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American Journal of  Environmental
Economics (AJEE) 

Climate Change: It’s Causes, Inflicted Hazards, Adopted Strategies and Opportunities 
in Agriculture of  Nepal: A Detailed Review

Anubhav Tripathi1*, Mamata Pandey2

Volume 1 Issue 1, Year 2022
ISSN: 2833-7905 (Online)

DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v1i1.358
https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Article Information ABSTRACT

Received:  June 15, 2022

Accepted: June 25, 2022

Published: June 28, 2022

The greatest threat of  21st century, climate change is being deeply studied for its adverse 
effects and coping strategies by almost all nations of  world. Although, detailed studies in 
developed nations are most common, Nepal lags in its own research and studies for under-
standing this change. With great geographic, altitudinal, socio-economical and biological 
variation in Nepal, the need for study of  climate change has grown mandatory since farm-
ers are experiencing peculiar unusual cases different from past. Farmers perception and 
studies remark the changes in temperature, rainfall, weed dynamics, insect, pest and disease 
outbreak, hazardous events, duration of  a season, unpredictability in weather, loss of  pro-
duction and productivity, food insecurity, degradation of  soil physical and chemical status, 
biological losses and alterations. Many adaptative strategies have been put forward locally 
and from government level that have shown different efficacy in different environment.  
Simply put, local site-specific adaptive strategies must be given more importance and priori-
tization. Financial cringe to tackle climate change must be sorted out and available resources 
must be put to use by NAPA. Modifications in farm operations, time adjustment and use of  
modern technology in practices, crop selection, improvement and their cultivation, detailed 
weather forecasting, soil and water conservation practices, agroforestry, crop rotation, share 
cropping and off  farm engagements have been highlighted. Factors that influence the rate 
of  adoption include age, gender, education and outreach of  house head, financial liquidity, 
size of  farms and availability of  resources. New opportunities and prospects though re-
vealed, it is still to be utilized.

Keywords

Adaptation, Agriculture, Climate 
Change, Hazards, Nepal 

1 Tribhuvan University, Institute of  Agriculture and Animal Science, Lamjung Campus, Nepal.
2  Network Cordinator at Nepalese Youth for Climate Action- Lamjung, Nepal.
* Corresponding author’s e-mail: tripathianuvav@gmail.com

INTRODUCTION
Climate change, an emerging global issue, is the prime 
talk of  the century caused due to release of  GHGs via 
anthropogenic activities namely fossil fuel combustion, 
deforestation, unplanned urbanization & industrialization 
and livestock (Paudel 2012; Panday 2012; Steinfeld et 
al.2006). This change is supposed to bear social, economic 
and political dimensions (Reilly, 2001) with influences in 
marine, fresh water and terrestrial ecosystems (IPCC, 
2007). Different countries show different response 
(positive/negative) to the climate change however, most 
affected countries are the developing nations dependent 
on agriculture with lack of  appropriate infrastructure and 
adequate finance (Gebreegziabher et al. 2011; Mendelsohn 
et al. 2006; Anttila-Hughes and Hsiang 2013; Rayamajhee 
and Bohara 2019a). Nepal, a landlocked country having 
interface with Tibetan Plateau and plains of  Northern 
India, bear diverse biogeography and eco-climatological 
conditions (S. Manandhar et al., 2010). Altitude ranges 
from Mt. Everest (8848.86 masl) to flat plains in Terai 
(64 masl). It extends to Saara jungle in the west. Country 
is divided into 5 major physiographic regions: Terai 
plains (up to 700 masl), Siwalik Hills (700- 1500 masl), 
Middle mountains (1500- 2700 masl), High Mountains 
(2000- 4000 masl) and High Himalayas (4000- 8848 masl) 
( Anuska Joshi et al., 2019). Climate ranges from sub-
tropical in south to arctic in north (Shrestha and Aryal, 
2011). Our complex topography, unstable geology, fragile 
ecosystem (MOHA 2013; Rangwala and Miller 2012; 

Saito 2012), rainfed agriculture (MoAD, 2012), illiterate 
farmers and their social vulnerability (Adger et al. 2003; 
Aryal et al. 2014, 2016; Huq et al. 2004; Islam et al. 2016; 
Morton 2007; Agarwal et al., 2014; Awasthi et al., 2002; 
Eriksson et al., 2009; Karki and Gurung, 2012; Maskey 
et al., 2011; Nyaupanea and Chhetrib, 2009; Rai, 2007) 
helped securing 4th rank in vulnerability to climate 
change in world (Maplecroft, 2011) posing great risk to 
agriculture, forestry & biodiversity, water resources and 
human health (Maharjan et al., 2009). More than 1.9 
million people are considered to be extremely vulnerable 
to climate change, with another 10 million at risk (GoN 
2010, p. 11).
Prime effects seen in Nepal that threaten traditional 
agriculture include temperature increase, erratic rainfall, 
unpredictable monsoons, decreased length of  winter, 
hailstorms, increased hazardous events like: drought, 
landslide, mass movement, edge cuttings, glacier lake 
outburst floods (Aryal et al. 2014, 2016; Devkota et al. 
2013; Khanal 2014; Shrestha and Aryal 2011; Bajracharya 
et al. 2007; Timsina 2011; Sharma and Dahal, 2011; 
Holmelin and Aase 2013; Im et al. 2017; Janes et al. 
2019). Studies provide adequate evidences of  increasing 
temperature especially in recent decade (Shrestha and 
Nepal, 2016). The annual rise of  temperature 0.040C per 
year in Nepal, is greater than the world average and more 
prominent in mid hills and mountains (Baidya et al. 2007; 
Shrestha and Aryal 2011). Western and Central Nepal 
are expecting greater temperature increase than Eastern 

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Nepal (Timsina, 2011) and level of  impact is dependent 
on local biological conditions and management practices 
(Parry et al. , 2005).  MoE-Nepal (2010, 2012) showed 
loss of  nutrients, biodiversity and water resulting decline 
in livestock productivity. Upstream climatic hazards have 
affected downstream areas immensely via increase in 
pressure on natural resources and increased competition 
for food, shelter and income (ICIMOD 2008; Rasul and 
Hussain 2015; Hussain et al. 2016). Likely, alterations in 
soil physical and chemical properties would influence the 
quality of  soil (Aydinalp et al. 2008; Khanal 2009; Lohani 
2007). Spread of  pests and hyper pests in crop have been 
rising (Panday, 2012). If  not the main cause, climate 
change acts as catalyst to trigger these adverse effects 
(S. Manandhar et al., 2010). Seen impacts are intense at 
smaller scale (sub basin level) than at larger scale (Basin 
level) (Bharati et al. 2016; Hussain et al. 2016). Increasing 
food and livelihood insecurity outcome via failure of  
crop production, productivity and loss of  local landraces 
(Regmi and Adhikari 2007, Malla 2009, Ministry of  
Environment (MOE) 2010, Hussain et al. 2016, IPCC 
2018; Kohler et al., 2010; Macchi, 2011; Marston, 2008) 
are yet to be analyzed in Nepal (Morton 2007; Schlenker 
et al. 2006; Schlenker and Lobell 2010; Fisher et al. 2012; 
Lobell et al. 2014; Moore et al. 2017; Baldos et al. 2019) 
evidenced by fact that 50.67% Nepalese have not even 
heard of  climate change (CBS, 2017). The lag is mainly 
due to difficulties in gathering meteorological evidence 
however, several investigations have been conducted 
(Aryal et al 2014; Becken et al 2013; Chaudhary and Bawa 
2011; Maharjan et al 2011; etc). IPCC (2014) confirms 
extension of  poverty and creation of  new pocket areas in 
both the developed and developing countries; primarily in 
rural mountain of  Nepal (Hunzai et al. 2011; Gerlitz et al. 
2012, 2015; MOEST/UNDP 2008; CBS, 2011; Dulal et 
al. 2010; Bhatt et al., 2013; Malla, 2008)
Adaption to climate change means being able to cope 
with the consequences, moderate the hazards and take 
advantage of  prospects if  any with modifications in 
agricultural practices and capital investment (Joshi et 
al., 2017; Easterling et al. 2007) however, they must be 
location specific (Chhetri et al., 2012). Annual adaptation 
cost is expected to be in order of  US $20,000 (about 
US $70 per targeted household) at village level in Nepal 
(IIED, 2011). Commonly found response included drip 
irrigation, engagement in off  farm activities enhancing 
migration, alterations in cropping calendar, use of  
biopesticides, soil and water conservation practices, share 
cropping, regulation of  fertilizer application, improved 
varietal development and adjustment, agroforestry 
(Hussain et al. 2018; Below et al. 2012; Deressa et al. 2009; 
Harmer and Rahman 2014; Yila and Resurreccion 2013; 
Bryan et al., 2013; Pradhan, Khadgi, Schipper, Kaur, & 
Geoghegan, 2012; Reid & Schipper, 2014). 
Probability of  adaptation seemed primarily influenced by 
age, gender and education of  family head (Deressa et al. 
2009; Sarker, Alam & Gow 2013). Size of  farm, financial 
liquidity, involvement in community level organizations, 

resource availability and institutional activities of  support 
service also played determining role (Asfaw and Admassie 
2004; Legesse et al. 2013; Gbetibouo 2009; Ndambiri et 
al. 2013; Mulatu 2013; Tesso et al. 2012; Tiwari et al., 2014; 
Bahinipati, 2015; Sarker et al., 2013; Piya et al., 2013). 
Establishment of  National Adaptation Programme of  
Action (NAPA) by the government to identify, prioritize 
and resolve these problems has laid a foundation however 
lack of  fund paralyzes its scope (OXFAM, 2009; NAPA, 
2010). Climate Change Policy and Local Adaptation Plan 
of  Action (LAPA) framework in 2011 has promoted the 
participation of  people in planning and implementing 
adaptive measures (MoE, 2011).

METHODOLOGY
Literature review was done through a comprehensive 
search of  articles from Google Scholar based on 
keywords strictly in context of  Nepal. Papers with 
correlation between agriculture and climate change were 
prioritized. Also, reference section of  each article was 
searched in order to find additional related articles. The 
search process uncovered 45 research and review articles 
summarized contextually in this paper.

DISCUSSION
Causes
Climate change may be due to natural internal processes 
or external forcings such as modulations of  the solar 
cycles, volcanic eruptions, persistent unsustainable 
anthropogenic changes and enormous greenhouse gases 
(GHGs). The major force in causing accelerated climate 
change is Greenhouse gas emission. Since the pre-
industrial era, anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions 
have increased largely by unsustainable human-centric 
activities, which are now higher than ever. Anthropogenic 
causes such as deforestation, overgrazing, and unscientific 
farming on steep slopes of  Nepal and other developing 
countries have resulted in the loss of  flora and fauna. 
They have caused soil erosion, landslides in the hills, and 
flooding in the plain areas as well. Their effect, together 
with those Greenhouse gases emission from industries is 
extremely likely to have been the dominant cause of  the 
observed warming since the mid-20th century (Netra et 
al. 2012). Agriculture is one of  the important contributors 
to GHG emissions on a global scale. Agricultural land 
use in the 1990s was responsible for approximately 15% 
of  all GHG emissions (Organic Consumer Association, 
2008) and another report produced by OECD (2001) 
stated that agriculture contributes to over 20% of  global 
anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (Food and 
Agriculture Organization, 2008). Agriculture contributes 
about half  of  the world’s emissions of  two of  the 
foremost potent non-carbon dioxide greenhouse gases: 
methane and nitrous oxide (World Bank, 2008). Livestock 
manure, nitrogenous fertilizers and irrigated paddy are 
said to be liable for producing most agricultural non-
carbon GHGs which have more powerful greenhouse 
effects and have greater longevity than CO2.

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Am. J. Environ Econ. 1(1) 1-12, 2022

Hazards Influencing Agriculture of  Nepal
Climate change broadly, will force the irrational changes 
on locally available natural resources, biodiversity and 
environment thereby alternating biological, geophysical 
and socio-economic elements (Lybbert et al. 2012; 
Bartlett et al. 2010; Sambridhi 2011)
A study conducted in Koshi River Basin (KRB) showed 
prevalence of  small holders (avg 0.98ha) (Hussian et al., 
2018) who had great contribution of  agriculture to their 
food security and livelihood in the past, however, both 
the production and income has markedly declined over 
time (ISET 2008; Hussain 2016). Climate change has 
been pointed out the key aspect of  this change supported 
by 80% of  surveyed households who perceived effects 
as drought, floods, livestock diseases, insect and pest 
outbreaks (Hussian et al., 2018).  Bharati et al. (2012) on 
this very region expected the temperature to rise by 0.79–
0.86 °C till 2030 compared to 1976-2005 which supports 
the claim of  frequent and intense drought and dry spells 
due to enhanced evaporation ( Devkota and Gyawali, 
2015). Temperature rise combined with irregular patterns 
of  rain and unpredictable moisture favors livestock, plant 
diseases and pest outbreak were also supported by (Singh 
et al. 2000; Basu and Bandhyopadhyay 2004; Sirohi and 
Michaelowa 2007). 
Household surveys and focused group discussions 
conducted in Lamjung district showed community 
perceptions regarding rainfall, 90% respondents claimed 
increasing erratic rainfall and 65% claimed decreased 
frequency (Joshi et al., 2019). Data from meteorological 
station showed increasing monsoon, pre monsoon and 
post monsoon rainfall but decreasing winter rainfall. 
Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) of  1981-2010 
confirmed increasing risk of  drought in post monsoon 
and winter season from 2001-2010 thus drying up 
the sources of  drinking water. In addition to this 80% 
perceived increase in flood, 60% in drought, 80% in no. 
of  hailstorms, 55% in summer temperature. Notably, 
100% claimed to have experienced decrease in production 

similar to Tharus of  Western Terai (Maharjan et al., 2011), 
68% in biodiversity and 65% in forest products (Joshi et 
al., 2019).
Based on the cross-sectional survey data collected from 
120 households in 2009 in Rasuwa, 40.8% felt decreasing 
rain in rainy season, 78.3% felt decreasing rain in winter, 
60% felt drier every year, 51.7% felt increasing outbreaks 
and infestations and 41.7% felt increasing cost of  food. 
Also, potato and maize harvest was delayed by a month 
while that of  wheat was 1 month early in Syaphru and 
Daibung. However, Dhunche showed delay in harvesting 
time of  potato and wheat by 1.5 month and of  maize by 
1 month; in Laharepauwa, all wheat, maize and rice were 
delayed. 
As stated by Practical Action (2009) annual mean 
temperature trend of  Nepal varies from -0.04 to 0.06°C 
in the far-western region, 0.02 to 0.04°C in the mid-
western region, 0.02 to 0.08°C in the western region, 
-0.04 to 0.08°C in the central region, and -0.06 to 0.09°C 
in the eastern region. Also, it stated trend of  annual 
precipitation from -10 to 20mm in Nepal’s eastern region, 
-40 to 20mm in the central region, -30 to 40mm in the 
western region, -20 to 10mm in the mid-western region, 
and -10 to 20mm in the far-western region. Warming in 
irrigated systems is beneficial however, Nepal having rain 
fed farming, this is harmful (Mendelsohn, 2009)
Education, (EQ) of  future medical students. International 
Medical Journal, 18, 293-299.
With increasing temperatures, outburst of  invasive weed 
species as Banmara (Chromolaena odorata) has limited 
the fodder availability for domestic animals forcing 
people to give up livestock rearing. Also, their aggressive 
nature outsmarts other crops in competition mostly 
medicinal herbs in forests (Kunwar 2003; Barik and 
Adhikari 2011). Recent years show reduction in potato 
production due to a disease associated with change in soil 
moisture (Gautam et al., 2013). People claim increase in 
population of  mosquito and early flowering of  Kaphal 
(Myrica esculenta) year after year in these regions.

Table 1: House hold surveys and community perception
Parameter Remarks
Rise in Temperature 0.5 to 2.0°C by 2030 

1.3 to 3.8°C by 2060 
 1.8 to 5.8°C by 2090 

Change in annual mean precipitation -34 to +22% by the year 2030 
-36 to +67% by the year 2060
43 to +89% by the year 2090 

Change in monsoon precipitation -14 to 40% by the year 2030 
-40 to +143% by the year 2060
-52 to +135% by the year 2090

Runoff Greater downstream flows at first, reduced over a long 
time; snow replaced by rain in winters; Frequency and 
intensity of  natural disasters increase 

Source: (IPCC 2008; Bates et al. 2008; NCVST, 2009; ISET-N, Kathmandu and ISET, Boulder, Colorado 2009; 
Erikson et al. ICIMOD 2009; McSweeney et al. UNDP 2008)

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Major rivers of  Nepal are supplied by over 3000 
glaciers from high Himalayas and feeds different needs 
of  people living downstream. Climate change will 
cause disproportion river runoff  due to its impact in 
precipitation. Also, runoff  will increase with glacier melt 
and decrease later as the process advances (Agrawala et 
al., 2003). 
With the impacts upon the water sources, GLOF, 
glacial fluctuation and alterations in hydrological regime 
has become common. With temperature rise seen 
(Chaudhary and Bawa, 2011) significantly greater than the 
global average and more significant in Himalayas (Pokhrel 
and Pandey, 2011) ranging from 0.029 °C per year at 
Meghauli in the Terai (Pandey 2016b) 0.07 °C per year in 
the Middle-Mountains at Daman and 0.27 °C per year in 
the high Himalaya at Langtang (Chaulagain 2006), plains 
in monsoon get vulnerable as intense rainfall coincides 
with downstream flows from mountains (Bartlett et ak. 
2010; Leduc et al. 2008; Malla 2008; Dulal et al. 2010; 
NCVST 2009). Increased concentrated rain during a time 
of  year has increased incidences of  flood, hailstones, 
landslides, mass movements, soil erosion and avalanche 
mostly affecting rural people due to their socio economic 
and dependency in environment factors (Lohani 2007; 
Aydinalp et al. 2008; Khanal 2009; CBS 2011; MOEST/
UNDP 2008). OXFAM (2009) highlighted the financial 
limitation of  country and ineffective coordination 
between environment ministry and ministry of  forest to 
brew even more impacts.
In drier regions, salinization and desertification is 
expected due to the change in soil physical and chemical 
properties: loss of  organic matter, leaching of  soil 
nutrients, increased evaporative losses etc. In addition 
to this, decline in crop production has been corelated 
with increased unnecessary transpiration losses from 
plants and environment conducive for insects, pests and 
diseases (Aydinalp et al. 2008; Khanal 2009). Timsina 
(2011) showed increased mass movement and edge 
cutting tragedies of  Nepal due to change in frequency, 
intensity and form of  precipitation.
A questionnaire survey in 720 households covering 6 
districts of  Nepal revealed increase in summer (95%) and 
winter season (41%) temperature, weather unpredictability 
(56%), reduced precipitation (58%), draught (85%), 
natural disasters (78%), infestation in crops (83.1%), 

invasive weeds (75.3%), soil degradation (81.6%), reduced 
productivity (73.6%) (Khanal et al., 2017).  In another 
paper regarding the same survey published by Khanal 
et al. (2018), he highlighted the decreased frequency 
and increased intensity of  rainfall facilitating flood and 
landslide and late start of  monsoon in Nepal.
Increase of  20C temperature seems to increase yield of  
crops in Nepal (Malla, 2008). A time series regression 
model analysis (1978-2008) of  effect of  climate on 
major food crops of  Nepal (paddy, maize, millet, wheat, 
barley and potato) was done. With increase in summer 
temperature and rainfall, only paddy seems to be benefitted 
and yield increase was noticed.  In case of  potato and 
maize that are staple diet of  mid hills and mountains, 
increased temperature in summer outweighed positive 
influences of  summer rain and minimum temperature 
making people vulnerable. Although rainfall is seen in 
decreasing trend in winter, significant temperature than 
in summers has increased yield of  winter crops (Maharjan 
and Joshi, 2013). 
Comparative study done in Terai and Mountain of  
western development region reported farmers in lowland 
didn’t experience Loo, big storms and western winds of  
February as in the past; while farmers of  lower Mustang 
confirmed presence of  mosquitos and other insects 
associated with unusual summer and winter temperature 
rise, decrease and changed timing of  snowfall. Dhaulagiri 
and Annapurna ranges also showed less snow cover, 
Muktinath experienced frost delayed by 2 weeks occurring 
only from October, Marpha stated increased rain and 
fog (Manandhar et al., 2010). Increased winter rainfall in 
western Nepal during winters is also stated by Ichiyanagi 
et al. (2007). 
Highest mountain areas are to be most affected and 
precipitation in these areas is likely to increase by 5% by 
2050s considering huge variations in river basins (Shrestha 
et al., 2015). This increase in precipitation is caused due 
to decline in snowfall and rapid melting of  glaciers mostly 
affecting Nepal eastern Himalayan glaciers (Wiltshire, 
2014), found consistent to other mountainous regions of  
world. Degradation of  rangelands and forests (Bolch et 
al. 2012; Immerzeel et al. 2013) was noted. Poverty being 
higher in mountains and rate of  poverty reduction lower 
than in lowlands specifies the difference between the two 
areas and clarifies their vulnerability to crisis (Hunzai et 

Table 2: NAPA (2010) ranks districts of  Nepal according to vulnerability index as
Vulnerability index Districts
Very high (0.787- 1) Kathmandu, Ramechhap, Udayapur, Lamjung, Mugu, Bhaktapur, Dolakha, Saptari, Jajarkot 
High (0.61- 0.786) Mahottarari, Dhading, Taplejung, Siraha, Gorkha, Solukhumbu, Chitwan, Okhaldhunga, 

Achham, Manang, Dolpa, Kalikot, Khotang, Danusha, Dailekh, Parsa, Salyan 
Moderate (0.356-0.6) Sankhuwasabha, Baglung, Sindhuli, Bhojpur, Jumla, Mustang, Rolpa, Bajhang, Rukum, 

Rauthat, Pan-chthar, Parbat, Dadeldhura, Sunsari, Doti, Tanahu, Makawanpur, Myagdi, 
Humla, Bajura, Baitadi, Rasuwa, Nawalparasi, Sarlahi, Sindhupalchok, Dar-chula, Kaski 

Low (0.181- 0.355) Nuwakot, Dhankuta, Kanchanpur, Bardiya, Ka-pilbastu, Terathum, Gulmi, Pyuthan, 
Surkhet, Ar-gakhachi, Morang, Dang, Lalitpur, Kailali, Syanja, Kaverpalanchok 

Very low (0- 0.18) Ilam, Jhapa, Banke, Palpa, Rupendehi 

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al. 2011; Gerlitz et al. 2012, 2015).
No snowfall in last 10 years in Chilime and only two in last 
18 years, hotter summer and colder winter perceived in 
Chilime, Thuman, Gatlang and erratic rain felt in all study 
sites of  Grey, Gojlung, Chilime, Thuman and Gatlang. 
Particularly due to change in rainfall, productivity of  
potato decreased from 2010-2014 however, increase was 
noticed in 2015 and 2016 in Gatlang; increased foggy 
days contributed decreased productivity of  potato in 
remaining areas. Also, increased water availability in micro 
irrigation systems in April and May was noticed due to 
snow melt in hotter summers (Merrey D.J. et al. 2018).
APN report shows, rise in temperature by 10C, positive 
influence is seen in maize productivity throughout the 
ecological zones. Rise by 20C causes doubling of  CO2 
concentration, yield declines in Terai but Hills are less 
affected. In case of  rise up to 40C, mountainous regions 
are benefitted esp. in rice by 7%, however, 25% yield 
reduction in Terai is noticed esp. in maize (OXFAM, 
2009).  Increased problems of  grain weevils have been 
observed as major storage pests of  maize in Nepal. High 
rainfall and humidity due to unpredicted conditions of  
climate change has increased incidences of  Turccicum 
blight, BLSP thereby decreasing maize production 
(Nayava and Gurung 2010).
At present condition of  climate change and doubling of  
CO2, positive influence to wheat yield in all agroecological 
regions has been observed (Nayava et al., 2009) which 
has been consistent with findings of  other researches 
carried out. However, among rice, wheat and maize, 
wheat shows maximum variation thus it is regarded to 
be the most insecure crop (Pallazzoli et al. 2015). Even if  
positive influences of  CO2 are taken into account, by mid 
21st century, crop yield may decrease upto 30% in S. Asia 
(Cruz et al. 2007; Aggarwal and Sivakumar 2011)
Increased crop canopy temperature, unwanted 
evapotranspirative loses, impaired physiological 

functioning, clogged soil, disruption of  micro and 
macrobial activity, loss of  fertile top soil, elimination of  
local landraces eg. basmati rice, Thapa Chini, Kalanamak, 
Jhinuwa, Kanak Jira, Chananchura, Tunde Masino, 
Anandi (red and white), Ghaiya, Jund, Marshii, wheat, 
maize (Sathiya, Murali, Dhinde, Sete, Panheli), finger 
millet (Okhle, Dalle, Paundure, Jhapre, Mutthe) (Paudel, 
2012), unusual rain, fewer rainy days but with higher 
intensity has been mentioned prime noticed impacts in 
Nepal (Panday, 2012).
Nepal though rich in policy with over 10 policies, 18 
acts, 9 regulations and 8 orders talking about agriculture, 
implementation has severely failed and every new policy 
formed repeat the previous set objectives and indicators 
even of  completed already (Pandey, 2017). Crop pest 
interaction, alterations in distribution and development 
of  pests and plant resistance (Lal 2011a; Macchi 2011; 
Pruneau et al. 2012; Ramirez-Villegas et al. 2012; Paudel 
et al. 2014; Bhatta et al. 2015; Coakley et al. 1999; 
Schmidhuber and Tubiello 2007). Farmlands left fallow 
is seen as common outcome of  climate change in Nepal 
(Paudel et al. 2014; Chapagain and Gentle 2015).
Case study of  farmers in Lumle, Kaski mentioned 
hailstorms even in night and winter, winter rain getting 
heavier and shifted to early spring and post monsoon, 
decreased flood but increased intensity, change in 
phenology of  plants esp. rhododendron (2-3 weeks 
earlier), Kafal, Tote, Amba, Amp, Darim, Timila, Chutro, 
Aaru (Thapa et al. 2015); invasion of  Banmara reduced 
availability of  high valued MAPS like Chiraito (Swertia 
chirayita), Panchaunle (Datylorhiza hatageria) and Satuwa 
(Paris polyphylla), reduced infiltration and ground water 
recharge, increased population of  harmful ants, moths, 
leech, cutworms, hoppers, aphids, stink bug, big horns 
bug, wood ants, snail, slug and diseases like Phytophthora, 
fungus in potato, “rate” in rice (Pandey, 2017)
Indicator based vulnerability assessment developed by 

Table 3: Potential cost of  climate change to farmers includes
Direct cost Indirect cost Cost of  adaptation
Decrease in gross returns from crops Costs  of  Land degradation Costs of  technological adaptation
Additional costs of  crop production Costs of  agro-biodiversity loss Costs of  behavioral adaptation
Decrease in gross returns from the 
livestock production 

Costs of  uncertainities Costs of  managerial adaptation

Additional costs of  livestock and poultry 
production

Costs of  food security Costs of  compliance to policy op-
tions 

Costs due to increasing risks of  nat-ural 
hazards 

Costs of  conflicts over scarce re-
sources

Source: (Pant, 2011)

Hahn et al. (2009) has been used by Aryal et al. (2014); 
Etwire et al. (2013); Pandey and Jha (2012); Shah et 
al. (2013). In 543 household studied from Dhading, 
Syangja and Kapilvastu representing all 3 ecological 
regions showed, Livelihood vulnerability index (LVI) 
of  Dhading and Kapilvastu higher; Vulnerability index: 
IPCC indicated Dhading agro-livestock holders to be 
most robbed; NAPA lists Syangja into `high landslide risk 

zone` (Panthi et al., 2015).
Sherpa (2010) reported no snow in Kapi HImal of  
MWDR at 15000 feet. Stream was found flowing at the 
top of  Everest by melting ice (Shrestha, 2009). Club roots 
of  crucifer, blight of  Solanaceous crops, rust of  wheat, 
blast of  rice, leaf  spot of  maize has been increasing at 
present scenario of  change (Paudel, 2012).
Farmers from Indrawati Basin of  Nepal noticed more 

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Table 3: Study in Kailali district of  FWDR noticed following change in natural community influenced by climate 
change
List of  plants decreased
Name of  plants Local name Family
Calotropis gigantea Ank Ascelpiadaceae
Artemisia indica Titepati Asteraceae

Anaphalis busua Buki Asteraceae
Cannabis sativa Bhang Cannabaceae
Cuscuta reflexa Akas Beli Convovulaceae
Asparagus racemosus Kurilo Asparagaceae
Smilax Kukurdaino Smilacaceae
Viscum album Hadchur Loranthaceae
Thysanolaena maxima Amriso Poaceae
Cynodon dactylon Dubo Poaceae
Imperata cylindrica Siru Poaceae
Urtica dioica Sisnoo Urticaceae
Tinospora cordifolia Gurjo Menispermaceae
Source: (Thapa et al. 2015)

List of  plants increased:
Name Local name Family
Ageratum conyzoides Gandhe Asteraceae
Ageratina adenophora Banmara Asteraceae
Spilanthes calva Marathi Asteraceae
Parthenium hysterophorus Badmas Jahr Asteraceae
Cyperus rotundus Mothe Cyperaceae
Cyperus iria Chhatare Cyperaceae
Cassia tora Chhinchhine Fabaceae
Argemone mexicana Thakalikada Papaveraceae
Lantana camara Kuri Verbenaceae
Source: (Thapa et al. 2015)

warming effect in the daily minimum temperature than 
maximum however, their monthly mean difference was 
same. Winter and spring crops are most vulnerable due 
to this trend mostly in the lower elevations and in places 
are already grown today at threshold level (Sivakumar & 
Stefanski, 2011). In the basin, annual average rainfall was 
projected to decrease by 0.9% of  baseline in the 2020s, 
1.4% in the 2055s and 3.0% in the 2080s. Clear increase in 
rainfall during the early winter months (120% of  baseline 
for November and 102% for December by the 2080s), 
and a small increase in spring and early summer was 
seen, but decrease in late winter, mid-to-late summer, and 
autumn is also taken into consideration. Pulses e.g., grey 
pulses (gahat), black gram (mas), common beans (bodi), 
brown pulses (mashyang), and soya beans (bhatmas) 
seem to be the most affected crop in this region. Barley 
(phaper), tuber (pidalu), sweet potato (shakkarkhanda) 
has been stopped to cultivate (Pradhan et al. 2015).
Drier soils, loss of  top soil by erosion, leaching of  
nutrients by rain and increased temperature has forced 
farmers to increase use of  chemical and organic fertilizers 

to keep up the productivity (Shrestha and Nepal, 2016).
Quantitative data analysis done by Aryal et al. (2016) and 
Sujakhu et al. (2016) showed similar impacts consistently.
Study shows that an increase in temperature has a positive 
impact on the production of  rice. Rice production may 
uplift by 0.09% to 7% in the case when precipitation is 
increased by 20% and temperature is increased up to 4°C 
(MoPE, 2004)
If  agricultural production in Nepal is adversely affected 
by climate change, the livelihoods of  two-thirds of  the 
labour force, particularly of  the rural poor will be at risk 
(FAO, 2006). Eastern Terai faced a rain deficit in the year 
2005/06 by early monsoon and crop production reduced 
by 12.5% on a national basis. Nearly 10% of  agri- land 
was left fallow due to rain deficit but midwestern Terai 
faced heavy rain with floods, which reduced production 
by 30% in the year (Regmi, 2007)
Several studies show that livestock and poultry production 
is adversely affected by climate change (Hertel and Rosch 
2010, Kabubo-Mariara, 2009). This change also increases 
the mortality and morbidity of  animals, particularly from 

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climate-sensitive infectious diseases (Patz et al., 2005b). 
Increases in zoonotic diseases among the animals also 
increase the risks of  transmission of  such diseases 
in human beings and increase the costs of  veterinary 
medicines. Increased temperature and relative humidity 
are said to increase the risks of  aflatoxin development 
in feedstuffs thereby increasing the risks of  poisoning 
among animals (Pant, 2011).
Local Adaptation Measures by Farmers of  Nepal
IPCC (2018) proclaims the impact of  climate change 
in the livelihood depends entirely on the time and type 
of  adaptation practices adopted. Adaptation should 
consider short term and long-term basis (Adger et al., 
2003; Eriksen et al., 2011; Pittock and Jones, 2009) and 
its theory considers that all systems and individual can 
and will adapt to changing situations (Smithers & Smit, 
2009). If  appropriate, they help to cope, moderate and 
take advantage of  situations (Joshi et al. 2017; Tesso et 
al. 2012). Type and degree of  adaptation in agriculture 
is influenced by climate, biophysical, socio-political and 
environmental factors (IIED, 2011; Keane et al. 2009; 
Khanal et al. 2018b).
Adaptations might be planned by government or 
autonomously exercised by households (Stage, 2010).
KRB showed change in cropping patterns, high water 
demanding crops as cereals to fruits and vegetables (esp. 
potato, onions and garlic) with low water demand and 
high market value (Gurung and Bhandari 2009; GWP-
JVS 2014: p. 21; Dixit et al. 2009; Hussain et al. 2016). 
Utilization of  improved seeds, resilient varieties, water 
conserving techniques of  irrigation, reserved investment 
in irrigation projects, replacing larger ruminants with 
more hardy smaller ruminants like goat has been noticed 
(Hussain et al. 2016; Manandhar et al. 2011; Bartlett et 
al. 2010; Shafiq and Kakar 2007). Credit and agricultural 
insurance facility, technology transfer, market access, 
extension services via field schools and demonstrations 
for new adaptive practices by the government has been 
presented as a significant approach as well (Surminski 
2010; Hussain et al. 2018). 
Literate family head adapted quicker since decision in 
rural families relied solely on them (Dhakal et al. 2015), 
larger family had resourceful labors available anytime 
improving their coping ability (Ndambiri et al. 2013; 
Deressa et al. 2009; Tesso et al. 2012; Hussain et al. 2018; 
Quayum and Ali, 2012; Vijayasarathi and Ashok, 2015) 
however, smaller families were found to undertake soil, 
water & fertilizer management and off  farm adjustments 
more (Khanal et al. 2018; Deressa et al. 2009; Hassan 
and Nhemachena 2008). Joshi et al. (2017) found, with 
increase in a unit of  schooling, adoption of  new climate 
friendly technologies increased by 13% and 26% reduction 
in ability of  adaptation in female headed families than 
male headed. Also, he found 24% increase in adaptation 
practices exercised by families earning more part of  
income from non-agriculture source when compared to 
the same income level agricultural family. Likely, larger 
holdings increased the prospect of  income and provided 

liquid finance to adopt mentioned practices (Hussain 
and Thapa 2015; Mulatu 2013; Knowler and Bradshaw, 
2007), also prospect of  taking chance in one of  the plots 
by farmer trying something new is higher (Khanal et al. 
2018a). Local opportunities e.g., bee keeping, handicraft, 
medicinal and aromatic plants, ecotourism etc. should 
be strengthened via institutional prospects to reduce out 
migrants and improve ability of  food purchase (Hussian 
et al., 2018). 
Adoption of  different agroforestry practices according to 
suitability of  location has increased and help immensely 
e.g., Elainchi farming in agroforestry is increasing in 
Lamjung. Climate smart policies targeting the higher 
altitudes should be formulated by the government with 
effective implementation (MOE 2009; Joshi et al. 2019). 
Diversification of  crop species, adoption of  soil and 
water conservation practices and manipulation of  timing 
in operations is hyping up (Asseng and Pannell 2013; 
Devkota et al 2017). VDCs of  Rasuwa responded to 
this change via integration of  agriculture and livestock, 
involvement in off  farm activities, rain water harvesting 
techniques and mulching (Merrey et al. 2018; Joshi et al. 
2017). Gentle et al. (2018) observed 4 VDCs of  Lamjung 
and saw use of  consumption loans, alternative energy 
source, bio-pesticides, sharecropping and widespread 
migration as a response. All these similar responses were 
experienced by Chalise et al. (2015) in farmers of  Central 
Region.
Joshi et. al (2017) found 24% higher adaptation rate to 
families that consider food security threat consistent 
with Kurukulasuriya and Mendelsohn (2006); Deressa 
et al. (2009); Apata et al. (2011). In his study in Rasuwa, 
higher northern villages (Syaphru and Dhunche) showed 
32% less adaptation rate than lower southern villages 
(Daibung and Laharepauwa). He focused widespread 
awareness campaigns utilizing government and local level 
development actors with training sessions to help cope 
with the changing climate.
Nepal signed UNFCCC in 1994 and have introduced 
National climate change policy 2076 (2019) whose goal 
is to prosper socio-economic prospect of  country by 
creating climate resilient system (National Climate Change 
Policy 2019_Public Health Updatepdf, n.d.). National 
Adaptation Programme of  action (NAPA) has been 
created which aims to asses and prioritize vulnerabilities, 
identify adaptations, develop priority proposals, provide 
learning and management platform and finally develop 
multi stakeholder framework of  action against the 
change (National Adaptation Programme of  Action 
(NAPA) Ministry of  Environment, n.d.). Even with the 
establishment of  NAPA, lack of  financial supply to it 
cripples its activity (OXFAM 2009; Pokhrel and Pandey 
2011). Chapagain et al. (2009) concluded that people are 
more inclined to utilize the innovations easily available at 
their disposal.
In survey of  six districts regarding effectiveness of  
CBOs, majorly employed adaptation practices were 
varietal adjustment (53.21%) followed by soil & water 

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management (50.07%), fertilizer management (45.15%) 
and timing adjustment (43.49%). 91% had followed at 
least one adaptation measure and many (62%) were found 
to be involved in community-based organizations (CBOs) 
that promoted smaller household size, higher education 
for househead & crop diversification supporting claim of  
Conley and Udry (2010), Kassie et al. (2013) and Wossen 
et al. (2013) that farmers help and teach others in their 
network (Khanal et al. 2017; Binam et al. 2004).
Data collected from focus group discussion, stake 
holder workshop and household surveys from 6 districts 
representing all 3 agroecological regions of  Nepal showed 
24 practices common to local as adaptation: Crop/
varietal adjustment, Grow diverse crops/varieties, Grow 
drought tolerant crops/varieties, Grow short duration 
crops/varieties, Grow insects/diseases resistant crops/
varieties Grow less water intensive crop/varieties, Crop 
rotation, Intercropping/mixed cropping, Change planting 
locations of  crops , Farm operations time adjustment, 
Change planting date/ harvesting date, Adjustment in 
time of  weeding, pesticide application , Soil and water 
management, Mulching, Cover crops, Reduce tillage, 
Fallowing, Terrace construction, Agroforestry, Rain water 
harvesting, Flood control, Improve/increase irrigation, 
Fertilizer management, Improve/increase chemical 
fertilizer use, Improve/increase farm yard manure use, 
Off-farm adjustment, Keep more livestock, Weather 
forecasts, Livelihood diversification (Khanal et al., 2018).
Among the practices, soil and water conservation was 
found to show excellent results to uplift food productivity. 
Average Adaptation index of  99.1, 115.3 and 56 was 
seen for terai, hills & mountains and households that 
exercise adaptations were found 10, 9 and 16% more 
effective than non-adapters respectively. Mean Technical 
efficiency (TE), derived from stochastic frontier analysis 
framework, was 0.72 while the value ranged widely from 
0.14 to 0.93. This stated that on an average, 28% increase 
in production can be made using the same input level 
with practice of  adaptation practices. TE in larger scale 
with greater no of  practices was found 13% in average 
greater than employing fewer practices on smaller scale 
(Khanal et al., 2018).
Study from rice fields of  Nepal by Khanal et al. (2018) 
show adjustment in timing of  operations is most 
commonly practiced against climate change impacts 
while fertilizer management is least preferred. This is the 
result of  lower cost and minimal effort associated with 
the first measure. Records show that adopted households 
would have lost 648kg/ha if  they had not adopted and 
those who didn’t adopt would have gained 241kg/ha rice 
more in case of  practice of  adaptive measures.
Young aspiring farmers seem to adopt the change in 
practices very well with changing climate. Autonomous 
adaptation practices must be focused and prioritized 
for extension in Nepal to gain success in undermining 
climate change (2018)
Household affected by disasters were more likely to 
employ adaptation than non-affected e.g., drought in an 

area forced people to consider supplementary means of  
irrigation or crop shift to less water demanding ones. 
Areas closer to market show people engaging in off  farm 
employment more as an adjustment (Khanal et al. 2018). 
Adhikari et al. (2017) proposed the use of  more hardy 
crops like barley, beans in the high altitudes to tackle 
issues of  climate change. 
In paper presented by Manandhar et al. (2010), zero 
tillage and surface seeding, driving rickshaws, working as 
porters or in factories, off  season vegetable production 
was noticed locally in western Nepal. In the same paper, 
possible strategies for upland were presented which 
included: crop diversification, kitchen waste and water 
harvesting technologies, extension of  apple production 
between elevations; and for lowlands included: promotion 
of  IPNM, introduction of  early maturing, drought and 
flood tolerating varieties, fish farming in flood prone 
areas. Indigenous knowledge of  Lamas in Mustang was 
presented as an example who focused that all crops should 
be sown by every farmer synchronized which will share 
the damage in crop thus pin pointed the incorporation 
of  local ancient knowledge into principles of  adaptive 
practices for site specific dissemination and success.
Released and registered varieties of  rice adopted by 
farmers in Nepal in terms of  moderate- high drought 
tolerance include Masuli, loktantra, Mithilia, Radha-4, 
Barkhe 3004, Ghaiya-2 etc. (MoAC, 2007) and improved 
varieties from India in terms of  drought tolerance are 
Ram dhan, Gorakhnath Gold (moderate flood tolerance 
as well), Mayur, Sarjubaun, Sarju-49, Bajigar (moderate 
flood tolerance as well), Motisava (moderate flood 
tolerance as well), Panta-10 , Golden mansuli (moderate 
flood tolerance as well), Sundar Sabha (moderate flood 
tolerance as well), Gauri, Sava Mansuli, Saba (Field 
survey, 2008).
Climate resilient traditional crops rich in micronutrients 
such as local maize, millet, buckwheat, local beans, lentils 
and barley can be an effective coping strategy to evade 
food crisis in mountains (Adhikari et al. 2017). Selling 
milks of  Chauri, yak and live sheeps can be a way for 
living as well. Start of  off  farm activities: tourist guides, 
opening of  resorts, migration to cities, weaving of  
woolen jackets, caps, carpets etc. has been studied in 
Grey, Gojlung, Chilime, Thuman and Gatlan (Merrey D.J. 
et al. 2018; Hussain et al. 2016, 2018; Rasul et al. 2014).
Projection of  climate change in future will be determined 
by change in agriculture with time thus technical change, 
increased capital, improved access and possible policy 
change must be well processed. Irrigation is the best 
option to sort problem in warming as well as in drying 
(Mendelsohn, 2009).
With increasing threat of  maize grey leaf  spot in mid 
hills of  Nepal recently, Manakamana-3, Shitala, Deuti, 
Ganesh-1,2 varieties have been introduced to eastern 
and central hills. Researchers are focused in developing 
varieties with less anthesis silking interval (ASI) to 
overcome drought. Updating the Monitoring and 
Evaluation of  Ministry of  Agriculture has been targeted 

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(Nayava and Gurung 2010).
Adoption of  heat tolerant varieties of  wheat will increase 
production of  wheat in today’s doubling rate of  CO2 
content. Improved seeds use to tackle climate change 
and sustain productivity is also highlighted as a better 
option (Nayava et al., 2009). Irrigation is also presented 
as adaptive measure to tackle this problem by Pallazzoli 
et al. (2015). 
Participatory promotion of  local genetic resources via 
seed banks, reduced pesticide use, soil conserving tillage, 
carbon sequestration, integration of  farming systems, 
improve soil OM, rain water harvesting, conservation 
agriculture (no till, mulching), green manuring, identifying 
and uplifting local technologies via R&D (e.g., use of  
animal urine, plant extracts etc.), community based 
biodiversity management, home gardens in cities etc. has 
been presented very effective means of  mitigating climate 

change effects (Panday, 2012).
Drip irrigation in Kapilvastu, rain eater harvesting for 
Dhading and bioengineering methods of  erosion control 
in Syangja has been presented as best adaptive measures 
by Panthi et al. (2015). In his paper, he mentioned social 
forestry approach, insurance, community cooperative and 
other formal and informal groups to link and strengthen 
social capital. 
Promotion of  Slope Agriculture Land Technology 
(SALT) and hedge row cropping for mid hills, tunnel/ 
plastic house farming, community centered small scale 
storage facilities, germplasm conservation has been put 
forward as necessary measures to tackle climate change 
(Paudel, 2012). A 10-point “Everest declaration” to 
contribute 1.5% GDP to climate fund for reducing 
GHGs has been made (Shrestha, 2009).
Need of  weather information system targeting rural 

Table 4: Nepal’s effort to climate change
Crops Varieties Purpose
Rice • Lalka Basmati, Ghaiya 1 & 2, B-6144, 

Sukhha Dhan-1, 2, and 3, and IR-44535-5
• Sworna, IR-64, and Sanwa Mansuli 

• Drought Tolerant
• Submergence tolerance

Maize Manakamana-5 (white), Manakamana-6 
(yellow), and Deuti (white)

For mid hills, tolerant to lodging and remain green after 
maturity; fodder to animals and intercropping suitability

Wheat • Aditya (BL-3264) 
• NL-971 
• WK- 1204, Pasang Lahmu, and Gautam 

• high temperature and hot wind tolerant, leaf  rust and 
yellow rust resistance 
• resistant to leaf  rust, mod-erately resistant to yellow 
rust and Helminthospori-um leaf  blight, and toler-ant to 
high temperature 
• tolerant to yellow rust 

Tomato Srijana and Bishesh Off-season production, tolerant to blight, high yielder.
Source: (Paudel, 2012)

farming community via TVs, radio, mobile phones to help 
them adjust their farm operations has become mandatory 
to support them. Farm ponds, surface/ sub surface dams, 
tanks for supplementing irrigation can help in dry periods 
since agriculture is rainfed (Pradhan et al. 2015).
Community based management of  common resources 
have been positively considered by local farmers 
throughout the country (Kunwar et al. 2020) and local 
institutions working with bottom up approach seem to be 
best suited in context of  solving environmental problem 
(Benjamin et al. 1994; Ostrom et al. 1994; Varughese and 
Ostrom 2001; Shivakoti and Ostrom 2002; Rayamajhee 
and Joshi 2018; Rayamajhee 2020; Rayamajhee et al. 
2020a; Rayamajhee et al. 2020b; Rayamajhee and Paniagua 
2020). Easing Indo-Nepal trade of  food commodities 
can be beneficial as well (Rayamajhi et al. 2020).
Another study done in Makwanpur, Nepal regarding risks 
to food security due to climate change showed vegetable-
based enterprises to be more efficient than cereal based 
because of  diversity and regular income flow (Shrestha 
and Nepal, 2016). Participatory forest management is 
worth citing (Ojha et al. 2009; Niraula et al. 2013).
A report estimated that a 20% increase in soil organic 
matter as a result of  organic agriculture would result in a 

decrease of  about 9 tons of  carbon emission per hectare 
(Food and Agriculture Organization, 2008).
Organic agriculture helps in better management of  soil 
and water, promoting biodiversity and strengthening 
community knowledge systems which increase the 
resilience of  farming systems. Organic agriculture emits 
less N2O because of  a systemically lower N-input from 
organic manure, a higher C/N ratio in applied organic 
manure and low available mineral N2 in the soil for 
denitrification, the persistent plant cover in organic 
systems which results in more efficient uptake of  mobile 
nitrogen in soils, thus reducing the potential risk for N2O 
emissions (Khanal, 2009)
Recent studies on Northern Kenya and Southern 
Ethiopia reviewed by Morton (2001) have focused on 
the coping strategies used by pastoralists during recent 
droughts and the longer-term adaptations are: Engage 
in herd accumulation, in which pastoralists cope by 
systematically selling livestock during drought or drought-
onset; Keep multispecies herds to take advantage of  
different ecological niches and the labor of  men, women, 
and children; Use purchased feed or lopped fodder from 
trees as supplementary feed for livestock, which can be 
taken as a coping strategy; Livelihood diversification away 

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from pastoralism in the form of  shifts into low-income 
or environmentally sustainable occupations.
The practices provided by FAO (2009) to cope with 
climate change hazards align with the practices put 
forward by various authors with a new prospect of  
Community-centered small-scale fruit production (apple, 
apricot, walnut, and mandarin orange).
In view of  climate-sensitive agriculture, use of  timely 
weather and seasonal climate forecasting, to adjust their 
farming practices to minimize adverse impacts on rural 
livelihoods, and food security (Powell et al., 1998)
For high hill and temperate conditions (2500m and 
above), cold-tolerant rice varieties of  Chandannath-1 and 
3, others have been developed and popularized especially 
in the Jumla and Karnali regions (Paudel, 2011) where 
around 3.9 million people in the area suffered from 
hunger and malnutrition due to acute shortage of  food 
(Paudel, 2010). 
Use multiple sowing dates, thereby decreasing the 
chance that the whole crop will be at a critical stage 
during an extreme weather event (Food and Agriculture 
Organization, 2008) has been put forward with 
encouragement in genetic diversity of  both crops and 
livestock, save their local landraces that are highly 
adaptable, making them self-sufficient and self-reliant. 
Opportunities
Though opportunities prevail, we are not being able to 
grasp this and utilize for our benefit since we require 
external assistance and support (Gawith et al., 2015). 
Several cash crops like potato, garlic, onion, vegetables 
showed increase in productivity therefore, prioritization 
of  these crops formulating proper national policies 
and institutional priorities can help gain profit as well 
(Hussain et al., 2018). 
Despite the impacts, opportunities of  cereal cultivation 
in Mustang, Manang has grown. Rise of  temperature in 
higher altitude has allowed earlier planting and harvesting 
prospects thus cropping intensity can be increased 
(Pant, 2011). Melting of  glacier, snow and ice with 
summer monsoon has made water available for farming. 
Natural decomposition of  OM has increased with rising 
temperature and favored nutrient uptake mechanisms can 
be of  great significance (Bartlett et al. 2008; Khanal 2009; 
Lohani 2007; Malla 2008 ).
Value chain development of  handcrafts, traditional crops 
and vegetables will be greatly helpful. Formalization of  
existing and expanding irrigation systems can be done 
to lower conflicts at local level. Prospect of  introducing 
and expanding plastic tunnel cultivation and solar pumps 
in mountains through government aid will be a great 
achievement and has immense prospect as well (Merrey 
D.J. et al. 2018).
Carbon fertilization in atmosphere can help to boost the 
production of  C3 plants however, the effect is nonlinear 
(Pant, 2011).

CONCLUSION
Nepal is rich in biodiversity which ranges from tropical 

to tundra hence called the micro-museum of  world 
climate. Therefore, vulnerability of  climate change to 
Nepal is immense although its contribution to global 
GHG is minimal. Climate awareness among the farmers 
has been seen mandatory. The common effects of  this 
change experienced in Nepal includes temperature 
fluctuation, erratic rainfall, outbreak of  insect, pest and 
diseases, increased hazardous events of  flood, landslide, 
edge cutting, bank erosion, mass flow, glacier lake 
outburst, hailstorms etc., proliferation of  invasive weeds, 
livestock complexities which deteriorate status of  food 
production and questions food security. To tackle these 
adversities, local adaptation plan of  action is suitable. 
Blanket recommendation will be inappropriate for Nepal 
due to its diversity thus, essentiality to exploit site specific 
local traditional knowledge is mandatory. Commonly 
practiced adaptive strategies include: varietal adjustment, 
diversification of  crops, planting resistant and improved 
varieties, crop rotation, Intercropping/mixed cropping, 
farm operations time adjustment, mulching, cover 
crops, reduced tillage, Fallowing, terrace construction, 
agroforestry, rain water harvesting, flood control, 
Improve/increase irrigation, fertilizer management, 
improve/increase chemical fertilizer use, improve/
increase farm yard manure use, Off-farm adjustment, 
keep more livestock, weather forecasts and livelihood 
diversification. Soil and water conservation practices have 
been promising for many farmers, management of  crop 
calendar and timing of  farm operations if  promoted can 
be crucial.

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