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American Journal of   
Environment and Climate (AJEC)

Assessment of  Smallholder Farmers’ Responses to Flood Incidence in the Oti River 
Sub-Basin

Silas Uwumborge Takal1*, Abdul-Wahab Tahiru1

Volume 4 Issue 1, Year 2025
ISSN: 2832-403X (Online) 

DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i1.3874
https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec

Article Information ABSTRACT

Received: October 04, 2024

Accepted: November 07, 2024

Published: January 22, 2024

This study aimed to assess the responses of  smallholder farmers to incidence of  floods in 
the Oti river sub-basin. The findings provide useful information for enhancing the adaptive 
capacity of  smallholder farmers to respond to flood hazards and improve their resilience 
and disaster preparedness in the study area. This study used the simple random sampling 
procedure to select 399 farmers and descriptive statistics was used to identify and examine 
response strategies adopted by smallholder farmers. The results of  the study showed that 
livelihood of  smallholder farmers were greatly impacted by factors such as: Distance to Riv-
er, Elevation of  Communities below the River, Increase in Rainfall, Lack of  Early Warning 
Systems and Lack of  Emergency Response Systems. The results further showed that the 
farmers responded to flood incidence through: Building of  Raised Beds, Crop Diversifica-
tion, Livestock Relocation, the use of  Conservation farming practices.The majority (87%) 
of  the farmers stated that they were vulnerable to the impacts of  floods in the study area. 
The findings of  this study enhanced understanding on access to relevant and timely infor-
mation such as an early warning to farmers during the start of  the farming/ rainy season to 
support their adaptive responses to floods.

Keywords
Floods, Oti River Sub-Basin, 
Response Strategies, Smallholder 
Farmers

1 Department of  Environment and Sustainability Sciences, University for Development Studies, Ghana
* Corresponding author’s e-mail: takalsilas@gmail.com

INTRODUCTION
Global food production is substantially dominated by 
smallholder farmers, ensuring food security, community 
and economic development, particularly in countries 
where agriculture is the dominant source of  livelihood. 
It is estimated that 70-80% of  the world’s food is 
produced by smallholder farmers (Wolfenson, 2013; 
FAO, 2014; Samberg et al., 2016). In Ghana, agriculture is 
predominantly on a smallholder basis, with most of  the 
farm holdings less than 2 hectares (MoFA-SRID, 2021). 
Admittedly, smallholder farmers are the main drivers of  
Ghana’s agriculture sector, accounting for 80% of  the total 
food produced in the country (Asare-Nuamah & Mandaza, 
2020; Rai et al., 2024; Samuel, 2023) and ensuring crop 
diversity all over the world (Conway, 2011). 
However, in both developed and developing countries, 
agricultural productivity and economic well-being of  
smallholder farmers have been exacerbated by the 
increasing frequency and intensity of  floods, especially 
in flood-prone areas. This study focuses on the recurring 
flood situations in the Oti River Sub-basin of  the White 
river basin and their impacts on smallholder farmers 
in the Saboba district of  Ghana to assess the measures 
smallholder farmers hold to respond to flood incidence. 
The Oti River Basin is a sub-basin of  the White 
Volta River basin, spanning across the whole of  West 
Africa (Takal et al., 2023). This sub-region of  Africa is 
characterized by a tropical climate with distinct wet and 
dry seasons and as such prone to floods especially during 
the peaks of  rains (Ekwezuo & Ezeh, 2021). Compared to 
many countries in West Africa, Ghana has experienced a 
significant increase in flooding. For example, smallholder 

farmers along the basin stretch, river valleys and low-
lying areas have suffered the worst flood incidence 
due to heavy rainfalls (Owusu, 2016). As a result, the 
most vulnerable smallholder farmers and communities 
alongside the paths of  the river are hardest hit, potentially 
affecting their food, economic and health security and 
wellbeing. Floods with their destructive potential, result 
in substantial damage to crops, loss of  livestock and 
damage to critical infrastructure that supports agricultural 
activities (Rehman, 2015; Mensah & Ahadzie, 2020; 
Atanga & Tankpa, 2021). The extant literature has shown 
that floods impact not only agricultural productivity but 
also hold significant health implications, with flood events 
leading to an increase in diarrhea, malaria, and hepatitis E 
in affected areas (Alderman et al., 2012; Dotse-Gborgbortsi 
et al., 2022). To this end, floods contribute to the spread of  
diseases and affect the overall well-being of  people.
Floods have been a significant concern that affects 
livelihoods and food security. According to Atanga and 
Tankpa (2021) and Akwotajie (2024), floods result in loss 
of  income-generating activities notably disrupting farms, 
pastures and livestock and causing substantial damage 
to critical infrastructure and socio-economic activities 
linked to the agriculture sector. These impacts of  floods 
alongside the manifestation of  climate change, a resultant 
effect of  flood disasters, tend to reduce crop yields, 
animal production and food production. The recurrent 
flooding exacerbates the vulnerabilities of  smallholder 
farmers who heavily rely on crops for their livelihoods. 
Hence, understanding how smallholder farmers in the 
Oti River sub-basin respond to these recurrent flood 
incidences becomes imperative. 



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Alare et al. (2018) highlighted that smallholder farmers in 
semi-arid regions of  Northern Ghana have been exploring 
climate-smart agriculture practices to enhance their 
resilience to climate-related challenges like flood disasters. 
As noted by Bichet and Diedhiou (2018), climate change 
has led to changes in precipitation patterns, with some areas 
experiencing increased rainfall intensity. The increased 
rainfall intensity has severe impacts on livelihoods and has 
been evident in Northern Ghana, emphasizing the need 
for sustainable strategies to address the vulnerability of  
natural resource-dependent communities (Armah et al., 
2010). Research has highlighted the need for improved 
flood risk management practices in Ghana to enhance 
resilience (Almoradie et al., 2020). Furthermore, a study 
of  flood disasters in urban areas like Accra has revealed 
the interconnectedness of  extreme weather events, health 
systems, and urban planning (Codjoe et al., 2020). Urban 
households in flood-prone regions have shown varying 
levels of  disaster risk perception, influencing their 
preparedness and response strategies (Qi et al., 2021). 
Informal settlements in urban areas have been particularly 
vulnerable to flooding, highlighting the need for inclusive 
urban flood management strategies (Amoako & Inkoom, 
2017).
The assessment of  smallholder farmers’ responses to 
flood incidence in the Oti River Sub-basin is crucial 
for understanding the challenges faced by vulnerable 
communities in Ghana. By examining the impacts 
of  floods on agriculture, livelihoods, health, and 
urban settlements, this study aims to contribute to 
the development of  sustainable strategies to enhance 
resilience and adaptation to flood disasters in the region.

LITERATURE REVIEW
Smallholder Farmers’ Responses to Floods
To understand smallholder farmers’ responses to flooding, 
there have been extensive discussions and some empirical 
studies conducted to assess the response strategies 
employed by these farmers to respond to flood shocks 
(Alhassan, 2020; Enete et al., 2016; Okeleye et al., 2016). 
Most of  these studies reported that smallholder farmers 
respond to flood shocks by adopting on-farm strategies 
such as early and upland planting, crop rotation and 
adoption of  early maturing plants (Alhansan, 2020; Rahut 
2020; Thennakoon et al., 2020). For example, Alhansan 
(2020) examined the effect and determinants of  flood 
adaptation strategies using a multinomial endogenous 
treatment effect model and ordered probit model and 
found that farmers respond to flood shocks through 
on-farm adaptation strategies such as early and upland 
planting, crop rotation and adoption of  early maturing 
plants. Alhansan (2020) asserts that farmers who adopted 
these strategies had their food security situation improved 
and recovered faster from flood shocks. Furthermore, 
the empirics of  Thennakoon et al. (2020) showed that 
farmers with contracted lands have a higher likelihood of  
implementing adaptation strategies in response to floods 
compared to farmers with rented lands. 

While the growing body of  studies believe that farmers 
adopt on-farm activities as their response strategies to 
floods, others argue that farmers engaged in non-farm 
activities notably petty trading and selling of  assets such 
as livestock (Alhansan, 2020).  For example, congruent to 
Alhansan’s point of  view about the non-farm response 
strategies of  farmers to extreme weather conditions, 
Enete et al. (2016) in Nigeria viewed it in broader stratum, 
indicating that farmers engaged in the selling of  assets, 
borrowed loans for livelihood diversification, temporal 
migration, social network support, compensation from 
agencies, and soil conservation practices as their strategic 
response to floods. Similarly, Iqbal et al. (2015) opined 
that varietal change, late sowing, and intensification of  
inputs are the adaptation strategies employed by farmers 
and the implementation of  these strategies positively and 
significantly affect net revenues. 
Literature also showed that early warning systems helped 
smallholder farmers prepare for and respond to flood 
incidents (Piennah et al., 2023). By receiving timely 
information about impending floods, farmers can take 
proactive measures to protect their crops, livestock, 
and property. Early warning systems enable farmers 
to evacuate to safer locations, secure their belongings, 
and minimize potential losses during flood events. In 
addition to early warning systems, empirical evidence 
also points to the fact that farmers adopt crop and 
livestock insurance, bund-making, land-leveling, and tree 
planting, to combat the impact of  localized floods (Ali 
& Rahut, 2019). Among these mitigating strategies, the 
authors indicated that tree plantation was ranked the 
best mitigating strategy followed by crop and livestock 
insurance, land leveling, and then bund making. Contrary 
to the empirics of  Ali and Rahut, (2019), Okeleye et al. 
(2016) in Nigeria, assert that most smallholder farmers 
lack access to insurance facilities, timely and precise flood 
early warning systems, flood local signs and community 
flood management committees.
Locally, smallholder farmers respond to or manage floods 
through traditional and indigenous systems. The work of  
Fabiyi and Oloukioi, (2013) in Nigeria, though largely 
qualitative, indicates that farmers rely on sand filling, mud 
and concrete embankment, pathways for water, wooden 
bridge construction, and pile foundation building as 
response strategies to flooding. Social support, local 
public work have been identified as indigenous knowledge 
heavily relied upon to manage the devastating impacts of  
floods (Fabiyi & Oloukioi, 2013)
The adoption of  these response strategies to floods 
among smallholder farmers is multifaceted and 
influenced by a combination of  factors. For instance, 
Ali and Rahut (2019) noted that farmers’ decision to 
adopt these measures is influenced by socio-economic 
variables such as education level, income, infrastructure 
and extension services received. Moreover, Thennkoon 
et al. (2019) highlight the importance of  demographic 
factors, access to information, and social networks play a 
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extreme weather events. According to Iqbal et al. (2015), 
soil fertility, farmer’s tenancy status, size of  holding, non-
farm income, and access to certain extension sources are 
some of  the factors that influence the adaptation strategy 
of  farmers. Specifically, the authors contend that farmers 
who receive regular visits from extension agents are more 
likely to adopt climate-resilient practices such as crop 
diversification and soil conservation. This illustrates the 
pivotal role of  extension services in promoting adaptive 
behaviours among smallholder farmers. Similarly, in the 
Builsa-North district of  Ghana, the choice of  response 
strategies is influenced by age, access to extension services, 
and the National Disaster Management Organization 
(NADMO) services (Kassim et al., 2020).
From the forgoing discussions, it is evident that 
smallholder farmers respond to floods through on-farm 
and non-farm adaptation strategies which are shaped 
by socioeconomic, demographic, and environmental 
factors. For example, while education level may enhance 
farmers’ awareness of  climate risks, access to information 
and supportive social networks have a greater impact 
on farmers’ ability to implement mitigation measures 
effectively. However, the extant literature showed notable 
gaps that need further exploration. The long-term 
effectiveness of  different adaptation measures adopted 
by smallholder farmers has yet to be well documented and 
assessed by researchers to provide a roadmap for long-
term policy directions. Additionally, gender-dimensional 
responses to floods remain relatively understudied. This 
study strives to provide insight into these gaps in the 
literature for a more comprehensive understanding of  
smallholder farmers’ responses to floods. 

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Area
Saboba District is situated in the northeastern corridor of  
the White Volta River Basin within the Northern Region 
of  Ghana, which consists of  sixteen districts (Chegbeleh 
et al., 2020). Saboba town serves as the administrative 
capital of  the district. The district spans an area of  1,751.2 
square kilometres and is located between latitudes 24° and 
25° North and longitudes 27° and 13° East. The Saboba 
District shares its borders with neighbouring districts. It 
is situated to the north of  Chereponi and to the south 
of  Tatale Sanguli. The Yendi and Gushiegu municipalities 
are next to the district on its western side. The River Oti 
serves as the delineation between Ghana and the Republic 
of  Togo, establishing the eastern international boundary 
between the two nations. The vegetation pattern of  the 
Saboba District is characterized by Savannah grassland 
featuring stunted trees, drought-tolerant trees, and clusters 
of  shrubs dispersed throughout. Nevertheless, many 
human activities such as agriculture, controlled burning 
of  vegetation, and construction are causing detrimental 
effects on the natural vegetation (Chegbeleh et al., 2009). 
These activities present considerable obstacles to the 
conservation and long-term viability of  the indigenous 
plant life. Construction projects frequently necessitate 
land clearance, which can result in the eradication of  
vegetation and the fragmentation of  habitats. Bush 
burning, a prevalent tradition in the region, can lead to the 
depletion of  flora and have adverse effects on the natural 
equilibrium of  the area. Agricultural practices, although 
crucial for the sustenance of  numerous inhabitants, 
can also lead to the deterioration of  vegetation if  not 

Figure 1: Study area map



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conducted in a sustainable and responsible manner. The 
district is situated within the geographical region known 
as the Guinea Savanna agro-ecological zone (Antwi-
Agyei et al., 2012). This region is renowned for its Guinea 
Savannah vegetation, but it has undergone varying levels 
of  deterioration over the years. The Saboba District is 
located in the Guinea Savannah agro-ecological zone, 
which is known for its abundant Guinea Savannah 
vegetation. The Saboba District is classified as having 
a tropical Savannah climate according to the Köppen-
Geiger climate classification (Köppen-Geiger Climate 
Classification, 2017). The Savannah climate in the district 
is marked by two distinct seasons that occur throughout 
the year. The uni-modal rainfall season often spans from 
April or May to October or November, which usually 
floods the communities and farms along the Oti River, 
while the dry season generally extends from November 
to April or May. The dry season is distinguished by 
the presence of  arid northeast trade winds commonly 
referred to as Harmattan. The current time frame is 
characterized by elevated levels of  sunlight, especially 
throughout the months of  March to May (GSS, 2010). 
According to Kursah et al. (2017), the district receives 
an annual precipitation ranging from 950 mm to 1050 
mm. The Saboba District experiences consistently high 
temperatures throughout the year, with the temperature 
fluctuating between 21 and 41 °C (Dogbe et al., 2013). 
This climatic attribute enhances the distinct ecosystem of  
the region. The district has a population of  95,683 people 
(GSS, 2021).

Study Design
Research designs are plans or blueprints for how a study 
will be carried out, as defined by Strydom, Fouche, and 
Delport (2005). The goal, starting point, and logic of  
a study are all carefully considered in the development 
of  a research design. According to Huysamen (1993), 
“design” is the blueprint followed to collect data to study 
the research topics in the most efficient way possible. 
The decisions made on the study’s sampling, data sources 
and processes, measurement issues, and data analysis 
strategies are all part of  what other academics call the 
research design. Strydom, Fouche, and Delpot (2005) add 
that the research design employed varies according to the 
goals and aims of  the study, the specifics of  the research 
questions, and the researcher’s expertise and access to 
relevant data. However, the study process will mirror the 
procedures of  the selected design, as each design has its 
perspective and methods. Qualitative research designs 
are notable for their lack of  predetermined guidelines 
or a set recipe for carrying out the research. Unlike 
qualitative research, where the researcher’s decisions and 
actions inform the design, quantitative research is driven 
by the design. Simply put, researchers doing qualitative 
studies often develop an appropriate research strategy 
throughout their study or even base their entire study on 
that method. Therefore, the aforementioned strategies 
were considered when choosing the best research design 

for this study. The research used quantitative data. The 
research was conducted in the Saboba district of  the Oti 
River sub- basin of  northern Ghana. The area was chosen 
for the study because it is located in the Oti River basin 
and is thus susceptible to flooding during the wet season. 

Sample Selection and Size
Sampling, as defined by Strydom, Fouche, and Delport 
(2005), is the practice of  selecting a statistically meaningful 
subset of  a larger population. The rule of  thumb is that 
the smaller the sample size, the greater the population you 
can reasonably expect to represent. A larger proportion 
of  the population should be represented in the sample 
if  the population is small. Researchers can extrapolate 
more generalizable findings from larger samples and 
make more informed forecasts. In addition, Strydom, 
Fouche, and Delport (2005) claim that convenience is the 
primary driver of  sampling. It is not always possible to 
reach every member of  a population of  interest, but it 
is always possible to cover the entire population. Time 
and money constraints make it unrealistic to try to locate, 
get in touch with, and analyze everyone who might be 
involved. As a result, information gleaned through sample 
analyses may be more reliable than if  the full population 
had been examined. This is because it is far easier to 
focus resources (time, money, and effort) on a smaller 
subset of  the population, resulting in higher-quality 
research, better tools, and more in-depth knowledge. The 
rural families included in this study were chosen using a 
simple random selection method. Saboba district is one 
of  the nine districts that make up the Oti River basin 
in the Rural Savanna Geographic Division of  northern 
Ghana. Kimuatiek, Kitiek, Buagbaln, Sobiba, Tilangbelni, 
Kuwani, and Buakuln were randomly chosen among the 
flood-prone settlements in the Saboba District. 

Determination of  the Sample Size
The sample size (n) was determined by applying the 
formula proposed by Yamane (1967) as shown in the 
equation below. Yamane (1967) provides a simplified 
formula to calculate sample sizes using a 95% confidence 
level and P = 0.05.
Thus,
n=N/(1+N(e2))
Where n is the sample size, N is the population size (of  
the study area), and e is the level of  precision. By applying 
the above formula proposed by Yamane (1967), where 
N=95,683, e=0.05, therefore n which is the sample size 
would be three hundred and ninety-nine (399).

Questionnaire Administration 
Questionnaires were selected for multiple reasons, 
mostly due to their efficacy in obtaining accurate 
information regarding the practices and conditions that 
the respondents were assumed to be knowledgeable of. 
Additionally, questionnaires were deemed suitable for 
investigating the thoughts and attitudes of  the subjects. 
Another rationale for selecting questionnaires was their 



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ease of  completion and efficiency in terms of  time, as 
opposed to alternative tools such as interviews. Ultimately, 
when managing a substantial number of  participants, 
employing questionnaires is the optimal and most 
suitable method. The surveys included a combination 
of  closed and open-ended questions. Regarding open-
ended questions, respondents had the freedom to express 
their answers in a manner they considered suitable, using 
their own language and phrasing. Closed-ended questions 
were employed due to the predetermined response 
options, requiring respondents to select the option that 
best aligned with their agreement. The questionnaire 
was segmented into distinct sections. Section A focused 
on the demographic information of  the respondents, 
whereas the subsequent sections were centered on the 
main goal of  the study. 

Method of  Data Analysis
Descriptive statistical methods were employed for the 
data analyses. The quantitative data collected was analyzed 
using the statistical and data software v15 (STATA).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Socio-Demographic Characteristics of  Farmers
The socio-demographic information of  smallholder 
farmers across the seven communities is presented 
in Table 1. Based on the results, a substantial majority 
(73.68%) of  the farmers sampled were males with the 
remaining 26.32%, constituting female farmers. The 
prevalence of  more male farmers shows an uneven 
participation in agriculture activities within the sampled 
population. The inequality stems from the varying levels 
of  power in decision-making and control over resources, 
including land, which male farmers have over females 
in the study area. This observation is supported by the 
FAO (2012) report on Gender Inequalities in Rural 
Employment in Ghana, which revealed that men possess 
3.2 times more total farms than women and 8.1 times 
more medium to large-sized farms (5 acres or larger).
Table 1 also shows that more than two-thirds (60.15%) of  
the respondents were married, approximately, 24.31% were 

single, 10.53% who engaged in farming were widowed and 
a significantly lower percentage (5.01%) were divorced 
farmers. Furthermore, an overwhelming majority (56.14%) 
of  the farmers do not have any form of  education. A few 
of  them were tertiary graduates while about 40% had 
basic and secondary education. Admittedly, education 
plays a key role in farmers’ income and productivity. For 
example, Oduro-Ofori et al. (2015) indicated that increased 
agricultural production and income generation are 
frequently linked to higher literacy rates.
The age distribution of  farmers as presented in Table 
1 reflects a diverse pattern of  age groups. Based on the 
results, farmers between the ages of  36-45 age group 
were 4% higher compared to those within the 26-35 
age range. This diversity in age groups highlights the 
intergenerational nature of  farming, with individuals 
from various age categories contributing to agricultural 
production and livelihoods in the study area.
Furthermore, the data on FBO membership reveals that 
only 19.33% of  the farmers were affiliated with Farmer- 
Based Organizations, while the majority (80.67%) were 
not members. FBOs play a vital role in promoting 
collective action, resource sharing, and accessing support 
services for smallholder farmers. Membership in FBOs 
can enhance farmers’ market access, bargaining power, 
and resilience to shocks and stresses in the agricultural 
sector (Afari-Sefa et al., 2018).
Additionally, access to credit is a crucial factor for 
farmers to invest in inputs, technology, and infrastructure 
that can enhance agricultural productivity and income. 
The data indicates that 56.67% of  the sampled farmers 
have access to credit, enabling them to expand their 
operations, adopt new practices, and navigate financial 
challenges effectively. On the other hand, the low 
percentage (11.28%) of  farmers who have received 
extension services underscores potential gaps in 
knowledge dissemination and capacity-building efforts 
in the study area. Increasing access to extension services 
can empower farmers with valuable information, 
training, and technical support to improve their skills, 
productivity, and resilience to external shocks.

Table 1: Socio-demographic characteristics of  the sampled population
Variable Frequency Percentages
Sex
Males 294 73.68
Females 105 26.32
Marital status
Married 240 60.15
Single 97 24.31
Divorced 20 5.01
Windowed 42 10.53
Literacy level
None 224 56.14
Basic 77 19.3



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Secondary 79 19.8
Tertiary 19 4.76
Age Groups
18-25 years 72 18.05
26-35 years 92 23.06
36-45 years 121 30.33
46-55 years 69 17.29
Above 55 years 45 11.28
FBO membership
Yes 29 19.33%
No 121 80.67%
Access to credit
Yes 85 56.67%
No 65 43.33%
Received extension services
Yes 45 11.28
No 354 88.72

Source: Field Survey, 2023

Flood Risks and Their Impact on Farming Activities
Based on the results presented in Figure 2, it is evident 
that a significant proportion of  smallholder farmers 
in the Oti River Basin are highly vulnerable to flood 
incidence. Specifically, 87% of  the farmers indicated that 

they were highly vulnerable to floods, highlighting the 
substantial impact of  flood events on their livelihoods 
and agricultural activities. In contrast, only 3% of  farmers 
reported not being vulnerable to flood incidents.

Figure 2: Vulnerability to Flood Incidence
Source: Field Survey, 2023

The findings from Table 2 highlight the various factors 
influencing the vulnerability of  smallholder farmers to 
flood incidents in the Oti River Basin. In the first place, 
the proximity of  farmers to the river emerges as a critical 
factor, with 96% of  respondents acknowledging that 
their distance to the river impacts their vulnerability. 
Farmers residing closer to the river are at a higher risk of  
experiencing flood-related damages, potentially due to the 
increased likelihood of  river overflow and the subsequent 
inundation of  farmlands. Additionally, the elevation of  
communities below the river plays a significant role, as 
79% of  farmers recognize that communities situated 
at lower elevations relative to the river face heightened 

vulnerability to floods. This vulnerability stems from 
the natural flow of  water downhill, increasing the 
susceptibility of  low-lying areas to flooding and its 
associated consequences. These findings are affirmed by 
Fatemi et al. (2020) who explored physical vulnerability 
and local responses to flood damage and highlighted that 
factors such as proximity to rivers, elevation, and flood 
event characteristics influence the physical vulnerability 
of  buildings during floods. Moreover, the data reveals 
that 82% of  farmers perceive an increase in rainfall as 
a key factor contributing to their vulnerability to floods. 
Changes in precipitation patterns, including more intense 
rainfall events, can lead to waterlogging, soil erosion, 



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and elevated flood risks, thereby impacting agricultural 
productivity and livelihoods. Furthermore, the quality of  
buildings and building materials in farming communities 
is highlighted, with 39% of  respondents identifying poor 
infrastructure as a factor influencing vulnerability to 
floods. Inadequate housing materials and infrastructure 
can exacerbate the impact of  floods, resulting in property 
damage, loss of  shelter, and disruptions to farming 
activities.
Lastly, the lack of  early warning systems emerged as a 
significant concern, with 68% of  farmers recognizing 
the absence of  timely alerts as a factor influencing their 
vulnerability to floods. Piennah et al. (2023) argue that 
early warning systems help smallholder farmers prepare 
for and respond to flood incidents. By receiving timely 
information about impending floods, farmers can take 

proactive measures to protect their crops, livestock, 
and property. Early warning systems enable farmers to 
evacuate to safer locations, secure their belongings, and 
minimize potential losses during flood events. Effective 
early warning systems are crucial for preparedness and 
evacuation measures, enabling farmers to safeguard their 
assets and mitigate the risks associated with flood events. 
By elucidating these factors influencing vulnerability 
to floods among smallholder farmers in the Oti River 
Basin, the study underscores the complex nature of  
flood risks and the specific challenges faced by farmers 
in the region. Understanding these factors is essential for 
designing targeted interventions, risk reduction strategies, 
and resilience-building initiatives to enhance the adaptive 
capacity of  smallholder farmers and promote sustainable 
agricultural practices in flood-prone areas.

Table 2: Factors influencing Vulnerability to floods
Factors Influencing Vulnerability Female Male Total

Freq (Yes) % Freq (Yes) % Freq (Yes) %
Distance to River 101 25% 283 71% 384 96%
Elevation of  Community Below the River 81 20% 233 58% 314 79%
Increase in Rainfall 87 22% 242 61% 329 82%
Poor Buildings and Materials 43 11% 112 28% 155 39%
Lack of  Early Warning Systems 77 19% 194 49% 271 68%
Lack of  Emergency Response Systems 78 19.55% 197 49.37% 275 68.92%
Inadequate Awareness & Education 47 11.78% 117 29.32% 164 41.10%
Lack Flood Control Measures 58 14.54% 122 30.58% 180 45.11%
Impervious Rate/ Soil Type 5 1.25% 35 8.77% 40 10.03%
Population 7 1.75% 19 4.76% 26 6.52%

Figure 3 provides a visual representation of  the prevalence 
of  flooding incidents among smallholder farmers in the 
Oti River Basin over five years. By analyzing the data, it 
is evident that a significant proportion (91%) of  farmers 
in the region have been directly impacted by flooding 
events during this timeframe. The frequency of  flooding 
experienced by farmers serves as a critical indicator of  
the recurrent nature of  flood hazards in the area and 
underscores the persistent threat posed by such disasters 
to agricultural activities and livelihoods as shown in Figure 
4. Seventy four percent (74%) of  farmers indicating they 
experience flooding events almost every year is a strong 

Figure 3: Experienced flooding over the last five years
Source: Field Survey, 2023                              

Figure 4: Frequency in Flood Occurrence 
Source: Field Survey, 2023

sign of  the level of  threat floods pose to the farmers living 
around the Oti River Basin. The high incidence of  flooding 
reported by farmers over the past five years highlights the 
ongoing vulnerability of  agricultural communities in the 
Oti River Basin to flood-related risks. These recurrent flood 
events not only disrupt farming operations but also result in 
crop damage, livestock losses, and infrastructure destruction, 
thereby jeopardizing food security, economic stability, and 
overall well-being. The cumulative effect of  multiple flooding 
episodes can exacerbate the challenges faced by smallholder 
farmers, particularly those who heavily rely on agriculture for 
their livelihoods.



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Table 3 provides valuable insights into the diverse 
impacts of  floods on smallholder farmers’ households 
in the Oti River Basin. The data presented in the table 
sheds light on the extent of  damages incurred by farmers 
and their households as a result of  flood events. By 
examining the various impacts of  floods, we can better 
understand the challenges faced by farmers in the region 
and the implications for their livelihoods and well-being. 
The table reveals that a significant proportion of  farmers’ 
properties and households have been affected by floods, 
with varying degrees of  damage reported across different 
categories. For instance, 82% of  respondents indicated 
that their crops were impacted by floods with maize (55%) 
being the most affected as indication on Figure 5. This 
highlights the substantial loss of  agricultural produce due 
to inundation and water damage. Staple crops, essential 
for food security and income generation, were particularly 
vulnerable, with 80% of  farmers reporting damage to 
these crops (maize, soya beans and rice).
Furthermore, the data shows that floods have led to a 
decrease in farm income for 87% of  the surveyed farmers, 
underscoring the economic repercussions of  flood events 
on agricultural productivity and financial stability. These 
findings correspond with Pirngadi (2024) findings which 
indicated that the substantial reductions in production 
yields caused by floods, lead to significant losses in farm 

income. The increase in farm expenses reported by 85% 
of  respondents further exacerbates the financial strain 
experienced by farmers in the aftermath of  floods, as 
they incur additional costs for recovery and rehabilitation 
efforts. In addition to the economic impacts, floods have 
also affected farmers’ household infrastructure, with 37% 
reporting damage to farm and household infrastructure 
such as tools, equipment, and housing materials. The 
disruption of  water sources (45%) and the prevalence 
of  sickness (78%) among household members with 97% 
and 76% indicating having contracted malaria/fever and 
diarrhea due to these floods respectively (Figure 6). This 
further highlights the broader consequences of  floods on 
health, sanitation, and overall well-being within farming 
communities.
Table 3 highlights the multifaceted nature of  flood hazards 
and their far-reaching effects on agricultural livelihoods 
and rural communities. The data presented in the table 
underscores the urgent need for targeted interventions, 
risk mitigation strategies, and support mechanisms to 
enhance the resilience of  smallholder farmers in the Oti 
River Basin against future flood events. Addressing the 
challenges identified in Table 3 is essential for promoting 
sustainable agriculture, safeguarding food security, and 
improving the overall socio-economic resilience of  
vulnerable farming households in the region.

Table 3: Impacts of  Floods on Farmer’s Household
Damages to Farmers’ Properties & Household Yes No

Freq % Freq %
Farm & Household Infrastructure (Bed, Boat, Fishing net, Radio, Plough, Hoe etc) 148 37% 251 63%
House 79 20% 320 80%
Crops 329 82% 70 18%
Staple Crops 319 80% 80 20%
Food Stocks 302 76% 97 24%
Decrease in Farm Income 346 87% 53 13%
Increase in Farm Expenses 339 85% 60 15%
Water Source 181 45% 218 55%
Sickness 312 78% 87 22%
Total Sampled 399

Figure 5: Crop or Livestock Affected by the Floods
Source: Field Survey, 2023                              

Figure 6: Diseases Experienced by Farm Households
Source: Field Survey, 2023



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Response Strategies Adopted Against Flood Impacts
Figure 7 provides a visual representation of  farmers 
who have adopted specific response strategies in the Oti 
River Basin to mitigate the impact of  floods on their 

agricultural activities and livelihoods. The data presented 
in figure 7 shows that only 7% of  the farmers have 
adopted certain strategies to mitigate the devastations 
caused by floods.

Figure 7: Adoption of  Specific Strategies to Mitigate the Impact of  Floods on Farms
Source: Field Survey, 2023

Table 4 provides detailed information on the specific 
responds strategies adopted by smallholder farmers in 
the Oti River Basin to mitigate the impact of  floods on 
their agricultural activities. The data presented in the 
table offers valuable insights into the proactive measures 
taken by farmers to enhance their resilience against flood 
hazards and minimize the adverse effects of  inundation 
on their farms and households.
Building raised beds emerges as a popular response strategy, 
with 58% of  farmers adopting this approach to elevate 
their crops above flood levels and reduce waterlogging. 
Raised beds have been shown to offer various benefits in 
agricultural practices. Studies have indicated that utilizing 
raised beds can aid in improving drainage, preventing water 
stagnation, and safeguarding crops from water-related 
damages (Holmes et al., 2021; Lham et al., 2022).
In addition, crop diversification is another prevalent 
response strategy, with 81% of  farmers opting to cultivate 
a variety of  crops to spread risk and ensure food security 
in the face of  flood-related disruptions. Diversifying 
crop production can help farmers mitigate the impact 
of  crop losses during floods, maintain income stability, 
and adapt to changing environmental conditions, thereby 
enhancing their overall resilience and sustainability. This 
has been affirmed by Bellon et al. (2020) who argued 
that diversifying crop production can lead to increased 
income stability, as farmers who practice diversification 
can have a continuous flow of  income from crop sales 
throughout the year.
Furthermore, livestock relocation is also a commonly 
adopted strategy, with 81% of  farmers relocating their 
livestock to safer areas during flood events to prevent 
animal losses and safeguard their assets. By moving 
livestock to higher ground or secure shelters, farmers 
can reduce the risk of  livestock casualties, ensure animal 
welfare, and preserve their livelihood assets in the event of  
flooding. This finding is supported by Okuku et al. (2015) 

and Kharismafullah et al. (2022) who indicated that it is 
important to utilize the available resource assets around 
the location of  the livestock business to enhance resilience 
and livelihood stability and that strategies that safeguard 
livelihood assets, such as moving livestock to higher 
ground during flood events, are essential in rural areas 
where livestock livelihood are significant to the farmers. 
Additionally, conservation farming practices, such 
as soil conservation, mulching, and agroforestry, are 
embraced by 58% of  farmers to improve soil health, 
water retention, and crop resilience to floods. These 
practices promote sustainable land management, enhance 
ecosystem services, and mitigate the impact of  floods on 
soil erosion and nutrient loss, contributing to long-term 
agricultural sustainability and climate resilience. 
Erkossa et al. (2015) affirmed that the implementation 
of  soil and water conservation practices can minimize 
financial costs associated with erosion, thereby improving 
the sustainability of  the agriculture sector. Additionally, 
Yan et al. (2005) also added that the reduction of  soil 
erosion through conservation measures can help preserve 
soil carbon pools and enhance soil carbon sequestration, 
which are vital for soil health and fertility.
By analyzing the adoption of  specific response strategies 
depicted in the table, we gain valuable insights into the 
proactive measures taken by smallholder farmers in the 
Oti River Basin to mitigate the impact of  floods on 
their agricultural livelihoods. These strategies do not 
only enhance farmers’ resilience to flood hazards but 
also promote sustainable agricultural practices, improve 
food security, and strengthen the overall adaptive capacity 
of  farming communities in the face of  climate-related 
challenges. Encouraging the adoption of  these response 
strategies and supporting farmers in their implementation 
are essential steps towards building a more resilient and 
sustainable agricultural sector in flood-prone regions like 
the Oti River sub-basin. 



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It is important to highlight that the approaches embraced 
by the farmers primarily serve as coping mechanisms 
to address the challenges posed by floods on their 
agricultural lands and yields. Notably, there is a lack of  
emphasis on implementing strategies for adaptation, 
such as exploring alternative livelihoods that could offer 
income or sustenance during the scarcity of  the dry 
season, when they may face shortages of  both food and 
finances resulting from losses experienced during flood 
periods. This aspect presents an intriguing avenue for 
future research exploration.

CONCLUSION
The comprehensive assessment of  smallholder farmers’ 
responses to flood incidence in the Oti River sub-basin 
has shed light on the multifaceted nature of  flood 
vulnerability, the frequency of  floods over the last 5 years, 
the impacts of  floods, and the specific response strategies 
adopted by farmers to mitigate the adverse effects of  
flood events. By examining these highlighted areas, this 
study has provided valuable insights into the challenges 
and opportunities for enhancing resilience in flood-prone 
regions.
The analysis of  vulnerability factors, including proximity 
to rivers, elevation of  communities, changes in rainfall 
patterns, building quality, and early warning systems, 
has highlighted the diverse factors influencing farmers’ 
susceptibility to flood hazards. Understanding these 
vulnerability factors is crucial for developing targeted 
interventions and adaptive strategies to reduce the impact 
of  floods on agricultural activities and livelihoods.
The study’s exploration of  past flood experiences over 
the past five years has underscored the recurrent nature 
of  flood events in the Oti River Basin, emphasizing the 
need for proactive measures to address the increasing 
frequency and intensity of  floods. The impacts of  floods 
on farming activities, including crop damage, livestock 
losses, and disruptions to livelihoods, have highlighted 
the significant challenges faced by smallholder farmers 
in the region and the importance of  building resilience 
against flood hazards.
Moreover, the identification of  specific mitigation 
strategies adopted by farmers, such as building raised 
beds, crop diversification, improved drainage systems, 

flood-resistant crop varieties, livestock relocation, crop 
insurance, and conservation farming practices, has 
demonstrated the proactive measures taken by farmers to 
mitigate the impacts of  floods and enhance their adaptive 
capacity. These strategies not only help farmers cope 
with immediate flood risks but also promote sustainable 
agricultural practices, improve food security, and 
strengthen community resilience in the face of  climate-
related challenges.
The findings from this study emphasize the importance 
of  holistic and community-driven approaches to flood 
risk management, including early warning systems, 
capacity-building initiatives, sustainable land management 
practices, and multi-stakeholder collaboration. By 
addressing vulnerability factors, enhancing adaptive 
capacity, and promoting the adoption of  effective 
mitigation strategies, stakeholders can work together to 
build a more resilient and sustainable agricultural sector in 
the Oti River Basin, ultimately improving the well-being 
and livelihoods of  smallholder farmers and communities 
in Ghana.

Acknowledgments
The authors thank everyone who has contributed to 
improving the quality of  this study.

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Table 4: Specific Mitigation Strategies Adopted
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Improved Drainage Systems 2 8%
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Total Number of  Farmers Adopting Response Strategies 26

Source: Field Survey, 2023



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