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American Journal of  
Environment and Climate (AJEC)

Farmers’ Perception of  the Current Farming Practices on Agricultural Ecological Risk 
in Loes Watershed, Timor-Leste

Delfim da Costa1*, Maria Victoria O. Espaldon1, Decibel V. Faustino-Eslava1, Patricia Ann J. Sanchez1, Cristino L. Tiburan Jr.2

Volume 4 Issue 2, Year 2025
ISSN: 2832-403X (Online) 

DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i2.4681
https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec

Article Information ABSTRACT

Received: March 05, 2025
Accepted: April 11, 2025
Published: June 25, 2025

Timor-Leste has been experiencing a decline in suitable land for agriculture over the years. 
Yet, slash-and-burn, shifting cultivation, and farmers steadily practice open grazing in the 
country. In the Loes watershed, slash and burn, shifting cultivation, and open grazing are 
expanded, although there have been stated in various studies that the practices seem to 
the stressors of  the agricultural ecological risk to crop and livestock production failure. 
However, none of  these studies explored the perception of  farmers on agroecological risk 
that related to their farming practices. Therefore, the study aimed to determine farmers’ 
perception of  the agricultural ecological risk related to farming practices in Loes watershed. 
A questionnaire survey was used to interview 243 household farmers out of  2,878 
households in 10 villages. Three focus group discussions (FGD) were conducted in the 
municipalities of  Bobonaro, Ermera, and Liquiça on the perception related to soil fertility, 
erosion, crop, and grassland production, conservation policies and laws awareness include its 
advantages to their life. The result of  the study illustrated that 75% of  interviewed farmers 
stated no risk to crop and livestock production related to soil fertility, erosion, and crop 
production failure. In addition, 82% mentioned not being aware of  the conservation and 
agriculture-related policies and laws, however, 80% of  them perceived customary law “Tara-
Bandu” has a strong influence on their farming practices. Moreover, 36% were willing to be 
advised on conservation but 17% insisted to continue using their current practices. Only 
20% acknowledged the advantages of  agriculture and conservation-related policies and laws. 
Furthermore, adopting introduced conservation practices was very low ranging from 0.4% 
to 21.8% for various innovations and technologies. It concluded farmers perceived crop and 
livestock production decline are not caused by their poor practices, but instead considered 
as a natural process. In addition, policies and laws are considered new colonization by 
them due to their formulations ignoring their customary laws and traditional beliefs, thus 
perceiving low agroecological risk in the Loes watershed. Thus, this study recommends 
to promote the Sloping Agricultural Land Technology (SALT), Conservation Agriculture 
(CA) with no burn, minimum tillage, and integrating cover crops in farm management. In 
addition, integrating local wisdom into innovation promotion and agriculture-related policy 
formulations by promoting Customary Law (Tara-Bandu) which is the local community is 
the initiator of  having rules and regulations to farm.

Keywords
Conservation, Ecological-Risk, 
Farmer Perception, Local 
Customary, Policy

1 Universidade Nacional Timor Lorosae (UNTL), Dili, Timor-Leste
2  University of  the Philippines Los Baños, Philippines
* Corresponding author’s e-mail: delfimdacosta915@gmail.com

INTRODUCTION
According to Timor-Leste’s National Action Program 
to combat land degradation (NAP, 2008), poor farming 
practices in Timor-Leste have been causing food 
insecurity, declining food production and productivity, 
significant grassland degradation, and other environmental 
problems such as erosion, landslide, and flooding. As a 
consequence, decline number of  households engaged in 
agriculture was 90% in 2015 decreased to 66% in 2019 
(Census, 2015; TLAC, 2019). 
Poor land utilization such as slash and burn, shifting 
cultivation, and open grazing are predominantly 
practiced in Timor-Leste. These farming practices seem 
to contribute to soil degradation, indicated by having 
low soil nutrients for crops, high runoff, and on-farm 
erosion. This in turn leads to low crop production and 
productivity, a high potential for a failed harvest, and 
food insecurity. The Census data in 2015 indicated that 
crop production by households with less than 1 hectare is 

56.3 % and increased to 65.4% in 2019. 
Loes watershed is one of  the critical watersheds due to 
the following conditions: the decline of  river water flow, 
high erosion, landslide, a decrease of  land cover, and high 
deforestation as declared by the Ministry of  Agriculture 
and Fisheries Timor-Leste (MAF, 2007; Soares et al., 
2011). Although the watershed has been declared to 
be in critical condition, there are protected areas and 
important bird areas inside the watershed. The protected 
areas found in the watershed are Guguleur Mountain (≈ 
13,159 ha), Loelaku Mountain (≈ 4700 ha), and Tapo 
Saburai Mountain (≈ 5000 ha). The watershed is also 
well known as the dwelling of  important biodiversity. 
About 28 hectares is defined as the Important Birds’ Area 
(IBA) at Lake Bemalae. Yet the farming practices, such 
as slash-and-burn, shifting cultivation, open grazing, and 
uncontrolled forest and grass fire, are predominant in the 
area including the entire country (NBSAP, 2011; NAP, 
2008; MITLTW, 2020). 



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Due to the increase in population growth and demand for 
land, nowadays the shifting cultivation period becomes 
short with only a 2 to 3-year period before, until a 10 to 
12 year-period (Jeus et al., 2012). The effect is that the 
available communal land in Timor-Leste used by the 
community for farming and raising livestock decreased 
from 9.7 % in 2015 to 2 % in 2019. With the decrease 
in land availability, only 29 % of  households have 2 
to 3 parcels of  farmland, while 66 % have 1 parcel of  
farmland (Census, 2015; TLAC, 2019). 
Raising livestock increased over time in Timor-Leste 
with 87.2 % of  households raising livestock in 2015 and 
increased to 95 % in 2019. (Census, 2015; TLAC, 2019). 
Farmers are mostly using open grazing and herders are 
using fire in grassland areas. In the dry season, when 
grasses dry up, herdsmen tend to use fire to allow new 
grass to grow to feed their livestock. In addition, herders 
leave livestock on grassland for unlimited time; the 
monitoring and controlling will only be done once or 
twice a month. The shifting grazing is only applied when 

the grassland has no more grass for livestock.
The practices mentioned here are highlighted by many 
scholars that the practices are causing poor soil health 
which is damaging essential roles of  soil for crop 
production, grassland conservation, and food security 
(Fachin & Thomaz, 2023; Sandi et al., 2023; Dacosta et al., 
2022). Thus, the current farming practices are considered 
as the stressors of  risk to agriculture ecology. However, 
the perceptions of  farmers on the agricultural ecological 
risk due to their farming practices in Loes watershed 
have not been studied yet. Therefore, this study aims to 
investigate socioeconomic factors and the perception of  
farmers to the ecological risk of  agriculture.

Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework used in this study was based on 
the principles of  agricultural practices that are influenced 
by the socioeconomic, political, and cultural of  farmers 
which determine perceptions of  agroecological risks 
(Figure 1).

Figure 1: The conceptual framework of  the study
Source: By the author

The concept of  agroecology as defined by FAO is an 
integrated approach that applies ecological and social 
concepts and principles to the design and management 
of  food and agricultural systems (FAO, 2018). The 
principles refer to the influences of  the knowledge, 
age, gender, income, and household size of  farmers to 
what type of  agricultural practices are to be done. The 
agricultural practices are also influenced by political and 
cultural factors such as policy awareness, and the existence 
of  local customs. Both socioeconomic and political 
factors determine how a farmer views the importance of  
agroecology. Lack of  knowledge and low income might 
less awareness of  the agroecosystem services and lead 
to more deterioration rather than conservation. Other 
influences are policy and law awareness, farmers with low 

or no awareness might not be interested in the what are 
the consequences of  deteriorating the agroecosystem. 
Nevertheless, policy and law awareness are also 
influenced by the contexts of  policy and law formulation. 
Considering local customs in policy or law might have a 
positive influence on farmers.

MATERIALS AND METHODS 
Study Area
The study was conducted in the municipalities of  
Bobonaro, Ermera, and Liquiça within Loes watershed 
area, Timor-Leste. Loes watershed is a cross-boundary 
watershed of  Timor-Leste and Indonesia. It lies between 
9° 12’ 49.78” to the 8° 44’ 5.09” South latitude to 125° 
1’ 42.50” to the 125° 6’ 19.82” East longitude. It covers 



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Am. J. Environ. Clim. 4(2) 84-96, 2025

180,634 hectares which is equivalent to 72 % of  the 
watershed size and 28 % of  the watershed area (Talau) 
which is part of  Indonesian ́s jurisdiction. Loes watershed 
is sustained by three tributaries, or river flows, namely, 
Lauveli River, Marobo River, and Nunura River (MITLTW, 
2020; ADB, 2011). The elevation is approximately 2000 
meters above sea level (masl) with a slightly steep to steep 
slope. It covers three protected areas: Guguleur Mountain 
(≈ 13,159 ha) Loelaku Mountain (≈ 4700 ha), and Tapo 
Saburai Mountain (≈ 5000 ha). The area is also well 
known as the dwelling of  important biodiversity; about 

28 ha is defined as the Important Birds Area at Lake of  
Bemalae (NBSAP 2011; NAP, 2008; MITLTW, 2020). In 
terms of  a climeta, the area has two seasons: dry and rainy 
seasons. The dry season starts from June until November, 
while the rainy season starts from November until May. 
The average annual rainfall is 1600 mm. per year with 
the high annual evaporation at approximately 1800 mm. 
per year (NAP, 2008). The average temperature is 23 °C 
with the minimum temperature at approximately 20 °C 
and maximum temperature reaching 30 °C (World Bank, 
Climate Change Knowledge Portal).

Figure 2: Map of  study area

Sampling, data collection, and analysis
The study used a quantitative approach through 
interviews and using simple random sampling techniques. 
Two hundred forty-three farmers’ households out of  two 
thousand eight hundred and eighty-seven of  total farmers’ 
households from 10 villages in three municipalities: 
Ermera, Liquiça, and Bobonaro were interviewed. Data 
were collected by visiting farmers’ households and 
asking questions on socioeconomic characteristics, main 
crop and livestock production, and their perception of  
agricultural ecological risk that refers to the relationships 
of  soil health and grassland conditions to their farming 
practices. In addition, the questionnaire also included 
the awareness of  conservation and agriculture-related 
policies and laws in Timor-Leste. In addition, three 
focus group discussions (FGD) were moreover in the 
municipalities of  Bobonaro, Ermera, and Liquiça with 
the farmers who reside in the watershed area and have 
been experiencing farming for a long time. The thematic 
analysis was used to analyze the FGD data. To ensure the 
validity and reliability of  the FDG, the participants were 
consisting of  farmer, agriculture extension officers, local 
leader, farmer group representatives. 
The interviewers were trained on how to interview the 
farmers before being deployed to the field. In addition, 

the interviewers must fluent in the local language to 
smooth the communications. The questionnaires were 
prepared in the national language (Tetum) but the 
interviewees delivered them in local languages (Mambae 
in Emrera municipality, Bunak and Kemak in Bobonaro 
municipality, and Tokodede and Mambae in Liquiça 
municipality).
Data obtained from the interview was analyzed by using 
descriptive statistics. The statistical package for the social 
sciences (SPSS) application was used to perform the 
analysis. 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The result and discussion of  the study are presented in 
two sections. Section one is about the socioeconomic 
and demography of  the farmers and section two on the 
farmer’s perception of  the agricultural ecological risk.

Socioeconomic and demographic of  farmers 
The interview was done with 243 farmers from three 
municipalities such as Bobonaro, Ermera, and Liquica 
who have been practicing a different type of  farming 
within Loes watershed. All of  the interviewed farmers 
are household heads.



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Table 1: Socioeconomic and demographic
Variable Municipality

Bobonaro Ermera Liquiça
n % n % n %

Gender
Male 73 94.8 22 28.9 21 28
Female 4 5.2 54 71.1 54 72
Total 77 100 76 100 75 100
Age
20-39 53 43.5 34 44.8 21 46.7
40-59 40 32.8 35 46.1 20 44.4
>60 29 23.8 7 9.2 4 8.9
Total 122 100 76 100 45 100
Education attainment
No Schooling 67 54.9 43 56.6 5 11.1
Elementary School 18 14.8 8 10.5 10 22.2
Junior high school 14 11.5 9 11.8 15 33.3
Senior high school 20 16.4 13 17.1 13 28.9
College 3 2.5 3 3.9 2 4.4
Total 122 100 76 100 45 100
Source of  income
Crops (%)
<50 26 21.31 24 32.4 9 20
50 - 74.9 77 63.11 30 40.5 17 37.8
75-100 19 15.57 20 27 19 42.2
Total 122 100 74 100 45 100
Livestock (%)
<50 42 34.43 22 28.95 24 53.33
50 - 74.9 72 59.02 38 50 18 40
75-100 8 6.56 16 21.05 3 6.67
Total 122 100 76 100 45 100
Other (%)
<50 113 92.62 76 100 42 93.33
50 - 74.9 5 4.1 0 0 1 2.22
75-100 4 3.28 0 0 2 4.44
Total 122 100 76 100 45 100
Monthly income (USD)
10 - 100 99 81.15 52 68.42 30 66.67
101 - 200 17 13.93 23 30.26 14 31.11
201- 300 5 4.1 1 1.32 0 0
> 300 1 0.82 0 0 1 2.22
Total 122 100 76 100 45 100
Household size
2- 4 38 31.1 33 43.4 6 13.3
5 - 7 59 48.4 26 34.2 22 48.9
8 - 10 21 17.2 17 22.4 14 31.1
> 10 4 3.3 0 0 3 6.7
Total 122 100 76 100 45 100



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Respondents in Bobonaro municipality are 94.8 % males 
and 5.2 % females, in Ermera and Liquiça municipalities 
28.9 % males, 71.1 % females and 28 % males and 72 
% females respectively. The gender distribution in these 
three municipalities as household agricultural holding 
is somewhat similar to the national data of  gender 
household agricultural holding which is 15 % female and 
85 % male in the entire country (TLAC, 2019) which is 
influenced by patriarchal culture.
Respondents age was grouped into three: 20-39, 40-59, 
and above 60. In Bobonaro municipality, respondents 
aged 20-39 years old were the biggest group (43.5 %), 
followed by the age of  40-49 years old (32.8 %), and above 
60 years old (23.8 %). However, Ermera municipality has 
a different dominant age group. The age group of  40-59 
years old is the dominant group (46.1 %) followed by a 
group of  20-39 years old (44.8 %), and lastly the group of  
age above 60 years old was 9.2 %. In Liquiça, the group 
of  20-39 is dominant (46.7 %) followed by the group 
aged 40-59 years old (44.4 %), and the group above 60 
years old was only 8.9 %. The age group of  farmers in 
Loes watershed indicates the declining interest of  youth 
to be a farmer. This situation is close to a report from 
Thu (2022) stated in Timor-Leste, about 92 % of  farmers 
do not want their generation to be a farmer. Moreover, 
most of  the heads of  agriculture are above 40 years old 
(Oxfam Australia, 2022).
Education group was made based on the education 
level established in Timor-Leste; No schooling group is 
referred to never attending formal or informal school, 
elementary school is referred to 1-6 years schooling, 
Junior high school is referred to 7-9 years schooling, 
senior high school is referred to 10-12 years schooling, 
college is referred to graduate of  Bachelor degree 
from institutions or universities. Data indicates no 
schooling group is dominant in Bobonaro and Ermera 
municipalities (54.9 % and 56.6 %) respectively, but in 
Liquiça municipality, farmers mostly graduated from 
Junior high school (33.3 %). In Bobonaro municipality, 
elementary school is 14.8 %, junior high school is 11.5 
%, senior high school is 16.4 %, and college is 2.5 %. In 
Ermera municipality, elementary school is 10.5 %, junior 
high school is 11.8 %, senior high school is 17.1 %, and 
college is 3.9 %. In Liquica municipality, no schooling at 
11.1 %, elementary school is 22.2 %, senior high school 
is 28.9 %, and college is 4.4 %. The education attainment 
of  farmers has been an issue in the country when the 
concept of  modernizing farming toward food security is 
promoted. Lack of  education tackles the technology and 
knowledge transfer process to enhance the agriculture 
sector that was initiated by the government and other 
agencies (Lundah & Sjöholm, 2019).
The source of  income of  crop farmers and livestock 
farmers was asked separately. For crop farmers; in 
Bobonaro and Ermera, 63.1 % and 40.5 % respectively 
of  farmers mentioned their source of  income from crops 
up to 75 % while 25 % comes from other sources like 
livestock and incidental income (cash for works in the 
village to earn money). However, in Liquica 42.2 % of  

farmers depend totally on crops, while the rest of  farmers 
have sources of  income vary: livestock, poultry, and selling 
traditional handmade products. For the livestock farmers; 
farmers in all municipalities Bobobnaro (72 %), Ermera 
(50 %), and Liquica (40 %) confirmed their source of  
income up to 75 % come from livestock, while the rest 
25 % come from different sources such as horticulture 
from backyard garden and poultry. A less diverse source 
of  income for farmers occurred because of  the barrier to 
entrepreneur attitude and lack of  capability to diversify 
the income. Tomak (2022) has identified the causes 
of  low sources of  income among farmers in Timor-
Leste; technical knowledge, structural issues such as 
infrastructures and access to improved crop and livestock 
variety, and access to technologies to enhance income.
The monthly income of  farmers was obtained from the 
monthly expenditure of  each household. This is due to 
most farmers having no regular income on a monthly 
base, therefore the expenditure for a farmer’s household 
is assumed as the income of  the farmer. Data indicates 
the majority of  farmers (81.15 % in Bobonaro, 68. 42 % 
in Ermera, and 66.67 % in Liquica) have monthly incomes 
of  less than USD 100 which is very low. In addition, less 
than 5 % of  the total interviewed farmers have a monthly 
income above USD 200. The low income from mostly all 
farmers is due to a lack of  knowledge or many of  them 
are illiterate and slow to access agricultural information 
from other sources, but other factors, for instance, the 
capability to diversify the income are also low. Lundahl and 
Fredrik (2013) have described the income and challenges 
of  farmers in Timor-Leste; Low technologies, lack of  
education, and lack of  government support on extension 
and subsidies are the most influential factors. Moreover, 
Akter et al., (2021) added adoption of  technologies has 
a big impact on farmers’ income especially on market 
linkages and value added to their farm products. 
Average household size in the municipality of  Bobonaro: 
2 to 4 people (38 %), 5 to 7 people (59 %), 8 to 10 
people (21 %), and above 10 people (4 %). In Ermera 
municipality: 2 to 4 people (43.4 %), 5 to 7 people (34.2 
%), and 8 to 10 people (22.4 %). In Liquica: 2 to 4 people 
(13.3 %), 5 to 7 people (48.9 %), 8 to 10 people (31.1 
%), and above 10 people (6.7 %). The household size of  
farmers in Loes watershed reflects the household size of  
the entire population of  Timor-Leste which is an average 
of  5.4 persons (Ministry of  Finance-Timor-Leste, 2022).

Types of  farming, cropping system, and main crop 
planted in Loes watershed.
The type of  farming practices here is limited to what they 
do for crop growing and livestock raising in farmers’ daily 
lives. The percentage of  each type of  practice accounted 
for the total number of  farmers who used these methods; 
thus, some farmers might be counted twice or third 
according to their farming activities. Some of  them do 
two or more practices at the same time; for instance, slash 
and burn and open grazing are practiced routinely at the 
same time in their life.



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Table 2: Types of  farming, cropping system, and main crop planted in Loes watershed
Farming type n % Cropping system n % Main crop planted n %
Slash & Burn 227 93.4 Monoculture 19 7.8 Maize 227 93
Shifting cultivation 33 13.6 Multiple cropping 194 79.8 Rice 7 3
Open Grazing 107 44.0 Contour strip 0 0.0 Tubers 9 4
Traditional conservation 18 7.4 Cropp rotation 30 12.3
Adopted conservation 2 0.8
Total farmers interviewed 243 100 Total 243 100 Total 243 100

Five types of  farming practices are found in Loes 
watershed. The slash-and-burn practice is dominant 
(93.4 %) followed by open grazing by livestock farmers 
(44 %) and shifting cultivation (13.6 %), while traditional 
conservation and adopted conservation practices are 
very low. Although slash and burn has been considered 
a poor practice and a risk to agroecology, the practices 
keep going on and being the most dominant. It can 
be assumed that the slash-and-burn practice is being 
culturized by local people and is being transmitted to 
young farmers in their local area. Basdew et al., (2017) 
found that indigenous knowledge transferred orally 
to its generation in South Africa is considered faster in 
adoption compared to written knowledge which uses 
many technical words. Furthermore, Alemu (2016) found 
that indigenous knowledge (IK) used in Ethiopia for 
agroforestry development is considered as an option, 
however due to socio-economic problems raised among 
them the IK is predicted to be less effective in the future. 
Multiple cropping is practiced by 79.8 % of  farmers, 12.3 
% do crop rotation, and only 7.8 adopt monoculture. 
The multiple cropping systems generally planted maize 
mixed with cassava, sweet potato, beans, and pumpkin. 
The previous report stated the main crops planted by 
farmers in the entire country are maize, cassava, sweet 
potato, vegetables, beans, and rice (MAF, 2019; Da Cruz, 

2003). However, none of  the farmers do contour trip 
farming, although mostly use slope areas as mentioned 
in Table 4.6. In terms of  main crops planted by farmers 
in Loes watershed, 93% of  the total interviewed farmers 
cultivated maize as the main crop, 4 % of  farmers 
planted tuber crops, and 3 % of  them cultivated rice. 
There are no significant changes compared to a previous 
study in Timor-Leste, the northern and southern slopes 
were cultivated with maize, cassava, sweet potato, and 
rice (Molyneux, 2012). Moreover, a study conducted 
in Sapele-Nigeria stated that not all recommended 
farming practices adopted by farmers due to various 
socioeconomic reasons. 

Five years of  crop productivity in different farming 
practices
Crop productivity over five years according to the 
interviewed farmers illustrated declined from 2008 
until 2022. (Figure 2). In the slash-and-burn area, the 
productivity decreased for all crops through the years but 
adopted conservation indicated maize increased in 2008 
and decreased in 2009 but remained constant through 
the years, while cassava productivity increased from 2008 
until 2022. In addition, sweet potatoes and beans have 
not yet been cultivated in adopted conservation farmland.

Figure 3: Five years productivity of  main crops



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The decline of  crop productivity in watershed areas has 
been influenced by soil health conditions. The practices 
have deteriorating soil quality to support crops for its 
production. The shifting cultivation method sounds 
sustainable; the infertile land is left to regenerate before 
being reused for agricultural purposes. However, the 
short period of  rotation makes the farmland degraded. 
For instance, the study by Dasgupta et al. (2021) in India 
mentioned shifting cultivation being practiced for one 
to two consecutive years and then left for 30 years. But 
today the practices are conducted in less than 5 years, a 
period which does not allow for the proper regeneration 
of  forests. In addition, Mishra et al. (2019), shifting 
cultivation decreases soil organic carbon when return-
period is short. Essential factors of  lower shifting 
cultivation return- period are linked to availability of  
land, increase of  population growth, and land ownership 
that limit shifting cultivation to wait for the regeneration 
process of  cultivated land for full recovery. 
Integration of  local knowledge with technologies was 
perceived as the proper combination to address food 
security, climate change, and disaster risk reduction 
issues. For example, Nelson et al. (2019) revealed that the 
combination of  traditional knowledge and agriculture 

technologies ensures farming sustainability and more 
resilience to climate change impacts in Iloilo, Philippines. In 
Timor-Leste, traditional environmental practices are not only 
based on morality (spiritual relations to nature) but also on 
the ability to cope with the changes to survive (local coping 
mechanisms) amid climate change and water scarcity (Burns, 
2013). A few limitations of  local knowledge in farming in 
Timor-Leste have been raised in an assessment conducted 
in Timor-Leste. These consist of  commercial aspects 
that are accessed and involved, uptake of  new knowledge 
and technology, and human resource quality towards 
opportunities and challenges for economic diversification 
(OXFAM-Timor-Leste, 2019). A mixed cropping system is 
the common practice in the home garden. Maize, upland 
rice, beans, vegetables, potato, pumpkin, sweet potato, 
taro, chili, and some seasoning crops are found in the land 
and planted with fruit trees. Paudel et al. (2022) stated that 
although agroforestry practices have been implemented 
traditionally by the local people, knowledge, institutional 
capacity, and funds are the challenges that prompt the 
farmers to address environmental degradation and food 
security in Timor-Leste.

Type of  livestock raised by farmers in Loes watershed



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Figure 3: Type of  livestock raised by farmers in Loes watershed

The interviewed livestock farmers consist of  56 % 
raised cattle, 34 % raised goats, 9 % raised Buffalo, and 
1 % raised sheep. Farmers’ Preference for raising cattle 
compare to buffalo due to its economic value and feeding 
methods. The cattle have higher reproductivity than 
buffalo it is because the cattle get puberty earlier than 
buffalo, thus the reproduction cycle much faster than 
buffalo. According to Jainudeen & Hafez (2016), the age 
of  puberty of  cattle ranges from 10 – 25 months, while 
buffalo ranges from 15-36 months.
In terms of  the grazing method, 53.1 % of  the 
interviewed farmers practiced the partial grazing method, 
29.2 % are fully open grazing, and 14.4 % adopted the 
intensive livestock raising method. However, 3.3 % of  
them practiced all (fully open grazing, partial grazing, and 
intensive method). Farmers do fully open grazing for their 
cattle, partially for their buffalo, and do intensive only for 

selected cattle that plan to sell in next coming months.
The grazing frequency practices in Loes watershed are 
dominated by using one area only for consecutive grazing 
(46.9 %), while several farmers manage to use two grazing 
areas in shifting mode to allow grass to recover before 
being reoccupied with the livestock (20.6 %). Only 0.4 
% of  the interviewed farmers stated using tree areas for 
their shifting grazing for livestock. In addition, farmers 
who live away from the village residences mostly practice 
shifting grazing in more than three areas because of  less 
competition among farmers and sufficient grassland 
availability around their areas. The consequences of  high-
intensity grazing in one area consecutively are lowering 
grass diversity and leading to grass degradation in the 
long run (Rakosy et al., 2022). 
 
Risk Perception

Table 3: Risk perception of  farmers 
Perceptions question Total participants = 243 

Yes No
Do you think your soil fertility is 
decreased? 

Significantly Moderately Slightly No category Total Yes
4 10 45 2 61 182

Percentage (%) 25.1  74.9
Do you think your crop productivity is 
decreased? 

4 9 42 2 56 187

Percentage (%) 23.1  76.9
Do you think grassland area is 
declining?

4 14 43 2 63 180

Percentage (%) 25.9  74.1
Do you think your farmland is at risk? 5 23 53 2 83 160
Percentage (%) 34.2 65.8
Do you think your grazing area is at 
risk? 

2 14 45 2 63 180

Percentage (%) 25.9  74.1
Do you note the erosion in your 
farmland or grassland? 

0 14 30 0 48 195

Percentage (%) 19.8  80.2



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The risk perception of  interviewed farmers was limited 
to their views on crop and grassland production and 
productivity concerning soil health conditions to crop 
and grassland production and productivity as the 
consequences of  their farming practices. The perceptions 
on soil fertility, erosion, crop production, grassland 
production and productivity in farmers’ view revealed no 
risk. In terms of  soil fertility, 75 % of  farmers mentioned 
soil fertility in healthy condition, while 25 % stated there 
are problems with soil fertility, but only slight risk to their 
crop and livestock production (Table 3). 
Most of  the interviewed farmers (77 % and 74 %) 
perceived no decline in their crop yield and grassland 
productivity but assumed their farmland and grassland 
conditions remained stable. They also confirmed their 
grassland and farmland are not at risk (66 % and 74 %) 
of  a decline its productivity over time. On the other 
hand, more than 80 % of  interviewed farmers argued no 
erosion has been noted in their farmland and grassland 
areas, although some eroded paths do exist in their areas, 
farmers perceived it as a natural process and confirmed 
that the existent erosion is not related to their farming 
practices. The risk perception of  farmers in Loes 
watershed is similar to a study by Rahman et al. (2022) 
in Bangladesh, various risk perceptions among farmers 
on infertile topsoil, deeper water level, soil erosion, 
water logging, land conversion and high precipitation 
were the major effects of  environmental degradation. In 
contrast, Tesfahunegn et al. (2021) found that in Ghana, 
the majority of  farmers perceived the risk as the cause of  
over-cultivation and deforestation as the consequences 
farmers faced risk to decline of  productivity, soil erosion, 
and soil loss from farmland.

The influence of  the local customary (Tara Bandu) 
on farming practice
To understand how farming practices; especially 
farming planning on the expansion of  farmland and 
land preparation, consider the Tara Bandu as a rule 
and guideline for land use in their villages. Thus, the 
influences were categorized into four such no influence at 
all, light influence, moderate influence, strong influence, 
and extreme influence.

Table 4: Influence of  Tara-Bandu to farming practices
Category Number of  farmers %
No influence at all 49 20
Light influence 73 30
Moderate influence 36 15
Strong influence 22 9
Extremely strong 
influence

63 26

Total 243 100

social conflict resolutions, and human relationships. Tara 
Bandu plays an important role in conservation, natural 
resource management, and regulating the relationship of  
human to nature, and human to human (Fodalgo-Castro, 
2023; Tobias et al., 2021; Ajroud et al., 2015). The Tara 
Bandu influences on farming practice choices vary among 
farmers. Twenty percent of  farmers stated no influence at 
all. However, 30 % recognized the Tara Bandu as one of  
the considerations as slightly influenced their planning to 
choice on what type of  farming practices, especially, to 
open new farmland in forest area. In addition, the Tara 
Bandu plays its role as local law and takes place in farmers’ 
planning processes as 9 % to 15 % or moderate to strong 
influence in their decision respectively. Furthermore, 26 
% of  farmers very strongly believe that Tara Bandu is 
the local rule which is very strong and used by farmers 
to make farming plans in their villages. This is consistent 
with to study of  Casquilho and Martins (2022) revealed 
that Tara Bandu is the bottom-up approach to land use, 
boundary management, and social rules that are efficient 
in managing natural resources and land use planning.

Farmer awareness of  conservation-related policies 
and their benefits
The policy awareness of  farmers was assessed by using 
top-five conservation laws in Timor-Leste by asking them 
do they are familiar with these laws. Most of  the farmers 
have no awareness of  conservation laws. In addition, how 
farmers rated the benefits of  the laws and policies on 
conservation and agriculture to their lives.
The percentage of  no awareness of  farmers indicated 
in respective laws; The laws are Timor-Leste National 
Forest Policy 2017 (3rd Objective is on watershed 
conservation (84 %); Law No. 13/2017 Special Regime 
for the Definition of  the Ownership of  Property (88 %); 
Decree/ Law No 26/2012 of  4 July 2012 on Environment 
Basic Law (77,8 %); Law N.º 5 / 2016 National System 
of  Protected Areas 74,5 %); Decree/ Law No 6/2020 
establishing the Legal Regime for the protection and 
conservation of  biodiversity (88 %). 
The existence of  law awareness by farmers and the local 
community is mostly low due to several factors. Law 
enforcement by local authorities and its effectiveness in 
addressing the conservation problems. In addition, the 
dissemination of  laws might affect law awareness by local 
people. According to Budiman et al. (2020), Institutional 
conflict impeded the dissemination of  existing laws and 
their uses in the community, in some way affecting the 
traditional knowledge and rules used to manage non-
timber products, grazing management, and prevent forest 
fires.
The perceptions of  farmers on the benefits of  
conservation policies to their lives. Farmers’ views 
on the benefits of  conservation policies in their lives 
are expressed in different categories: some of  them 
mentioned not all conservation policies give benefits to 
them, on the other hand, some farmers acknowledged the 
benefits of  some conservation policies produced by the 

The Tara Bandu is a traditional law recognized by the 
government of  Timor-Leste and used for addressing 
cultural rules of  natural resource uses and protections, 



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Table 5: Farmer awareness on the conservation and the benefits of  policies.
Variables Timor-Leste 

National Forest 
Policy 2017 
(3rd Objective 
is on watershed 
conservation)

Law No. 13/2017 
Special Regime for 
The Definition of  
The Ownership of  
Property. 

Decree/ Law 
No 26/2012 Of  
4 July 2012 on 
Environment 
Basic Law

Decree/ Law 
N.º 5 / 2016 
National System 
of  Protected 
Areas 

Decree/ Law No 
6/2020 establishing 
the Legal Regime 
for the protection 
and conservation of  
biodiversity 

n % n % n % n % n %
Laws & policies awareness
Aware 38 15.64 29 11.93 54 22.22 62 25.51 28 11.52
Not
aware

205 84.36 214 88,07 189 77.78 181 74.49 215 88.48

Standard
Deviati-
on

0.36  0.32  0.42  0.44  0.32  

Total 243 100 243 100 243 100 243 100 243 100
Laws & policies benefits’ perception
Benefited 43 17.7 19 7.8 41 16.9 43 17.7 22 9.1
Not
benefited 

200 82.3 224 92.2 202 83.1 200 82.3 221 90.9

Standard 
Deviation

0.72  0.27  0.38  0.38  0.29  

Total 243  243  243  243  243  

government. Thus, their perception of  getting benefits 
is separated into two categories; have been benefitted or 
have not. The percentage of  farmers who acknowledge 
the benefits of  conservation policies is less than 20 % 
as stated by each policy category: The laws are Timor-
Leste National Forest Policy 2017 (3rd Objective is on 
watershed conservation (17,7 %); Law No. 13/2017 
Special Regime for the Definition of  the Ownership of  
Property (7,8 %); Decree/ Law No 26/2012 of  4 July 
2012 on Environment Basic Law (16,9 %); Law N.º 5 
/ 2016 National System of  Protected Areas 17,7 %); 
Decree/ Law No 6/2020 establishing the Legal Regime 
for the protection and conservation of  biodiversity (9,1 
%). In addition, most farmers confirmed they have not 
benefitted from these policies yet.

Acceptance and willingness of  farmers to be advised 
on conservation farming
Two dominant farming practices, such as slash-and-burn 
and open grazing, were further explored to determine 
whether farmers agreed to change their actual farming 
practices to conservation farming. 
There are 52 % of  slash-and-burn farmers have shown 
their willingness to implement conservation farming 
and eventually leave their actual practices, however, 48 
% remain to keep their own experience as farmers for 
various reasons. The general reasons for rejecting other 
advice than slash and burn are the practice has been 
implemented since their ancestor’s time, they have not 
been trained yet on conservation and lack of  information 
from extension workers. In addition, farmers assumed 

that slash and burn is the only easy and cheaper method 
that can be done by poor farmers, while other methods 
require capital to invest and must be managed by educated 
people. In contrast, those who agreed to leave their actual 
practices stated that slash-and-burn damages soil and 
declining soil quality affects crop yield and loss of  grasses. 
Farmers have experienced soil erosion in farmland and 
landslides in some areas due to these practices, so they 
believe that adopting conservation farming would help 
them to avoid soil erosion, and increase soil fertility, 
and grassland productivity. However, some farmers 
confessed, that they agreed to the advice because of  
expected to receive some incentives and subsidies from 
the government.
The open-grazing farmers showed slightly different 
percentages when compared to the slash-and-burn 
farmers in terms of  accepting to be advised and 
willingness to do conservation farming. 36 % of  livestock 
farmers do not agree to leave open grazing practice due 
to establishing paddocks for livestock requires high cost 
and we don’t have enough resources to do this. Some of  
them mentioned, that adopting open grazing is better 
than paddock because in open areas livestock can easily 
find grass for themselves, while putting in the paddock 
we have to invest additional cost to build paddock, grow 
green fodder and hire people to feed and control. Some 
of  them stated due to a lack of  ability to manage their 
livestock, they prefer to leave the natural grow in an open 
area and take it to sell for urgent demand of  money in 
the family. However, there are 64 % of  livestock farmers 
who have been practicing open grazing welcome the 



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Figure 4: The acceptance and willingness of  farmers to be advised on conservation farming

semi-intensive livestock raising method or fully intensive 
livestock raising method. The fundamental reason area: 
the livestock is easy to control and manage so that the 
productivity and quality of  livestock increase, which 
elevates household income. Some of  them mentioned, 
that the advantages of  intensive care of  livestock to them 
are reducing social conflicts among farmers, in which 
livestock will not damage crops and farmland of  other 
farmers, it also helps farmers to address any diseases that 
could attack their livestock.

CONCLUSION
The study concluded that farmers’ perception of  
agroecological risk was classified as low risk on grassland 
and crop production. In addition, farmers weighing the 
risks were not based on the changes of  any biophysical 
components of  agroecology (soil, water, and topography) 
and perceived their actual farming practices have no 
relationship to the soil health and uncertainty of  crop 
and livestock production in their area. However, farmers 
blamed policy formulators ignored their local rules 
to engage them in conservation and natural resource 
management. Moreover, the lack of  village extension 
assistance was acknowledged by farmers as one of  
the factors causing them to adopt fewer conservation 
practices. The socioeconomic factors: low education 
level of  farmers and lack of  information access might 
influence farmers’ perceptions. This shall be considered 
a risk and must be addressed in an integrated way. Thus, 
it recommends delivering conservations and natural 
resource management based on economic and adult 
education approaches such as Sloping Agricultural Land 
Technology (SALT), Conservation Agriculture (CA) 
with no burn, minimum tillage, and integrating cover 
crops in farm management. Integrating local wisdom 
into innovation promotion and agriculture-related policy 
formulations by promoting Customary Law (Tara-Bandu) 
which is the local community is the initiator of  having 
rules and regulations to farm.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to acknowledge the Southeast Asian Regional 
Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture 
(SEARCA) for funding this study as part of  the PhD fully 
funded scholarship to Delfim da Costa as the grantee.

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