of  flora and fauna species 
is increasingly reducing over the years from being closed 
forest or closed savanna giving way to savannization of  
the forest areas and desertification of  the savanna areas. 
The remnant of  the forest  is also being misused and 
abused through poor illegal farming practices, illegal 
harvesting of  timber and NTFPs leading to general 
deforestation and forest degradation that has resulted in 
soil erosion , drying of  streams and water catchments, 
loss of  biodiversity and an unstable environment. 
The study reveals that majority of  people living in fringe 
communities of  forests are self  employed, illiterate 
farmers and the forests are owned by stool land owners 
all of  whom do not have effective participation in the 
sustainable management of  forests. Again, most of  the 
people have problems with their economic activities 
such us inputs for farming outside forest reserves 
because of  land hunger and poverty. People in the 
fringe communities of  Yenku Forest Reserve encounter 
the forest estates in their normal life situations in the 
course of  their daily business such as farming, charcoal 
production and collection of  NTFPs and that, products 
from the forest cannot be obtained outside the forest 
reserve. The findings suggest that there is the need to 
protect and conserve biodiversity from over exploitation 
in the forest.
Furthermore, local people are aware of  laws relating to 
the use of  forest as well as effects and consequences 
of  deforestation and forest degradation and climate 
change. Such knowledge was acquired through the 
Forest Services Division. The study also identified the 
need for local communities, Forest Services Division, 
National Fire Services, Non-governmental organizations, 
civil society groups, District and Municipal Assemblies  
and other stakeholders to join forces to protect and 
conserve forest reserves through mobilization, education, 
sensitization, awareness creation, fire prevention, 
boundary maintenance, monitoring and patrols to check 
illegal entry into forest reserves.
The findings also reveal that the Forest Services Division, 
District/Municipal Assemblies, local fringe communities 
and stool land owners should collaborate with government 
to develop and manage the forest on sustainable basis 
in areas of  natural and artificial regeneration, tending 

and harvesting, Social Responsibility Agreement (SRAs) 
involving timber firms, accountability, transparency 
and the fair and equitable sharing of  forest revenue to 
reduce the challenges of  sustainable forest management 
in Ghana, generally and the Yenku Forest Reserve in 
particular.
 
CONCLUSION
Data was collected to find out how human activities 
influence sustainable management in the forest and 
help improve the management of  the reserve and the 
living standards of  the local fringe communities. There 
is therefore the need to fantom how to sustainably 
develop and manage the forest in order to leave future 
generations and its communities with richer, better and 
more valuable forestry and wildlife endowments than the 
present generation inherited. Local forest, communities 
use forests because they have a diffused idea about who 
actually owns the land. Communities believe that forests 
are ever present and belong to all Ghanaians; hence, 
people enter the forest as their own, with their activities 
leading to depletion and misuse of  forest resources. 
Illegal harvesting of  NTFP, charcoal production and 
farming and other activities take place in the forest albeit 
the people’s knowledge of  forestry laws and regulations 
regarding the use of  forest resources. Some community 
members stress that the laws relating to the forest should be 
enforced, offenders prosecuted and proceeds and inputs 
in the offence seized. Decision-making in the protection 
development and sustainable management of  the forest 
and wildlife resources as gathered from respondents 
should engender the active involvement of  local fringe 
communities as enshrined in the Ghana National Forest 
and Wildlife Policy of  1994. This will help maintain life-
sustaining systems within natural ecosystems, preserve 
scenic areas, enhance the potential for recreation and 
ecotourism, and create income-generating opportunities 
to reduce incessant pressure on the forest.

Recommendations 
Following the findings of  this research, a number of  
recommendations are made.
All stakeholders, including local communities, 
government, and the Forestry Commission, should come 
together with the aim of  agreeing on equitable policies 
regarding access to, and utilization of, the forests. It is 
important that communities be involved in the decision-
making process, hence their needs and livelihoods-which 
depend on the forest-are supported while the forest 
resources are managed on a sustainable basis for the long 
term. Productive initiatives outside the forest should be 
encouraged through training and education on alternatives 
like agroforestry, improved farming practices and tree 
plantations. This aims to gradually reduce dependence on 
forest products and allow regeneration.
Training and education programs need a balanced, 
participatory approach involving all affected groups from 
public and private sectors. It will consolidates learning 



Pa
ge

 
62

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec

Am. J. Environ. Clim. 4(1) 52-63, 2025

through the use of  local experts and case studies. Income 
generated from selected forest products can be used to 
finance initiatives like infrastructure, incentives for efforts 
on the protection of  forests, education on conservation 
and alternative livelihoods. This would benefit local 
communities while protecting forest resources.
Chiefs, communities and other stakeholders should 
actively participate in decision making around forest 
use, management strategies and project planning to 
implementation. This ensures their needs and perspectives 
inform policy, while they also gain understanding of  
objectives and skills like planning, monitoring and 
accounting. Community involvement in governance and 
capacity building aims to achieve balanced, mutually 
agreeable and transparent management of  forest 
resources over the long term.

REFERENCES
Addis, G., Urga, K., & Dikasol, D. (2005). Ethnobotanical 

study of  edible wild plants in some selected districts 
of  Ethiopia. Human Ecology, 33, 1-10. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s10745-005-0383-1

Affum-Baffoe, K. (2009). Timber resources outside 
permanent forest estates of  Ghana high forest zone: 
Status and trends. In B. O. Kyere & P. Hanson (Eds.), 
Strengthening off-reserve timber resource management in 
Ghana (pp. 1-25). Tropenbos International Ghana.

Akponikpe, P. B. I., Johnson, P., & Agbossou, E. K. 
(2010). Farmers’ perception of  climate change and 
adaptation strategies in West Africa. In Proceedings of  
the 2nd International Conference on Climate, Sustainability 
and Development in Semi-arid Regions (pp. 1-10). August 
16-20, 2010, Brazil.

Amoah, S. A. (2004). Socio-economic survey of  forest 
fringe communities of  Yenku Forest Reserve. 
Sustainability Report.

Bernard, H. R. (2002). Research methods in anthropology: 
Qualitative and quantitative methods (3rd ed.). Altamira 
Press.

Bone, C., Alessa, L., Altaweel, M., Kliskey, A., & Lammers, 
R. (2011). Assessing the impacts of  local knowledge 
and technology on climate change vulnerability 
in remote communities. International Journal of  
Environmental Research and Public Health, 8(12), 4608-
4620. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph8124608

Brundtland, G. H. (2009). Sustainable forest management 
and climate change: Keynote address by special envoy 
for the Secretary-General of  the United Nations on 
climate change. FAO Committee on Forestry – Rome, 
17 March 2009.

Canadian Council of  Forest Ministers (CCFM). (2008). 
Adapting sustainable forest management to climate change: 
Scenarios for vulnerability assessment.

Coleman, A. M. (1997). Companion encyclopedia of  psychology 
(Vol. 1). T. J. International Ltd.

Crooks, R. L., & Stein, J. (1991). Psychology: Science, behavior, 
and life. Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc.

Cunningham, W. P., Cunningham, M. A., & Saigo, B. W. 

(2003). Environmental science: A global concern. McGraw-
Hill.

Draft Yenku Forest Management Plan. (2007).
Edusah, S. E. (2011). The impact of  forest reserves on 

the livelihoods of  fringe communities in Ghana.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2006). Forest 

governance in Ghana can help combat climate change 
in Ghana. EPA Policy Advice Series No. 7.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (1994). Ghana 
environmental action plan Vol. 2: Technical background papers 
by the six working groups. Environmental Protection 
Council.

European Communities (EC). (2008). The economics of  
ecosystems and biodiversity: An interim report.

Food and Agricultural Organization of  the United 
Nations (FAO). (2006a). Better forests can reduce 
poverty: Policy brief.

Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) & Department 
for International Development (DFID). (2001). 
Sustaining forests: A development strategy. Washington, 
D.C.

Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). (2001). State 
of  the world’s forests: Draft report.

Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). (1995). Non-
wood forest products for rural income and researching 
factors that influence successful commercialization 
of  non-timber forest products. Lyonia, 5(1), 1-15.

FCCC/CP/2001/13/Add.1.
Forestry Commission (FC). (2010). Medium term strategy 

2011-2015.
Forestry Commission (FC). (2010). Annual report.
Forest Services Division (FSD). (2004). Manual of  

procedures: Biodiversity management planning in the high forest 
zone.

Fosu, M., & Salifu, A. B. (2002). Bushfire management 
in the savanna areas of  Ghana. Paper presented at a 
Round Table Meeting on the Draft National Bushfire 
Management Strategy, Tamale, Ghana.

Frey, L. R., Botan, C. H., & Kreps, G. L. (2000). Investigating 
communication: An introduction to research methods (2nd 
ed.). Allyn and Bacon.

Green Dove. (2007). The state of  our forests: Present and 
future. Green Earth Organisation.

Grusec, J. E., Lockhart, R. S., & Walters, G. C. (1990). 
Foundations of  psychology. Copp Clark Pitman Ltd.

Hall, J. B., & Swein, M. D. (1981). Distribution and ecology 
of  vascular plants in a tropical rain forest: Forest vegetation in 
Ghana. Geobotany. The Hague.

Hawthorn, W. D., & Abu-Juam. (1993). Forest protection in 
Ghana: Report of  the ODA forest inventory and management 
project. Kumasi.

Henry, G. T. (1990). Practical sampling (Vol. 21). Sage 
Publications.

Hesselink, F., Goldstein, W., van Kempen, P. P., Garnett, 
T., & Dela, J. (2007). Communication education and public 
awareness (CEPA): A toolkit for national forest points and 
NBSAP coordinators. Secretariat of  the Convention on 
Biological Diversity and IUCN. https://www.cbd.



Pa
ge

 
63

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec

Am. J. Environ. Clim. 4(1) 52-63, 2025

int/doc/publications/cepa-toolkit.pdf
ICRAF. (n.d.). The Novella African initiative. Unpublished 

manuscript. The World Agroforestry Center.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 

(2007). Climate change 2007: Synthesis report. Contribution 
of  working groups I, II, and III to the fourth assessment report 
of  the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (R. K. 
Pachauri & A. Reisinger, Eds.). IPCC.

Koziell, I. (2001). Diversity not adversity: Sustaining 
livelihoods with biodiversity. International Institute for 
Environment and Development.

Laarman, J. G., & Sedjo, R. A. (1992). Global forest: Issues for 
six billion people. McGraw-Hill.

Lammerts van Bueren, E., & Blom, M. (1997). Hierarchical 
framework for the formation of  sustainable forest management 
standards. Tropenbos Foundation.

Lewis, J. L., & Sheppard, S. R. J. (2006). Culture and 
communication: Can landscape visualization improve 
forest management consultation with indigenous 
communities? Landscape and Urban Planning, 77, 347-
354.

Marfo, E. (2010). Chainsaw milling in Ghana: Context, 
drivers, and impacts.

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA). (2005). 
Ecosystems and human well-being: Policy response (Vol. 3, 
Ch. 8). Island Press.

Mongabay. (n.d.). Reduced-impact logging: Sustainable 
logging and improved forest management. https://
www.mongabay.com

Murrieta, R. S. S., Duffour, D. L., & Siqueira, A. D. (1999). 
Food consumption and subsistence in three caboclo 
populations on Marajo Island, Amazonia, Brazil. 
Human Ecology, 27(3), 439-455.

Nasi, R. D., Brown, D., Wilkie, E., Bennett, C., Tutin, 
G., van Tol, R., & Christophersen, T. (2008). 
Conservation and use of  wildlife-based resources: 
The bushmeat crisis. Secretariat of  the Convention 
on Biological Diversity and Center for International 
Forestry Research (CIFOR). Technical Series No. 33.

Ofori-Nyarko, E. (2002). Wood fuel: Our largest energy 
source. Energy News: Journal of  the Energy Commission of  
Ghana, 1, 1-10.

Programme on Forests (PROFOR) at the World Bank. 
(2008). Poverty and forest linkages: A synthesis and six case 
studies.

Putz, F. E., Zuidema, P. A., Pinard, P. A., Boot, R. G. 
A., & Sayer, J. A. (2008). Improved tropical forest 
management for carbon retention. PLOS Biology, 6(7), 
e166. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0060166

Ragupathy, K., & Douglas, A. J. (2009). Effects of  climate 
change on global biodiversity: A review of  key 
literature. Tropical Ecology, 50(1), 31-39. International 
Society for Tropical Ecology. www.tropical.com

Secretariat of  the Convention on Biological Diversity 
(SCBD). (2009). Draft findings of  the Ad Hoc 
Technical Expert Group on Biodiversity and Climate 
Change.

Secretariat of  the Convention on Biological Diversity 
(SCBD). (2008). Subsidiary Body on Scientific, 
Technical and Technological Advice (13/3): In-depth 
review of  the expanded programme of  work for 
forest biological diversity.

Silva, S., & Tassava, H. (2005). Brazil fruit. São Paulo, 
Brazil: Expressa des Artes.

Tagoe, M. (2009). A handbook for writing research proposals.
The Forest Dialogue (TFD). (2009). Implementing 

REDD+ in Ghana: Contextualization and some 
challenges. Background paper for REDD plus readiness 
field dialogue in Ghana.

Tongco, M. D. C. (2007). Purposive sampling as a tool 
for informant selection. Ethnobotany Research and 
Applications, 5, 147-158.

Townson, I. M. (1995). Incomes from non-timber forest 
products: Pattern of  enterprise activity in the forest 
zone of  southern Ghana. Summary report.

Tubs, N., et al. (2010). Setting the stage: Responding to 
climate change through communities and ecosystems. 
Training kit on wetlands and climate change adaptation.

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification 
(UNCCD). (1997). United Nations Convention to Combat 
Desertification.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate 
Change (UNFCCC). (1992). United Nations Framework 
Convention on Climate Change.

World Bank. (2004). Sustaining forests: A development strategy. 
Washington, D.C.

Wortman, C. B., Laftus, E. F., & Marshall, M. E. (1992). 
Psychology. New York: McGraw Hill, Inc. www.
gomoawest.ghanadistricts.gov.gh


