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American Journal of   
Environment and Climate (AJEC)

Integrating Water Treatment and Air Quality Improvement for a Healthier Bangladesh
Abu Bakor Siddique Patwary1*, Md. Abir Hasan1, Most. Nishat Tabassum1, Md. Atik Yasir1, Md. Mohibullah1

Volume 4 Issue 3, Year 2025
ISSN: 2832-403X (Online) 

DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i3.5946
https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec

Article Information ABSTRACT

Received: August 18, 2025

Accepted: September 21, 2025

Published: October 11, 2025

Bangladesh is among the most densely populated and climate-vulnerable countries in the 
world, where water quality degradation and air pollution are having a profound impact on 
public health. This study presents an integrated environmental management framework, 
which proposes the implementation of  water and air quality improvement initiatives in 
harmony with the socio-economic realities of  the country. Lab-based water and air quality 
testing, health impact assessment and GIS-based mapping have been completed under 
the mixed-methods approach. The results showed that the maximum arsenic level in 
the groundwater was 0.08 mg/L, which is much above the WHO standard (0.01 mg/L). 
Microbiological contamination in water (20–50 CFU/100 ml) is a health hazard in both 
urban and rural areas. In terms of  air pollution, the concentration of  PM₂.₅ in Dhaka is 
120–180 µg/m³, which is 5–7 times higher than the WHO standard, and PM₂.₅ reaches an 
average of  350 µg/m³ in rural kitchens. The health assessment showed a 30% reduction 
in child diarrhea in households using water purification systems and a 25% reduction in 
respiratory diseases in households using improved cookstoves. Most importantly, where 
concerted action to improve water and air quality has been taken together, improvements 
in public health have been seen significantly. In conclusion, isolated initiatives to improve 
water or air quality are not sufficient. Integrated environmental management through policy 
reforms, technical interventions and community-based participation is essential to achieve 
effective results, which can be a viable model not only for Bangladesh but also for other 
developing countries.

Keywords
Bangladesh, Integrated 
Environmental Management, 
Water Quality, Air Pollution, 
Public Health, PM2.5 Exposure

1 Department of  Civil Engineering, Bangladesh University of  Business & Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
* Corresponding author’s e-mail: abubsp@yahoo.com

INTRODUCTION
Bangladesh is one of  the most densely populated 
and climate-vulnerable countries in the world, where 
environmental crises are intensifying due to rapid 
urbanization, industrialization, and population growth 
(Arifeen et al., 2021; Hossain et al., 2024). Degradation 
of  water quality and air pollution in particular are now a 
two-pronged threat, with long-lasting impacts including 
public health, environmental issues, and economic 
factors. According to a recent report by the World Health 
Organization (WHO), the levels of  PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀ 
in Dhaka and other major cities are many times higher 
than the international safe limits (Begum & Hopke, 2019; 
Faisal Ahmed et al., 2024; Hoque et al., 2025; Islam et al., 
2020; Kumar et al., 2024; Rahman et al., 2024). At the same 
time, many rivers, lakes, and groundwater sources in the 
country are contaminated by industrial waste, agricultural 
chemical runoff, arsenic, and microbes. Water and air 
issues have generally been treated separately in the past 
to address this crisis. However, the reality is that these 
two fields are deeply interrelated. For example, industrial 
emissions simultaneously release particles into the 
atmosphere and degrade water quality through polluted 
rain; Burning of  agricultural wastes increases air pollution 
on the one hand, and leaches chemicals into surface 
water and groundwater (Liang et al., 2024; Pan et al., 2021; 
Quddoos et al., 2024). Therefore, an integrated framework 
is needed to effectively address this problem, which 
simultaneously targets water and air quality improvement. 

The primary aim of  the research is to propose an 
amalgamated environmental administration framework in 
line with the social, economic, and technological realities 
of  Bangladesh, which will advance water treatment 
and air quality improvement activities in a coordinated 
manner. First, the present state of  water and air pollution 
in the nation will be analyzed. The possibility of  technical 
solutions in both cases will be verified. Policy reforms 
will be outlined, and the public health and environmental 
impact of  these steps will be assessed.
Current methods for water treatment in Bangladesh 
include coagulation-filtration, activated alumina, iron 
oxide adsorption, and ion exchange, which are particularly 
effective in removing arsenic and heavy metals. Still, they 
are expensive, maintenance-dependent, and limited in 
rural areas. Recent studies have indicated that the levels 
of  microplastics, antibiotic residues, and pesticides in 
water are at alarming levels in many parts of  the country. 
On the other hand, brick kilns, automobiles, industrial 
plants, and construction activities have been identified as 
significant sources of  air pollution. Mitra and Czajkowski 
(2025) demonstrated that PM₂.₅ pollution is highest in 
urban areas of  Bangladesh during winter, with hotspots 
identified in Dhaka and Chittagong, and coldspots in 
Sylhet and Rangpur (Mitra & Czajkowski, 2025). The 
presence of  lead (Pb) and other heavy metals in PM 
particles increases health risks manifold. Bangladesh has 
adopted the Clean Air and Sustainable Environment 
(CASE) project, the CCAC program, and some local air 



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Am. J. Environ. Clim. 4(3) 74-79, 2025

monitoring initiatives to improve this situation. Still, direct 
coordination with water pollution control is very limited 
in these activities. Another study, Rafiul et al. (2023) found 
that air pollution, including CO, NO₂, and PM₂.₅, is high 
in the dry season, and decreases in the monsoon, reflected 
by the reduction of  dust due to rainfall and storm filtration 
of  the greenhouse gas PMC (Rahman & Kabir, 2023). 
Besides, road dust, construction works, industrial waste, 
and traffic congestion due to urbanization are contributing 
significantly to air quality. Hossain et al. (2025) study 
showed that different areas of  Dhaka have dangerously 
high levels of  PM₂.₅, PM₁₀, and NO₂, which are mainly 
caused by vehicular emissions, industrial activities, and 
road dust, leading to increased risk of  respiratory and 
cardiovascular diseases (Hoque et al., 2025). Several 
countries around the world have successful examples of  
integrated environmental management strategies, where 
technology, policy, and public involvement are used in 
tandem to enhance water and air quality. The application 
of  this method in Bangladesh is still in its early stages, 
and a significant gap remains in research. Such symptoms 
are essential to predict. Firstly, pollution is extreme during 
the dry season. Secondly, brick kilns and vehicles are the 
primary sources. Thirdly, there is a synergistic potential 
between water and air, which can lead to practical 
solutions; however, such integrated research is lacking in 
many countries. In this regard, the purpose of  this study is 
to analyze the current status of  water and air pollution in 
Bangladesh, assess its health and environmental impacts, 
verify the feasibility of  technical solutions and policy 
reforms to control water and air pollution, and propose 
an integrated environmental management framework that 
will contribute effectively to public health protection and 
sustainable development.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
This study used a mixed-method design, in which 
environmental data, health risks and social impacts 
were analyzed together. Four divisions of  Bangladesh, 
Dhaka, Chittagong, Sylhet and Khulna, were selected as 
study areas, representing both urbanized and semi-rural 
contexts. A total of  40 water samples (from tubewells 
and surface water sources) and 35 air quality observations 
(from roadside stations and community-level monitoring) 
were analysed. In addition, approximately 500 hospital 

records and 300 household surveys were used for 
health information. Water quality tests analyzed for 
arsenic, heavy metals, microbial pollution, pH, TDS and 
turbidity; Air quality tests, on the other hand, include the 
concentrations of  PM₂.₅, PM₁₀, NO₂, SO₂, CO and O₃ as 
well as meteorological data (temperature, humidity, wind 
speed and direction). Data were collected from WHO, 
World Bank, IQAir, national agencies (DoE, DPHE) and 
from recent peer-reviewed studies (Habib et al., 2024; 
Mitra & Czajkowski, 2025). The analysis used Pearson 
Correlation, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and 
Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA) to identify sources 
and interrelationships of  pollution, and health risk 
analysis combined hospital records, community surveys 
and biomarker data.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
By analyzing the data and observations collected in 
the study, the current situation of  water and air quality 
and health effects in different regions of  Bangladesh is 
presented comprehensively. We have followed three main 
steps. Water Quality Assessment, Air Quality Monitoring, 
and Health Impact Assessment. At each step, we 
compared the results with the effects of  natural and man-
made sources and provided a coherent interpretation.

Water Quality Assessment
Water quality monitoring shows that the concentration of  
heavy metals such as arsenic, iron and lead in groundwater 
and surface water of  Dhaka and Chittagong region 
has exceeded the World Health Organization (WHO) 
permissible limits. For example, the highest arsenic value 
is 0.08 mg/L, which is much higher than the 0.01 mg/L 
limit set by WHO (Hossain et al., 2024; Robeul Islam et 
al., 2024). Similarly, the presence of  iron and lead also 
poses significant health risks. On the other hand, the 
ground water in Sylhet region is relatively safe, but the 
microbiological pollution is quite high. Total coliform 
and faecal coliform tests in some areas of  Dhaka and 
Chittagong every 100 ml. 20–50 CFU have been found 
in water, which is many times higher than the safe level 
(Aurnab et al., 2024; Huda et al., 2024; Shammi et al., 2021). 
The results indicate that industrial effluents, sewage, and 
natural mineral sources are the main drivers of  water 
pollution in Bangladesh.

Table 1: Water quality measurements and rationale (Smith et al., 2000; Tawhidul et al. 2025)
Parameters Use for Health effects

Arsenic Natural contaminants in groundwater cause cancer, 
heart disease, and skin problems

Carcinogenic and long-term 
illness

Fecal coliform and E. coli An indicator of  microbial contamination, it increases 
gastrointestinal infections.

Diarrhea and gastrointestinal 
infections

pH, turbidity, TDS Basic indicator for determining overall water quality Health and taste effects
Heavy metals (Pb, Cd, etc.) Long-term toxicity and repercussive health risks Neurological impairment, 

kidney effects



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Monitoring of  Air Quality
Air quality analysis shows that the urban areas of  
Bangladesh, especially Dhaka city, are facing serious air 
pollution. The levels of  PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀ are many times 
higher than the WHO recommended limits, which are 
mainly caused by vehicular smoke and industries (Hoque 
et al., 2025; Nayeem et al., 2024). Brick kilns, biomass 
burning, and traffic congestion are the main sources 
of  pollution in Chittagong and Sylhet. In particular, 
daily average concentrations of  PM₂.₅ were found to 
be 120–180 µg/m³, which is five to seven times higher 

than the WHO recommended limit of  25 µg/m³ (Haque 
et al., 2022; Subhanullah et al., 2022). The use of  wood 
or biomass for household cooking in rural areas raises 
average PM₂.₅ levels to 350 µg/m³, multiplying household 
health risks. Moreover, the levels of  gaseous pollutants 
NO₂ and SO₂ were found to be relatively high during 
winter, which is related to seasonal industrial activities 
and vehicular density. Such combined effects increase the 
risk of  developing lung problems in children, respiratory 
disease in adults, and long-term heart disease. Additionally, 
Figure 1 illustrates the air quality index by month.

Table 2: Health effects of  air quality parameters (Mitra & Czajkowski, 2025; Saju et al., 2023)
Parameters Cause/Technique Health Effects

PM₂.₅, PM₁₀ Urgent hygiene, inhalation hazard Respiratory, heart disease, death

NO₂,SO₂,O₃ Source identification, pollution cycle analysis Respiratory and cardiovascular effects

CO Indoor monitoring of  cooking fumes Dizziness, carbon poisoning
Weather parameters Diffusion and Contamination Modelling Socio-ecological analysis

Figure 1: Seasonal variation of  air pollutants.

Health Effects Assessment
It is clear from the results of  health assessment that water 
and air pollution are directly related to public diseases. 
Children are most affected. Among children under 5 
years of  age, the prevalence of  diarrhea was almost 30% 
lower in households that used water purification systems. 
On the other hand, the prevalence of  respiratory diseases 
decreased by about 25% in households using improved 
stoves. Nevertheless, long-term health risks due to 
microbiological contamination, including high levels of  

arsenic and iron, remain a major public health challenge 
in Bangladesh. Integrated monitoring indicates that water 
quality control and air pollution control can achieve 
visible health improvements when applied together. 
For example, in areas where water purification and air 
pollution control measures were implemented together, 
the health of  both children and adults was found to be 
relatively better, indicating a synergistic positive effect of  
multiple environmental interventions.

Table 3: Comparative analysis
Area PM2.5 (µg/m³) Arsenic (mg/L) E. coli (CFU/100 

ml)
Respiratory
disease rate (%)

Diarrhea rate

Dhaka 90-100 0.06 45 22 15
Chittagong 80-90 0.05 40 20 12
Sylhet 70-80 0.03 50 18 18
kushtia 60-70 0.00 35 15 10



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Am. J. Environ. Clim. 4(3) 74-79, 2025

Figure 2: PM2.5 Concentration by region.

DISCUSSION
Water and air pollution in Bangladesh affects different 
regions differently. Dhaka and Chittagong have high 
levels of  air pollution due to industrialization, vehicular 
emissions and urbanization, which directly affects public 
health. High levels of  PM₂.₅ and NO₂ in particular 
increase the risk of  chronic respiratory problems, asthma 
and heart disease. Recent studies have shown that the 
average life expectancy of  Dhaka residents is being 
reduced by around 5–7 years due to air pollution, which 
is a serious public health concern. On the other hand, 
the main problem in the Sylhet region is water pollution, 
especially arsenic and microbiological pollution. As rural 
communities depend on tubewells, the presence of  
arsenic in water exposes them to long-term health risks 
such as cancer, skin diseases and organ damage. Moreover, 
microbiological contamination is increasing the incidence 
of  diarrhea and enteric diseases in children, which are 
significant causes of  mortality. Although the situation 
in the Kushtia region is relatively good, the effects of  
air pollution cannot be completely avoided. Locally, the 
incidence of  respiratory diseases is slightly higher due 
to burning of  brick kilns, agricultural wastes and dust. 
Additionally, even though water pollution levels are 
relatively low here, air pollution-related health problems 
are showing increasing trends. In addition, research has 
shown that improving water and air quality in isolation 
does not solve the problem at hand. Multiple risks can be 
tackled simultaneously by taking coordinated action. For 
example, in areas where improved water treatment and 
air quality control have been implemented together, rates 
of  diarrhea in children and respiratory distress in adults 
have been significantly reduced. Additionally, the results 
indicate that an integrated environmental management 
framework is essential for sustainable health development 
in Bangladesh. Policy-makers and researchers should 
consider regional disparities and adopt regionally based 
interventions. At the same time, technological innovations 
such as low-cost arsenic filters, improved cookstoves, and 
green urban planning can be applied together to improve 
both public health and the environment.

Findings 
Through this study, a multi-dimensional picture of  
Bangladesh’s water and air quality and its associated health 
risks has been clarified. According to the results, the levels 
of  arsenic, iron and lead in groundwater and surface 
water in the industrial areas of  Dhaka and Chittagong are 
much higher than the recommended limits of  the World 
Health Organization, which is a direct threat to public 
health. On the other hand, although chemical pollution 
in the Sylhet region is relatively low, microbiological 
contamination in the water, especially the presence of  E. 
coli and faecal coliforms, has made the water unsafe for 
domestic consumption. Similarly, in terms of  air quality, 
urban areas, especially in Dhaka, have PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀ 
levels five to seven times higher than WHO guidelines, 
mainly due to vehicular smoke and industrial emissions. 
In Chittagong and Sylhet regions, brick kilns, biomass 
burning and vehicular pressure have been identified as 
the primary pollution sources, while in rural areas indoor 
pollution levels due to the use of  biomass for cooking 
are incredibly high. Due to seasonal changes, the levels 
of  gaseous pollutants such as NO₂ and SO₂ increase 
significantly during winter, which in turn increases the 
incidence of  respiratory diseases during this period. In 
terms of  health effects, diarrhea, respiratory problems, 
heart disease, and other long-term complications are on 
the rise among both children and adults due to polluted 
water and air. On the positive side, however, households 
using water purification systems and improved stoves 
have seen a 30% reduction in diarrheal disease and a 25% 
reduction in respiratory disease. Long-term exposure to 
heavy metals and other chemical pollutants poses a risk 
of  cancer, kidney problems and nervous system damage. 
Overall, public health improvements are relatively better 
in areas where water and air pollution control programs 
are implemented in a coordinated manner, demonstrating 
that multifaceted and coordinated environmental 
interventions are more effective than single initiatives.

Recommendations
The findings of  this study suggest that immediate and 
concerted action to control water and air pollution 



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in Bangladesh is imperative. First, industrial waste 
management and sewage systems need to be improved to 
control levels of  arsenic, iron, lead and other pollutants. 
Community-based water treatment technologies and 
installation of  safe tubewells are essential to improve 
water quality in rural areas. Second, to reduce air pollution 
in urban areas, improvements in public transport systems, 
emission control of  older vehicles, and improved filter 
technology in industries are required. Apart from this, 
it is necessary to take policy steps to control brick kilns 
and use alternative energy in Chittagong and Sylhet 
regions. Improved cookstoves for rural households and 
promoting the use of  cleaner fuels will reduce indoor air 
pollution to a large extent. Special monitoring should be 
done on vehicular emissions and industrial activities in 
winter to control seasonal pollution. To reduce health 
risks, governments should introduce integrated water 
and air quality monitoring systems at the national level, 
where data collection, analysis and policy making can 
be combined. Finally, awareness raising activities such 
as environmental education in schools and colleges, 
mass media campaigns, and ensuring the participation 
of  local communities will enable the public to come 
forward to control pollution themselves. In the long 
term, only a combination of  policy, legislation, and active 
public participation, rather than just technical solutions, 
will improve water and air quality in Bangladesh and 
significantly reduce public health risks.

CONCLUSION
Bangladesh’s water and air quality issues are closely 
related to each other and have direct consequences 
for public health and the environment. A discussion 
of  the research shows that current water treatment 
technologies and air quality control systems, while 
somewhat effective, are not sufficient. Limitations in 
water treatment technology, problems such as arsenic 
and microbiological contamination, and high levels of  
PM₂.₅ and other gaseous pollutants in the air are deeply 
affecting public health. Health impact analyses have 
shown that ensuring access to safe water and clean air 
significantly reduces rates of  diarrhoea in children and 
respiratory diseases in adults. An important lesson 
from this study is that water treatment and air pollution 
control are more effective when managed in an integrated 
manner rather than separately. An integrated approach 
not only improves the quality of  the environment but can 
also provide sustainable solutions for public health in the 
long run. Therefore, it is crucial to focus on integrated 
environmental management in future policy formulation 
and research, so that a healthy environment can be 
ensured in developing countries like Bangladesh.

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