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American Journal of   
Environment and Climate (AJEC)

Drinking Water Quality, Usage Practices, and Waterborne Disease Incidence in 
Barangay Napsan, Puerto Princesa City, Philippines 

Princes Eunice Denosta1*

Volume 4 Issue 3, Year 2025
ISSN: 2832-403X (Online) 

DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i3.4723
https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec

Article Information ABSTRACT

Received: March 12, 2025

Accepted: April 17, 2025

Published: November 10, 2025

This study investigates the quality of  drinking water, water usage practices, and the incidence 
of  waterborne diseases in Barangay Napsan, Puerto Princesa City, Philippines, focusing on 
three representative sitios: Labtay, Manudoc, and Sto. Niño. Microbiological analysis of  
water sources, including groundwater and spring water, revealed that all six water sources 
were non-compliant with the Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water (PNSDW 
2017). High concentrations of  total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and Escherichia coli (E. 
coli) were detected, indicating significant microbial contamination. Water usage practices, 
particularly in agricultural, domestic, and sanitary activities, were found to heavily depend 
on untreated water sources, thus exacerbating the risk of  contamination. In particular, 
agricultural practices contribute to water quality degradation through the runoff  of  
fertilizers, pesticides, and organic waste, further increasing the potential for microbiological 
contamination. Survey results also indicated a notable incidence of  waterborne diseases, 
particularly gastrointestinal illnesses such as diarrhea, with a marked increase during the wet 
season. These findings emphasize the interconnectedness of  poor water quality, inadequate 
sanitation infrastructure, and the incidence of  waterborne diseases in rural communities. 
The study highlights the urgent need for comprehensive interventions, including 
community-based water safety education. Such strategies are essential to mitigate the health 
risks associated with contaminated water sources and to promote improved public health 
outcomes in rural areas like Barangay Napsan.

Keywords
Drinking Water Quality, 
Microbial Contamination, Rural 
Public Health, Water Usage 
Practices, Waterborne Diseases

1 Palawan State University Graduate School, Philippines
* Corresponding author’s e-mail: pedenosta@gmail.com

INTRODUCTION 
In recent years, many developing countries, including the 
Philippines, have prioritized reducing waterborne diseases 
and improving access to safe drinking water as critical 
public health goals. Although significant progress has 
been made, particularly in urban areas, rural and remote 
communities continue to face challenges in securing 
potable water. Exposure to contaminated water remains a 
significant risk factor for waterborne diseases, particularly 
in underserved regions (WHO, 2024).
Access to safe drinking water is a fundamental human right 
and a crucial component of  sustainable development. 
However, in many rural areas of  the Philippines, including 
Barangay Napsan, Puerto Princesa City, clean water 
remains scarce. Barangay Napsan consists of  nine sitios: 
Cabuyao, Kabuldungan, Labtay, Maambeng, Mabuhay, 
Manudoc, Pag-Asa, Pagkakaisa, and Sto. Niño. Among 
these, only Maambeng and Pagkakaisa receive potable 
water from the Puerto Princesa City Water District 
(PPCWD), leaving the rest of  the community reliant on 
untreated water sources.
The lack of  potable water has resulted in serious public 
health concerns. In 2023, the Puerto Princesa City 
Government recorded 308 cases of  waterborne diseases 
primarily gastrointestinal illnesses in Barangay Napsan, 
marking a three- to fourfoldthree-to-fourfold increase 
from previous years. As of  April 2024, an additional 
68 cases had already been reported, with projections 
indicating further increases.

This study aims to identify the drinking water sources 
commonly used in selected sitios and assess their 
microbiological quality. Additionally, it evaluates 
community practices related to water use, sanitation, 
and agriculture to determine potential contributors to 
waterborne disease incidence. The study also investigates 
the incidence of  waterborne diseases within the 
community, based on self-recorded data. The findings will 
provide insights to support water resource management 
strategies and inform potential interventions to enhance 
drinking water safety and reduce waterborne disease 
incidence in Barangay Napsan.

LITERATURE REVIEW
Sustainable Development Goals
The United Nations adopted the 2030 Agenda for 
Sustainable Development in 2015, establishing 17 
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) aimed at 
eliminating poverty, protecting the environment, and 
promoting inclusive economic growth (United Nations, 
2024). Among these, SDG 6: Clean Water and Sanitation 
focuses on ensuring access to safe water and sanitation. 
However, as of  2022, 2.2 billion people still lack safely 
managed drinking water, while 3.5 billion lack adequate 
sanitation, with climate change worsening water scarcity 
(United Nations, 2024).
Global progress on SDG 6 remains slow. From 2015 
to 2022, the proportion of  people with access to safely 
managed drinking water rose from 69% to 73%, while 



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sanitation access increased from 49% to 57%. Despite 
a 19% improvement in water-use efficiency (Target 
6.4), many regions still experience severe water stress. 
Meanwhile, wastewater treatment (Target 6.3) improved 
to 76%, yet pollution continues to degrade water quality. 
Efforts in integrated water resource management (Target 
6.5) remain insufficient, with only 43 out of  153 countries 
having operational transboundary agreements (United 
Nations, 2022).
In the Philippines, progress toward SDG 6 is notable 
but requires acceleration. Access to basic drinking water 
(Target 6.1) improved from 90.8% in 2017 to 96.3% 
in 2022, while sanitation access (Target 6.2) increased 
from 73.7% to 84.0% (PSA, 2023). Water quality (Target 
6.3) improved, with monitored water bodies meeting 
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) standards rising 
from 37.0% to 70.0%. Freshwater withdrawals (Target 
6.4) declined, while water-use efficiency increased. The 
implementation of  integrated water resource management 
(Target 6.5) advanced, with river basin master plans 
updated for 48.6% of  major basins (PSA, 2023).
Despite these gains, challenges persist, particularly in 
water-stressed regions and underserved communities, 
including rural barangays like Napsan in Puerto Princesa. 
Strengthening national policies, increasing investments, 
and enhancing local implementation efforts will be critical 
to achieving SDG 6 by 2030.

Water Drinking Sources
Water is essential for daily life, yet only 0.3% of  global 
water resources are usable (Kilic, 2020). It supports food 
production, ecosystems, and various human activities, 
with major consumption in agriculture, industry, and 
energy production (CDC, 2024).
The Philippines has abundant water resources, comprising 
421 river basins, 72 lakes, and extensive groundwater 
reserves (FAO, 2010). Palawan, the country’s largest 
province, hosts numerous water bodies, including 15 lakes, 
72 springs, and 165 creeks (Palawan Philippines, 2024). 
Puerto Princesa City, with 115,610 hectares of  watershed 
areas, has five major river basins and six medium-sized 
ones. The Irawan watershed, though covering only 3% 
of  the total catchment area, serves as the city’s primary 
water source.
Barangay Napsan, a remote coastal community, relies on 
surface water, deep wells, and rainwater harvesting for 
drinking and domestic use. However, seasonal changes, 
watershed integrity, and the absence of  centralized 
water treatment pose risks to water safety. Given these 
challenges, regular water quality assessments are essential 
to ensure the provision of  safe and potable water.

Water Quality and Water Quality Standards
Water quality refers to the suitability of  water for various 
uses, determined by physical, chemical, and biological 
characteristics (Bartram & Ballance, 2024). Drinking water 
must meet strict limits on toxic substances, while water 
supporting aquatic life requires appropriate temperature 

and pH levels. Natural factors such as geology, hydrology, 
and climate significantly influence water quality, 
particularly in regions where water resources are scarce 
(Bartram & Ballance, 2024).
Water quality standards establish guidelines to protect 
designated water uses. The World Health Organization 
(WHO, 2011) emphasizes that drinking water quality 
is crucial for preventing waterborne diseases. In the 
Philippines, the Department of  Health (DOH) developed 
the Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water 
(PNSDW), last updated in 2017, to ensure safe drinking 
water.
The PNSDW categorizes water quality parameters into 
mandatory, primary, and secondary groups. The ten 
mandatory parameters, including E. coli, arsenic, lead, 
nitrate, and pH, must be tested nationwide. Fifty-five 
primary parameters address site-specific risks, while 
eleven secondary parameters focus on aesthetic quality 
and operational aspects. The updated PNSDW also 
includes provisions for reporting, emergency drinking-
water parameters, and Sustainable Development Goal 
(SDG) standards (Lomboy et al., 2017). These updates 
enhance monitoring and ensure the continued safety of  
drinking water in the country.

Water Analysis and Public Health
Understanding the factors influencing drinking water 
quality is essential for effective water management and 
public health protection. Water quality is affected by 
the source of  water, treatment processes, distribution 
systems, and storage materials (Sheili et al., 2015). In rural 
areas, communities often rely on untreated wells, rivers, 
or lakes, increasing the risk of  contamination. Monitoring 
water quality is crucial to ensuring safety and preventing 
waterborne diseases. Reliable water analysis methods are 
necessary for informed decision-making and sustainable 
management.
Several studies have assessed water quality and its 
relationship to health. Cayabo et al. (2021) analyzed 
surface water samples in Bacuit Bay, revealing high 
coliform contamination in 2018, with nine out of  11 
stations exceeding acceptable levels. Pathogenic bacteria, 
including Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and 
Vibrio cholerae, were also detected. Similarly, Consad 
(2016) assessed water sources and home-based treatment 
in Community-Based Sustainable Tourism (CBST) sites in 
Puerto Princesa. Water tests showed high total and fecal 
coliform levels, with contaminants exceeding Philippine 
National Standards for Drinking Water (PNSDW). While 
biosand filtration was practiced in some areas, many 
residents lacked effective water treatment, leading to 
health risks.
For Barangay Napsan, preliminary studies have reported 
similar challenges, with households depending on 
untreated surface and groundwater sources. Waterborne 
disease incidence, particularly cases of  diarrhea and 
gastrointestinal infections, has been noted in community 
health records (Puerto Princesa City Health Office, 



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2024). Strengthening community-based water treatment 
initiatives and infrastructure investment is critical to 
improving public health outcomes.
The literature underscores the importance of  safe 
drinking water in achieving SDG 6, maintaining public 
health, and supporting economic development. While 
significant progress has been made in the Philippines, 
rural areas like Barangay Napsan still face challenges in 
water quality and accessibility. Strengthening monitoring 
efforts, implementing localized treatment solutions, and 
considering economic valuation approaches will be vital 
in addressing these gaps and ensuring long-term water 
security in the community.

Community Water Usage Practices and Water Quality
Water usage practices in communities play a vital role in 
determining the overall quality of  drinking water, which 
can directly impact public health. In rural settings like 
Barangay Napsan, Puerto Princesa City, water is used 
for various purposes, including agricultural, sanitary, and 
domestic activities. Each of  these categories of  water use 
has distinct implications for water quality, which in turn 
affects the incidence of  waterborne diseases.
Agricultural practices are a major component of  water 
use in rural communities. Water used for irrigation 
and livestock often comes from surface water sources 
like rivers, lakes, and springs, which are susceptible to 
contamination from agricultural runoff. Studies have 
shown that improper irrigation methods, such as flood 
irrigation, can contribute to the contamination of  water 
by fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides (Barrett et al., 
2015). These contaminants, if  not properly managed, 
can lead to the deterioration of  water quality in nearby 
water sources. In Barangay Napsan, where agriculture is 
an important livelihood activity, runoff  from agricultural 
fields may carry harmful chemicals and pathogens into 
local water bodies, potentially impacting the safety of  
drinking water.
Sanitation practices, including wastewater disposal and 
sewage systems, significantly affect water quality. In many 
rural areas, where centralized wastewater treatment systems 
are not available, improper sanitation practices—such as 
open defecation, inadequate septic systems, or unregulated 
waste disposal—can lead to direct contamination of  
surface and groundwater sources. According to Fattal et al. 
(2017), contamination from fecal matter is a leading cause 
of  waterborne diseases, including cholera and dysentery. In 
Barangay Napsan, communities that lack proper sanitation 
infrastructure may experience higher levels of  fecal 
contamination in their water sources, which could increase 
the prevalence of  waterborne diseases. Furthermore, 
untreated wastewater can introduce harmful pathogens 
such as Escherichia coli and Salmonella into drinking water, 
posing significant health risks.
Domestic water use refers to the water consumed for 
daily household activities such as drinking, cooking, 
bathing, and cleaning. In many rural communities like 
Barangay Napsan, residents rely on untreated water 

from rivers, wells, and other natural sources. While these 
water sources are essential for survival, they are often 
vulnerable to contamination from surrounding activities, 
including agriculture and sanitation practices. The lack 
of  access to treated water and reliable filtration systems 
means that waterborne diseases, including diarrhea and 
gastrointestinal infections, remain a persistent problem 
in these communities (Zhang et al., 2019). In Barangay 
Napsan, the use of  untreated water in households is a 
major concern for water quality and public health.
Research has shown that untreated water, particularly when 
stored improperly or exposed to contamination sources, 
may harbor harmful microorganisms and chemicals that 
pose health risks (He et al., 2020). In areas where water 
treatment methods are limited, the risk of  contamination 
is heightened, and the community’s exposure to unsafe 
drinking water increases. In some cases, households use 
simple filtration methods like biosand filters, which can 
be effective in improving water quality, but these systems 
often require regular maintenance and may not eliminate 
all contaminants (Consad, 2016).
Water usage practices in agricultural, sanitary, and 
domestic contexts significantly influence water quality 
in Barangay Napsan. Agricultural runoff, inadequate 
sanitation systems, and reliance on untreated water 
sources all contribute to the degradation of  water 
quality, leading to increased risks of  waterborne diseases. 
Addressing these issues requires a multifaceted approach, 
including improved water treatment technologies, better 
sanitation infrastructure, and sustainable agricultural 
practices. Understanding the relationship between water 
usage practices and water quality is crucial for developing 
effective water management strategies that can enhance 
public health and ensure access to safe drinking water in 
Barangay Napsan.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Research Area
The study was conducted in Barangay Napsan, Puerto 
Princesa City, the largest city in the Philippines by land 
area, covering 253,982 hectares in the MIMAROPA 
Region. Despite being a highly urbanized city, only 5.79% 
(14,716 ha) of  its land is designated for urban barangays, 
while 94.21% (239,266 ha) consists of  rural areas. The 
city comprises 66 barangays, with 35 classified as urban—
including San Jose, San Pedro, and Tiniguiban—and 31 
as rural, such as Bagong Bayan, Simpocan, and Napsan.
Barangay Napsan is located at approximately 9.7179°N, 
118.4591°E, with an elevation of  28.3 meters (92.8 
feet) above sea level. As of  2024, it had a population of  
3,277 distributed across 927 households, according to 
the Barangay Napsan Health Worker census. Along with 
Bahile, Bacungan, Langogan, Cabayugan, Marufinas, 
and Binduyan, Napsan is among the largest flatland 
areas in Puerto Princesa, with a slope range of  0–3%. 
It is bordered by the barangays of  Bagong Bayan and 
Montible within Puerto Princesa and by Aporawan and 
Sagpangan in Aborlan, Palawan.



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This study focused on three selected sitios in Napsan: 
Sitio Labtay, Sitio Manudoc, and Sitio Sto. Niño. These 
areas are not serviced by the Puerto Princesa City Water 
District (PPCWD), leaving residents dependent on 
alternative water sources. The sitios are inhabited by both 
Indigenous Peoples (IP), particularly the Tagbanua tribe, 
and non-indigenous groups.
The study focused on three (3) selected sitios in Barangay 
Napsan, Puerto Princesa City, Palawan, chosen for 
its limited access to water treatment facilities, high 
population, and site location. The target sites for water 
sampling stations were selected based on the following 
criteria: 1) Presence of  a local community; 2) Serving 
as a source of  drinking water and domestic use; 3) 
Located within the community’s vicinity. A total of  six (6) 
identified drinking water sources, with two sources per 
sitio subjected to microbiological assessment. Sampling 
was conducted between 08:00 AM and 12:00 PM. For 
microbiological analysis, a 350 mL water sample was 
collected in duplicate through direct scooping. The 
samples were obtained from a depth of  approximately one 
foot below the water surface, transferred into sterilized 
bottles, and immediately stored in a cooler to maintain 
sample integrity. The samples were then transported to 
the Department of  Science and Technology–Mindoro, 
Marinduque, Romblon, and Palawan Regional Standards 
and Testing Laboratory (DOST-MIMAROPA RSTL) in 
Puerto Princesa City, with a holding time of  4 to 7 hours 
before analysis.
Microbiological assessment was performed using the 
Multiple-Tube Fermentation Technique to estimate the 
densities of  fecal coliforms, Escherichia coli (E. coli), and 
total coliforms, expressed in most probable number 

(MPN) per 100 mL. Additionally, the Pour Plate Method 
was employed to determine the Heterotrophic Plate 
Count (HPC). The results were subsequently compared 
against the threshold values established by the Philippine 
National Standards for Drinking Water (PNSDW) 
2017 to evaluate compliance with national water quality 
standards.

Survey Interviews
The study used purposive sampling to select respondents 
based on predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. 
Vulnerable groups, including pregnant women, persons 
with disabilities, minors, and the elderly, were excluded. 
Indigenous Peoples (IPs) could participate voluntarily, 
with the assurance that their Indigenous Knowledge 
Systems and Practices (IKSP) would not be involved 
or influenced by the study. A total of  105 household 
heads were interviewed, 35 each sitios. Only household 
heads aged 18 and above, who had resided in the area 
for at least one year, and were primary consumers of  
local water sources, were included. The study utilized 
custom-designed questionnaires to gather data on water 
usage practices (agricultural, domestic, sanitary) and 
health-related issues associated with drinking water 
contamination. The instrument consisted of  closed-
ended questions to facilitate quantitative analysis 
and capture diverse respondent perspectives. The 
questionnaire prioritized clarity, fairness, and unbiased 
language, with pilot testing and expert validation to 
ensure the reliability and validity of  the data. Additionally, 
the researcher secured ethical clearance from the Palawan 
State University Research Ethics Committee prior to 
conducting the study.

Figure 1: Base Map of  Barangay Napsan, Puerto Princesa City and Nearby Areas



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Statistical Analysis
Data collected from water sampling and survey interviews 
were analyzed as follows. For the water sampling data, 
microbiological parameters such as fecal coliforms, 
Escherichia coli (E. coli), total coliforms, and Heterotrophic 
Plate Count (HPC) values were quantified using the 
Most Probable Number (MPN) per 100 mL. Descriptive 
statistics were applied to summarize the water quality 
levels for each parameter across different sites. The results 

were compared with the threshold values established by 
the Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water 
(PNSDW 2017) to assess compliance with national water 
quality standards.
For the survey interview data, descriptive statistics, 
including frequency distributions, percentages, and 
measures of  central tendency (mean, median), were used 
to summarize water usage practices and health-related 
issues associated with drinking water contamination.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Access to safe drinking water is a critical determinant of  
public health, especially in rural areas where waterborne 
diseases are prevalent due to inadequate sanitation and 
water treatment infrastructure. Barangay Napsan in 
Puerto Princesa City, Palawan, is an underserved area 
that relies on local water sources such as groundwater 
and spring water, which are often contaminated. This 
study assessed the microbiological quality of  drinking 
water in three selected sitios—Labtay, Manudoc, and Sto. 
Niño—and investigated the incidence of  waterborne 
diseases in the community. By analyzing the water quality 
and its associated health risks, this research provides 
valuable insights into the current state of  water resources 

and public health in Barangay Napsan, with the goal of  
informing water management strategies and improving 
health outcomes for its residents.
The microbiological quality of  drinking water sources in 
Barangay Napsan reveals concerning results regarding 
water safety. As presented in Table 1., all six water sources, 
regardless of  the type (groundwater or spring water), 
failed to meet the Philippine National Standards for 
Drinking Water (PNSDW 2017), particularly concerning 
total coliforms, thermotolerant (fecal) coliforms, and E. 
coli levels. These indicators are essential for assessing the 
safety of  drinking water and are directly linked to the 
potential for waterborne diseases.
Source A and Source B, both located in Sitio Manudoc, 

Table 1: Microbiological Quality Status of  Drinking Water Sources in Three (3) Selected Sitios of  Barangay 
Napsan, Puerto Princesa City, Philippines
Water Sources Heterotrophic Plate 

Count, CFU/ML
Total Coliform, 
MPN/100 ml

Thermotolerant 
(Fecal) Coliform, 
MPN/100 ml

E.coli
MPN/100 
ml

Overall 
Status

Source A – 
Ground Water 
(Sitio Manudoc)

410 >8.0 >8.0 4.6 Failed

Source B – Spring 
Water (Sitio 
Manudoc)

66 >8.0 >8.0 >8.0 Failed

Source C – Spring 
Water (Sitio 
Labtay)

960 >8.0 >8.0 >8.0 Failed

Source D – 
Ground Water 
(Sitio Labtay)

78 >8.0 8.0 <1.1 Failed

Source E – 
Ground Water 
(Sitio Sto. Niño)

32 >8.0 2.6 <1.1 Failed

Source F – 
Ground Water 
(Sitio Sto. Niño)

570 >8.0 <1.1 <1.1 Failed

Standard Value: 
Philippine 
National 
Standards for 
Drinking Water 
2017

<500 <1.1 <1.1 <1.1 Passed



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contamination of  these water sources, likely originating 
from human or animal waste, highlighting a major public 
health concern. Similarly, Source C and Source D in Sitio 
Labtay, and Source E and Source F in Sitio Sto. Niño, 
all exhibited contamination levels above acceptable limits. 
For instance, Source C had a Heterotrophic Plate Count 
(HPC) as high as 960 CFU/mL, further emphasizing 
the severity of  microbial contamination. These results 
underscore the lack of  effective water treatment processes 
and proper sanitation systems in the studied sitios.
The failure of  these water sources to meet national water 
quality standards suggests that waterborne diseases, such 
as diarrhea and other gastrointestinal diseases, could 
be prevalent in these areas, especially during the rainy 
season when contamination risks are heightened. This is 
consistent with findings from similar studies, which have 
shown that water sources in rural and peri-urban areas 
in developing countries often exceed microbiological 

contamination limits due to inadequate sanitation 
practices and lack of  access to potable water treatment. 
A systematic review by Cronk and Bartram (2018) titled 
Fecal contamination of  drinking-water in low- and 
middle-income countries: A systematic review and meta-
analysis discusses the prevalence of  fecal contamination in 
drinking water sources and its association with health risks 
in developing countries. Additionally, a study by Clasen et 
al. (2015) titled Household drinking water in developing 
countries: A systematic review of  microbiological 
contamination between source and point-of-use examines 
how water quality declines after collection, highlighting 
the impact of  sanitation practices on water safety. The 
widespread contamination across all the water sources in 
Barangay Napsan further highlights the need for urgent 
interventions to improve water quality, including the 
installation of  proper filtration and disinfection systems, 
as well as the enforcement of  sanitation policies.

Figure 2: Main Drinking Water Sources of  Households in Selected Sitio Labtay

The primary drinking water sources in Sitio Labtay 
are groundwater and spring water, both of  which are 
frequently used by the households in the area (Figure 2.). 
Water quality testing for these sources revealed concerning 
results, with all tested sources exceeding the allowable 
limits for microbial contaminants as per the Philippine 
National Standards for Drinking Water (PNSDW 
2017). The Heterotrophic Plate Count (HPC) values for 
water samples from both the groundwater and spring 

sources were found to be significantly high, particularly 
from Source C (960 CFU/mL), indicating microbial 
contamination (Table 1.). Similarly, both total coliform 
and fecal coliforms exceeded the standard thresholds of  
<1.1 MPN/100 mL, marking the sources as unsafe for 
consumption. These findings align with those of  Aquino 
et al. (2020), who observed that rural water sources in 
the Philippines often failed to meet the national drinking 
water standards, resulting in public health risks.

Table 2: Household’s Self-Reported Waterborne Diseases in Barangay Napsan, Puerto Princesa City (n=30)
Waterborne Diseases Frequency of  

Households 
Reporting (n=30)

Percentage 
of  Total (%)

Frequency of  
Occurrence 
(per year)

Seasonality (Wet/
Dry)

Diarrhea 11 93.33% 1-3 times Wet Season: 30.00%,
Dry Season: 6.67%

Cholera 0 0.00% N/A N/A
Dysentery 0 0.00% N/A N/A
Typhoid fever 0 0.00% N/A N/A



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In terms of  health, households in Sitio Labtay reported 
a high incidence of  waterborne diseases, with diarrhea 
being the most common illness (93.33% of  affected 
households, Table 2). This trend is consistent with 
studies by Dela Cruz et al. (2018), who found a significant 
correlation between microbial contamination in drinking 
water and the prevalence of  gastrointestinal diseases in 
rural Filipino communities. Notably, diarrhea was more 
prevalent during the wet season, which may be linked 
to increased runoff  and contamination of  surface water 
sources (Bautista et al., 2021).
The data from Sitio Labtay illustrates the critical 
challenges faced by households in the area. Groundwater 
and spring water, which serve as primary drinking 
sources, were found to exceed the microbiological limits 

set by the Philippine National Standards for Drinking 
Water (PNSDW 2017). The high Heterotrophic Plate 
Count (HPC) values and elevated levels of  total 
coliform and fecal coliforms from these sources 
(Table 1) confirm the unsafe water quality, which is 
consistent with Aquino et al. (2020) and other studies 
on rural water contamination in the Philippines. The 
widespread prevalence of  diarrhea, particularly during 
the wet season (93.33% of  affected households), further 
highlights the direct impact of  poor water quality 
on public health. This seasonal variability in disease 
occurrence, likely linked to increased runoff  during the 
wet season, mirrors findings from Bautista et al. (2021), 
underscoring the seasonal exacerbation of  waterborne 
diseases in rural communities.

Hepatitis A 0 0.00% N/A N/A
Others 0 0.00% N/A N/A
Total Affected Household 11 36.67 % - -

Figure 3: Main Drinking Water Sources of  Households in Sitio Manudoc

In Sitio Manudoc, the primary drinking water sources are 
groundwater and spring water (Figure 3). Microbiological 
testing revealed high contamination levels, with Source 
A (groundwater) showing a Heterotrophic Plate Count 
(HPC) value of  410 CFU/mL and Source B (spring water) 
exhibiting particularly alarming results of  >8.0 MPN/100 
mL for both total coliform and fecal coliforms (Table 1). 
The presence of  Escherichia coli (E. coli) in both sources 
further indicates potential fecal contamination, rendering 
these water sources unsuitable for drinking.

This finding aligns with research highlighting the 
risks associated with untreated water sources in the 
Philippines. For instance, a study by Onichandran et al. 
(2014) investigated waterborne parasites in various water 
sources across the Philippines, detecting pathogens such 
as Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia spp., Acanthamoeba spp., and 
Naegleria spp. in samples from rivers, ponds, and other 
sources. The study emphasized the need for improved 
water quality monitoring and sanitation practices to 
mitigate health risks associated with waterborne pathogens.

Table 3: Household’s Self-Reported Waterborne Diseases in Barangay Napsan, Puerto Princesa City (n=30)
Waterborne Diseases Frequency of  

Households 
Reporting (n=30)

Percentage of  
Total (%)

Frequency of  
Occurrence (per 
year)

Seasonality (Wet/
Dry)

Diarrhea 7 23.33% 1-3 times Wet Season: 16.67%, 
Dry Season: 6.67%

Cholera 0 0.00% N/A N/A



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In Sitio Manudoc, 30% of  households reported cases of  
diarrhea (Table 3). Similar to Sitio Labtay, the incidence 
of  diarrhea increased during the wet season, likely due to 
heightened runoff  and contamination of  surface water 
sources.
These observations align with studies highlighting 
seasonal variations in water quality and their impact on 
public health. For example, research on the Gudlavalleru 

Engineering College Pond in Andhra Pradesh, India, 
examined the seasonal variations in physicochemical 
parameters and their effects on water quality. The study 
found significant differences in parameters such as 
temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen between summer 
and winter seasons, which can influence the overall health 
of  aquatic ecosystems.
In Sitio Sto. Niño, the primary drinking water sources 

Figure 4: Main Drinking Water Sources of  Households in Sitio Sto. Niño

Table 4: Household’s Self-Reported Waterborne Diseases in Barangay Napsan, Puerto Princesa City (n=30)
Waterborne Diseases Frequency of  

Households 
Reporting (n=30)

Percentage 
of  Total (%)

Frequency of  
Occurrence 
(per year)

Seasonality (Wet/
Dry)

Diarrhea 9 30.00% 1-3 times Wet Season: 30.00%, 
Dry Season: 0.00%

Cholera 0 0.00% N/A N/A
Dysentery 0 0.00% N/A N/A
Typhoid fever 0 0.00% N/A N/A
Hepatitis A 0 0.00% N/A N/A
Others 0 0.00% N/A N/A
Total Affected Household 30.00% - -

Dysentery 0 0.00% N/A N/A
Typhoid fever 0 0.00% N/A N/A
Hepatitis A 0 0.00% N/A N/A
Others 2 6.67% Once Wet Season: 0.00%, 

Dry Season: 6.67%
Total Affected Household 9 30.00% - -

are groundwater (Sources E and F). Microbiological 
testing revealed high contamination levels, with Source E 
showing a Heterotrophic Plate Count (HPC) value of  32 
CFU/mL and Source F exhibiting 570 CFU/mL (Table 
1). Both sources failed to meet the Philippine National 
Standards for Drinking Water (PNSDW) for total 

coliform and fecal coliforms, highlighting the widespread 
issue of  microbial contamination in rural drinking water 
sources. The detection of  Escherichia coli (E. coli) in these 
sources further confirms fecal contamination, consistent 
with findings from previous studies in the Philippines.
Health-wise, diarrhea was again the most commonly 



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Am. J. Environ. Clim. 4(3) 100-110, 2025

reported waterborne disease in Sitio Sto. Niño, with 30% 
of  households affected (Table 3.3). The seasonality of  
diarrhea in this sitio also followed a similar pattern to the 
other two sitios, with a notable increase in the wet season. 
This is consistent with the results of  a study by Diaz et 
al. (2022), which indicated that seasonal factors like rainfall 
significantly influence the contamination levels of  water 
sources and, in turn, the prevalence of  waterborne diseases.
Given the high reliance on these water sources for 
agricultural, domestic, and sanitary practices, as shown 

in Table 2, the contamination issue becomes even more 
critical. In Barangay Napsan, the majority of  households 
engage in agricultural activities, with Sitio Sto. Niño having 
the highest participation at 96.67%. As water is integral 
to both farming and basic domestic needs, ensuring that 
water used for these activities is safe is essential not only 
for health but also for food security. However, as indicated 
in the table, the contamination risks posed by agricultural 
runoff, coupled with the failure of  water sources to meet 
safety standards, exacerbate the already dire situation.

Table 5: Percentage of  Households Engaged in Agricultural, Domestic, and Sanitary Water Practices by Selected 
Sitios in Barangay Napsan
Name of  Sitios Agricultural Practices (%) Domestic Practices (%) Sanitary Practices (%)
Sitio Labtay 56.67 % 100.00 % 100.00 %
Sitio Manudoc 86.67 % 100.00 % 100.00 %
Sitio Sto. Niño 96.67 % 100.00 % 100.00 %
Mean 80.00 100.00 % 100.00 %

Water-intensive activities, particularly agriculture, can 
significantly affect water quality through the runoff  
of  fertilizers, pesticides, and waste products, further 
compounding the microbiological contamination of  
the water sources (Liu et al., 2020). This is especially 
concerning in areas like Barangay Napsan, where the 
contamination of  water sources for both drinking and 
agricultural use is widespread. The heavy reliance on 
potentially contaminated water in these regions increases 
the risk of  waterborne diseases and compromises the 
health and well-being of  the population.
In light of  the findings from the three sitios in Barangay 
Napsan, it becomes evident that a multifaceted 
approach—integrating both water quality improvement 
and community-level practices—is paramount to 
mitigating the public health risks associated with 
contaminated drinking water. The pervasive microbial 
contamination across all sites—Labtay, Manudoc, 
and Sto. Niño—necessitates urgent intervention to 
safeguard public health. As underscored by Mertens and 
de Vos (2019), enhancing the safety of  water sources is 
fundamental for both domestic and agricultural purposes. 
Strengthening water treatment infrastructure, coupled 
with the implementation of  comprehensive sanitation 
measures, will be crucial in reducing contamination levels 
and mitigating the public health risks posed by waterborne 
diseases, particularly diarrheal diseases.
The findings from all three sitios Labtay, Manudoc, 
and Sto. Niño clearly illustrate a failure to meet the 
microbiological criteria set forth by the Philippine 
National Standards for Drinking Water (PNSDW 2017). 
Elevated levels of  fecal coliforms, total coliforms, and E. 
coli across all water sources underscore the critical need 
for enhanced water treatment protocols. These results 
align with existing literature on rural water quality issues 
in the Philippines, as documented by Bautista et al. (2021) 
and Cordova et al. (2018), which highlight the vulnerability 
of  rural communities dependent on untreated natural 

water sources. This failure to meet water quality standards 
underscores the necessity for urgent infrastructural 
improvements to mitigate public health risks.
Furthermore, the strong correlation observed between 
poor water quality and the incidence of  waterborne 
diseases, particularly diarrhea, is consistent with previous 
studies that have established a direct link between 
contaminated water and gastrointestinal illnesses in 
rural populations (Santos et al., 2019). The seasonal 
variation in disease incidence further amplifies the role 
of  environmental factors in shaping the epidemiology of  
waterborne diseases, as noted by Dela Cruz et al. (2018) 
and Tan et al. (2020). This seasonal fluctuation highlights 
the need for dynamic, context-specific strategies to 
address the impacts of  environmental variables on water 
safety and public health outcomes.
To mitigate these risks, it is imperative to implement 
robust water treatment solutions, such as chlorination, 
filtration, and consistent water quality monitoring, 
alongside improving sanitation infrastructure. 
Moreover, community engagement through educational 
initiatives on safe water handling and hygiene practices 
is essential to further reduce the transmission of  
waterborne pathogens. Given the persistent and 
widespread nature of  water contamination in rural 
communities, there is an urgent need for both 
governmental and non-governmental organizations 
to prioritize investments in rural water infrastructure 
and sanitation programs. Such efforts are crucial in 
providing sustainable, long-term solutions to improve 
water quality and public health, particularly in areas like 
Barangay Napsan, where access to safe drinking water 
remains a critical challenge.
This approach not only emphasizes the need for 
infrastructural upgrades but also advocates for a holistic, 
community-driven strategy to tackle the persistent water 
quality issues that continue to affect rural populations in 
the Philippines.



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Am. J. Environ. Clim. 4(3) 100-110, 2025

CONCLUSION
This study highlights serious public health risks associated 
with unsafe drinking water in Barangay Napsan, Puerto 
Princesa City. All six water sources tested failed to meet 
the microbiological standards set by the PNSDW (2017), 
showing high levels of  total coliforms, fecal coliforms, 
and E. coli. These contaminants likely stem from human 
and animal waste, particularly affecting groundwater 
and spring water sources used by households. The high 
incidence of  diarrhea, especially during the wet season, 
aligns with microbial contamination levels, confirming 
a direct link between poor water quality and waterborne 
diseases. The findings underscore the urgent need for 
improved water treatment infrastructure, regular water 
quality monitoring, and better sanitation practices. 
Community education on safe water handling and hygiene 
is also crucial in reducing health risks. Addressing these 
concerns through coordinated infrastructural, policy, and 
community-driven actions is essential to protect public 
health and ensure access to safe drinking water in rural 
areas like Barangay Napsan.

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