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American Journal of  
Environment and Climate (AJEC)

Microplastics Pollution in Nigerian Aquatic Ecosystems: Sources, Pathways, Impacts, 
and Mitigation Strategies. A Review

Terngu Paul Ugosor1*, Korom Terna2, Ornguga Terlumum Timothy3, Apeyuan Kparev-Wua David3, Asemave Kaana4

Volume 4 Issue 3, Year 2025
ISSN: 2832-403X (Online) 

DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i3.6354
https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec

Article Information ABSTRACT

Received: October 12, 2025

Accepted: November 15, 2025

Published: December 15, 2025

Microplastics, MPs (< 5mm) are ubiquitous plastic contaminants in freshwater and marine 
environments. MPs have been increasingly documented across Nigerian aquatic systems, 
including rivers, lagoons, estuaries, sediments, seafood, and drinking waters. They arise from 
multiple primary and secondary sources, undergo complex transport and transformation 
pathways, and affect organisms across trophic levels. Evidence indicates widespread 
contamination with fibers and fragments dominated by polyethylene, polypropylene, and 
polyester at urban drainage and estuarine sinks, and detectable particles in sachet/bottled water 
and commercially harvested fish. Reports showed that land-based inputs dominate marine 
microplastic loads, which are transported into subsurface and Polar Regions by currents with 
effects ranging from physiological stress in organisms to potential human exposure through 
seafood and drinking water. This review synthesizes recent findings on major sources and 
environmental pathways, ecological and human-health impacts, and mitigation strategies 
tailored to Nigeria’s socio-environmental context. The article recommended targeted 
source-reduction (including enforcement of  single-use plastic restrictions and alternatives 
for sachet water), technological upgrades in wastewater and stormwater trash capture at 
drainage outfalls and treatment, coordinated upstream interventions (product design, waste 
management, extended producer responsibility), exposure and health risks studies for high-
risks occupational and coastal communities, long-term toxicology for chronic low-dose 
exposures (including nanoplastics), and standardized national monitoring framework. These 
steps are urgent to protect aquatic ecosystem services and public health in Nigeria.

Keywords
Aquatic Environments, Ecological 
Impacts, Microplastics, Pollution 
Mitigation, Wastewater Treatment

1 Department of  Chemistry, College of  Education, Katsina-Ala, Benue State, Nigeria
2 Department of  Geography, College of  Education, Katsina-Ala, Benue State, Nigeria
3 Department of  Biology, College of  Education, Katsina-Ala, Benue State, Nigeria
4 Department of  Chemistry, Rev. Fr. Moses Orshio Adasu University, Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria
* Corresponding author’s e-mail: paulugosor@gmail.com

INTRODUCTION
Microplastics (MPs), commonly defined as plastic 
particles <5 mm, are persistent environmental 
contaminants that pose ecological and human-exposure 
concerns worldwide (Huirong et al., 2021). According 
to Iviwe (2021), the increase in MPs pollution in the 
aquatic environments is attributed to the exponential 
rise in plastic production since the mid-20th century. 
Continuous fragmentation and direct release of  small 
plastic particles have created an environmental problem 
recognized globally as microplastic contamination or 
pollution. Microplastics (MPs) pollution of  aquatic 
ecosystems is a worldwide challenge because of  its 
negative impacts on the aquatic ecosystem and human 
health). In Nigeria, rapid urbanization, extensive use of  
single-use plastics (notably sachet water and styrofaom), 
gaps in municipal waste collection, and informal waste 
economies have created conditions that favour plastic 
leakage to waterways. Recent field surveys and monitoring 
studies across multiple Nigerian states document MPs 
in surface waters, sediments, commercial fish, bottled/
sachet waters and drinking supplies, indicating both 
environmental and direct human exposure routes (Ebere, 
2019; Akindele et al., 2019; Idowu et al., 2019; Apata et 

al., 2022a; Apata et al., 2022b). Similar, researches by 
Isaac et al., (2023), Akinhanmi et al. (2023), Aliyu et al. 
(2023), Akinhanmi (2024), Nduka et al. (2024), Obiakara-
Amaech, 2025), Onyena (2025), and Kpikpi et al. (2025) 
collaborated similar findings.
MPs are found in surface waters, sediments, organisms, 
sea ice, and drinking water sources, provoking concern 
about ecological damage and potential human health 
risks. The presence of  microplastics in aquatic ecosystems 
such as sediments (Ahmad et al., 2025), sea beds/ocean 
floors (Hartz et al., 2025) and biota (Witczak et al., 2024) 
has been recorded worldwide. A review of  related 
literature has shown that MPs pollution is increasing 
geometrically in aquatic ecosystems, threatening aquatic 
life, biodiversity, degradation, and human health. Aquatic 
organisms often mistake MPs as food and ingest them, 
resulting in altered metabolic functions and serious health 
challenges (Atiqur et al., 2025; Pal et al., 2025; Sunny et 
al., 2025). Microplastics are distributed and transported 
in an aquatic environment through various patterns 
and sources either as primary or secondary. Primary 
microplastics are manufactured in small sizes (e.g., pellets, 
microbeads) usually present in beauty care products 
and abrasives which enter the environment directly. 



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Secondary microplastics result from the fragmentation 
of  larger plastic items (e.g., packaging, fishing gear, tyres 
(Wu et al., 2023; Marcharla et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2024). 
The impacts of  MPs on biota and human health through 
food chain are also well documented (Rummel et al., 2017; 
Nelms et al., 2021; Ragusa et al., 2021, and Toussaint et al., 
2023). The persistence and inability of  Microplastics to 
biodegrade as well as serve as potential vectors of  other 
toxic pollutants (Wei et al., 2023) have serious health 
implications to aquatic life and human health.
According to estimates (UNDP, 2022; Atiqur et al., 
2025), 80 million tonnes of  plastics found their way into 
the aquatic environments in 2015 where Africa alone 
contributed 21 % of  the figure. Available records showed 
that approximately 85 % of  plastics wastes is unregulated 
in Africa, which is above the global average of  47% 
(Atiqur et al., 2025). According to a report by Safaa., 
(2024), Egypt, Nigeria, South Africa, and Algeria ranked 
7th, 9th, 11th,and 13th respectively in global plastics 
wastes mismanagement. Most of  these wastes eventually 
end up in the aquatic ecosystems with the attendant 
consequences. The level of  microplastics pollution in 
aquatic ecosystems is expected to increase if  deliberate 
measures are not taken to mitigate it. It is worthy of  
note that African freshwaters (especially Nigeria) are 
gradually dwindling due to plastics pollution and climate 
change. Accordingly, the presence of  microplastics in 
fishes, crustaceans, amphibians, insects, freshwater birds, 
Jellyfish/sea jellies, turtles, seaweed/kelp, mollusks, 
coral/anemones, and marine worms are increasingly 
being documented by researchers Sun et al., 2022; Tiwari 
et al., 2023). 
Many communities in Nigeria depend on fishing and fish 
farming for their livelihood. Thus, microplastic pollution 
in these Nigerian aquatic ecosystems (dams, lakes, rivers, 
seas, and oceans) will no doubt result to devastating 
consequences on aquatic life, biodiversity, human health, 
and food insecurity. Again, Nigeria is home to a number 
of  stunning beaches: Elegushi beach, La Campagna 
Tropicana Beach Resort, Bar Beach, Tarkwa Bay and 
Lekki beach (Lagos state); Ibeno beach (Akwa Ibom 
state); Calabar beach (Cross River state); Asaba beach 
(Delta state); Patigi beach (Kwara state); Finima and Ifoko 
beaches (Rivers state), and Ndibe sand beach (Ebonyi state) 
among others. These beaches are perfect for relaxation, 
recreation, and cultural experiences, offering a mixture 
of  urban vibes, cultural heritage, and natural beauty. The 
beaches make Nigeria a great destination for beach lovers 
and also attract tourists all over the world, generating 
revenue for the government. Therefore, microplastics 
pollution or plastics washed up on beach sediments 
will render these aquatic ecosystems unattractive for 
tourist attraction, hindering economic development. 
It is therefore important to create awareness on the 
negative impacts of  microplastics pollution on aquatic 
environments in Nigeria. Information on MPs pollution 
of  Nigerian aquatic ecosystems will help to educate 
and provide a platform for legislations and regulations 

that will assist in curbing the menace of  microplastics 
pollution in the country. Literature searches have revealed 
only a handful of  researches on microplastics pollution 
in Nigerian aquatic environments, resulting to difficulty 
in appreciating the associated ecological consequences of  
microplastics pollution.
This review summarizes up-to-date knowledge on the 
sources, and pathways of  MPs into Nigerian aquatic 
systems, their observed impacts on aquatic organisms, 
human health, and ecosystems, and practical mitigation 
strategies supported by recent research and technological 
developments. 

MATERIALS AND METHODS 
This is a narrative systematic review of  peer-reviewed 
literature and authoritative published reports from 2019 
to 2025 that measured microplastics in Nigerian aquatic 
environments or food/water products. Both peer-
reviewed articles and credible gray literature (university 
repositories, government notices, reputable news 
reporting on national policy) were included to reflect 
the rapidly evolving local evidence base. Priority was 
given to meta-analyses, systematic reviews, high-impact 
empirical studies, and authoritative reviews. The most 
relevant studies were extracted to produce a comparative 
table summarizing sampling location, year, compartment 
sampled, analytical methods, and key findings.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Occurrence and Characteristics of  Microplastics in 
Nigeria
Surface Waters And Sediments
Microplastics pollution in Nigerian aquatic environments 
is a pressing environmental issue, with several studies 
highlighting the severity of  the problem. Idowu et al. 
(2019) conducted studies on River Osun (A UNESCO 
World Heritage site), focusing on microplastics pollution. 
They investigated the presence of  microplastics in the 
river, specifically looking at the ingestion of  microplastics 
by freshwater gastropods. The study found evidence 
of  microplastics contamination in the river with 
concentrations reaching 22,079 particle/L, highlighting 
the impact of  microplastic pollution on aquatic life.
A research conducted on Rivers Dukku and Kalgo, Kebbi 
state by Tajudeen et al. (2024) on the impact of  MPs 
pollution on aquatic life found significant concentrations 
of  MPs in both rivers
with the Dukku river showing concentrations ranging 
from 125.00 particles/L to 160.30 aprticles/L and Kalgo 
river ranging from 119.30particle/L to 134.70 particle/L. 
Similar researches conducted by Abdullahi et al. (2022) 
on the physocochemical properties and diversity of  
microalgae, in Dukku River, Birnin Kebbi, Nigeria and 
Yahaya et al.,(2024) on the abundance, characterization, 
and health risks evaluation of  microplastics in borehole 
water in Birni Kebbi, Nigeria confirmed varying 
concentrations of  microplastics in the water sources.
Lagos Lagoon surveys and sediments sampling 



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consistently found microplastics in surface water 
and sediments. Common morphologies included 
fibers, fragments and films, with polyethylene (PE), 
polypropylene (PP), and polyester frequently reported. 
Spatial hotspots typically coincide with densely populated 
landing sites and drainage outfalls (Akinhanmi et al., 2023; 
Akinhanmi, 2024). 
A research conducted by Aliyu et al (2023) on the 
assessment of  MPs contamination on River water, 
sachet water, and branded table slat samples in Kaduna 
metropolis showed Mps ranged 25 to 36 particle/L 
in treated water, 153 particle/L in raw water, 1.4-3.7 
particle/L for bottled water and 0.13 to 0.27 particles/L 
in salt samples. Water and salt samples contained five 
different types of  polymers: polyethylene, polypropylene, 
polyester, polyvinyl chloride, and polyethylene 
terephthalate. The result also indicated that fragments 
were more prevalent in both raw and treated water, while 
fragments and fibres predominated in bottled water and 
table salt samples.
Another research conducted by Isaac et al. (2024) on 
microplastic particles in river sediments of  southwestern 
Nigeria showed abundance of  microplastic in surface 
sediments and water samples across all locations, ranging 
from 12.82 particle/kg to 22.90 particle/kg dw and 6.71 
particle/L to 17.12 particle/L during the dry season 
and 5.69 particle/kg to 14.38 particle/kg dw and 12.41 
particle/L to 22.73 particle/L during the wet season 
respectively. The result revealed that on the average, fibre 
constituted the highest percentage of  MPs in sediments 
(71 %) and water (67 %), while foam recorded the lowest 
value of  0.6 % and 1.7 % respectively, with polypropylene 
(PP) and polyethylene (PE) being the main MPs across all 
the locations. 
Similarly, riverine studies in Imo (Otammiri River) by 
Nduka et al. (2024) confirmed the presence of  MPs 
in surface water samples and sediments, with spatial 
gradients indicating higher loads near urban drainage 
outlets and downstream estuarine zones. The results 
revealed that polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), 

polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polystyrene (PS), and 
polyurethane were the predominant polymers found 
across the river. 
Kpikpi et al. (2025) confirmed microplastic contamination 
in the surface water of  the lower Forcados River, Burutu, 
Delta State, Nigeria. The result revealed the abundance 
and composition in the surface water as 44 items/L 
and microfiber 14(31.81 %), microfragments 6 (13.63 
%), microfilms 7 (15.90 %), microfilaments 12 (27.27 
%), and microfoams 5 (11.36 %) which also accounted 
for densities ranging from microfilms (ρ = 0.00001) to 
microfragments (ρ = 6.6) and filament showing a similar 
blueprint to the microfilms in the study. 
A covenant University ePrint review, (2024) also 
confirmed progressive increase in MP detections and 
called for harmonized methods and monitoring to 
reduce the negative impacts of  microplastics pollution in 
Nigerian surface waters(Reuters, 2024; OSGF, 2024; AP 
news, 2024). 
River systems (e.g., River Niger at Onitsha; Forcados 
River; Ogun River; Otuoke and Ovia rivers) document 
MPs in both water and sediments and, in some cases, 
in tissues of  fish and benthic invertebrates sampled for 
human consumption. Concentrations vary by site and 
season, with higher loads near urban centers and river 
mouths (Kpikpi et al., 2025). According to researches, 
the major sources of  microplastic in such environments 
came from single-use plastics such as carrier bags 
and Styrofoam; breakdown of  larger plastic items; 
manufacturing processes generating plastic pellets and 
nurdles and domestic and industrial wastes. The patterns 
point to strong local sources and riverine transport 
to coastal sinks. These researches are significant as the 
water sources are vital in supporting various ecosystems 
and human activities. The research findings underscore 
the need for effective plastic waste management and 
conservation efforts to mitigate microplastics pollution 
in Nigerian aquatic environments so as to reduce 
aquatic ecosystems degradation, aquatic life and human 
exposures.

Table 1: Compact table summarizing key Nigerian field studies on microplastics pollution in the Nigerian aquatic 
environments.
S/N Study Location Sample Type Method Key Findings
1. Akinhami et al., 

2023/2024
Lagos Lagoon 
(Epe, Mokoko, 
Sagbokoji, 
Badagry)

Surface water & 
sediments: fish 
organs

Composite sampling; 
visual sorting and 
FTIR/Raman 
polymer ID/
histology for fish

Fibres and fragment 
dominant; PE/PP/
polyester common; 
hotspots near urban 
drain outlets; evidence 
of  MPs in fish organs.

2. Kaduna 
assessment, 2023

Kaduna 
metropolis

Raw river water, 
treated municipal 
water, sachet & 
bottled water, 
table salt

Standard digestion, 
visual counting (size 
cutoff  reported)

MPs detected in raw 
water (up to 153 
particles/L), treated 
water (25-36 Particle/L), 
bottled water/sachet 
water measurable.



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Biota and Fisheries
Field sampling and analysis from Lagos coastal waters 
and lagoons, has detected MPs within the gastrointestinal 
tracts of  commercially important fish species 
(Akinhanmi, 2024). Some studies also report associated 
histopathological signs in fish organs (Akindele et al., 
2019; Atiqur et al., 2025; Ahmad et al., 2025; Ahmad & 
Siti Salami, 2025). These findings imply direct trophic 
exposure and potential food-safety concerns for 
consumers relying on locally caught fish. 
Biota contamination taken together, the Nigerian 
evidence base confirms widespread occurrence of  MPs 
in multiple environmental compartments and in food/
water items consumed by people. 

Drinking Water and Food Products
Analyses in Lagos, Kaduna, Imo, Delta, Osun and other 
urban centers report MP particles in raw river water, 
treated municipal water, sachet and bottled water, and 
market table salts, showing human exposure pathways 
via ingestion. Reported particle counts for treated 
water ranged from tens of  particles per liter, depending 
on analytical cutoffs and methods. Methodological 
variability across studies (size limits, digestion 
procedures, polymer ID) complicates direct numerical 
comparisons but the repeated detection across product 
types is robust. 

Sources and Environmental Pathways of  MPs
Primary and Secondary Microplastics
Microplastics (MPs) are classified based on their origin 
as primary or secondary. Primary microplastics are 

intentionally manufactured in small sizes, typically <5 
mm, for specific industrial or commercial uses such 
as cosmetic microbeads, industrial abrasives, and pre-
production plastic pellets (Sharma et al., 2023). They enter 
aquatic systems directly through wastewater effluents and 
stormwater discharges.
Secondary microplastics, on the other hand, result from 
the fragmentation of  larger plastic debris (e.g., packaging, 
fishing gear, tyres) through physical, chemical, and 
biological degradation processes, including UV radiation, 
wave action, and microbial activity (Koelmans et al., 2022). 
Common sources include degraded plastic bags, fishing 
nets, and bottles. Unlike primary MPs, secondary MPs 
vary widely in composition and morphology, influencing 
their persistence and interactions with aquatic organisms 
(Zhang et al., 2024).Recent surveys indicate that secondary 
MPs: fibres and fragments are the dominant shapes 
found in surface waters and sediments globally, reflecting 
widespread breakdown of  macroplastics and textile fibre 
shedding (Allen et al., 2021). 
Dominant sources of  microplastics in Nigerian aquatic 
ecosystems include widespread single-use plastics 
and sachet water packaging, informal dumping, poor 
municipal collection, and lost fishing gear. Once in the 
aquatic system, buoyant plastics disperse and concentrate 
at sheltered bays and estuarine mouths, while biofouling 
and aggregation with organic flocs encourage sinking 
to benthic sediments typical of  Niger Delta mangrove 
and estuarine zones (Lesley, 2020; Nwabuisi & Ihenetu, 
2022; Green Habitat Nigeria, 2024). Seasonal rains 
amplify transport (flood pulses) and resuspension of  Mps 
inaquatic environments.

3. Otammiri River 
microplastics, 
2024

Otammmiri 
River, Imo state

Surface water NOAA trawling 
protocol; size 
range(0.3- 5 mm); 
density separation 
(NaCl); visual & 
spectroscopic ID

MPs present across sites; 
fragments and fibres: 
recommended further 
monitoring.

4. Lower Forcado 
River, Burutu, 
2022-2-23 
sampling 
(published, 2025)

Forcado River, 
Delta state

Surfacewater 
(monthly for 12 
months)

Multi-site 
sampling,NOAA 
protocols; visual 
counts & polymer ID

Seasonal trends; higher 
concentrations near 
downstream and 
urban zones; identified 
fragments, films

5. Convenant 
University ePrint 
review, 2024

Review/Lagos 
focus

Synthesis of  
Lagos studies

Literature synthesis Confirms progressive 
increase in MPs 
detections; calls for 
harmonized method 
sand monitoring

6. Akindele et al., 
(2019)

Osun River, 
Osun state

Invertebrates, Hand detaching,
µFTIR

MPs in the river

7. Ja’afar et 
al.,(2022)

Dukku and 
Kalgo Rivers,
Kebbi state

surface and 
bottom water

FTIR High levels of  MPs

8. Idowu et al., 
(2019)

Major Rivers, 
Southwestern 
Nigeria

Sediments and 
surface water

FTIR-ATR High MPs in samples



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Major Entry Routes Into Aquatic Systems
Microplastics enter aquatic environments through direct 
and indirect pathways. Major entry routes are land-
based sources (urban runoff, mismanaged waste, storm 
drains, wastewater treatment plant effluents, industrial 
discharges) account for the majority of  microplastic 
inputs to freshwater and marine systems (Pal et al., 2025). 
Several country-specific drivers of  MPs in aquatic systems 
include:

Single-Use Plastic Proliferation and Informal Disposal
Nigeria’s high reliance on low-cost single-use items 
(including the ubiquitous small water sachets) and 
limited formal waste collection infrastructure mean that 
large volumes of  plastics escape capture and degrade in 
the environment. The federal government announced 
measures and phased bans on categories of  single-use 
plastics in 2024–2025, aiming to reduce such inputs 
(Reutere, 2024; OSGF, 2024). 

Urban Runoff  and Drainage
Stormwater systems in major cities (Lagos, Port Harcourt, 
Onitsha, Kaduna) often discharge directly to rivers and 
lagoons without effective trash capture; road runoff  and 
street litter transport fragmented plastics into waterways. 
Studies identify drainage mouths and landing sites as MPs 
hotspots. 

Wastewater and Informal Laundries
Although centralized sewage coverage is limited, 
wastewater and effluents from industrial, commercial, and 
household sources (including laundromats) contribute 
synthetic fibers and primary microplastic particles to 
local waters; conventional water treatment and informal 
treatment systems vary widely in effectiveness. 

Maritime and Fishing Activities
Lost or discarded fishing gear, nets, and aquaculture 
materials produce secondary MPs that accumulate near 
coasts and estuaries. 

Atmospheric Deposition and Agricultural Plastics
Although less studied in Nigeria, airborne fibers and 
degraded agricultural plastics: mulch, greenhouse covers 
(Allen et al., 2021) are plausible supplementary inputs that 
merit investigation. 

Transport And Sinks
The environmental fate of  MPs in Nigeria broadly 
mirrors global patterns but is strongly modulated by 
local hydrology and seasonal rains. Once released, 
microplastics are distributed vertically and horizontally 
by currents, wind-driven mixing, and biophysical 
interactions. MPs undergo complex transport and 
transformation processes governed by size, density, and 
hydrodynamic conditions (Nelms et al., 2021). Lighter 
polymers particles (E.g. polyethylene and polypropylene) 
and fibers often remain suspended or float, moving with 

currents and accumulating at sheltered bays, lagoon inlets 
and around river mouths whereas denser polymers such 
as polyvinyl chloride (PVC) tend to sink and accumulate 
in sediments (Atiqur et al., 2025). Observed surface and 
shoreline accumulations in Lagos and Delta coastal 
zones reflect this behavior. Biofouling, aggregation with 
organic matter and flocculation during high-turbidity 
events encourage sinking of  MPs into sediments, creating 
benthic sinks, especially in estuaries and mangrove 
sediments characteristic of  the Niger Delta (Rummel et 
al., 2017). 
Seasonal resuspension during floods redistributes particles 
upstream and downstream. Small particles and fibers are 
readily ingested by zooplankton, bivalves and small fish, 
leading to trophic transfer and potential retention in 
tissues consumed by humans and predators (Tiwari et al., 
2023). Field detections in fish from Lagos Lagoon and 
other coastal waters confirm trophic exposure pathways. 
Recent measurements reveal substantial subsurface and 
polar accumulations transported by subsurface currents 
and high-latitude circulation, meaning MPs are not 
confined to surface gyres but penetrate the water column 
and accumulate in remote regions. Sediments and coastal 
deposits act as long-term sinks. Although country-level 
toxicological field studies remain limited, the presence of  
MPs in key habitats and in commercial fish suggests likely 
ecological impacts similar to those documented globally: 
ingestion and physical harm to invertebrates and fish, 
vectors for hydrophobic contaminants and pathogens, 
and potential disruptions of  benthic processes in sediment 
sinks. In the Niger Delta, the intersection of  oil-related 
contaminants and MPs may compound ecological risk. 

Ecological and Human Health Impacts
Field data from Nigeria on toxicological endpoints 
remain limited compared with laboratory studies, but a 
combination of  field observations and regional lab work 
points to several concerns.

Effects on Aquatic Organisms
Microplastics can induce physical, chemical, and 
biological effects on aquatic life. Ingestion of  MPs has 
been documented across taxa: zooplankton, bivalves, 
fish, seabirds, and megafauna. Physical effects of  
MPs have been reported to include reduced feeding 
efficiency, gut blockage, reduced growth, oxidative stress, 
altered behaviour, and impaired reproduction. Size, 
shape, polymer type, and associated sorbed chemicals 
modulate toxicity (Wang et al., 2022). Chemically, MPs 
adsorb hazardous pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic 
hydrocarbons (PAHs), heavy metals, and persistent 
organic pollutants (POPs), which can be transferred to 
organisms upon ingestion (Allen et al., 2021).
Additionally, MPs can act as vectors for heavy metals, 
hydrophobic/persistent organic pollutants and 
pathogenic microbes, potentially altering exposure 
profiles for organisms (Wu et al., 2023). Laboratory 
studies have reported oxidative stress, inflammation, and 



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Delta, where oil-related pollution coexists with plastic 
debris, combined stressors could amplify toxicity. A 
few Nigerian studies measure co-contaminant burdens 
associated with plastics, signaling compounded risks. 

Food-Web and Ecosystem-Level Concerns
Microplastics infiltrate the aquatic food web through 
ingestion by lower trophic organisms such as zooplankton 
and bivalves (Nelms et al., 2021). MPs that are retained 
by lower trophic organisms can be transferred up food 
chains (trophic transfer), potentially altering energy flow 
and contaminant dynamics. Subtle sublethal effects (e.g., 
reduced fitness, immune impairment) could scale up 
to population-level consequences in sensitive species. 
Sediment and benthos-associated MPs may also alter 

benthic habitat functioning. This leads to bioaccumulation 
and biomagnification of  plastics and associated 
contaminants across food chains. Consequently, top 
predators, including fish consumed by humans, often 
exhibit elevated MP concentrations (Witczak et al., 2024).
Ecosystem-level impacts include alterations in nutrient 
cycling, primary productivity, and sediment structure 
due to the physical presence of  MPs (Akinhanmi et al., 
2023). Furthermore, microplastics may modify microbial 
communities essential for ecosystem functioning. 
These disruptions threaten ecological stability, fisheries 
productivity, and ecosystem services critical to human 
welfare.
The sources, fate, and trophic level transfer of  microplastics 
in aquatic environments are shown in figure 1.

Figure 1: Sources, fate, and trophic level transfer of  microplastics in aquatic environments (Osamah et al., 2025).

Human Exposure and Health Uncertainties
Human Exposure
Humans are exposed to microplastics primarily through 
seafood consumption, drinking water, inhalation, food 
packaging contamination, and possibly dermal contact 
(Toussaint et al., 2024).

Drinking Water (Sachet, Bottled, Treated Municipal)
Detection of  nano- and microplastics in bottled and tap 
water has raised concerns, but definitive evidence linking 
environmentally relevant exposures to specific human 
disease outcomes remains limited. Potential risks include 

inflammation, oxidative stress, and cytotoxicity arising 
from particle accumulation and chemical leaching (Wu et 
al., 2023; Toussaint et al., 2024). 
Studies in Kaduna (Aliyu et al., 2023) and other towns 
(Idowu et al., 2016; Apata et al., 2022a and b; Isaac et 
al., 2023; Kpikpi et al.,2025) report MPs in sachet and 
bottled waters and in treated drinking water at detectable 
levels, implying regular ingestion exposures across the 
population that consumes these products. Studies have 
confirmed the presence of  MPs in human feces, placenta, 
and blood, suggesting systemic exposure ( Onyema, 
2025). Methodological differences across studies 



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(size cutoffs, digestion protocols) make cross-study 
comparisons challenging, but the repeated detection 
across independent studies strengthens the conclusion 
that exposure exists. 
Nano-sized plastics (<100 nm) can penetrate biological 
barriers, raising concerns about translocation into tissues 
and interference with cellular metabolism. Emerging 
toxicological studies indicate inflammatory responses and 
immunomodulation in animal models and cell systems, 
but long-term human epidemiological data are lacking. 
Although the extent of  chronic health effects is still under 
investigation, the ubiquity of  microplastics in the human 
environment underscores the need for precautionary 
measures and further toxicological research.

Seafood Consumption
Detection of  MPs in fish species consumed locally 
suggests dietary exposure for coastal communities 
and urban consumers buying locally sourced fish. The 
fraction of  plastics that translocate to edible tissues 
versus remaining in viscera is an active research question; 
existing Nigerian studies report MPs mainly in visceral 
tissues but also sometimes in edible parts. 

Inhalation And Occupational Exposure
Urban dust, fibers released during handling of  plastics, 
and emissions from informal recycling sites may create 
inhalation exposures for waste workers and residents near 
dumps, but robust exposure measurements in Nigeria are 
scarce. 

Health Uncertainties
Globally, the toxicology of  micro- and nano-plastics in 
humans is under development. Multiple studies detect 
MPs in drinking water (including sachet/bottled water) 
and in fish sold for consumption, indicating dietary 
exposure. However, critical uncertainties remain on 
exposure dose (numbers, sizes, polymers), translocation 
of  MPs from gut to edible tissue, and long-term health 
effects in human populations. While systemic exposure 
(blood, placenta) has been reported in other countries, 
causal links to chronic disease remain unestablished. 
Although country-level toxicological field studies remain 
limited, the presence of  MPs in key habitats and in 
commercial fish suggests likely ecological impacts similar 
to those documented globally: ingestion and physical 
harm to invertebrates and fish, vectors for hydrophobic 
contaminants and pathogens, and potential disruptions of  
benthic processes in sediment sinks. In the Niger Delta, 
the intersection of  oil-related contaminants and MPs 
may compound ecological risk. For Nigeria, the urgent 
priorities are quantitative exposure assessment (how 
many particles, what sizes, which polymers), co-exposure 
to chemical contaminants (e.g., PAHs, heavy metals), 
and population health studies in high-exposure groups 
(fishers, waste workers, and communities dependent on 
local water supplies).
Given the economic importance of  small-scale fisheries 

(especially around Lagos, Benue, and the Niger Delta), 
contamination of  commercial species has implications 
for marketability, consumer confidence, livelihoods, and 
food security if  contamination becomes widespread or 
highly publicized. 

Existing Policies and Recent National Actions
Single-Use Plastic Bans and National Policy
In 2024, the federal government of  Nigeria announced 
phased bans on certain single-use plastics (including, 
Styrofoam and sachet water in certain contexts), 
adopted measures limiting single-use plastics in federal 
government procurement and announced staggered 
national restrictions aimed at reducing single-use items, 
building on the 2020 National Policy on Plastic Waste 
Management and local actions (e.g., Lagos state bans) 
(The Punch, 2024, October 3; Blessing, 2024). This ban 
was part of  measures by the state government to put 
in place policy guidelines for plastic utility in further 
ensuring a sustainable management of  plastic wastes, 
healthy, safe, and sustainable environment. According 
to the report, plastic waste materials make up significant 
proportion of  solid wastes (about 60 % of  the monthly 
13,000 tones) of  wastes generated in Lagos, causing 
everything from ecosystem degradation to drainage clogs 
and flooding. The ban followed increasing prevalence of  
plastic wastes and its negative effects on the environment 
in recent years. 

Waste Management and Circular Economy Measures
Strengthening municipal collection, formalizing waste-
pickers and recycling value chains, and investment in 
material recovery facilities reduce environmental leakage 
(Magalhaes, 2025; Sun et al., 2022). For Nigeria, pragmatic 
interventions (community-level waste traps at drainage 
mouths, river cleanup campaigns, and plastic buy-back 
schemes) can have near-term benefits for microplastics 
pollution mitigation in hotspot areas. 

Water Treatment Upgrades and Point-of-Use Actions
Improving treatment plant filtration, installing fine 
screens and membrane processes where feasible, and 
encouraging household-level filtration for drinking water 
can lower human exposure via drinking water. However, 
costs and maintenance challenges require adaptive locally 
appropriate approaches. 

Research, Monitoring and Standardization
Nigeria needs a coordinated national monitoring 
framework for MPs (harmonized sampling and analysis 
protocols, reference labs, and data sharing) so that trends 
can be assessed and policy efficacy evaluated. Several 
recent regional studies provide a starting point for 
designing such a programme. 
Nigeria recently State-level actions complement national 
moves, but enforcement, affordable alternatives, 
and systemic waste-management investment remain 
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environmental MP loads. However, an effective response 
spans the full lifecycle of  plastics: reduce production of  
harmful items, improve product design, optimize waste 
management, treat urban and industrial effluents, and 
remediate existing environmental loads.

Mitigation Strategies
Mitigating microplastics pollution requires integrated 
strategies encompassing prevention, removal, and policy 
interventions. At the source level, banning or restricting 
microbeads in personal care products, promoting 
biodegradable alternatives, and improving product design 
can significantly reduce primary MP generation (UNEP, 
2022).
The following mitigation strategies are key towards 
curbing Nigeria’s microplastic pollution in the aquatic 
ecosystems:

Upstream Interventions (Source Reduction And Design)
Policy Instruments
Bans on unnecessary microbeads (successful in many 
jurisdictions), restrictions on single-use plastics (e.g. 
styrofoam), while supporting affordable alternatives for 
small businesses and sachet water distribution and product 
standards that mandate durability and recyclability.

Product Redesign
Reducing polymer shedding (textile innovations, tyre 
formulations), designing for recyclability, and substitution 
with low-emission materials.

Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)
Shifting lifecycle waste costs to producers incentivizes 
design for reduced leakage. These upstream approaches 
are foundational and cost-effective compared with 
downstream cleanup. 

Waste Management and Circular Economy
Improved collection, sorting, and recycling reduce plastic 
leakage to the environment. Informal-sector integration 
and investments in material recovery in low- and middle-
income countries (LMICs) are critical because most 
mismanaged waste originates there.
Avoiding open burning and leak-prone landfills reduces 
fragment generation. Strategic waste infrastructure 
deployment combined with behaviour-change campaigns 
reduces inputs to rivers and coasts. 

Wastewater and Stormwater Treatment Improvements
Wastewater treatment optimization can significantly 
reduce MP loads via primary (screening, grit removal) and 
secondary (settling, filtration) processes, and advanced 
tertiary options (membrane filtration, dissolved air 
flotation, advanced oxidation) ( Magalhaes, 2025). Urban 
stormwater management, green infrastructure, and 
riverine clean-up programs are also critical. On a broader 
scale, extended producer responsibility (EPR) policies, 
plastic waste recycling, and public awareness campaigns 
can minimize plastic leakage into the environment.

Emerging biotechnological approaches, such as 
enzymatic and microbial degradation of  polymers, offer 
promising future solutions (Wei et al., 2023). International 
collaboration under frameworks like the UN Plastics Treaty 
(2024) is essential to harmonize monitoring, research, 
and policy implementation globally. However, no single 
technology is universally optimal: trade-offs include cost, 
energy, and concentrate/sludge management. Removing 
MPs from effluents concentrates them in sludge, which 
requires safe disposal or further treatment to prevent 
secondary release (e.g., via agricultural land application). 
Technologies such as membrane bioreactors, rapid sand 
filtration, advanced tertiary filters, and coagulation/
flocculation are promising when appropriately configured 
and maintained. Thus investment in drainage trash capture 
(screens/booms) at urban outfalls and pilot community 
buy-back, formalization programs for waste pickers will 
reduce leakage, and promote household point-of-use 
measures where appropriate. 

Innovative Remediation and Product-Level Solutions
Recent advances include engineered absorbents and bio-
based sponges that capture suspended MPs with high 
efficiency (laboratory/field-scale tests show promising 
removal rates) (Magalhaes, 2025). For example, composite 
sponges made from natural polysaccharides/chitin show 
high microplastic uptake in trials, suggesting potential 
for localized remediation and integration into filtration 
systems (e.g., washing machine filters). However, 
scalability, lifecycle impacts, and cost-effectiveness need 
thorough assessment. 

Behavioural and Societal Measures
Consumer-level interventions (washable microfibre 
filters for laundry, promoting reusable items, improved 
public waste practices) combined with public education 
campaigns reduce microplastics generation. Industry 
transparency and labeling (e.g., microfibre shedding rates) 
may drive competition toward low-shedding products.
Above all, there is the need to implement a standardized 
national MP monitoring network with harmonized 
sampling (size classes, digestion, polymer ID by FTIR/
Raman), sentinel sites (Lagos, Niger Delta, Anambra/
Onitsha, Kaduna) and prioritize exposure assessments 
for drinking water (treatment plant influent/effluent, 
sachet and bottled products) as well as dietary exposure 
through common fish species. 

Challenges, Research Gaps, and Priorities for Nigeria
Key barriers to decisive action include methodological 
heterogeneity (sampling, size-class definitions, analytical 
detection limits), limited understanding of  nanoplastics, 
sparse long-term ecotoxicology and epidemiology, and 
incomplete socio-economic evaluations of  mitigation 
pathways. 
Based on the current evidence and the country’s socio-
environmental context, the following priorities are 
recommended:



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Nationwide Baseline and Monitoring Network
Standardize of  sampling methods, extraction, and 
analytical protocols (especially for particles <100 µm 
and nanoplastics), digestion, polymer ID, and implement 
representative sampling across major river basins, 
estuaries, coastal zones and drinking water sources. Use 
sentinel sites in Lagos, Niger Delta, Anambra/Onitsha, 
Kaduna and coastal states. 

Exposure and Health Risk Assessments
Quantify human exposures via diet and water (particle 
counts and polymer identification), and design 
epidemiological and long-term toxicological studies 
focusing on chronic low-dose exposures and mixture 
effects (MPs plus sorbed pollutants) for high-risk 
occupational groups.

Source-Focused Interventions and Evaluation
Pilot and evaluate interventions (sachet alternatives, 
extended producer responsibility pilots, stormwater trash 
traps) using measurable environmental endpoints (MP 
loads at drainage outfalls). 

Capacity Building and Stakeholder Engagement
Strengthen laboratory capacity (FTIR/µ-FTIR, Raman) 
in universities and government labs; engage local 
communities, fisherfolk and informal waste sectors in co-
designed mitigation. 

Integrated Monitoring and Policy Implementation
Translate national bans into enforceable local regulations, 
incentivize alternatives, and combine regulatory actions 
with education and economic supports for affected 
workers and small businesses. There is urgent need for 
routine, comparable national monitoring programmes to 
track trends and measure policy effectiveness. 

Efficiency and Life-Cycle Analysis
Efficacy and life-cycle analyses of  mitigation technologies 
(WWTP upgrades, novel sorbents) to ensure solutions do 
not create secondary harms.

Socio-Economic Interventions
Scaling socio-economic interventions in LMIC contexts 
where waste leakage is highest.

CONCLUSION
Microplastic pollution is pervasive and persistent in 
aquatic environments. Evidence from aquatic ecosystems 
in Nigeria demonstrates widespread presence of  
microplastics across aquatic compartments and exposure 
pathways relevant to ecosystem integrity and public 
health. The evidence justifies a precautionary, multi-
pronged mitigation approach that prioritizes upstream 
prevention and improved waste management while 
deploying targeted technological fixes (e.g., WWTP 
upgrades, filters) and encouraging innovation (bio-based 
sorbents). 

A coherent national strategy combining standardized 
monitoring and regulatory measure (bans, EPR), targeted 
source reduction (including practical alternatives to sachet 
plastics), improved waste infrastructure, investment in 
circular-economy infrastructure, water treatment efficacy 
or enhancements, and research into exposure and 
health outcomes is necessary to manage this emerging 
contaminant effectively. 
International collaboration will be important because 
microplastics cross political boundaries via rivers, 
oceans, and the atmosphere. Continued monitoring and 
adaptive management, informed by improved data on 
environmental distributions and effects are essential to 
manage and reduce risks. 
Sustainable management requires coordinated efforts 
across scientific, industrial, and policy domains to 
transition towards a circular plastic economy and protect 
aquatic integrity for future generations. Nigeria need 
to convene an MP technical working group (FEPA/
Nigerian Environment Ministry, universities, Colleges of  
Educations, Monotechnics/Polytechnics and NGOs) to 
adopt a national MP monitoring protocol (size ranges, 
digestion, polymer ID), designate sentinel sites, and 
leverage existing climate and plastic pollution funds, 
international technical assistance (GEF, UNEP programs), 
and public-private partnerships for pilot investments 
to reduce MPs pollution in aquatic environments while 
ensuring policies are equitable and feasible in Nigeria’s 
socio-economic context.

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