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American Journal of   
Environment and Climate (AJEC)

The Padma Paradox: Irrigation Benefits and Waterlogging Challenges Drive CSA
Adoption in Bangladesh

Md Akter Faruk Fuad1*, Md. Safiul Islam Afrad2, Foyez Ahmed Prodhan2

Volume 4 Issue 2, Year 2025
ISSN: 2832-403X (Online) 

DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i2.4020
https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec

Article Information ABSTRACT

Received: November 16, 2024

Accepted: December 20, 2024

Published: May 07, 2025

The Padma River is one of  the prime irrigation sources for Bangladesh. But the impacts 
of  climate change are making it difficult to use water resources to enhance agricultural 
productivity properly. Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices are the most notable 
among the proposed solutions. This paper examines the adoption of  CSA approach within 
the territory under Dohar sub-district of  Padma River Basin. This study collected data from 
180 farmer families through personal interviews with a large body of  literature. The water of  
Padma River is generally suitable for agricultural purposes because the pH level is periodically 
found within the range normal for plant growth. However, the variable oxygen levels in water 
affect aquatic organisms and also crops. Besides, waterlogged low-lying topography coupled 
with poor drainage facilities often creates problems like monsoon-induced waterlogging 
making it tough to successfully manage crops. Our study highlights that CSA has so 
many advantages like enhanced crop diversity and nutrition as well as reduced costs, but 
several factors hinder its adoption. The problems identified include waterlogging stresses, 
temperature increases, and limited awareness of  stress-tolerant varieties. Overcoming these 
challenges requires support through location-specific agroforestry initiatives, assistance to 
local private farms, and financial support for poly-shed farming. To get the full potential of  
CSA, we suggest a strategic approach to this end- extension services that are well-directed 
and include more access to climate information as well as financial support for farmers. 
Through the ways identified in alleviating the above-mentioned difficulties Bangladesh can 
enhance agricultural resilience which indeed represents a milestone in reducing vulnerability 
to climate change and ensuring food security for its people.

Keywords
Bangladesh, CSA, Irrigation, The 
Padma, Waterlogging

1 Department of  Agriculture Extension, Ministry of  Agriculture, Bangladesh
2 Faculty of  Agriculture Bangabandhu Shiekh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University, Bangladesh
* Corresponding author’s e-mail: fuad.ag2306@gmail.com

INTRODUCTION
Bangladesh is predominantly composed of  floodplains 
and is therefore dependent on the natural systems (Islam 
et al., 2021). It is prone to hydrometeorological extremes 
such as floods, tropical storms, and saltwater intrusion, as 
well as dry spells due to environmental factors (Barua et 
al., 2021; Baas & Ramasamy, 2008). All of  these climatic 
factors affect the framework of  agriculture severely 
(Swami, 2019; Nwanze & Fan, 2016; Arfanuzzaman et al., 
2016). 
The Padma serves as a significant irrigation source for 
the adjacent chars and farmlands in the Dohar subdistrict 
(Islam et al., 2021). The Padma River spans 34 kilometers 
in Dohar, with a mean flow rate of  approximately 30,000 
m/sec (McLean et al., 2012). The topography of  the 
river is complex due to neotectonics, fluvial action, and 
sediment deposition during the right bank distributary 
activity (Islam, 2016). Consequently, the Padma river 
has rendered this subdistrict one of  the most vulnerable 
areas. Climate change has broken this river system and 
caused irregular monsoon rainfall, which has aggravated 
the problem of  soil erosion along the riverbanks, thereby 
putting people’s livelihoods and agricultural production 
at risk (Huq et al., 2015; Ahmed et al., 2020; Hasan et al., 
2017). 
The geographical position of  the region, combined with 
irregular and uneven rainfall, further complicates the 

problem of  flooding in many districts of  this country, 
a situation exacerbated by climate change (MOA, 
2023). Therefore, farmers are implementing a variety 
of  traditional adaptation strategies to counteract the 
adverse impacts of  climate change. The Department 
of  Agriculture Extension (DAE), supported by other 
NGOs, developed Climate Field School in 2010 as an 
informal platform to disseminate information, such as, 
floating vegetable bed and dyke cropping (Mahashin, 
2019; Mandal, 2016; Alam et al., 2013). As a result, the 
farmers’ awareness has increased to utilize the natural 
resources to grow year-round crops in southern saline 
prone regions (Farouque & Sarker, 2018). 
Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is a new paradigm 
that offers measures for enhancing food security and 
betterment of  livelihoods as well as contributing to 
economic development in a changing climate. CSA offers 
a potential solution to climate-related challenges and 
nutritional insecurity. This is achieved through improving 
productivity along with the conservation of  biodiversity 
as well as the health of  the ecosystem. It recognizes 
the linked problems of  food security, agricultural 
productivity, ecosystem, and biodiversity (FAO, 2020; 
Swami, 2019; Branca et al., 2011; Brüssow et al., 2017). The 
multifaceted approaches of  CSA outperform traditional 
techniques, particularly in terms of  farm productivity 
and farm income in southern Bangladesh (Mahashin & 



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Roy, 2017). Adoption of  CSA directly correlates with 
the food security of  coastal households (Hasan et al., 
2018). Bangladesh’s national CSA strategy focuses on 
intensifying cropping systems and improving water and 
soil health management. 
Proper land management practices are required, when 
food requirements are increasing, but the farmlands are 
shrinking proportionally. We must address the hunger 
issue in Bangladesh by enhancing farmers’ productivity 
and profits while maintaining sustainability (Sarker et 
al., 2021). In this regard, the DAE, the main agency for 
agriculture, has made notable efforts to extend the CSA 
practices, particularly in ecologically vulnerable areas such 
as saline, flood prone and river basin areas (KD, 2024). 
Regular monitoring and follow-up are important for 
disseminating newer agricultural technology (Akter et al., 
2022; Acharyya, 2021). The extension officers are working 
on energy conservation and emission reduction measures, 
while farmers are also actively engaging in various training, 
demonstrations and outreach activities focusing on CSA 
practices (Hassan et al., 2024). Therefore, a comprehensive 
understanding of  farmers’ perceptions and feedbacks on 
CSA is crucial for sustaining and developing effective food 
security strategies (Sargani et al., 2020). Ishtiaque et al. (2024) 
also identified a significant gap between the potential and 
actual adoption of  CSA technologies and highlighted 
the need for improved diffusion strategies. Although it is 
widely known that the cruciality of  CSA is to cope with the 
changing climate only a limited number of  available studies 

focus on the prospects of  adopting CSA for food security 
aspects (Wakweya, 2023).
Previous literature has given thorough attention to the 
importance of  CSA in across Bangladesh. Nevertheless, 
Dohar, the study area lacks studies that seek to understand 
the complete picture of  CSA practices, some of  the 
limitations faced, and the degree of  adaptation among 
the farmers in Padma River Basin. Such a knowledge 
gap makes it challenging to come up with an appropriate 
strategy meant for sustainable agricultural production 
in the region. Therefore, this study intends to assess the 
effects of  CSA approaches in the Padma River Basin. 
The case study conducted with smallholder farming in 
the Dohar sub-district, mid-Bangladesh focuses on the 
present status of  CSA practices.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Area 
The study was conducted in Dohar subdistrict, which is 
the least populated in Dhaka district and has the smallest 
land area (121.41 square kilometres). This subdistrict is 
situated geographically between latitude 23°31’ to 23°41’ 
to the North and longitude 90°01’ to 90°13’ to the East, 
where one of  the rivers commonly experiences erosion 
and flooding (Figure 1). This subdistrict selection criteria 
consisted of  tidal flooding history, presence of  large areas 
of  agricultural land and incidence of  adverse climate 
affecting crop production of  the last five years, as noted 
by the agricultural office.

Figure 1: Study area 
Source: DoE

Data Collection and Data Analysis
This study followed qualitative and quantitative data 
collection methods. It used the environmental statistics 
yearbook published by the Department of  Environment 
(DoE), and the statistics yearbook published by the 
Bangladesh Bureau of  Statistics (BBS) to measure the 
annual rainfall, temperature, and relative humidity. 

Both of  them serve as a scientific basis for formulating 
appropriate guidelines, including strategic plans for the 
advancement of  Bangladesh. Both of  them compile 
annual and periodic sample surveys under the FAO 
guidelines (DoE, 2023). 
We also conducted a systematic survey of  relevant 
literature to underpin a conceptual model and derive 



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the policies and governance processes pertaining to 
CSA in Bangladesh. We then conducted a structured 
questionnaire survey to collect primary data from 180 
farmers between January and March, 2024. The studies 
targeted one farmers’ group rather than the whole 
population due to time and resource constraints. For 
qualitative data, thematic analysis approach was applied 
while for quantitative data, statistical methods were used 
for data analysis.

Measurement of  Irrigation Water Quality Parameters 
The DoE is the prime concern authority to monitor 
surface and ground water quality since 1973 in Bangladesh. 
This department monitors total 27 rivers water quality 
through several monitoring stations at monthly interval 
(DoE, 2023). Monitoring of  river surface water is critical 
in management of  farm irrigation resources as well as 
accurate flood prediction (Haque, 2008). Depending on 
the dissolved additives and suspended solid particles 
largely determine the quality it possess and on the 
ecosystem health. The physical and chemical parameters 
pH, DO and chloride ions are important to determine 
water quality and productivity (Momtaz et al., 2010; 
Ehiagbonare & Ogunrinde, 2010). This study studied 
these three parameters to monitor the Padma river’s water 
quality. 
pH is the logarithm of  the reciprocal of  hydrogen ions 
concentration in a solution, and represents the acidity or 
alkalinity of  a solution. DoE uses standard method or 
electrode to analyse pH. 
The measure of  dissolved oxygen (DO) is often applied 
in determination of  biological suitability of  water for 
particular usage. It provides habitat support for water 
animals and controls the rate of  breakdown of  organic 
compounds (Haritash et al., 2016). Sufficient DO levels 
are critical to the wellbeing of  water quality as well as all 
forms of  aquatic life. Mortality occurs at concentrations 
of  5mg/L and below, however concentrations lower 
than this are very detrimental to phytoplankton and 
zooplankton. DoE uses modified Winkler’s method or 
titrimetric method to analyse DO.
The negatively charged chloride ion is formed when it 
gains an electron or when a compound is dissolved in 
other polar solvents. Chloride salts are soluble in water 
and an essential electrolyte to regulate fluid in and out 
of  cells with maintaining acidity/alkalinity level, and 
transmitting nerve signals. DoE uses Argentometric 
method to analyse chloride.

Measurement of  Perception on CSA Practices
We constructed a Perception Index (PI) to measure the 
respondents’ perceptions of  CSA practices. This index 
incorporated seven selected aspects and was calculated 
using the following formula:
PI = (Pvl × 1) + (Pl × 2) + (Pm × 3) + (Ph × 4) + (Pvh × 5)
where, 
Pvl = Percentage of  farmers with very low perception
Pl = Percentage of  farmers with low perception

Pm = Percentage of  farmers with moderate perception
Ph = Percentage of  farmers with high perception
Pvh = Percentage of  farmers with very high perception
The PI for any given aspect ranged from 0 to 900, with 
0 representing the lowest and 900 the highest perception 
level. Akanda and Howlader (2015) used a similar 
methodological approach on coastal farmers’ perceptions 
of  climate change effects in Bangladesh.

Measurement of  Level in Adopting CSA Practices
We developed a survey formula to assess the level of  
adoption of  nine CSA practices among respondents. 
Each item used a four-point scale, with response 
options ranging from “frequently” to “not at all” and 
corresponding scores of  3, 2, 1, and 0, respectively. A 
CSA Practice Use Index (CPUI) was calculated for each 
practice using the following formula:
CPUI = (N1 × 3) + (N2 × 2) + (N3 × 1) + (N4 × 0)
where,
CPUI = CSA Practice Use Index
N1 = Number of  respondents who used CSA practice 
frequently
N2 = Number of  respondents who used CSA practice 
occasionally
N3 = Number of  respondents who used CSA practice 
rarely
N4 = Number of  respondents who did not use CSA 
practice at all
Kamal et al. (2018) used similar scale and formula to 
measure the IPM adoption level. 

Measurement of  Benefits of  CSA Practices 
To measure the benefits of  CSA practices, a furnished 
questionnaire was developed, responses were coded, and 
analyzed with MS Excel. Responses were taken on a five 
points Likert-scale, whereby 1 means strongly disagree and 
5 means strongly agree. The mean values of  the Likert-
scale were calculated as ‘not at all’ (1 to 1.79), ‘disagree’ 
(1.80 to 2.59), ‘neutral’ (2.60 to 3.39), ‘important’ (3.40 to 
4.19) and, ‘very important’ (4.20 to 5). 

Measurement of  Challenges in Adopting CSA 
Practices and Steps to Resolve 
We identified and categorized the eight major challenges 
in adopting CSA practices according to the respondents’ 
perceptions. A four-level scale was used to calculate 
each of  the challenges, with ‘high’ given a score of  
(3), ‘low’ that was scored as 1 (low) and, ‘no challenge’ 
scored as (0) where appropriate. Similarly, eight major 
recommendations to resolve those challenges were 
found, and each of  the recommendations was rated 
according to the same scale on the likely effectiveness of  
the recommendations. 
To calculate the frequency index for each challenge, the 
following formulae was used.



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where,
FI = Frequency Index
Nn = Number of  respondents 
x = Opinion on challenge in adopting CSA practices 
n = Score of  opinion
Then the following formula was used to calculate the 
importance score for each challenge expressed as a 
percentage.

With 165% of  cropping intensity, Dohar covers about 
932 hectares (11.31%) of  high lands, 2153 hectares 
(27.75%) of  medium lands, 1208 hectares (15.07%) of  
medium low lands, 1650 hectares (22.44%) of  low lands, 
and 1720 hectares (23.40%) of  very low lands. The total 
net cultivable area was 7663 hectares, of  which 3632, 3099 
and 932 hectares was cultivated for one, two, and three 
crops respectively (UAO, 2023). Although there is not a 
single deep tubewell, but the farmers are using a total of  
812 shallow tubewells and 5 low lift pumps across the 
subdistrict (DD, 2023). Therefore, the farmers use Padma 
River water as their main irrigation source especially in dry 
seasons, October to March a total of  five months a year. 

Irrigation Water Quality and Significance
The irrigation water quality was measured through pH and 
DO, and the average pH was 6.8 and DO was 5 in 2014 
in the Padma River (Figure 2). According to time, the pH 
and DO had been increased, and in 2023, it is found that 
they are about 7.21 and 7.84, respectively. That means due 
to some reasons, the quality of  water has been changed. 
DO levels change with factors atmospheric absorption, 
water circulation, photosynthesis by the plants among 
others. It has been established that the quality of  surface 
and groundwater in Bangladesh is highly dependent on 
anthropogenic factors, characteristics of  the sources, 
different types of  geographical formations, the flow rate, 
and fluctuating ecosystems (Hamid et al., 2021).

where,
IS = Importance Score
Similarly, the recommendations to resolve the challenges 
in adopting CSA practices were calculated by using the 
same way. Hassan et al. (2024) employed a similar formula 
to study adopting CSA in affected tidal floodplains.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Ganges-Padma River System and Farm Irrigation in 
Dohar
The Ganges-Padma River, the largest river system in 
Asia, is important to millions of  people in India and 
Bangladesh. The Ganges River starts from the Gangotri 
glacier in the Himalayas and flows through the Indian 
territory below and enters Bangladesh through the Padma 
River. This river system is roughly 2,600 kilometres 
long, with a catchment area of  about 87 million square 
kilometres (BBS, 2023). 

Figure 2: Irrigation water quality parameters 
Source: DoE

Harmful and toxic substances such as metals, pesticides, 
and organic toxins as well as radioactive contaminants, 
pollute the Padma River. These pollutants have serious 
impacts on river- side farmlands as well as the economy 
of  the area (DoE, 2022). Industrial pollutants impact on 
river ecosystems. Irrigation with untreated polluted water 
can increase excessive potassium in soils, which may act 
as toxic to plants (Hashem & Qi, 2021). Optimum acidic/
alkaline water helps to circulate plant nutrition, and 
enhance soil fertility (Angelakis & Snyder, 2015; Ashiea 
et al., 2024).

Padma River and Waterlogging Challenges in Dohar 
In the rainy season, the Padma River becomes over 
flooded and excessive water enter the farm lands though 
a system of  22 canals in Dohar. As a result, near about 
7122 hectares of  farm land remain under water from June 

to October. Due to natural low-lying land formation, 
poor drainage systems, and soil characteristics, the water- 
holding capacity of  this area is higher and a significant 
land becomes fallow due to the waterlogging situation. 
All of  these factors have resulted in greater problems 
in agriculture within the basin (UAO, 2024). A certain 
portion of  farmland became fallow during that period 
and some water loving crops such as amaranths became 
the main crop. Farmers try an integrated farming system 
like raring duck and fish culture to utilize those watery 
fields. Therefore, CSA practice can be an alternate 
solution in this period.

Climate Change and CSA Practices in Dohar 
Climate change is significantly impacting the region of  
Dohar. As illustrated in Figure 3, average annual rainfall 
in Dhaka has fluctuated considerably between 2003 



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and 2020. While the year 2003 and 2013 experienced 
relatively lower rainfall levels of  1693 mm and 1590 mm, 
respectively, 2007 and 2017 witnessed significantly higher 
rainfall totals of  2885 mm and 2892 mm. This irregular 

precipitation pattern is a direct consequence of  climate 
change, and the farmers residing near the Padma River 
are particularly vulnerable to its effects.

Figure 3: Average annual rainfall in Dhaka  
Source: BBS

A significant fluctuation in average annual temperature 
has been observed in Dhaka from 2008 to 2023, indicative 
of  a changing climate. Figure 4 illustrates this trend, with 
notable increases in average annual temperature from 
26.2°C in 2011 to 27.3°C in 2023. These temperature 

fluctuations have profound implications for agricultural 
productivity, as they directly influence critical biological 
processes such as photosynthesis and flowering. 
Consequently, the changing climate seriously threats to 
both crop yields and farmer livelihoods in this region.

Figure 4: Average annual temperature in Dhaka
Source: BBS

Figure 5 demonstrates a pronounced temporal 
variability in average annual relative humidity within 
Dhaka during the period 2008-2023. A notable upward 
trend is evident, with a significant increase from 66% 
in 2010 to 74% in 2020, culminating in a peak of  78% 
in 2023. This escalating relative humidity is indicative 
of  a warming climate. The fluctuating humidity may 
disrupt the stomatal regulation of  plants as well as 

affecting photosynthesis and transpiration. Overall, 
this leads to a reduction in agricultural productivity. 
Occasionally, humidity creates favourable conditions for 
various insects and fungi, which can be detrimental to 
crops. Consequently, farmers in Dohar may experience 
a decline in crop yields as well as farm profitability due 
to the adverse effects of  climate change-induced relative 
humidity variations.

Figure 5: Average annual relative humidity in Dhaka 
Source: BBS



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It is clear after the above discussions that the subdistrict 
of  Dohar is particularly suffering from changing 
climate, especially its’ agricultural sector, which faces 
challenges due to fluctuating temperatures, uneven 
rainfall, and unstable humidity. Farmers try to cope up 
with these through traditional methods. But now the 
conscious farmers are focusing on the sustainability of  
agricultural practices and adopting CSA as a mitigating 
tool. After following CSA, they are growing year-round 
vegetables, saving irrigation water, and using the latest 
technologies and crop diversity. By implementing CSA 
practices, farmers are ensuring agricultural sustainability 
through resilience to changing climatic conditions, and 
enhancing food security paving the way for a prosperous 
future.

Socio-Demographic Characteristics of  the Respondents 
The questionnaire was designed to collect the socio-
demographic profiles of  the respondents and the 
summery is presented here (Table 1). It can be noted 
that the participants were mainly constituted by young to 
middle-aged people accounting for almost 87% of  the 
age of  the population in these studies. This contrasts with 

the national demographics where the age limit of  18-50 
accounts approximately 54% of  the population (BBS, 
2019b). The sample was biased towards the male gender 
with about 75% of  respondents comprising this group. 
In terms of  their education, it is approximated that, for 
example, about 87% were literate, which was above the 
approximately 72 % national literacy rate (BBS, 2019b).
Most of  the respondents (around 53%) indicated having 
more than six years of  conventional farming experience, 
while engagement lasts for such type of  farming. On the 
other hand, eco-friendly farming experience was more or 
less where about 87% had less than six years active eco-
friendly farming engagement.
Farms sizes were classified based on the DAE’s guidance 
on the measurement of  farm sizes. As per the data 
most practitioners around 81 % did not grow more 
than 66 decimals of  land. In addition, a large number 
of  respondents 72% and 68% respectively offered no 
explanation to the fact that they attended DAE training 
or DAE demonstration programs in the past three fiscal 
years. The majority of  respondents (77%) obtained 
agricultural information from the DAE, which is the 
principal agricultural source for most.

Table 1: Socio-demographic information of  the respondents
Variable Category Response (N=180)

Count (%)
Age group (years) 18 to 35 67 37.22

36 to 50 89 49.44
51 and above 24 13.33

Gender Male 135 75
Female 45 25

Education No formal education 23 12.78
Primary (Class 1 to 8) 91 50.56
Secondary (Class 9 to 12) 60 33.33
Graduate and above 6 3.33

Conventional farming 
experience (years)

Up to 5 84 46.67
6 to 15 73 40.56
16 and above 23 12.78

Eco-friendly farming 
experience (years)

Up to 2 99 55
3 to 5 57 31.67
6 and above 24 13.33

Farm size (ha) 0.2 to 1 56 31.11
1.1 to 3 89 49.44
3.1 and above 35 19.44

Training received from 
DAE (last 3 FY)

No 129 71.67
1 to 2 times 47 26.11
3 times or more 4 2.22

Demonstration received 
from DAE (last 3 FY)

No 123 68.33
1 to 2 times 42 23.33
3 times or more 15 8.33



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Source of  information DAE 139 77.22
Mass Media 23 12.78
Village Market 8 4.44
Others 10 5.56

Source: Field Survey

Perception on CSA Practices
We questioned respondents about their perceptions of  
CSA practices (Figure 6). Analysis of  the Perception 
Index revealed that the top three perceived benefits 
were: (1) site-specific extension services offering 

market-oriented, cutting-edge production technologies; 
(2) good agricultural practices (GAPs) reducing 
excessive chemical fertilizer and pesticide use; and 
(3) homestead vegetable cultivation fulfilling daily 
nutritional requirements.

Figure 6: Perception on CSA practices
Source: Field Survey

The majority of  farmers implemented several CSA practices 
because they held a positive perception of  them (Mahashin 
& Roy, 2017). Reforestation can minimize the effects of  
climate change, while awareness build-up is crucial here 
(Hasan et al., 2018). Practicing CSA can minimize carbon 
emissions from farmland (Zhao et al., 2023).

Adoption of  CSA Practices
We asked respondents to choose the most applicable CSA 
practice. Results indicate that the three most frequently 
reported practices were the adoption of  good agricultural 
practices, utilization of  stress-tolerant varieties, and 
employment of  small-scale machinery (Figure 7).

Figure 7: Adoption of  CSA practices
Source: Field Survey

Various parts of  the world use a wide variety of  climate-
smart agriculture (CSA) technologies (Akter et al., 
2023; Azadi et al., 2021). Common practices include 
conservation tillage, agroforestry, crop rotation, livelihood 
diversification, drip irrigation, and precision farming 
(Khatri-Chhetri et al., 2017). The majority of  farmers 
have switched to planting at different times, growing 
different crops in rotation, and conserving the soil to 

reduce the impact of  unusual weather patterns (Tanti & 
Jena, 2023). Factors like land size, past experiences with 
climate shocks, land fertility, and distance to markets 
influence farmers’ decisions about which CSA practices 
to adopt (Zakaria et al., 2020).
Information-seeking behaviors are critical determinants 
of  technology adoption among both researchers and 
farmers (Mazvimavi & Twomlow, 2009; Tatlidil et al., 



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2009).  There is a correlation between agricultural training 
and technology adoption (Kpadonou et al., 2017; Holden 
et al., 2018). Trained farmers in rural Bangladesh are more 
interested in organic farming than traditional farmers 
(Rokonuzzaman et al., 2019). Training on CSA aids in 
enhancing farm knowledge and field skills, enabling 
the adoption of  innovative technologies and farming 
methods (Hasan & Mamun, 2023). Similarly, Yeasmin 
et al. (2018) emphasized the positive impact of  pesticide 
training on smallholder farmers. Community engagement 
and capacity building are crucial for the successful 
implementation of  CSA (Haque & Tareq, 2020).
Mass media campaigns and motivational initiatives help 
in promoting organic agriculture adoption (Sarker et al., 
2021). Similarly, organizing farmer field days influences 
the local people to utilise organic materials. Young, 
energetic, risk takers and information-seeker farmers 
try to adopt new agricultural technologies (Tatlidil et 
al., 2009; Mazvimavi & Twomlow, 2009). Local farmers 

are being motivated by eco-friendly farming through 
entrepreneurial farmers (Kabir & Rainis, 2015). Farmer 
field schools and farmer clubs facilitate the scaling up of  
agricultural adaptation strategies (Hassan et al., 2019).

Benefits of  CSA Practices
We asked the respondents to evaluate the social, 
environmental, and economic benefits of  CSA practices 
using a five-point Likert scale. The results show that 
crop diversification significantly enhances environmental 
sustainability (Figure 8). In terms of  social benefits, 
homestead vegetable cultivation and site-specific extension 
services were deemed to be highly effective in addressing 
family nutritional needs and improving information 
access, respectively. Finally, the study identified agricultural 
mechanisation and the implementation of  intercropping 
and mixed cropping systems as key factors in reducing 
production costs, mitigating pest and disease pressures, 
and enhancing economic viability.

Figure 8: Environmental, social, and economical benefits of  CSA Practices
Source: Field Survey

Challenges in Adopting CSA Practices
The respondents were queried about perceived challenges 
in adopting CSA (Figure 9). Based on IS, we identified 
limited awareness of  stress-tolerant varieties, elevated 

initial costs and risks associated with poly-shed farming, 
and insufficient technical expertise in raised bed farming 
as the primary obstacles to CSA adoption.

Figure 9: Challenges in adopting CSA practices
Source: Field Survey

While individual CSA techniques may offer a single 
advantage, a multifaceted approach can enhance climate 
resilience and sustainability (Hanson et al., 2019; Ellis 
& Tschakert, 2019). Despite the numerous potential 

benefits of  CSA, smallholders in South Asian countries 
are struggling to fully adoption and spread-out eco-
friendly practices (Westermann et al., 2018). Hence, 
regular extension services for minimizing knowledge gaps 



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and disseminating information, monitoring, and follow-
up are crucial for connecting farmers.  Along with that, 
technical support and logistical assistance are essential for 
the successful establishment of  CSA across the country. 
The marginal farmers face difficulty accessing bank loan 
facilities and limited climate-based information services 
to adopt CSA technologies (Imran et al., 2019).
When adopting CSA practices, women smallholders 
encounter several specific challenges, including inadequate 
training, unavailability of  farm inputs, delayed climate 
information, unstable markets, and conditional credit 
systems (WB, 2015a). Limited access to reliable climate 
data may hinder the adoption of  CSA in remote regions 
(Kuijpers, 2020).
Sub-Assistant Agricultural Officers (SAAO), who are 
field officials of  DAE, are implementing extension 
supports to all farming households. According to service 

rules, three SAAOs serve each union, but most of  the 
unions are suffering from SAAO insufficiency in rural 
areas (Rahman et al., 2020). Despite the availability of  
diverse information channels on eco-friendly farming, 
smallholders exhibit a strong preference for SAAOs due 
to their local familiarity (Kabir & Rainis, 2015).

Recommendations to Resolve Challenges
The respondents were queried about perceived 
recommendations to resolve challenges in adopting CSA 
(Figure 10). Considering the mean scores on a four-
point Likert scale, respondents indicated that the most 
effective strategies for overcoming CSA adoption barriers 
were: Focus on prioritizing location-specific agroforestry, 
supporting a local private farm to make readily available 
machinery, and providing financial support for farming 
in a poly shed.

Figure 10: Recommendations to Resolve Challenges 
Source: Field Survey

To effectively address these challenges, a comprehensive 
approach is necessary. This includes the implementation 
of  precise crop zoning, coupled with location-specific 
extension services to reach vulnerable farmers. The 
vulnerable coastal farmers in Southern Bangladesh can 
increase their CSA adoption after getting logistic supports 
(Hasan et al., 2018). By examining the factors influencing 
CSA adoption, policymakers can develop targeted CSA 
strategies for technology dissemination and livelihood 
improvement (Ishtiaque et al., 2024). The farmers are 
adopting CSA practices to improve their livelihood 
through exposure to extension media, coupled with 
innovation and organizational support (Mahashin, 2019). 
Along with others, trained and qualified extension agents 
can play a major role to extend CSA implementation 
across the nation. Authority can revise regulatory and 
institutional strategies to reform the extension services to 
sustain farming with food security. The diverse cultural, 
economic, and social contexts of  farmers must be 
considered when designing and implementing agricultural 
interventions (Ishtiaque et al., 2024; Acharyya, 2021; Jha 
& Gupta, 2021; Rizzo et al., 2023).

CONCLUSION
This study was carried out in only one subdistrict to 

investigated the challenges and prospects of  Climate-
Smart Agriculture (CSA) adoption in the Padma River 
Basin, specifically in Dohar sub-district, Bangladesh. 
The findings show that several challenges hinder the 
adoption of  CSA practices, despite their significant 
benefits in environmental sustainability, social well-being, 
and economic viability. The region faces waterlogging 
issues due to irregular rainfall patterns and the Padma 
River’s flooding. Rising temperatures and fluctuating 
relative humidity pose significant threats to agricultural 
productivity. Perceived benefits of  CSA practices include 
improved crop diversification, enhanced nutrition, 
reduced production costs, and pest control. Primary 
challenges include limited awareness of  stress-tolerant 
varieties, high initial costs of  poly-shed farming, and 
insufficient technical expertise in raised bed farming. 
To overcome these challenges, the study recommends 
prioritizing location-specific agroforestry, supporting 
local private farms for machinery availability, and 
providing financial assistance for poly-shed farming.
Overall, the results highlight that a holistic system 
approach may be essential for the promotion of  CSA 
adoption in the Padma River Basin. The approach 
should include focused extension services, increased 
access to climate information, and financing for farmers. 



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Am. J. Environ. Clim. 4(2) 15-27, 2025

Addressing these limitations will help Bangladesh 
harness the enormous potential of  CSA to improve 
agricultural resilience, reduce vulnerability from climate 
change impacts, and maintain food security in changing 
environmental scenarios. Further research could solve 
the problems by taking seasonal flooded areas like 
Bangladesh’s Dohar sub-district into account, where 
CSA narratives shift. Rethinking the socioeconomic, 
political, and institutional elements of  the CSA discourse 
is necessary, and enhancing the communication between 
social, managerial, and economic research dimensions 
through multidisciplinary study can contribute to this. 
These needs looking at how CSA knowledge linkages 
now work with NGOs, farmer-led groups, and other 
entities outside traditional elitist development and 
research organizations to produce knowledge. 
This study was carried out in one sub-district only with 
selected 180 respondents A large-scale study area and 
a larger sample size would help reveal more persuasive 
results. Therefore, we might pursue further investigations 
in other districts to ensure CSA promotion.

Funding
This study was supported by Program on Agricultural and 
Rural Transformation for Nutrition, Entrepreneurship, 
and Resilience (PARTNER) in Bangladesh by WORLD 
BANK.

Acknowledgments
We acknowledge the support from the local subdistrict 
agriculture officer, sub assistant officers of  the study area 
during survey. We also acknowledge the Department of  
agricultural extension officials for their cooperation with 
necessary documents and information.

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