









































Pa
ge

 
1



Pa
ge

 
21

American Journal of  Environmental
Economics (AJEE) 

Access to Carbon Credits in the Waste Sector: What Opportunity for 
Municipalities in Cameroon?

Moye Eric Kongnso1*, Tiomo Dongfack Emmanuel1, Sagne Joël Moumbe2, Djoukeng Fortune Blanche1

Volume 4 Issue 1, Year 2025
ISSN: 2833-7905 (Online)

DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v4i1.3820
https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Article Information ABSTRACT

Received: September 18, 2024

Accepted: October 25, 2024

Published: February 13, 2025

Household solid waste management is a major concern for cities in developing countries.  In 
Cameroon, an increase in the quantity of  waste produced is associated with increased urban 
population.  Within the context of  decentralization, municipalities have been given the 
competence to manage waste, but challenges abound. This work seeks to demonstrate that 
municipal solid waste management via composting provides financial gains from the carbon 
credit.  A mixed methods approach was used to collect secondary and primary data, and a 
participatory observation was used to evaluate the quantity of  methane sequestrated during 
composting.  Results show that with an estimated population of  about 132916 inhabitants in 
2023, Dschang produces 27514.9 tons of  waste annually. However, only 32% of  this waste is 
collected and 55.21% of  the waste collected is valorized through composting.  Between 2017 
and 2023, the project activities produced 2472 tons of  CO2 equivalence and prevented the 
emission of  17,989 tons of  CO2, as the baseline scenario for the same period had predicted 
emissions of  20461 tons of  methane. With this, Dschang municipality benefited from 
carbon credits amounting to 150,000 euros between 2019 and 2023. However, numerous 
material, organizational and regulatory constraints hinder the smooth running of  the 
activity and threaten its sustainability. Resolving these difficulties is essential and requires the 
reorganization of  the waste management system, more flexible and less rigorous policies in 
the carbon market.

Keywords

Cameroon, Carbon Evaluation, 
Carbon Credits, Composting, 
Household Solid Waste, 
Municipalities

1 Department of  Geography, Environment and Planning, University of  Dschang, Cameroon
2 Institute of  Fine Arts in Nkongsamba of  the University of  Douala, Cameroon
* Corresponding author’s e-mail: moyeeric@yahoo.com

INTRODUCTION 
Waste production is increasing rapidly in urban areas 
and management challenges remain a major concern.  
According to the World Bank, (2018), the annual 
production of  municipal waste already exceeds 2 billion 
tons per year. Several studies (Sharholy et al., 2007; Ahmed 
& Ali, 2006; Diabagate, 2009) are unanimous on the fact 
that rapid urbanization, the increase in living standards 
and population growth are closely linked to waste 
production. This has led to an explosive increase in the 
amount of  waste and accelerated global warming through 
methane emissions. The recent World Bank report (2018) 
shows that the increase in the quantity of  waste produced 
in the world is increasing rapidly and It is estimated at 
more than 70% by 2050 and will be multiplied by three 
in sub-Saharan Africa with more than 516 million tons 
compared to 174tons today.  Greenhouse gas emission 
from waste significantly contributes to climate change. 
With 1.6 billion tons of  carbon equivalent produced per 
year (5% of  greenhouse gas emissions), the collection and 
treatment of  waste is becoming an important factor in 
the fight against global warming. If  mitigation measures 
are not put in place, this figure could reach 2.6 billion tons 
in 2050, further aggravating the current situation. These 
emissions largely come from methane (CH4) released by 
the decomposition of  garbage in landfills.
In Sub-Saharan Africa, landfills only receive on 
average 30 to 40% of  waste (Ngangué, 2012; Koledzi, 
2011). This situation is caused by inadequate material, 
technological, legal and political framework that governs 

the waste management sector. The fraction of  waste 
which dominates, however, consists of  fermentable 
waste which can be recovered by composting (Topanou, 
2012). In the cities of  Central Africa, more particularly in 
Cameroon, the fermentable fraction contained in waste 
varies between 50 and 65% (Ngnikam et al., 2017; Sagne, 
2021). This is a great potential as compositing provides 
opportunities to gain access to carbon credits and boast 
the effectiveness of  municipal solid waste management 
systems. Through a public-private partnership set up to 
alleviate the financial difficulties faced by municipalities in 
developing countries, carbon reduction or sequestration 
projects can have access to carbon credits (Benrabia, 2003; 
Gbinlo, 2010). Carbon financing becomes an economic 
tool in the fight against climate change (Albérola, 2011; 
Boutti, 2013) as the carbon market encourages different 
agents to set up emissions reduction activities, especially 
in developing countries (Han, 2024).
The carbon market or greenhouse gas emissions trading 
system is a public policy tool for reducing gas emissions 
into the atmosphere (mainly carbon dioxide) responsible 
for climate change. It began from the Rio Earth Summit 
in 1992, which led to the adoption by 196 countries of  
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate 
Change (UNFCCC), then to the establishment of  the 
Protocol of  Kyoto. This protocol is an international 
agreement signed on December 11, 1997 during COP 3 in 
Kyoto as an additional protocol and binding application 
to the 1992 climate convention. It came into force in 
2005 with the objective of  reducing responsible GHG 



Pa
ge

 
22

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Am. J. Environ Econ. 4(1) 21-31, 2025

emissions. This led to the putting in place of  the largest 
emissions trading market though it only concerned 
industrialized countries.
In 2005, the States began negotiations for a new agreement 
which would also take into account developing countries 
in preparation for the expiry of  the Kyoto protocol. 
This project culminated in COP 15 in Copenhagen in 
2009, which set a temperature stabilization objective 
of  2% by 2050. The Kyoto Protocol expires in 2012 
and its objectives seem generally achieved (despite the 
fact that the United States did not ratify it and Canada 
had withdrawn), but in the absence of  an international 
agreement on climate, the industrialized countries decided 
to extend it beyond 2012. This is how in 2012, in Doha, a 
new Conference of  the Parties (COP18) was held during 
which the rules for the second commitment period of  the 
Kyoto Protocol (2013-2020) were defined.
It is in this context that COP 21 was held in Paris, from 
November 30 to December 11, 2015, which resulted in 
the adoption of  a global agreement to combat climate 
change on December 12, 2015. With this new agreement, 
emitting GHGs above a certain threshold is now 
penalized and has a cost. Conversely, emitters capable 
of  remaining below this threshold hold a differential 
value and have access to financial benefits. With this, 
the good news was the putting in place of  benefits from 
emissions reductions. This was the origin of  the carbon 
credits. Carbon is used because carbon dioxide is the 
main greenhouse and since then, it could be traded in the 
carbon market. Besides making money from composted 
waste, the idea of  repurposing garbage as a resource 
has drawn much attention in light of  growing concerns 
about sustainable development and environmental 
management. Saifullah et al., (2024) explore the intriguing 
idea of  using waste materials as a practical and ecological 
replacement for construction materials and also carefully 
evaluate the technical, environmental and financial 
viability of  incorporating various waste products, like 
household waste paper and waste glass into different 
construction application. This economic value of  waste 
has made scavenging a livelihood activity in some towns 
of  developing countries though environmental and health 
concerns are on the rise. 
Reducing greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere 
is important in mitigating global warming (Fapong, 2017). 
In the agricultural sector, carbon assessment represents 
14% of  greenhouse gas emissions (Foucherot et al., 
2011). The Ecological Footprint, the Carbon Balance 
Sheet or even the Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) is the tools 
par excellence for carbon assessment (Marchand, 2013; 
Aissani et al., 2012; Sagne, 2021). In Gambia, life cycle 
analysis has made it possible to reduce 20% and 22% 
of  the country’s total municipal solid waste footprint 
(Jassey et al., 2023). Unfortunately, climate policies are 
perceived by developing countries as an additional 
constraint on their development process (Mathy, 2004) 
with participation only taking place through the clean 
development mechanism (Kleiche, 2006). In relation this 

perception, Mahamane et al., (2023) established a direct 
correlation between carbondioxide  emission reduction 
and poverty in developing countries. Their work revealed 
that poor countries can not develop their economies if  
developed countries limit their industrial development 
with concepts such as the clean mechanism that limits 
energy consumption and development initiatives. 
Developing countries contribute very little in global green 
house gas emission and Sarker et al., (2021) revealed the 
progress of  developing countries away from poverty 
require investing in industries that will emit gases and 
pollute the environment.  This work has a different 
perspective and shades light on existing opportunities 
for municipalities in Cameroon as potential beneficiaries 
from the carbon credits. 
As part of  the national waste management strategy 
implemented in Cameroon and compliance with 
sustainable development goals, the Dschang municipality 
has established since the mid-2000s, with the help of  
national and international partners, a waste management 
and recovery system with access to carbon finance and 
which integrates the participation of  all local stakeholders. 
Since then, composting took a central stage in the waste 
management with construction and operationalization of  
two composting platforms. Non- the -less, there has been 
a number of  drawbacks. For instance, waste is not sorted 
at source and in most cases; it arrives the composting 
platforms at an advanced state of  degradation thus 
reducing the compost quality and credit potential (Moye 
et al., 2024). As such, this work aims to show how carbon 
sequestrated during the composting process can fetch 
money from the carbon market. It has policy implications 
as it is imperative to take stock of  the difficulties 
that hamper composting activity and impact carbon 
financing in developing countries. It has an introduction, 
presentation of  the study area and the methodology 
for data collection and processing. Results demonstrate 
the contribution of  composting in the management of  
household solid waste, the carbon evaluation process and 
carbon credits obtained and finally the difficulties that 
hinder the composting activity and by extension access to 
the carbon market.

MATERIALS AND METHODS 
Presentation of  the study area 
Located between latitudes 5° 25’ and 5° 30’ North and 
between longitudes 10°30’ and 10° 50’ East of  the 
Green Wich Meridian, Dschang is the headquarter of  
the Menoua Division. Geographcally, it falls within the 
Western Highlands of  Cameroon, precisely on the South-
Eastern slope of  the Bamboutos Mountains. Dschang 
is located 46 km from the regional capital Bafoussam 
(Figure 1). With an average altitude of  1400m above the 
sea level, the dominant climate is the high altitude tropical 
type, characterized by a rainy season which extends from 
mid-March to mid-November and a dry season extending 
from mid- November to mid-March. Precipitation 
is decreasing with an annual average of  1872.3 mm in 



Pa
ge

 
23

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Am. J. Environ Econ. 4(1) 21-31, 2025

1997 compared to 1654.2 mm in 2005.  Altitudinal 
variations have put in place three agro-ecological zones 
(low, medium and high altitude) with strong agricultural 
potential (Dschang Council, 2019). According to data 

from the General Population and Housing Census 
(RGPH) of  2005, the municipality has a total of  120,207 
inhabitants. That is, 63,838 inhabitants in the urban area 
and 56,369 inhabitants in the rural area.

Figure 1: Localization of  the study zone

Figure 1 shows two systems of  waste management which 
do not follow the same circuit. Pre-collection is carried 
out by private organizations in partnership with the 
municipality, especially in the inaccessible neighborhoods 
with the use of  tricycles. Collection takes place along the 
main streets of  the town by compaction trucks. There 
are authorized dumpsites, but the population has created 
unauthorized garbage dumping sites throughout the city.  
Waste collected is transported to the composting sites 
for the production of  compost. The Siteu composting 
platform located at a high altitude is only accessible by 
compaction trucks and dump trucks while tricycles 
transport fresh waste to the Ngui composting platform.

Data collection and analysis
Secondary and primary sources were used to collect data 
for this work. Secondary data was obtained from reports, 
archives and online articles. Primary data collection 
was done through a participatory observation during 
internships carried out at the municipality composting 
platforms and at ERA Cameroon, an NGO works with 
the municipality in the composting project. Structured 
questionnaires were administered to 41 purposively 
selected actors within the waste management chain and 
four(4)  interviews carried out with major stakeholders 
such as the head of  the  Municipal Waste Management 
Agency and agents of   ERA Cameroon in charge of  the 

valorization of  the carbon credits produced during the 
composting process.
Data collected was treated quantitatively and qualitatively. 
Questionnaires were coded and treated in SPSS while 
interviews were transcribed, coded and analyzed according 
to contents and themes using the Atlas.Ti software. 
For carbon evaluation, parameters for calculating 
emission reductions during the composting process 
were employed, permitting the estimation of  avoided 
emissions to be sold in the carbon market. The formula 
for calculating avoided emissions is that of  AMS-III.F 
“Avoidance of  methane emissions through controlled 
biological treatment of  biomass” of  the United Nations 
Framework Convention on Climate Change which 
stipulates that, to obtain avoided emissions, we proceed 
by calculating the difference between emissions of  the 
project and those of  the reference scenario. The reference 
scenario is that which prevails in a situation where there 
is no waste treatment and the project emissions represent 
those which take place during the project activity.
The AMS-III.F methodology is the most suitable for 
calculating reduced emissions with regard to projects for 
the valorization of  solid waste into compost on a small 
scale (-60,000 tCO2eq / year), on a medium scale and on 
a large scale. It incorporates measures to avoid emitting 
methane into the atmosphere, whether from biomass or 
organic matter found in anaerobic conditions. 



Pa
ge

 
24

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Am. J. Environ Econ. 4(1) 21-31, 2025

To calculate the emissions of  the situation without the 
Composting operation, the formula is as follows:
BEY=BECH4SWDSY+BEWWY+BECH4manurey-MDy*GWPCH4              (1)
Where:
BEY= baseline emissions for year y; BECH4SWDSY= Yearly 
methane emissions from solid waste; BEWWY= BE from 
waste water co-composted (BE from composted waste 
water); BECH4manurey=BE from manure composted (BE 
from composted manure); MDY= methane that would 
have to be composted and combusted to comply with 
regulation. GWPCH4 is the global warming potential for 
CH4 = 23 (the global warming potential of  CH4 is 23)
During the composting process, there are very small 
amounts of  greenhouse gas emissions. These emissions 
are monitored and their values used to calculate project 
emissions. The formula for calculating project emissions 
is:
PEY=PEY,power+PEY,comp+PEY,runoff+PEY,res waste                              (2)
Where:
PEY = project emissions year y; PEY, power = emissions due 
to electricity; PEY,comp= emissions linked to the composting 
process; PEY, runoff  = emissions due to leachate; PEY, reswaste= 
emissions linked to anaerobic storage of  compost.  Waste 
treatment through composting in Dschang focuses on 
the fraction of  CH4 emissions avoided, so the formula 
becomes;
BEY= BECH4SWDSy                                                                             (3)
Where,
BECH4WDSy=Φ × (1-f) × GWPCH4 × (1-ox) × (16/12) × F × DOCf 

× MCF × ∑y
x=1∑jWj.k × DOCj × e-kj(y-x) × (1-e-kj)                        (4)

From this formula, we understand that the reductions in 
CH4 for waste composted in year X do not only apply in 
year X, but also in future years. More explicitly, it must 
be understood that the emission reductions in later years 
are the results of  the waste treatment carried out in the 
beginning. For this reason and for a better understanding 
of  the immediate benefits of  composting activity on 
GHG emissions in Dschang, we adopted this formula 
while reducing all year round emissions for landfilling.
Wjx = Wx × pjx                    (5)
Wj= quantity of  treated waste “j” monitored, DOCf = 
Degradable Organic Carbon: default value; Kj= waste 
degradation rate j by default; Wjx= quantity of  waste “j” 
treated in year x; Wx: total quantity of  waste treated; Pjx= 
average fraction of  waste “j” in waste of  year X; DOCj: 
fraction of  degradable organic carbon (weight), in waste 
type per day and Kj is the waste degradation rate. 
Regarding the calculation of  project emissions during the 
composting process, reference is made to greenhouse gas 
emissions (in very small quantities) but whose values are 
monitored and used to calculate project emissions. They 
include; 
Emissions due to electricity consumption
PEY,power = ∑jEC × EF × (1+TDL)              (6)
Where;
EC=quantity of  electricity used in the year; EF=default 
emissions factor of  1.3; (1 + TDL)= network loss by 
default which is 20%

Emissions linked to the composting process
PEY,comp = Qy × EFcomp × GPWCH4                   (7)
Given that the methodology is conservative, it is estimated 
that there are few emissions where: Qy=quantity of  waste 
treated; EFcomp = default emissions factor which is 4% 
and=GWPCH4, which is 23.  In the case where the oxygen 
is monitored and is greater than 8% with 90% confidence 
and 10% error, then PEy,comp = 0
Emissions linked to leaching (PEy, runoff)
PEY,runoff = Qy,www,runoff × CODy,www,runoff × Bo,ww ×  MCFww,treat × UFb 

× GWPCH4PEy,runoff=0                                                                   (8)
These emissions were not considered because composting 
on both sites is done in a shed and therefore the leachate 
effect is null.
Emissions linked to anaerobic storage of  compost PEy, 
reswaste
PEy = PEy,power + PEy,comp                   (9)
In the case of  Dschang, compost is stored aerobically so 
PEy, reswaste = 0

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The contribution of  composting in the municipal 
solid waste management system 
The population of  Dschang municipality has evolved 
over time, increasing from 30,000 inhabitants in 1952 
to about 132,916 inhabitants in 2023. It is important 
to note that the waste production capacity of  a city 
depends on its population and as such, quantities of  
waste produced by the city’s populations have evolved in 
line with its population growth. With the establishment 
of  a composting activity in the mid-2000s, a Municipal 
Waste Management Agency was created in 2015. Within 
this agency is the service responsible for pre-collection 
and collection of  waste. In the year 2023, the population 
was estimated at 27,514 tons with an average per capita 
waste production capacity of  0.65kg/day. However, the 
waste management service collected only 32% of  the 
waste produced by the city’s population. A comparison 
between the quantities of  waste collected and those 
treated (Table 1) gives us the contribution of  composting 
in waste management.
Table 1 shows that quantities of  waste collected in 
Dschang have increased significant since the inception of  
the composting project in 2015. The change from about 
4000 tons in 2015 to 14000 in 2022 is remarkable but there 
was drop to about 9000tons in 2023.  Interviews revealed 
that the drop was caused by technical challenges that made 
waste collection ineffective. This implied a corresponding 
increase in waste treated from 500tons in 2015 to 
about 5000tons in 2023. Despite the steady increase in 
quantities treated, there are fluctuations in the rate of  
treatment. It varies in relation to the waste collection rate. 
This treatment rate is highest in 2018, where it represents 
66.55% of  the quantity of  waste collected but trends 
have been falling with 2022 representing only 28.64% 
but in 2023 it went up to 55.21%. These fluctuations in 
quantities treated have implications on the carbon credit 
potential of  the municipality.



Pa
ge

 
25

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Am. J. Environ Econ. 4(1) 21-31, 2025

Table 1: Quantity of  waste collected and treated on the platforms between 2015 and 2023
Years Total quantities of  waste 

collected (tons)
Total quantities of  waste 
composted

Rate of  treatment by 
composting (%)

2015 3909,04 1130 28,91
2016 4 996,90 1695,1 33,92
2017 5800,53 3487,57 60,13
2018 5633,35 3411,11 60,55
2019 5342,10 2187,31 40,94
2020 11282,67 3012,48 26,70
2021 13267,19 4 450,05 33,54
2022 13817,14 3 956,90 28,64
2023 8939,5 4 935,21 55,21

Composting as an alternative method for municipal 
solid waste treatment
Composting is a method of  stabilizing and treating 
biodegradable organic waste using the natural process 
of  decomposition of  organic matter in the presence 

of  oxygen. An increase in temperature for several 
weeks, reflecting the activity of  a large number of  
microorganisms, produces a stable final product called 
compost (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Organic Waste composting system

Figure 2 shows the inputs, processes and output from 
the composting process. The process begins when waste 
reaches the composting platforms at Ngui and Siteu. It 
involves a number of  activities (Figure 3). The first stage 
is the sorting of  non-biodegradable components of  the 
waste using the handpicking method on sorting tables 
(Photo A). The compostable waste is the place in heaps 
and fermentation begins (Photo B). The fermentation is 
done under aerobic conditions to avoid the production of  
methane. After a month of  fermentation, there is sharp 
rise in temperatures due to action of  micro-organisms. 
Temperature   remains generally high during the first 
month and decrease gradually. During this phase, the 
humidity level of  the heap is checked and if  it is too dry, 
it is watered (photo D). The heap must not be too dry or 
too wet.
A dry heap may stop the activity of  the microorganisms 
while too much water produces a blackish liquid called 
leachate which is toxic. Watering is therefore monitored 
carefully. As decomposition is going on, heaps are 

constantly turned (Photo C).  During this phase, the waste 
that makes up the heap is unidentifiable and a reduction 
in temperature is observed (below 40 °C). This is the 
second month of  fermentation and it lasts for a month 
and a half. Throughout this phase, the decomposition of  
the waste continues and the organic materials undergo 
biological and chemical stabilization. After 3 and a half  
to 4 months, waste is completely decomposed.  A final 
turning is carried out to dry it completely and larger 
particles are removed through sieving (Photo E). The 
dry compost is then packaged into bags and sold to 
local farmers (Photo F). During these processes, data is 
collected for calculation of  project emission reductions.

Carbon evaluation during composting processes 
This process begins with a project design document. 
When drafting this document, estimates are made of  the 
emissions that would normally take place in a situation 
without a composting project. These emissions are still 
called baseline emissions and are different from project 



Pa
ge

 
26

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Am. J. Environ Econ. 4(1) 21-31, 2025

Figure 3: Composting processes at the municipal composting platforms

emissions. During the composting activities, a carbon 
monitoring of  certain key parameters on the different 
composting platforms was carried out. In Dschang, these 
parameters are used in the calculation of  project emissions 
by ERA Cameroun and the verification of  reduced 
emissions ensured by a designated operational entity. 

After calculating project emissions, they are compared 
to those of  the baseline to obtain the reduced emissions 
(figure 4). During the year 2023, 2873 tons of  emissions 
were avoided from baseline emissions estimated at 3334 
tons. This shows a reduction of  86%.

Figure 4: Emissions calculated during the composting processes

Figure 4 shows the baseline emissions and emissions 
reduced by the Dschang City Composting Project. It is 
clear that the project avoided each year more than 90% of  
CH4 emissions that would have occurred in the absence 
of  a composting project. The city’s waste would have 
produced 20461 tons of  carbon equivalence between 
2017 and 2023. Thanks to the composting of  its waste, 

17989 tons of  CO2 eq were avoided. This corresponds 
to 87% of  the emissions that would have occurred 
without the project. It is important to note that during 
the composting process, small quantities of  other GHGs 
are emitted especially CO2. Between 2017 and 2023, 2472 
tons of  CO2 were emitted from composting activities 
such as electricity consumption and storage of  compost. 



Pa
ge

 
27

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Am. J. Environ Econ. 4(1) 21-31, 2025

Accessing carbon credits from certified reduced 
emission 
To access the carbon market, developing countries must 
not only set up a project to sequester or avoid greenhouse 
gas emissions but they are conditioned to draft a carbon 
file to be submitted to Gold Standard, an institution  that 
regulates the voluntary market resulting from the Clean 
Development Mechanism (CDM) to which the project is 
registered. This is the first condition to obtain certification 
for emission reduction and possibility of  selling them. The 
procedure begins with the elaboration of  a project design 
document that is submitted to a designated operational 
entity for validation after monitoring project activities in 
the field. Registration is then done and it corresponds to 
the formal acceptance of  the carbon project by the CDM 
executive board. This is a prerequisite for the verification, 
certification and marketing processes of  credits relating 
to the project activities.
It is important to note that carbon financing is additional 
financing allocated to decentralized local communities 
in developing countries to enable them to cover part of  
the costs related to the management of  their waste. In 
Dschang, the NGO ERA Cameroon is the local structure 
that handles the sale of  certified emissions and the 
main buyer is the French foundation Good Planet. The 

Dschang municipality began receiving carbon credits in 
2019 although the evaluation of  emissions avoided by 
the composting project started in 2017. Delays observed 
in the reception of  credits between 2017 and 2019 were 
attributed to administrative bottlenecks encountered 
during the drafting and validation of  the project design 
document as revealed in the following excerpts captured 
during an interview with an agent of  Era Cameroon;

“……drafting the project design documents and 
getting validation and certification of  reduced emissions 
is a long and challenging task. That is why it took us more 
than two years to start benefiting from carbon credits…
”(Interview, 2023). 
However, the Dschang project unit benefited from 
remote support from the GEVALOR team (Sustainable 
management and recovery of  waste and mineral raw 
materials), which gave them the opportunity to finalize 
the document by 2019. Thanks to their interventions, 
credits for the years 2017 and 2018 were then considered 
as a balance that was later paid to ERA Cameroon by 
Good Planet. From 2019 to 2023, there has been a steady 
increase in the amounts benefited by the project although 
with marked differences between the received and the 
expected amounts (figure 5).  

Figure 5: difference between the amount of  carbon credits received and the expected amounts

Figure 5 shows that carbon credits obtained have evolved 
from 10,000 euros in 2019 to 50,000euros in 2023 
but were below the expected credits except for 2022. 
However, in 2022 and 2023, the amounts received were 
more than the expected amounts.  This is explained by 
the fact that even though emission reductions are only 
calculated for specific years, the carbon credits are paid 
throughout the entire period of  the project’s activities. 
Therefore, the greater the quantity of  waste processed 
at the start of  the project, the greater the carbon credits 
obtained over time. Between 2019 and 2023, the project 
has benefitted from credits amounting to 150,000 
euros. However, before the implementation of  a carbon 
monitoring system, the project already had other financial 

sources. These are the revenues from participatory pre-
collection and from the sale of  compost. Between 2016 
and 2020, the total amount of  money made by the pre-
collection and collection service was 43,510,750 FCFA, 
while from 2015 to 2023, the revenue from compost sales 
amounted to 50,981,128 FCFA. Despite these financial 
gains, the project still encounters a number of  challenges 
that limits its ability to make more money.

Challenges in accessing carbon credits by from 
composting activities 
Waste collection and composting barriers
In Dschang municipality, only 32% of  waste produced 
reaches the composting sites. This implies that 68% of  



Pa
ge

 
28

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Am. J. Environ Econ. 4(1) 21-31, 2025

waste produced is dumped illegally. From questionnaire 
survey, 67% of  the population revealed that pre-collection 
and waste collection activities are not at its peak. The 
primary causes are mainly insufficient technological 
(23%), financial, material (41.2%) and human resources 
(7.8%). The poor state of  roads (5%) was equally 
identified as a limited factor as it delayed waste supplies to 
the composting platforms. Interviews with head of  waste 
collection unit revealed that the pre-collection and waste 
collection circuit does not cover the entire town due to 
limited materials and poor state of  roads. He added

“…. There is only one compaction truck that plies only 
the main streets whereas dense residential quarters where 
waste is produced in large quantities are inaccessible. It 
is difficult and these people are forced to dump waste 
illegally…(Interview, 2023).
At the level of  the composting platforms, challenges arise 
from the quality of  waste treated. As revealed by the head 
of  the composting unit;

“…due to delays in waste collection and transportation, 
waste sometimes arrive the composting platforms at a 
degrading state…waste that is produced after three days 
is not compostable because it will produce poor quality 
compost..” (Interview, 2023)
It should be noted that the greater the quantity of  waste 
collected, the greater the quantity treated, as well as the 
quantity of  emissions reduced and consequently the 
carbon credits. 

The sale of  certified reduced emissions through an 
intermediary
For projects developed in Cameroon as part of  the Clean 
Development Mechanism to have access to the voluntary 
carbon market, they must go through an intermediary 
for the sale of  their certified reduced emissions. There 
are in fact two sizes of  project: small-scale projects 
that avoid less than 60,000 tons of  carbon per year and 
large-scale projects that avoid more than 60,000 tons of  
carbon per year. To sell directly to the label that regulates 
the voluntary carbon market, it is indeed necessary to 
reduce a large amount of  carbon per year. Each standard 
at the international level gives conditions to be met to 
deal directly with them. The Dschang project is a small-
scale and must go through an intermediary to sell get 
access to the carbon market. The intermediary must be 
a project promoter, registered with the desired standard. 
With reduced emissions of  3334 tons of  CO2 equivalent, 
emissions are sold via Good Planet, a French association 
which helps small project leaders to sell their credits on 
the voluntary offset market. The latter buys the credits 
at a fixed price and later resells them to one of  the labels 
which regulate the carbon market. It is important to note 
that the label with which the city’s project is registered is 
the Gold Standard. Good Planet buys carbon credits from 
ERA at a fixed price of  15 euros per ton of  CO2eq and 
resells them on the market. During an interview to this 
effect, the representative of  the NGO ERA Cameroon 
declared;

“…Gold Standard does not know ERA but Good 
Planet who has an account with him and is a promote…”.
(Interview, 2023) 
This shows that if  ERA had the possibility of  dealing 
directly with the Gold Standard, ERA could sell its credits 
at a higher price and thus increase the revenue from the 
sale of  carbon credits. More than 10% of  carbon credits 
go to the intermediary organization. 

Access to the carbon market conditioned by a 
certified of  a project
To have access to the carbon market, it is necessary to 
set up a project whose aim is either to avoid emissions 
or to sequester emissions that have already occurred. 
Cameroon joined the UNFCCC in 1994 and is required 
to comply with decisions that were taken by the decision-
makers at the 1992 Summit. The condition of  setting 
up a project before having access to the carbon market 
is already in itself  a hindrance for developing countries. 
These countries that do not contribute up to 4% of  global 
emissions responsible for global warming have unstable 
financial conditions and limited know-how on the carbon 
certification projects. As such, there are individuals, 
companies and non-governmental organizations that 
carry out activities to reduce emissions and/or sequester 
gas emissions but cannot have access to carbon credits 
because they are outside the framework of  a project. The 
processes of  setting up a project or even a carbon file 
remains very little known and challenging as stipulated 
during an interview with the municipal agent;

“…the project existing for two years before we had 
access to credits due to challenges in mounting the 
project documents and the complication certification 
procedures. Dschang equally faced language problems as 
project documents were majorly in English..” (Interview, 
2023)
Surveys conducted among workers in the waste sector 
showed that 92% of  workers do not know how to set up 
a similar project while more than 90% of  those surveyed 
have no knowledge on carbon financing. It therefore 
becomes crucial to set up initiatives that will provide 
resource persons in this area in order to address some of  
these challenges. 

Discussion
Waste management through composting in developing 
country can provides direct or indirect access to carbon 
credits depending on the scale of  the project. This 
study shows that the population of  the city of  Dschang 
estimated at 123,916 inhabitants in 2023 produced 27,514 
tons of  waste. The service responsible for pre-collection 
and collection recovered 32% of  this waste and 55% of  
it was treated through composting. This shows a low 
collection rate that is similar with that in most towns in 
Sub Saharan Africa. According to a study conducted by 
Koledzi, (2011), the waste collection rate in Lomé, Togo 
is 35%. It is therefore evident that a greater proportion of  
waste produced is dumped illegally. Waste management 



Pa
ge

 
29

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Am. J. Environ Econ. 4(1) 21-31, 2025

in developing countries needs to be improved upon. To 
effectively handle solid waste management, it is crucial 
to adopt a comprehensive approach that combines 
sustainable practices, community engagement and 
efficient policy (Shahen, 2024). Waste is a resource and 
has been valorized by Dschang municipality through it 
composting project that initiated in 2015. As an income 
generating activity, it has yielded 50,981,128 FCFA from 
the sale of  compost between 2015 and 2023.  Through 
the monitoring of  data collected in the field, the carbon 
footprint of  the composting activity was carried out. 
Avoided emissions can be quantified through several 
different methods, namely life cycle analysis, ecological 
footprint and carbon footprint or greenhouse gas 
emission footprint (Aissani et al., 2012; Sagne, 2021). 
Through the AMS-III.F methodology of  the United 
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, it 
was determined that in 2023, thanks to the said project, 
2,873 tons of  CO2 equivalent were avoided from the 
baseline emissions previously estimated at 3,334 tons, 
given a reduction of  86%. 
These reduced emissions are then sold on the voluntary 
offset market to cover part of  the costs relating to waste 
management. According to Fapong (2017), access to 
the carbon market involves setting up a carbon file in 6 
stages. This file must be validated by the chosen label. 
In the case of  Dschang, the amount of  carbon credits 
received by the composting project for the year 2017 
was 10,000 euros and 50,000 euros in 2023.This is an 
important strategy in climate change mitigation. Albérola 
(2011) talks about the fight against climate change 
through economic instruments such as carbon finance, 
carbon taxation and regulation. The carbon credit is a 
market-based tool that encourages economic agents to 
implement carbon emission reduction activities as part 
of  the fight against climate change (Wang, 2024). Total 
transactions from carbon credits represented 103 billion 
euros in 2009 and are today a central pillar in the financing 
of  international climate policy (World Bank, 2018). Never 
the less, developing countries are not making maximum 
use of  these financial benefits related to the carbon 
market. This work provides elements for understanding 
the current development of  carbon credits within the 
waste sector. However, waste management projects in 
developing countries have not been transformed into 
economic projects. Dschang municipality was pioneer in 
Cameroon to transform its waste management project 
to an income generating activity through composting.  
Despite the success recorded, composting activities in 
the city face many difficulties including; insufficient 
technology (23%), financial and material limitations 
(41.2%) and inadequate human resources (7.8%) and 
poor state of  roads (5%) which sometimes leads to the 
collection of  waste already in the decomposition phase. 
These challenges are common in Sub Saharan African 
towns have limited municipality’s abilities to expand their 
waste collection streams (Topanou, 2012; Ngahane et al, 
2021; Moye et al., 2024).

These challenges go beyond technical and financial 
limitations to policies. Within the context of  
decentralization, municipalities in Cameroon have been 
given all competences that can permit them manage their 
waste effectively (Moye et al., 2024).  At the international 
level Mathy (2004) believes that developing countries see 
climate policies as a constraint to their developmental 
projects and therefore pay little attention to emission 
reduction projects. Equally, Fujiwara  (2012) states that 
the limited size of  future demand for compensations or 
credits, restrictions on the use of  CDM credits in phase 
III of  the European Union emissions trading system are 
the primary difficulties hindering the access of  developing 
countries to the carbon market. These challenges need to 
be given particular attention in order to ameliorate access 
to carbon credits for effective climate change financing.
 
CONCLUSION 
This work had as objective to assess the opportunities 
and challenges of  municipalities in accessing carbon 
credits from the waste sector. Using the case study of  
Dschang municipality, mixed research methods were 
employed to collect qualitative and quantitative data.  
Findings revealed that the rate of  waste production 
is 0.65kg/per/day which is slightly above that in other 
towns of  Cameroon. To effectively manage this waste, 
the municipality in collaboration with partners such as 
ERA Cameroon set up a waste composting project in the 
mid-2000s that had the objective to transform municipal 
solid waste into compost. However, in 2023, only 32% of  
waste produced waste collected and transported to the 
composting platforms. These platforms have been able 
to transform 55% of  waste collected into compost. In 
2017, the municipality started a carbon evaluation project 
and according to emissions of  the reference scenario, 
the city’s waste would have produced 20461 tons of  
carbon equivalence between 2017 and 2023. Thanks 
to the composting of  its waste, 17989 tons of  CO2 eq 
were avoided, representing 87% of  the emissions that 
would have occurred without the project. It is important 
to note that during the composting process, small 
quantities of  GAS are emitted, mainly CO2. During this 
activity, 2472 tons of  CO2 were emitted between 2017 
and 2023. This project began to receive carbon credits 
in 2019 after validation of  the project design document, 
and between 2019 and 2023, the amount received 
was 150,000 euros. However, a lot of  challenges have 
reduced the municipality’s potential in reaping greater 
financial benefits from the waste management project. 
The inability to treat greater quantities of  waste due to 
financial, technical and material inadequacies, the lengthy 
and complex certification procedures are some of  the 
short comings identified. As such, it is important to 
set up an entity that represents Cameroon in particular 
and Africa in general on the carbon market to allow 
the establishment of  a more flexible framework and 
less rigorous regulations regarding access to the carbon 
market for developing countries.



Pa
ge

 
30

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Am. J. Environ Econ. 4(1) 21-31, 2025

REFERENCES  
Ahmed, S., & Ali, M. (2006). les citoyens en tant que 

partenaires : faciliter la participation des citoyens aux 
       partenariats public-privé pour la gestion des déchets 

solides. Habitat international, 30, 781-796. https://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2005.09.004

Aissani, L., Barbier, R., Beurois, C.,  Méry, J., & Schlierf, 
K. (2012). Résultats des inventaires et études de cas de 

      l’utilisation des outils d’évaluation environnementale 
dans les processus décisionnels en matière de gestion 
des déchets. Rapport de recherche, irstea, pp.56. IRSTEA: 
PUB00038016 

Albérola, E. (2011). Finance Carbone: Comment les marchés 
du carbone peuvent-ils aider à lutter contre lenchangement 
climatique ? ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.
net/publication/50254435  

Benrabia, N. (2003). Le Financement du service de 
Gestion des Déchets ménagers en Afrique. Panel, 
December, 2-6. https://www.cairn.info/revue-
questions-de-management 2021-6-page-167.htm 

Boutti, R. (2013). L’adoption de la Finance Carbone: les 
approches soutenables de la réduction des émissions CO2 
dans les organisations. ResearchGate. https://www.
researchgate.net/publication/280599138 

Bromblet, H., & Somaroo, G. (2015). Analyse synthétique 
des retours d’expérience sur les techniques de compostage dans 
les pays en développement. https://doi.org/10.4267/
dechets-sciences-techniques.3292

Delarue, J., Flipon, B., Morizot, G., & Tiberghien M 
.(2012). Développement durable de la gestion des 
ordures ménagères et financements carbone: les 
conditions d’une mise en œuvre conjointe dans les 
pays en développement. Environnement, Ingénierie; 
Développement, N°62, 22-27. https://doi.org/10.4267/
dechets-sciences-techniques.2542 

Diabagaté, S.  (2009). Analyse de la situation de 
l’assainissement dans les quartiers défavorisés 
d’Abidjan : Cas du quartier Sagbé dans la commune 
d’Abobo. Mémoire de DEA de Géographie option 
Environnement, IGT, Université d’Abidjan Cocody, 123.  

Fapong L, (2017). Monitoring carbone au projet de 
compostage de la commune de Dschang, FASA, 
Commune de Dschang, 107p. Mémoire 

Foucherot, C., & Bellassen, V. (2011) Carbon Offset 
Projects in the Agricultural Sector. Research Report 31, 
auto-saisine, 40. hal-01152326

Fujiwara, N., Monica Alessi , M., and Anton Gueorguiev, 
A. (2012). Carbon Market Opportunities in Southern 
Mediterranean Countries. Journal électronique du SSRN. 
https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2033083 

Gbinlo, R. (2010). Organisation et financement de la 
gestion des déchets ménagers dans les villes de 
l’Afrique Subsaharienne : le cas de la ville de Cotonou 
au Bénin. Economies et finances. Université d’Orléans, 
2010. Français. NNT: 2010ORLE0502.

Han, W., Wenhao, Li., & Hongyuan, Z, (2024). 
Carbon Market Simulation with Adaptive 

Mechanism Design. https://www.researchgate.net/
publication/381372716 

Jassey, B., Nyassi, L., Buba, M., & Hoirunisa, H (2023). 
Food Waste Treatment and The Effect of  Composting on The 
Gambia Carbon Footprint. https://doi.org/10.18196/
ictced.v1i1.40  

Kleiche, M. (2006). Aide au développement et marché 
carbone. Revue d’économie Financière, 83, 55–76.       
http://www.jstor.org/stable/42904289 

Koledzi, E., Baba, G., Feuillade,G., & Matejka G. (2011). 
Caractérisation physique des déchets solides urbains 
à Lomé au Togo, dans la perspective du compostage 
décentralisé dans les quartiers. Environnement, 
Ingénierie  Développement, N°59, pp.14-22. https://doi.
org/10.4267/dechets-sciences-techniques.2851,. 

Mahamanea, F., Bai, J., Bian, Y., Yao, N., Gao, J., & Ali, 
A. (2023). Achieving Sustainable Development:     
Balancing Carbon Dioxide Emissions Reduction and 
Poverty Alleviation in Less Developed Countries. 
American Journal of  Environmental Economics, 2(1), 37–
51. https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v2i1.1981 

Marchand, M. (2013). Considération de la 
différenciation spatiale dans l’évaluation des impacts 
environnementaux locaux au moyen de l’Analyse du 
Cycle de Vie (ACV) : Application à la gestion des 
déchets ménagers. Autre. Université de Rennes, 2013. 
Français. NNT : 2013REN1S029. tel-00866318

Masthy, S. (2004). Comment intégrer les pays en 
développement dans des politiques climatiques 
fondées sur un système de quotas d’émissions ? Revue 
Tiers Monde 2004/1, n° 177, pages 85 à 105 halsshs-
00009165,version 1. 

Moye, E.,Yemmafouo, A.,  Sagne, J.,  Makamté, C., 
Sahakian, M., & Veron, R. (2024). Of  practices 
and micro politics: Challenges of  organic  waste 
segregation in Dschang, Cameroon. Journal 
of  Environment and Development. https://doi.
org/10.1177/10704965241246708 

Ngahane, E.,  Sagne, J., & Nana, P. (2021). Etude 
comparative des performances des plateformes de 
compostage de Siteu et de Ngui à Dschang (Cameroun)
May 2021. European Scientific Journal 17(17). https://
doi.org/10.19044/esj.2021.v17n17p248

Ngangué, M. (2012). Compostage des déchets ménagers 
dans les pays en développement- Modalités de mise en 
place et de suivi d’installations décentralisées pérennes. 
ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/
publication/332570289

Ngnikam, E., Naquin, P., Oumbe, R., and Djietcheu, 
K. (2017). Evolution des caractéristiques des 
déchets solides ménagers dans la ville de Yaoundé 
au Cameroun (1995-2015). Environnement, Ingénierie ; 
Développement, 2017, N°74, pp.1-16. https://doi.org/ 
10.4267/dechets-sciences-techniques.3654 

Sagne, J. (2021). De la gestion des dechets solides 
municipaux vers l’economie verte : Analyse à partir 
de l’expérience de Dschang Cameroun. Université de 
Dschang, 37-264p. Thèse



Pa
ge

 
31

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Am. J. Environ Econ. 4(1) 21-31, 2025

Saifullah, M., Hasan, M., Debnath, T., Rob, M. A., Tusar, 
A. H., & Rabbani, M. L. (2024). Investigation the Use 
of  Waste Glass and Waste Paper as an Alternative 
Construction Binding Material: An Approach 
Towards Sustainable Environment. American Journal 
of  Environmental Economics, 3(1), 116–129. https://doi.
org/10.54536/ajee.v3i1.3266 

Sharholy, M., Ahmad, K., Vaishya, C., & Gupta, R. 
(2007). Municipal solid waste characteristics and 
management in Allahabad, India. Waste management, 
27(4), 490-496. These. https://www.researchgate.
net/publication/353037752 

Sarker, B., Keya, K. N., Mahir, F. I., Nahiun, K. M., 
Shahida, S., & Khan, R. A. (2021). Surface and ground 
water pollution: causes and effects of  urbanization 

and industrialization in South Asia. Scientifc Review, 
7(3), 32-41. https://doi.org/10.32861/sr.73.32.41

Shahen, M. A. (2024). How Development Sectors are 
Contributing to Waste Management in Bangladesh. 
American Journal of  Environmental Economics, 3(1), 59–
66. https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v3i1.2780 

Topanou, A. (2012). Gestion des déchets solides ménagers 
dans la ville d’Abomey-Calavi (Bénin): Caractérisation 
et essais de valorisation par compostage (Doctoral 
dissertation, Aix-Marseille). https://theses.
fr/2012QIXM480702/05.2024  14H56

World Bank (2018). Global waste to grow by 70% by 
2050 unless urgent action is taken.  World Bank 
report. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-
release/2018/09/20/


