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American Journal of  Environmental
Economics (AJEE) 

Environmental Impacts of  Effluent Discharge from A Rice Processing Factory on River 
Benue’s Water Quality in Makurdi, Nigeria

ThankGod Ochai1, Obed Kohol Niambe2*, Evalistus Nwankwo2, Shaibu Ochoche2, Peter Adio Ibukunoluwa3

Volume 3 Issue 1, Year 2024
ISSN: 2833-7905 (Online)

DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v3i1.2651
https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Article Information ABSTRACT

Received: April 20, 2024

Accepted: May 24, 2024

Published: May 29, 2024

This study investigates the impact of  industrial pollution on the environment surrounding a 
rice processing factory in Makurdi. Water samples were collected from five different sampling 
points within and around the factory premises in January 2018. The investigation focused on 
evaluating the effects of  industrial discharge at these sampling points. Several key parameters 
indicative of  pollution, including pH, temperature, total dissolved solids, total suspended solids, 
conductivity, dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, copper, nitrate, and phosphate, 
were carefully analyzed. Sampling activities were conducted at weekly intervals over three weeks. 
Both field and laboratory investigations were carried out, revealing that the physico-chemical 
characteristics of  the water samples indicated stressed water quality concerning pH (acidity), 
turbidity, total suspended solids (TSS), conductivity, dissolved oxygen (DO), and biochemical 
oxygen demand (BOD). However, certain parameters, namely temperature, copper, nitrate, 
and phosphate, remained within the acceptable environmental regulatory limits, suggesting 
no significant pollution from these factors. Notably, the sampling points 1, 2, 3, and 4 were 
located at distances of  10 meters, 20 meters, 30 meters, and 40 meters, respectively, from the 
point of  discharge, but they were situated in different locations. This variation in distance 
may have contributed to the observed differences in water quality. Therefore, it is strongly 
recommended that all waste discharged from the factory be subjected to pollution control 
measures. Additionally, the practice of  open discharge should be thoroughly reviewed to 
minimize potential health and pollution hazards to both human populations and the ecosystem. 

Keywords

Rice Processing, Environment, 
Pollution, Aquatic Habitat, 
Toxicity

1 Joseph Sarwuan Tarka University, Makurdi, Nigeria
2 People’s Friendship University of  Russia Named After Patrice Lumumba, Moscow, Russia
3 Ekiti State University, Ekiti, Nigeria
* Corresponding author’s e-mail: 1032225329@pfur.ru

INTRODUCTION
In today’s rapidly changing world, the environment 
has become a matter of  paramount concern. Defined 
as the forces of  nature, the surrounding flora and 
fauna, the environment encompasses all that exists 
beyond us(Gobo et al., 2009). Its significance cannot be 
overstated, as it provides the fundamental conditions 
necessary for life to thrive. The environment’s scope 
extends beyond the physical realm and encompasses the 
very biological conditions that support the existence of  
organisms. FEPA (1991) aptly describes the environment 
as the sum of  external factors that influence the life, 
development, and survival of  all living beings, making it 
an all-encompassing term. However, the delicate balance 
of  nature is being increasingly disrupted due to human 
activities(Siyanbola et al., 2011). Human beings have 
profoundly impacted their environment, often on a grand 
scale compared to other species. This influence has led to 
various changes, including urbanization, which, in turn, 
has given rise to environmental pollution and altered 
the distribution of  animals and plants across diverse 
ecosystems (Goudie, 2018). Among the numerous issues, 
water and air quality has emerged as a grave concern due 
to industrial and domestic waste. Urbanization has led to 
concentrated communities, with residential, educational, 
commercial, and industrial facilities in proximity, resulting 
in the degradation of  the lower atmosphere in industrial 
regions. Industrial activities produce solid and liquid 

particles as well as chemical pollutants, contributing to air 
pollution(Akhtar et al., 2021). Furthermore, the growth 
of  industries in developing countries has exacerbated 
problems such as carbon monoxide emissions and 
combustion byproducts(Garidzirai, 2020). The need 
to find a harmonious balance between industrial 
development and environmental protection has given rise 
to the establishment of  environmental laws. However, 
despite these efforts, environmental degradation 
persists, particularly in densely populated countries like 
Nigeria(Maton et al., 2016). The improper disposal of  
waste, including industrial effluents, has significantly 
affected water bodies like freshwater reservoirs and 
estuaries, causing pollution and rendering these vital 
resources unfit for primary and secondary uses(Okereke 
et al., 2016). Consequently, the health and well-being 
of  millions of  Nigerians are at risk due to waterborne 
diseases(Efe et al., 2023). To address these challenges, 
the government must enforce necessary environmental 
laws and implement effective pollution control measures. 
Nigeria’s urban areas face environmental and aesthetic 
problems due to inadequate management of  municipal 
and industrial waste(Daramola & Ibem, 2009). Waste 
accumulation obstructs passage and poses a threat to 
the environment. This article focuses on a case study 
of  rice factory’s operations in Makurdi, Benue State, 
Nigeria, examining the industrial waste discharged and 
its environmental impact. The study aims to identify 



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the sources of  pollution, analyze its effects on the 
local environment, and propose potential solutions 
to address the challenges of  industrial pollution in 
the region. By shedding light on this pressing issue, 
this study contributes valuable information to make 
informed environmental decisions, with the goal of  
preserving, restoring, and maintaining the integrity of  
the environment, particularly the water quality of  River 
Benue and its surrounding areas. Only through dedicated 
research, awareness, and proactive measures can we hope 
to safeguard our environment and secure a sustainable 
future for generations to come.

LITERATURE REVIEW
Recently, the importance of  the environment in a nation’s 
development has become increasingly recognized. The 
environment provides natural habitats and forms the basis 
for agricultural, industrial, commercial, technological, and 
tourism development(Southgate & Sharpley, 2014). As a 
result, environmental issues have become a focal point in 
academic discussions and public discourse at both national 
and international levels. The environment encompasses 
a wide range of  external circumstances and conditions 
that affect the existence and development of  individuals, 
organisms, or societies(Giddings et al., 2002).
In Nigeria, environmental issues gained official attention 
following the 1988 cocoa toxic waste dumping saga, 
which highlighted the need to establish the Nigeria 
Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) 
and other relevant agencies to address environmental 
challenges(Ihonvbere, 1994). These challenges include 
pollution, sanitation, ozone layer depletion, desertification, 
flooding, erosion, poverty, bush burning, deforestation, 
and soil conservation(Usiobaifo, 2015). Research indicates 
that population growth and technological advancements 
contribute to environmental abuse and pollution, impacting 
the lives of  people and other living organisms (Appannagari, 
2017). Industrial, agricultural, and urbanization processes, 
as well as security and terrorist activities, contribute to 
environmental pollution. There is a growing awareness 
of  the need to address these issues to ensure sustainable 
development and protect the environment for future 
generations (Evelyn & Tyav, 2012).

The Concept of  Environment and Pollution 
The concept of  the environment encompasses all 
surrounding conditions and elements, including water, 
air, land, plants, and animals, and the interrelationships 
among them(Park, 2001). Pollution, on the other hand, is 
defined as the contamination or defilement of  an object 
or thing, often resulting in a reduction in value. It is caused 
by the addition of  harmful or unpleasant substances to 
the environment(Jarrige & Roux, 2020). 
Pollution can be classified based on its site.  It includes 
the air (atmospheric) pollution, aquatic or water pollution, 
and land or surface area pollution. Air pollution refers 
to the introduction of  harmful gaseous substances into 
the atmosphere by human activities. This can lead to 
adverse effects on living organisms and the environment. 
Industrial activities and the combustion of  fossil fuels 
are major contributors to air pollution(Vallero, 2014). On 
the other hand, water pollution occurs when chemical, 
physical, or biological materials are introduced into fresh 
or ocean waters, degrading their quality and affecting the 
organisms living in them. Urbanization and increasing 
population in Nigeria have led to the need to protect 
water bodies from contamination. Industrial effluents 
and uncontrolled exploitation of  groundwaters are major 
causes of  water pollution in urban centers like Lagos(Ado 
et al., 2015).
It is important to adhere to guidelines and standards 
set by regulatory bodies like the Federal Environmental 
Protection Agency (FEPA) to prevent excessive pollution 
and protect the environment and human health. The 
industrial sector in Nigeria comprises establishments 
of  varying sizes and processes, spanning different 
industries such as metals and mining, food, beverages, 
tobacco, breweries, distilleries, furniture, pulp, paper, 
and chemicals. Effluent standards have been established 
based on the assimilative capacity of  receiving waters, 
with uniform limits set for all industries. Specific limits 
are also provided for individual industries with unique 
characteristics(Kanu & Achi, 2011). Compliance 
monitoring is enforced through facility permits to ensure 
industrial sites meet these concentration limits for their 
effluents.

Table 1: Guidelines for interim uniform effluent limits in Nigeria for all categories of  industries (mgl-1 unless 
otherwise stated).
Variables Discharge to surface water Land application
Temperature <40oC within 15m of  out fall <40oC
Colour (Lovibond units) 7 -
pH units 6-9 6-9
BOD5 at 20oC 50 500
Total Suspended Solids 30 -
Total dissolved Solids 2,000 2,000
Chloride (as CL) 600 600



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Sulphate (as SO4 
2-) 500 1,000

Sulphide (as S2-) 0.2 -
Cyanide (as CN) 0.1 -
Detergents 15 15
Oil and grease 10 30
Nitrate (as NO3) NO3 20 -
 Phosphate (as PO4 

3-) 5 10
Arsenic (as AS) 0.1 -
Barium (as Ba) 5 5
Tin (as Sn) 100 10
Iron (as Fe) 20 -
Manganese (as Mn) 5 -
Phenolic compounds (as phenol) 0.2 -
Chlorine (Free) 1.0 -
Cadium, Cd <1 -
Chromium (Trivalent hexavalent) <1 -
Copper <1 -
Lead <1 -
Mercury 0.05 -
Nickel <1 -
Selenium <1 -
Silver 0.1 -
Zinc <1 -
Total metals 3 -
Calcium (as Ca2+) 200
Magnesium (Mg2+) 200
Boron (as B) 5
Alkyl mercury compounds Not detectable Not detectable
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) 0.003 0.003
Pesticides (Total) <0.01 <0.01
Alpha emitters (uc ml-1) 10-7 -
Beta emitters (uc ml-1) 10-6 -
Coliforms (daily average MPN/100ml) 400 500
Suspended Fibre - -

Source: (FAO, 1991)

MATERIALS AND METHODS
The Study Area
Benue State was created in 1976, with the capital located 
at Makurdi. The location of  the state is within the middle 
belt region of  Nigeria. Principally, the state lies between 
longitude 60 451 and 80 151 E and Latitude 70 301 and 90 
451 N. The location of  the state within the lower Benue 
trough endows it with well drain surface waters such 

as rivers and streams(Ujoh & Kwaghsende, 2014). The 
Rice Factory in Makurdi was established in June 2001. 
The company is situated at Kilometer 5, Gboko Road, 
Makurdi, Benue State. The company generates aqueous 
effluents  discharged into arable lands and find their way 
into surface/ underground water. The effluents may be 
high in total dissolved solids, oxygen-demanding material, 
heavy metals, and other toxic chemicals.



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Data Collection 
Five (5) water samples were collected from the rice 
factory’s recipient environment and the receiving stream, 
using Grab standard method (Blomqvist, 1991). This 
involved using a clean container to collect water samples 
from the surface (0-15m). Sampling was carried out 
weekly for a period of  3 weeks to minimize error. The 
Sampling points included:

1. Effluent at the discharge point.
2. Flowing effluent at the discharge point into the 

recipient environment (Land).
3. Stagnant effluent at the discharge point into the 

recipient environment (Land).
4. Receiving stream at 100 metres
5. Underground water from a well within the area.

Sampling Identification/ Coding
The sampling involved the collection of  samples from 
varying sampling points. All samples were properly 
given code numbers and labeled with a water-resistant 
permanent marker on a label held to the container with 
a firm tag. Samples were properly sealed, carrying labels 
with the following information:

• Sample number
• Date and time of  sampling
• Point of  sampling

In-Situ field Analysis
All the water samples collected were assembled and the 
following parameters were determined.

• pH/Temperature: Determined with a potable HACH 
pH meter with a temperature compensating device.

• Total dissolved solids/ total suspended solids /
conductivity: was determined by use of  CO150 HACH 
Conductivity meters.

• Dissolved Oxygen was determined using a Jenway 
dissolved oxygen meter. This was carried out using 

calibrated equipment of  high precision. All field 
instruments were regularly cleaned and calibrated before 
use. Proper records of  the readings for each sample were 
immediately recorded into the field notebook.

Laboratory Analysis
Water samples were analyzed using the appropriate 
standard methods for each Parameter as specified by 
the Federal Ministry of  Environment (FME) and the 
Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) as 
documented in the guidelines and standard manual of  
1991. The laboratory analysis was carried out at the 
Greater Makurdi waterworks laboratory-Makurdi Benue 
State. The parameters determined were:

• pH, Temperature, Turbidity, total suspended solids, 
total dissolved solids conductivity and heavy metals 
(Cu, NO3, & PO3); determined by use of  HACH 
spectrophotometer.

• Biochemical Oxygen demand; determined by use of  
HACH SHELAB BOD track.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Field Observation
Water samples were collected from the effulent channels 
and recipient environment. Effluent from the discharged 
point was without oil sheen. The effluent at the outlet 
into the receiving environment was without oil sheen, 
and the surrounding area was overgrown with weeds, 
though there was a large portion of  land clear of  any 
plant growth and appeared brownish with oil-like stains.   

Data Presentation
Data from the analysis of  the various parameters was 
presented on the tables 1-4. This method is adopted to 
make it easier for comparism with the conventional tables 
given by FEPA.

Figure 1: Map showing the location of  the study area
Source: (Uruku & Adikwu, 2017).



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Table 2: Results of  laboratory analysis of  water bodies around the rice factory environs for week 1
Parameter Point 1 Point 2 Point 3 Point 4 Point 5
pH 4.11 3.99 5.17 6.81 5.57
Temperature oC 37.8 37.4 37.8 36.2 36.1
Turbidity, FAU 209 222 35.4 97.4 6.24
TSS, Mg/L 660 689 122 83 81
TDS, Mg/L 51 82 620.33 45 42
Conductivity, ms 97.67 78.8 1192.00 103.00 187.67
DO, Mg/L 6.72 8.10 5.80 4.50 5.70
BOD, Mg/L 4.60 4.16 2.30 1.70 3.8
Copper (Cu) 0.27 0.49 0.18 0.23 0.21
Nitrate Mg/L 1.06 0.91 0.31 0.60 1.71
Phosphate, Mg/L 2.29 1.73 0.92 0.31 0.23

TDS = Total dissolved solids, TSS = total suspended solids, DO = demand of  oxygen, BOD = Biochemical oxygen demand
Field work, 2018.

Table 3: Results of  laboratory analysis of  water bodies around the rice factory environs for week 2
Parameter Point 1 Point 2 Point 3 Point 4 Point 5
pH 3.88 3.72 5.89 6.45 6.17
Temperature oC 38.1 38.0 38.1 38.0 38.0
Turbidity, FAU 236 40.4 35.2 30.4 2.24
TSS, Mg/L 321 177 80 48 40
TDS, Mg/L 41.69 77.26 601 39.2 95.1
Conductivity, ms 83.40 72.49 1202.00 78.70 190.20
DO, Mg/L 7.2 8.80 6.2 4.60 5.62
BOD, Mg/L 3.8 4.21 2.60 1.61 4.0
Copper (Cu) 0.31 0.52 0.16 0.31 0.41
Nitrate Mg/L 1.66 1.22 0.81 0.46 2.1
Phosphate, Mg/L 3.2 2.1 1.8 0.61 0.72

TDS = Total dissolved solids, TSS = total suspended solids, DO = demand of  oxygen, BOD = Biochemical oxygen demand
Field work, 2018.

Table 4: : Results of  laboratory analysis of  water bodies around the rice factory environs for week 3
Parameter Point 1 Point 2 Point 3 Point 4 Point 5
pH 5.21 4.0 5.20 7.1 6.02
Temperature oC 37.8 38.6 37.1 36.8 36.2
Turbidity, FAU 210 210 35.8 102.4 6.40
TSS, mg/1 Mg/L 642 690 132 84 86
TDS, Mg/L 55 81 610.31 46 44
Conductivity, ms 102.45 80.6 1082.00 104.20 190.00
DO, Mg/L 5.60 8.02 6.04 5.01 6.20
BOD, Mg/L 3.80 4.12 3.10 2.22 3.2
Copper (Cu) 0.31 0.46 0.20 0.26 0.24
Nitrate Mg/L 1.26 1.12 0.42 0.70 1.82
Phosphate, Mg/L 2.30 1.70 1.02 0.36 0.35

TDS = Total dissolved solids, TSS = total suspended solids, DO = demand of  oxygen, BOD = Biochemical oxygen demand
Field work, 2018.



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The physico-chemical quality of  effluent water bodies 
indicated the following characteristics;
The mean hydrogen ion concentration as pH of  the 
effluent and recipient water body (River Benue) ranged 
from 3.90 to 6.78 which shows that only sample point 
4 was within National Standard Regulation Enforcement 
Agency (NESREA) Limit of  6-9 while sample point 1, 2, 
3 and 5 fall outside the Federal Environmental Protection 
Agency (FEPA) limit indicating pollution due to acidity, 
probably due to discharge of  untreated waste. This 
acidity can lead to the bonding of  ions in the water which 
can make it not to be readily available for plants to take 
in thereby affecting the plants growth leading yellowish 
leaves (George et al., 2012).
The mean temperature of  the water samples appears 
normal within a range of  36.77 to 37.91 as within the 
FEPA limits of  <400C, not indicating pollution. Mean 
turbidity of  the water samples ranges from 14.93 to 
218.30. Mean turbidity of  sample point 5 is 14.93 as within 
FEPA limit while that of  sample point 1, 2, 3 and 4 are 
against the FEPA limits indicating pollution. Mean total 
suspended solids (TSS) of  water samples ranges from 
69.00 to 541.00 as against the FEPA limits of  <30mg/1 
indicating pollution. Total suspended solids are particles 
that are larger than 2 microns found in water column. 
This can pollute the water by reducing the water clarity.
Mean TDS of  water samples ranges from 46.33 to 
610.55appear normal within a range the FEPA limits of  
<2000mg/1 indicating no-pollution. 
The mean conductivity of  the water samples ranges 
from 75.97 to 1158.67 having sample point 4 is 1158.67 
as against FEPA limit of  <800 indicating pollution 
at this point. The mean DO ranges from 4.70 to 8.31 
indicating stress to aquatic organism and pollution. 
The mean BOD, which ranges from 1.83 to 4.16 is an 
indicating pollution with organic contaminant and against 
regulatory standards of  >50mg/1. The mean heavy metal 
concentrations in the water sample of  copper ranges 
from 0.27 to 0.49 indicating no pollution because it falls 

below the FEPA limit of  <1. The mean concentration 
of  Nitrate ranges from 0.51 to 1.88 as within the FEPA 
limit of  20 indicating no-pollution. The mean phosphate 
of  the water samples ranges from 0.42 to 2.83 appears 
normal within the range of  FEPA limit of  5.1mg/1.

Implication for the Environment 
Natural, undisturbed ecosystems provide habitat for 
a broad range of  biota, exhibiting taxonomic richness 
and complex trophic structure. The physio-chemical 
parameters of  the water samples that are indicators of  
pollution include pH depicting acidity, Turbidity of  all the 
water samples with exception of  point 5, TSS and TDS of  
all the water samples, conductivity of  sample point 3, low 
pH which is less than 5 indicates acidity concentration. 
Many biological processes such as reproduction cannot 
function properly in acidity waters (Pörtner et al., 2004).
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) is a basic requirement for a 
healthy aquatic ecosystem(Davis, 1975). Most fish and 
beneficial aquatic insects and plants breathe in oxygen 
dissolved in the water column(Kramer, 1987); (Hershey 
et al., 2010). Though some aquatic organisms may 
adapted to low oxygen conditions. Those that are not 
will suffer due to the low dissolved oxygen concentration. 
Prolonged episodes of  depressed dissolved oxygen 
concentration can eventually result in “death” of  the 
water organism(David, 2021). BOD is a measure of  
the organic content of  water. It also represents to some 
extent, the amount of  oxygen which would be required to 
stabilize the water body(Pradeep et al., 2012). The BOD 
of  the water samples was very low thus organisms in the 
environment may suffer from low oxygen level.

CONCLUSION
From the study carried out to access the effect of  
effluent discharge from rice factory on the water quality 
of  the physico-chemical quality of  the effluent water 
bodies indicated pollution and non-compliance with 
environmental regulatory limits in parameter such as 

Table 5: : Mean results of  laboratory analysis of  water bodies around the rice factory environs for (week 1-3)
Parameter Point 1 Point 2 Point 3 Point 4 Point 5 FEPA LIMITS
pH 4.90 3.90 5.42 6.79 5.92 6-9
Temperature 0C 37.91 37.80 37.67 37.00 36.77 <400c
Turbidity, FAU 218.30 157.47 37.47 76.73 14.93 <25
TSS, Mg/L 541.00 516.67 111.33 71.67 69.00 <30
TDS, Mg/L 49.23 80.09 610.55 46.33 60.37 <2000
Conductivity, ms 94.51 77.30 1118.67 75.97 170.73 <800
DO, Mg/1 Mg/L 6.50 8.31 6.01 4.70 5.84 >10
BOD, Mg/L 4.07 4.16 2.67 1.84 3.67 >50
Copper (Cu) 0.30 0.49 0.39 0.27 0.29 <1
Nitrate, Mg/L 1.33 1.08 0.51 0.59 1.88 20
Phosphate, Mg/L 2.83 1.84 1.25 0.42 0.40 5.1

TDS = Total dissolved solids, TSS = total suspended solids, DO = demand of  oxygen, BOD = Biochemical oxygen demand
Field work, 2018.



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pH (acidity), Turbidity, TSS, Conductivity, DO, BOD. 
Parameters that did not indicate pollution include 
temperature, copper (Cu), Nitrate, and Phosphate. 
The company does not have any waste treatment/
management procedure. The effluents are released 
into the environment without treatment; this does not 
comply with the environmental regulatory requirements. 
Overall, the environment is under some form of  stress 
because some parameters were not within Federal 
Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) limits, thus 
indicating pollution that may affect the ecosystem. The 
natural quality of  water is influenced by the continuous 
introduction of  substances which leads to changes in the 
parameters.

RECOMMENDATIONS
With the incidence of  the KOKO toxic waste episode 
in Nigeria in 1988, which was the climax of  pollution, 
the Federal Government of  Nigeria set up the Federal 
Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) with decree 
58 of  1988 to protect Nigeria’s environment. The 
decree also empowered the agency to promulgate 
regulations; to date the Agency has promulgated or issued 
several regulations(Ihonvbere, 1994). It is therefore 
recommended, in accordance with the result of  this 
research, that the rice processing factories in Makurdi 
should:

• Ensure routine maintenance of  facilities equipment 
to ensure compliance of  effluent discharges with 
environmental standards.

• Ensure self-monitoring of  the environmental 
indicator parameters to check pollution and avoid 
environmental damage.

• Ensure environmental awareness training to familiarize 
the plant personnel with the need to be environmentally 
conscious and friendly in their daily activities.

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