pa ge 1 pa ge 52 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) disaster resilience and capability in the maintenance of public order during disaster of calamity-prone municipalities in oriental mindoro, philippines salcedo b. tanguid, jr.1*, richelle v. tanguid1 volume 2 issue 1, year 2023 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v2i1.2056 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: october 27, 2022 accepted: november 25, 2022 published: november 28, 2023 this study examined the level of disaster resilience and extent of the capability of calamityprone areas to maintain public order during disaster, among the respondents, the barangay officials and the residents in the disaster-prone municipalities in oriental mindoro. this study employed a descriptive-quantitative research design in which the level of disaster resilience and extent of the capability of calamity-prone areas in the maintenance of public order during disaster, among the respondents, the barangay officials (n=180) and the residents (n=379) in the disaster-prone municipalities in oriental mindoro. a structure questionnaire was crafted based on study questions. in this study, stratified proportional random sampling was carried out for the selection of resident respondents. in contrast, total enumeration was used for barangay officials, including the chief of the barangay tanods in each barangay of the calamity-prone areas of the province under study. the weighted mean was used to evaluate the respondents’ level of disaster resilience and the extent of capability of calamity-prone areas in the maintenance of public order during disaster. results showed the high extent of capability in the maintenance of public order during disaster in disaster-prone municipalities is indicative of the effective implementation of policies on disaster preparedness and the management of disaster risk reduction. the local government units may adopt the comprehensive resilience program based on the findings of this study to further enhance disaster resilience and disaster risk reduction management. keywords public order during disaster, disaster resilience and capability, calamity-prone municipalities 1 college of criminal justice education, mindoro state university, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: stanguid@gmail.com introduction disaster risk reduction (drr) projects have been widely deployed to improve community resilience and decrease vulnerabilities in the case of catastrophes. the literature has defined different approaches and frameworks for drr, including detection and monitoring systems, effective communication, support in facility reconstruction, and reaction and recovery measures. existing frameworks, however, frequently fall short of taking into account antecedent socioeconomic elements at the local level, as well as the vulnerability or resilience of the natural environment (unisdr global assessment report, 2015). according to norris et al. (2008), understanding how survivors function during and after disasters is critical, as is putting this knowledge into practice tactics that encourage resilience. while climate change is a global concern, it can only be effectively addressed locally (ostrom, 2010). many international climate change adaptation plans emphasize the increased danger of extreme events and disasters, as well as the importance of local communities in disaster risk reduction. despite multiple endeavors, it is unclear whether these efforts are effectively aligned with community expectations for disaster resilience. understanding community attitudes and resilience characteristics is thus critical, as it can inform enhanced resilience-building processes and assist communities in catastrophe preparedness. the council of australian governments (coag) approved a national resilience-based disaster management approach in december 2009, emphasizing cooperation to improve local capacity and empower communities (weichselgartner & kelman, 2015)). community resilience, according to ramsey et al. (2016), is a continual engagement process that prepares communities for disasters and supports in their recovery. in recent years, a number of disaster resilience measurement frameworks have been developed, but few are intended for community use (cai et al., 2018). in the philippines, republic act (ra) 10121, an act highlighting the role of local government units (lgus) in disaster management, institutionalizes the participation of civil society organizations (csos) and the corporate sector in building community resilience (official gazette (2010). ra 10121 emphasizes the importance of assessing and improving the performance and organizational structure of implementing agencies in order to ensure catastrophe preparedness. it also emphasizes the significance of raising risk and hazard awareness and knowledge, as well as preparedness for effective reaction and recovery. following the devastation caused by typhoon yolanda in 2013, efforts were undertaken to construct safer, physically sound, and hazard-adaptive evacuation shelters that catered to the requirements of vulnerable groups (nakamura et al., 2015). for instance, the local administration collaborated with the philippine disaster resilience foundation to construct and improve a disasterresilient evacuation facility. this effort emphasizes the relevance of infrastructure resilience and community capacity-building in disaster response. furthermore, the federal emergency management pa ge 53 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 52-58, 2023 agency (fema) in the united states recognizes the critical role of law enforcement in disaster response, particularly their existing relationships and trust throughout communities (koch et al, 2017). however, according to llosa and zodrow (2011), a research conducted in the philippines, local officials prioritize short-term disaster risk management measures in order to obtain credit during their term, thus jeopardizing disaster management efficacy. this discovery gives light on the dynamics of local calamity management, particularly the impact of political factors. while multiple studies have investigated disaster resilience and response skills in a variety of situations, there is a significant study deficit regarding the specific disaster-prone towns in oriental mindoro, philippines. despite the fact that disaster-prone areas are subject to repeating disasters, there is little empirical research that completely examines disaster resilience levels and the range of capabilities, with a special emphasis on the maintenance of public order during disasters. despite the vital relevance of understanding the dynamics, strengths, and vulnerabilities of these communities in the event of disasters, this study vacuum persists. thus, this study examined the level of disaster resilience and extent of capability of calamity-prone areas in the maintenance of public order during disaster, among the respondents, the barangay officials and the residents in the disaster-prone municipalities in oriental mindoro. methodology this study employed a descriptive-quantitative research design in which the level of disaster resilience and extent of capability of calamity-prone areas in the maintenance of public order during disaster, among the respondents, the barangay officials (n=180) and the residents (n=379) in the disaster-prone municipalities in oriental mindoro. a structure questionnaire was crafted based on study questions. in this study, stratified proportional random sampling was carried out for the selection of resident respondents, whereas total enumeration was used for barangay officials, including the chief of the barangay tanods in each barangay of the calamity-prone areas of the province under study. the evaluation and ethics committees were supplied with a draft questionnaire for content validation and approval. the questionnaire was reproduced with all of the comments, suggestions, and recommendations included. the researcher requested authorization from the relevant authorities, such as the barangay chairman, via a letter request for the distribution of questionnaires and the collection of extra data for this study. after the request was granted, the researcher floated the questionnaire and collected additional data. the weighted mean was used to evaluate the respondents’ level of disaster resilience and extent of capability of calamity-prone areas in the maintenance of public order during disaster. results and discussions level of disaster resilience of residents and barangay officials in the disaster-prone municipalities of oriental mindoro table 1 shows the level of disaster resilience among the respondents, the barangay officials and the residents in the disaster-prone municipalities in oriental mindoro. table 1: level of disaster resilience of residents and barangay officials in the disaster-prone municipalities of oriental mindoro indicators barangay officials residents overall weighted mean verbal interpretation weighted mean verbal interpretation weighted mean verbal interpretation 1. damage to property as a result of disaster is reduced to negligible level. 3.59 often 3.57 often 3.58 often 2. there are enough evacuation centers to accommodate victims of disasters. 3.92 often 3.77 often 3.85 often 3. damage to infrastructures like roads, bridges and buildings are restored immediately after the disaster. 3.32 sometimes 3.36 sometimes 3.34 sometimes 4. medical aid arrives immediately to treat injuries and contain the possible spread of diseases that might have resulted from the disaster. 3.65 often 3.52 often 3.59 often pa ge 54 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 52-58, 2023 5. the families have enough capability to repair or rebuild their houses that were damaged by disaster like skills in carpentry and masonry. 3.59 often 3.45 sometimes 3.52 often 6. the victims immediately go back to their jobs or restore their livelihood through extensive livelihood program like training, job posting and giving of financial support for their capital by the government. 3.35 sometimes 3.38 sometimes 3.37 sometimes 7. the victims immediately recover from the loss of property by means of sufficient financial support from the government. 3.07 sometimes 3.16 sometimes 3.12 sometimes 8. the victims immediately recover from the loss of a family member by means of extensive psychological counselling given by experts from the local government. 3.14 sometimes 3.11 sometimes 3.13 sometimes 9. victims do not experience much the shortage of basic needs like food, water, shelter and clothing as a result of disaster because of the aid and donations brought by the government. 3.55 often 3.39 sometimes 3.47 sometimes 10. damage to properties of the residents like houses is minimal because of timely action to mitigate damages like placing temporarily flood control, immediate transfer of valuables to safer locations, and immediate repair to prevent the damages from getting worse. 3.47 sometimes 3.44 sometimes 3.46 sometimes pa ge 55 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 52-58, 2023 11. the residents go back to their normal life within a month after the disaster because of the effective rehabilitation program of the government. 3.39 sometimes 3.52 often 3.46 sometimes composite mean 3.46 sometimes 3.42 sometimes 3.44 sometimes legend: 4.50 – 5.00 = always (a); 3.50 – 4.49 = often (o); 2.50 – 3.49 = sometimes (so); 1.50 – 2.49 = seldom (se); 1.00 – 1.49 = never (n) the overall composite mean of 3.44, described as sometimes, signifies that the respondents have moderate level of disaster resilience. the small difference on the composite mean of the responses from the barangay officials, which is 3.46, from the composite mean of 3.42 from the resident-respondents reveals that both groups struggle with moving forward after experiencing disasters. also, it can be gleaned from the table that both groups of respondents rated the second item on the questionnaire with the highest weighted mean. the barangay officials rated the item with 3.92 while the resident-respondents rated it with 3.77 mean, which are both described as often. the item indicates the sufficient number of evacuation centers that shall accommodate the victims of disasters. the responses indicate that the municipalities are able to provide adequate facilities for evacuation. the respondents further added that such evacuation centers can be the schools or churches in the community. some barangay officials likewise mentioned that the municipal government has allocated funds for the construction of evacuation centers which are already readily available for use during disasters. since the evacuation centers serve as temporary shelters to the victims of calamities and disasters, the provision of help and support can be made conveniently. as the victims are gathered in particular locations, assistance from the government and private sectors can be easily utilized and sent to them. through this, the victims are able to feel secured and protected despite the disaster that they are facing. such psychological relief has been found to enhance their resiliency. the availability of evacuation centers in the community does not only ensure the safety and security of the citizens but likewise serve as venues for the conduct of counseling and support groups to enhance resilience. in such cases, designated personnel from the government are invited to encourage the people who struggled in the midst of disasters. thus, evacuation centers do not only cater the biological needs of the victims but also their psychological stability which is vital in moving towards disaster resilience. on the other hand, the barangay officials ranked item number 7 with the lowest weighted mean of 3.07, which is described as sometimes. in this item, the recovery over the loss of property through financial support from the government was stated. the barangay officials may have felt that the financial support from the government is not sufficient for disaster resilience (usamah et al., 2014). this perception may be attributed to the limited funding of the government which is distributed to all communities that are affected by the calamities. the budget allocation may depend on the severity of damage, thus some barangays may have not been funded with enough support that will help the citizens in their pursuit to recovery. ultimately, bigger amounts will be allocated to communities with severe damages and their recovery will be the topmost priority. meanwhile, small communities may not receive the sufficient financial support. some respondents also mentioned that there were also instances when the assessment of damages were not fully justified, thus the funding does not suffice to the needs of the community. being in the position, the barangay officials are the first persons to identify this challenge. responses from the residents ranked item number 8, out of the total 11 items, with the lowest weighted mean of 3.11, described as sometimes. the items include the immediate recovery over the loss of a family member through psychological counseling. this implies that the residents struggle with recovering from the loss of a loved one due to calamities. a loss of life is surely one of the biggest struggles that the victims of calamities have to face. while properties and livelihood may be replaced, a lost loved one cannot. in such cases, psychological counseling initiated by the government may not be at all times able to address the problem. although most bereaved persons do not need professional help in coping well after loss of a loved one, recovering from such loss requires time. thus, bereavement affects the level of resilience of the resident-respondents. the relationship between bereavement and disaster is confirmed in the findings of walsh (2007) which revealed that death of a loved one, specifically parents, have long lasting effects on the individuals’ resiliency. in their studies, parental death has been considered to result into various problems such as decreased competency, depressive symptoms, low psychological well-being, and other related symptoms among the individuals. in such cases, the study also revealed that support from other family members is more applicable than the professional assistance of psychology experts. this may be the reason why the residents felt that the initiative of the government to provide counseling to the bereaved families is not enhancing their resiliency. thus, the government may pa ge 56 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 52-58, 2023 implement different strategies to support bereaved families in their way of coping through a loss of family member. extent of capability in the maintenance of public order during disaster of calamity-prone municipalities as assessed by residents and barangay officials table 2 shows the residents’ and barangay officials’ responses on the extent of capability of calamity-prone areas in the maintenance of public order during disaster. the general composite mean points out that the residents and officials have a high capability in maintaining public order in times of disaster especially in calamity-prone areas. the residents earned an overall mean of 3.61 while the officials earned an average mean of 3.75, both described as high. this shows that the officials are well-trained and oriented on the proper protocols and procedures implemented during calamities. as officials, identifying the high-risk areas in the community is one of their primary concerns. their experience in handling calamities strengthens their capability as they are able to evaluate the success of previous actions. the table also shows how the presence of law enforcement in maintaining order encourage cooperation of residents in affected areas. significantly, the residents demonstrate high confidence in their capability to maintain public order. since high-risk areas are repeatedly vulnerable to calamities, residents are also familiar with how local officials respond to various catastrophes. thus, residents may have also developed their system of responding to calamities. from the results shown in the table, it can be observed that item 9 earned the highest mean with 4.11 for the officials and 3.83 from the residents. the item illustrates the sufficient number of force multipliers that helps the law enforcers in maintaining public safety. the result reveals that both officials and residents have received help from other forces aside from the law enforcement during calamities. various force multipliers such as local table 2: extent of capability in the maintenance of public order during disaster of calamity-prone municipalities as assessed by residents and barangay officials indicators barangay officials residents overall weighted mean verbal interpretation weighted mean verbal interpretation weighted mean verbal interpretation 1. there are police officers who guard the place where calamity took place to prevent people from taking advantage of the situation by committing crimes like theft. 3.44 moderately high 3.38 moderately high 3.41 moderately high 2. peace and order in the community is restored immediately after the disaster by delegating more police officers and soldiers to guard the place. 3.33 moderately high 3.44 moderately high 3.39 moderately high 3. there is orderly and fair distribution of relief goods due to the assistance of law enforcers. 3.84 high 3.64 high 3.74 high 4. there is enforcement of rules to prevent people who take advantage of the situation to commit crime or gain profit during disaster. 3.67 high 3.54 high 3.61 high 5. there are law enforcers deployed to patrol in the affected areas during calamity. 3.73 high 3.56 high 3.65 high pa ge 57 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 52-58, 2023 government officials and employees, disaster-related agencies, private organizations, and public volunteers extend their services during calamities. it is then easier for law enforcers to prevent theft and provide security as other forces take charge of their tasks. the role of distributing relief goods and assistance are acted out by force multipliers. the local government supports in patrolling the affected areas to prevent crime while other force multipliers help maintain order in evacuation areas to avoid strife and violence. significantly, item 1 garnered the lowest overall mean with 3.44 in the case of the officials and 3.41 in the case of the residents. the result reveals that both officials and residents acknowledge that there is a moderately high involvement of police officers in the calamity areas. though lowest among all the indicators, the general composite mean still shows that there is moderate presence of law enforcement. the result does not necessarily mean that the law enforcers lack action or lack priority in addressing calamities but it may be attributed to the number of police officers in a city and the number of affected areas. as the number of calamity-prone areas and the number of affected residents increases, the number of police officers decreases as they are divided to respond to all areas. thus, the police officers recognize the need to increase the number of police officers in affected areas to prevent other individuals taking advantage of the disaster. the increase in number of police officers would significantly lower the number of thefts. this can also address headstrong residents who refuse to evacuate from their homes with the fear of losing their valuables. ensuring that there are the sufficient number of police officers to guard the resident’s home would increase evacuation compliance. in general, the table reveals the important role that law enforcers play in maintaining peace and order in evacuation and calamity-prone areas (brillantes, 1993). the presence of law enforcers helps minimize the number of crimes and violence, thus maintaining public order in times of calamity. conclusions the high extent of capability in the maintenance of public order during disaster in disaster-prone municipalities is indicative of the effective implementation of policies on disaster preparedness and the management of disaster risk reduction. the local government units may adopt the comprehensive resilience program based on the findings of this study to further enhance disaster resilience and disaster risk reduction management. 6. evacuation policies are well enforced with the aid of law enforcers to ensure that disturbances like quarrel will be avoided at the evacuation center. 3.78 high 3.64 high 3.71 high 7. there are enough law enforcers deployed in evacuation centers to ensure the safety of the evacuees. 3.86 high 3.70 high 3.78 high 8. there is full cooperation of the affected communities in cases of mandatory evacuation if with the aid of law enforcers. 3.76 high 3.65 high 3.71 high 9. there are sufficient force multipliers like barangay tanods to aid the law enforcers in maintaining public safety during disasters. 4.11 high 3.83 high 3.97 high 10. violence is avoided in the evacuation center due to the presence of law enforcers. 3.93 high 3.70 high 3.82 high composite mean 3.75 high 3.61 high 3.68 high legend: 4.50 – 5.00 = very high (vh); 3.50 – 4.49 = high (h); 2.50 – 3.49 = moderately high (mh); 1.50 – 2.49 = low (l); 1.00 – 1.49 = very low (vl) pa ge 58 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 52-58, 2023 references brillantes, a. b. (1993). the philippines in 1992: ready for take off?. asian survey, 33(2), 224-230. cai, h., lam, n. s., qiang, y., zou, l., correll, r. m., & mihunov, v. (2018). a synthesis of disaster resilience measurement methods and indices. international journal of disaster risk reduction, 31, 844-855. koch, h., franco, z. e., o’sullivan, t., defino, m. c., & ahmed, s. (2017). community views of the federal emergency management agency’s “whole community” strategy in a complex us city: re-envisioning societal resilience. technological forecasting and social change, 121, 31-38. llosa, s., & zodrow, i. (2011). disaster risk reduction legislation as a basis for effective adaptation. global assessment report on disaster risk reduction, 1-18. nakamura, r., takahiro, o., shibayama, t., miguel, e., & takagi, h. (2015). evaluation of storm surge caused by typhoon yolanda (2013) and using weather-storm surge-wave-tide model. procedia engineering, 116, 373380. norris, f. h., stevens, s. p., pfefferbaum, b., wyche, k. f., & pfefferbaum, r. l. (2008). community resilience as a metaphor, theory, set of capacities, and strategy for disaster readiness. american journal of community psychology, 41, 127-150. official gazette (2010). republic act no. 10121. https:// www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2010/05/27/republicact-no-10121/ ostrom, e. (2010). a multi-scale approach to coping with climate change and other collective action problems. solutions, 1(2), 27-36. ramsey, i., steenkamp, m., thompson, a., anikeeva, o., arbon, p., & gebbie, k. (2016). assessing community disaster resilience using a balanced scorecard: lessons learnt from three australian communities. australian journal of emergency management, the, 31(2), 44-49. unisdr global assessment report (2015). disaster risk reduction & disaster risk management. https:// www.preventionweb.net/understanding-disasterrisk/key-concepts/disaster-risk-reduction-disasterrisk-management usamah, m., handmer, j., mitchell, d., & ahmed, i. (2014). can the vulnerable be resilient? co-existence of vulnerability and disaster resilience: informal settlements in the philippines. international journal of disaster risk reduction, 10, 178-189. walsh, f. (2007). traumatic loss and major disasters: strengthening family and community resilience. family process, 46(2), 207-227. weichselgartner, j., & kelman, i. (2015). geographies of resilience: challenges and opportunities of a descriptive concept. progress in human geography, 39(3), 249-267. pa ge 1 pa ge 13 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) comparative study of phytochemical properties of some bio-material (african yam bean, pigeon pea, pawpaw leaf powder, moringa seed and pawpaw seed) ibiam prince amauche1*, amadi chiubeze1, ezeamama liliam1, ain grace1, ifegbo arinze n1 volume 1 issue 1, year 2022 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v1i1.347 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: june 24, 2022 accepted: june 30, 2022 published: july 02, 2022 the study was carried out to compare the phytochemical properties of africa yam bean, pigeon pea, moringa seed, pawpaw leaf and pawpaw seed powder and the significance of the phytochemicals in respect to the treatment of diseases were discussed. phytochemicals were qualitatively analyzed from the plants ethanol extracts and the practical were done in bro. mike researchers lab. umuerim extension umudibia nekede and the standard phytochemical analysis methods were adopted. preliminary screening of the africa yam bean, pigeon pea, moringa seed, pawpaw leaf and pawpaw seed powder revealed the presence of alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids, saponins, steroids, and in all the plants ethanol extracts. africa yam bean contained all the phytochemicals except tannin, while there was absence of flavonoid, and glycoside in pigeon pea. tannins were also absent in the pawpaw seed and pawpaw seed extracts. there was also the absence of steroid and ncardiac glycosides in moringa. the quantitative analysis of the six selected phytochemicals revealed that there was a significant difference in the mean values of alkaloids and flavonoids contents of african yam bean plants. however, at africa yam bean had the highest alkaloids content while moringa seed had the highest flavonoids content. the pawpaw leaf contained the highest tannins and saponins was found highest in pawpaw leaf and pawpaw seed. finally, the results justified the medicinal potentials of these plants in the treatment of diseases. keywords phytochemical properties, african yam bean, pigeon pea, pawpaw leaf powder, moringa seed and pawpaw seed 1 college of engineering, gregory university of uturu, achara uture, abia state, nigeria. * corresponding author’s e-mail: ibiamprince72@gmail.com introduction the comparative method is often used in the early stages of the development of a branch of a science. it can help their search to ascend from the initial level of exploratory case studies to a more advance level of general theoretical mode invariances, such as causality or evolution. in comparative study you are examining two or more cases specimens, biomaterials event. on the basis of the target of your study you have to decide which are the interesting aspects, properties or attributes that you will have to note and record for each of the cases.[1] the final goal of research is usually to removal the systematic structure that is true not only for were studies but for the entire group where the cases came from. in other words, the goal is to generalize the finding.[2] phytochemicals (phyto means plant) are chemical compounds that occur naturally in the plants. these compounds are responsible for colour and other organoleptic properties. they have antioxidants, anticancer, anti-inflammatory and pain-relieving properties. salicintexol, etc. antioxidants are chemical compounds are substance that inhibit oxidation or that retards deterioration by oxidation, especially of fat, oils, and foods. some examples of antioxidants are vitamins a, c and e, β-carotene, enzymes catalase, superoxide, dismutase and various peroxidases. antimicrobials are agents that kill microorganism or suppress their multiplication or growth, e.g. penicillin (natural), sulphonamides, nitroglerine, etc. antimicrobi alagents are used to treat infectious disease. [3,4,5] this work is therefore focused on the evaluation and comparative of phytochemical contents of underutilized edible and non-edible. the emergence and re-emergence of diseases has left researchers with no option than to focus spot-light on the discovery of bioactive metabolites from medicinal plants to compliment synthetic orthodox drugs in the fight against diseases caused by infectious agents. the use of medicinal plants in the treatment of diseases has been in practice since ancient times in different parts of the world. plants have the major advantage of still being the most effective and cheaper alternative sources of drugs [6,7] a biomaterial is essentially a material that is used and adapted for a medical application. biomaterials can have a benign function, such as being used for a heart valve, or may be bioactive; used for a more interactive purpose such as hydroxy‐apatite coated hip implants (the furlong hip, by joint replacement instrument at ltd, sheffield is one such example – such implants are lasting upwards of twenty years). biomaterials are also used every day in dental applications, surgery, and drug delivery. while a definition for the term ‘biomaterial’ has been difficult to formulate, more widely accepted working definitions include: “a biomaterial is any material, natural or man‐ made, that comprises whole or part of a living structure or biomedical device which performs, augments, or replaces a natural function. african yam bean (sphenostylis stenocarpa) is an edible, underutilized grain legumes widely cultivated in africa that is used for man and animal nutrition. like most grain legumes cultivated in africa, african yam bean is rich in prate in, carbohydrates, fat, vitamins and minerals [8,9]. the protein is made up of over essential amino acids, with lysine and lucien being predominant. it is also rich in antioxidant sand freehttps://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v1i1.347 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee mailto:ibiamprince72%40gmail.com?subject= pa ge 14 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 13-18, 2022 radical scavengers. in spite of its composition, it has a low consumption rate. this is mainly due to its long cooking time about 145min. [10] pigeon pea (cajanus cajan) is a rich source of protein for animal and human consumption. it also supplies a significant amount of minerals and vitamins. it is among the dry leguminous cultivated for food in nigeria. it is also an important food legume in african and south – east asia (11, 12). carica papaya linnaeus (pawpaw leaf), belongs to the family of caricaceae. papaya is not a tree but herbaceous succulent plants that posses self-supporting stems. [13] it is a large perennial herb with a rapid growth rate. the plants are usually short-lived, but can produce fruit for more than 20 years. the papaya has a rather complicated means of reproduction. carica papaya leaf tea or extract has a reputation as a tumors-destroying agent [14]. fresh, green pawpaw leaf is an antiseptic, whilst the brown, dried pawpaw leaf is the best as a tonic and blood purifier.[15]. pawpaw seed carica papaya is known with many other common names such as papaya, papaw, pawpaw, chichpu, mamao and melon tree. it may cultivate for its young leaves, shoots and fruits which are cooked as a vegetable or for its ripe fruit which is well known as a popular beverage. earlier, it was reported that papaya had positive effect against bacterial in factions. it was found that treatment of wound with carica papaya improved efficiency of phagocytic cells that destroy bacteria. in vitro studies conducted on extracts from skin, flesh, and seeds of both ripe and unripe carica papaya gave antibacterial activities against various microorganisms including staphylococcus aurous, bacillus subtilize, bacillus cereus, escherichia coli, enterobacter cloacae, proteus vulgaris, klebsiella pneumonia, salmonella typhi, pseudomonas aeruginosa and shigella flexner. papa in which is the main enzyme found in carica papaya is recognized as effective natural medicine in controlling both edema and inflammation associated with surgical operations. it also produced therapeutic effects in patients with inflammatory disorders of intestine, liver and eye. an aqueous extract of carica papaya was also examined for its effect on growth of various tumor cell lines and on human lymphocytes and have shown positive significant results. the seeds and the pulp of carica papaya contain benzyl glucoseinolate which can be hydrolyzed by myrosinase to produce benzyl isothiocyanate. [16,17,18] moringa oleifera is the most widespread species of the plant family moringaceae. it is a rapidly growing tree native to the sub-himalayan regions of north-west india and indigenous to many parts of africa, south america and asia. typically reaching a height of 3-4metres, flowering and fruiting in one year from a 0.3metre seedling even in poor quality soil [19, 20]. it is known by different names around the world [21], for example in india “drumstick” or “horseradish” tree. the tree produces large seed pods which can either be harvested when green for food or left to dry. the dried seeds can be crushed to produce a highquality vegetable oil and the resulting press-cake mixed with water and strained to form a coagulant for water treatment [22, 23] materials and methods beaker, conical flask, fehling solution, electric heater, pipette, round bottom flask, volumetric flask, spectrophotometer, filter paper, test tube, distilled water, ferric chloride (fecl3), tetraoxosulphate(vi) acid (h2s04), sodium hydroxide, potassium iodine, iodine crystal, methanol, ethyl acetate, chloroform, petroleum ether weighing balance. these materials were obtained from bro. mike researchers lab. umuerim extension umudibia nekede. the fresh seeds were thoroughly clean and any foreign materials and broken and immature seeds were removed and shade dried for three (3) consecutive days to constant weight at room temperature (25–30°c). the seeds were pulverized to fine particle using the laboratory mill. processing techniques.[25] boiling a set of ayb seeds (100g) was boiled in distilled water (100°c) in bean: water ratio of 1: 10 (w/v) for 3h and 48 min, which is the established time frame known for it to be ready as practiced by the locals. after boiling, the water was drained off and the boiled sample was mashed into paste using a ceramic mortar and then stored in an airtight container at 4–6°c until it was used. [26] africa yam bean the plant material was collected from the field. the seeds were dried under shade and made into powder using pestle and mortar. the seeds were moisture for 3hours and then dried in oven at 600c overnight for circulation seed coat. the seeds coat was removed mechanically by using hand grinder. the seeds coat was made into fine powder using material. [27,28] seeds of cajanus cajan (pigeon pea) the seeds of cajanus cajan (pigeon pea) was collected from the field. the seeds were dried under shade and made into fine powder using pestle and mortar. the seeds were moistened for 1h and then dried in oven at 550c overnight for separation of seed coat and cotyledon. the hull or seed coat is removed mechanically by using hand grinder. the two fractions like seed coat and cotyledon are made into fine powder using grinder. [29] pawpaw seeds the plant material was collected from the field. the seeds were dried under shade and made into powder using grinder. pawpaw leaves the plant material which is fresh green pawpaw leaves, fresh yellow pawpaw leaf dry brown pawpaw leafs were collected. the leaves were washed, cut into small pieces and sun dried for five days. the samples were ground https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 15 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 13-18, 2022 into powder. moringa seeds the plant material was collected from the field. the seeds were dried under shade and made into powder using pestle and mortar. the seeds were moistures for 2 hours and then dried in oven at 600c overnight for circulation seed coat. the seeds coat was removed mechanically by using hand grinder. the seeds coat was made into fine powder using material.[30] phytochemical analysis test for alkaloid preparation of wagner’s reagent 1.3g of iodine crystal and 2g of potassium iodine was dissolved and makeup100ml with water. procedure: 1ml of each sample (extract) will be added to 1ml of wagner’s reagent. a brick red shows the presence alkaloid. test for tannin 5% of ferric chloride (fecl3) was dissolved and makeup to100ml with distilled water. 20% of potassium hydroxide was dissolved and makeup to 100ml with water then 5ml was added to1ml of each of the extract in different test tube. pipette 3ml of each sample and 3 drop of fecl 3 and boil for 2 minutes. a blue black indicated the presence of tannin. test for flavonoid add 3ml of each extract to1ml of 10%sodium hydroxide. yellowish colour indicates the presence of flavonoid. test for saponin add 3ml of each extract to 2ml of 2ml of distilled water with vigorous shaking and boil for two (2) minutes. stable foaming indicates the presence of saponin. test for steroid add 5 drops of conc tetraoxosulphate (vi) (h2s04) into1ml of each of the extract red colour medicates the presence of steroid. test of glycoside add 5ml of each extract to 5ml of 50% h2s04 with head in water bater for 15minutes, cool for 7minutes, and then add 5ml of fehling solution and heat for 3minutes red colour indicate the presence of glycoside. result analysis table 1: extraction solvent wt of filtrate(g) wt of residue(g) methanol 15 21.5 ethyl acetate 14 22.5 petroleum ether 12 24.5 chloroform 13 23.5 sample parameter solvent yam beans alkaloid water n-hexan chloroform ethanol + +++ ++ +++ glycoside + _ _ _ flavonoid _ +++ + + steroid _ + _ _ tannin _ _ _ _ saponin + ++ + + sample parameter solvent pigeonpea alkaloid water n-hexan chloroform ethanol _ ++ _ + glycoside _ _ _ _ flavonoid _ _ _ _ steroid _ ++ + _ tannin + _ _ ++ saponin +++ _ + + sample parameter solvent moringa seed alkaloid water n-hexan chloroform ethanol _ ++ _ + https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 16 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 13-18, 2022 sample parameter solvent pawpaw leaf alkaloid water n-hexan chloroform ethanol + +++ + ++ glycoside _ + + _ flavonoid _ _ _ _ steroid _ ++ + _ tannin _ _ _ _ saponin ++ _ + + sample parameter solvent pawpaw seed alkaloid water n-hexan chloroform ethanol ++ +++ ++ ++ glycoside _ + + _ flavonoid _ + + _ steroid _ ++ + _ tannin _ _ _ _ saponin +++ _ + + +++ = highly present ++ = moderately present + = slightly present = absent discussion the leaves and seeds were thoroughly washed, made into fine powder and weighed with a weighing machine; thus, the initial weight of the fine powder is 146g. the powered material (146g) was weighed into four different conical flasks macerated with four different solvents via methanol, ethylacetate, chloroform, and petroleum ether. this was left to stand for 24 hours. then after the filtration and concentration process, methanol extract gives the highest filtrate (15g) and leatabsidue (21.5g), followed by the ethylacetate extract which gives filtrate (14g) and residue (22.5g). the chloroform ether extract give filtrate (13g) and residue (23.5g) and petroleum ether gives the least filtrate (12g) and highest residue (24.5g). the phytochemical analysis was carried out based on laboratory procedure bro. mike researchers lab. the preliminary photochemical screening of different solvent revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, steroids and glycosides in methanol extract, the screening further revealed the presence of glycoside in ethylacetate extract, then in petroleum etherextract, the presence of alkaloids, saponins and steroids were revealed and finally the presence of alkaloids, saponins and steroids were revealed in chloroform extract. it is automatically revealed that methanol is the best solvent for the extraction of phytochemical since it does not affect the presence of any phytochemical meanwhile, alkaloids, saponins and steroids are not selectivity based on the solvent used for the extraction. the medical and physiological activities of the yam beans, pigeon pea, moringa seed, pawpaw seed and pawpaw leaves can be attributed to the presence of the secondary metabolites. it has been known that alkaloids are used for treatment of maleria, diabetes, and hypertension and also used as a tranquilizer. saponins are also used as tranquilizer, antcarcimogenic and anti-lipidemic agent. hence have the ability to stimulate the heart muscle. flavonoids have been known to be synthesized by plant in response to microbial attack hence; they are effective antimicrobial substance against a wide array of microorganism. psychotherapeutically, tannin containing plants are used to treat nonspecific diarrhea, inflamemation of mouth, throat and slightly injured skin. the medicinal values of plant depend on the phytochemicals such as flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins, tannin. phytochemical analysis of the pawpaw leaves showed that the leaves contained saponins, cardiac glycosides, and alkaloids. tannin was absent in the leaves. the presence of saponins supports the fact that pawpaw leaf has cytotoxic effects such as permealization of the intestine as saponins are cytotoxic. it also gives the leaves the bitter taste. saponin has relationship with sex hormones like oxytocin. oxytocin is a sex hormone involved in controlling the onset of labour in women and the subsequent release of milk. another important action of saponins is their expectorant actions through the stimulation of are flex of the upper digestive tract [31, 32]. alkaloids are the most efficient therapeutically glycoside _ _ _ _ flavonoid ++ +++ + + steroid _ _ _ _ tannin + _ + _ saponin +++ _ + + https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 17 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 13-18, 2022 significant plant substance. pure isolated alkaloids and the synthetic derivatives are used as basic medicinal agents because of their analgesic, antispasmodic and bacterial properties. [33]. they show marked physiological effects when administered to animals. the presence of alkaloids in the leaves shows that these plants can be effective antimalaria, since alkaloids consist of quinine, which is an anti-malari. conclusion the flavonoid and alkaloid maybe the potential chemo preventive and anticancer substances. furthermore, pigeon pea, yam bean, moringa seed pawpaw seed and pawpaw leave have been found to contain most of the bioactive constituent spresent in plant via alkaloid, saponin, tannins, flovonbid, steroid and glycoside. pigeon pea, moringa seed, yam bean, pawpaw seed and pawpaw leave are very good medicinal plant used in the treatment of maleria, cancer, cough hypertension etc they also aid digestion and enable the nourishment of skin. from the analysis of the phytochemical it can be concluded that methanol is the best solvent for the extraction of the phytochemical followed by the ethylacetate. it is also considered carry dry under room temperature in order not to temper the presence of the constituent. the result of this study showed that the yam bean seeds had better nutritional profile with high level of protein, carbohydrate lipid, minerals and other nutrients as compared with the other nutrients in the legume grains. the processing of the yam bean seeds reduced its level of ant nutrients with little effect on the nutritional quality. reference abrha b., chaithanya krishna k., gopalakrishnan v.k., hagos z., hiruy m., devaki k. phytochemical screening and in vitro antioxidants activities of ethanolic extract of acokantheraschimperi leaves. j. pharm. res. 2018;12:660. al-rasheed n.m., fadda l.m., ali h.m., abdel baky n.a., el-orabi n.f., al-rasheed n.m., yacoub h.i. new mechanism in the modulation of carbon tetrachloride hepatotoxicity in rats using different natural antioxidants. toxicol. mech. meth. 2016;26:243– 250. doi: 10.3109/15376516.2016.1159769. ambriz-pérez d.l., leyva-lópez n., gutierrez-grijalva e.p., heredia j.b. phenolic 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abstract received: may 06, 2023 accepted: may 23, 2023 published: may 24, 2023 a progressive country has sacrificed many things to achieve its goals, including using natural resources leading to environmental degradation. this study aimed to find out the status of the philippines concerning environmental factors, specifically carbon dioxide (co2) emissions, and how it is intertwined with various economic aspects, explicitly gross domestic product (gdp) per capita, primary energy use, renewable energy consumption, population growth, and foreign direct investment. the study employed multiple regression analysis to measure the relationship between environmental conditions and economic growth factors. the data secondary data used in the study was obtained from world bank (1990 – 2014). results yielded that the impact of gdp per capita has a positively significant relationship with carbon emission influencing a substantial increase. consumption of primary energy use by households or businesses has extensive environmental consequences, especially with substantial population growth. moreover, the utilization of renewable energy emerged as the most obvious approach the country should come up with to combat climate change and environmental deterioration as increased human activity necessitates the utilization of the environment and natural resources. researchers suggest significant investments in climate change adaptation and combating for the country, considering the philippine’s strong potential for clean energy generation to avoid or even contend with the predicted ecological catastrophe by 2100. keywords co2 emissions, gdp per capita, primary energy use, renewable energy consumption, population growth, foreign direct investment, philippines 1 university of mindanao, philippines 2 davao doctors college, philippines 3 university of southeastern, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: leomar_sabroso@umindanao.edu.ph introduction the environment is the most vital component of existence, and as a country, the environment has become increasingly crucial. progress has greatly impacted our environment in one way or another. human involvement and invention are aspects that contribute to a country’s advancement and economic development, leading to either prosperity or distraction (beckerman, 1992). the world’s complexity also impacted the environment’s health, which was mostly influenced by mankind’s growth and development (castiglione et al., 2015). similarly, the elements employed in industrialization are typically nonrenewable leaving residuals that may pose a hazard and result in negative externalities (aydin, 2019; tiba & omri, 2017). environmental protection lags behind a country’s quicker economic development, thereby impacting the environment (shi et al., 2019). pollution is the main reason that leads to environmental degradation, which grows in the first stage but decreases in the second (liu & zhang, 2018) that presented the concept of the environmental kuznet curve and how it impacts the environment as the economy is booming (abdollahi, 2020). environmental degradation in high income countries is lessen compared to middle-income and low-income such that usage of nonrenewable shows significant increase in the latter (naqvi et al., 2021). the gap between high-, middleand low-income nation is evident as developed countries can invest and allocate resources to sustainable renewable infrastructures compared to developing nations where income and resources are limited (arndt et al., 2018; barger & mattson, 2016; elheddad et al., 2021) the fundamental argument for reducing carbon dioxide emissions is the necessity for government action and policy ramifications (da rocha lima filho et al., 2021; nordmeyer, 2018). the disparity between economic progress and environmental degradation has been a point of contention. the objective of the study the main goal of this study is to determine the relationship between the environmental conditions and the economic growth factors and confirm whether the hypothesis of ekc theory worked in the philippines. methodology this study employed a quantitative method (creswell, 2013; greene, 2013; perreault, 2011) which examines the link between factors that may be quantified to evaluate objective hypotheses. multiple regression analysis measures the relationship between the dependent and independent variables. independent variables are variables whose values are known that can explain the dependent variable (dhakal, 2018; frieman et al., 2022). in other words, multiple regression is a statistical method for examining the connection between numerous independent variables and a single dependent variable. multiple regression analysis aims to predict the value of a single dependent variable by using known independent variables (moore et al., 2006). likewise, several studies have used multiple regression to measure the relationship between the environment and https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v2i1.1640 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee mailto:leomar_sabroso@umindanao.edu.ph pa ge 25 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 24-28, 2023 economic development which elaborated the validity used in the study (abdullah, 2015; hosseini et al., 2019; wijaya, 2021) the study makes use of the available secondary data from world bank. these secondary data obtained was from the year 1990 to 2014 (a 25-year observation) in measuring the carbon dioxide emission (co2) and the economic factors thereof (abdouli & hammami, 2020). furthermore, the variables used in the study and its descriptions are as follows: variables description carbon emission (co2) annual co2 emissions (per capita) gross domestic product per capita (gdp) gdp per capita (constant 2015 us$) primary energy use (pe) energy use (kg of oil equivalent per capita) renewable energy consumption (re) renewable energy consumption (% of total final energy consumption) population growth (pg), population growth (annual %) foreign direct investments (fdi) foreign direct investment, net inflows (% of gdp) source: the world bank (2021) the gathered data was analyzed to regress and measure the relationship between the variables. each predictor value is weighed, the weights denoting their relative contribution to the overall prediction. y=α+β1x1i+β2x2i+β3x3i+β4x4i+ .….+βnxni here y is the dependent variable, and x1,…,xn are the n independent variables. in calculating the weights, a, b1,…,bn, regression analysis ensures maximal prediction of the dependent variable from the set of independent variables. this is usually done by least squares estimation (moore et al., 2006). model specification the regressor econometric equation model of the study is as follows: yi=β0+β1x1i+β2x2i+β3 x3i+β4x4i+β5x5i+μi where: yi= represents the carbon dioxide (co2) emission of the i-th country; β0 = the intercept term; βis= efficiency parameters to be estimated; x1i = the gross domestic product per capita; x2i = primary energy use; x3i = renewable energy consumption; x4i= population growth; x5i= foreign direct investment; and μi = represents the error term. results and discussions multiple regression was run to predict carbon emissions from gdp per capita, primary energy use, renewable energy consumption, and foreign direct investment. the r2 and the adjusted r2 value indicate that the proportion of variance in the dependent variable can be explained by the independent variables with a value of 0.9864 and 0.9828, respectively, these independent variables explain 98% of the variability of the dependent variable. furthermore, the output shows that the independent variables statistically significantly predict the dependent variable, f (5, 19) = 275.93, p < 0.000, thus, the diagnostic of the regression model is a good fit of the data and four out of the five independent variables statistically significant to the prediction, p < 0.05. similarly, the findings illustrate that gdp per capita (8276.662, p < 0.0270) has a significant positive association with carbon emissions, implying that a percent increase in gdp per capita would result in higher carbon emissions. this is supported by apergis and payne’s (2014) analysis, which shows that per capita gdp and co2 emissions have a long-run relationship, denoting that as gdp per capita rises, co2 emissions will rise proportionately. asumadu-sarkodie and owusu (2017), on the other hand, contradicted the findings, claiming that a percent rise in gdp per capita will reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the long run, based on ekc’s concept that in the long term, as a nation develops, the environmental effect reduces. furthermore, the primary energy use (219898.9, p < 0.0000) shows a significant increase in carbon emissions, proving that carbon emissions will increase as we continue using energy from coal, oil, natural gas, and other sources. according to zhou and gu (2020); asumadu-sarkodie and owusu (2017); dhakal (2009), the usage of fossil fuels and other energy sources increases co2 emissions from households, cities, provinces, and the country as a whole, considering non-renewables are used in the majority of goods (adams & nsiah, 2019; alharthi et al., 2021). fisher and irvine (2010), on the other hand, propose that the effect of energy consumption to carbon emission might be reversed if group-based interventions are applied. the intervention to address carbon emission is capable of 20% estimated reduction in a year and result in long-term changes in pro-environmental behavior. renewable energy use, on the other hand, has a negative significant association with carbon emissions (-4.93e+07, p < 0.0020), meaning that increasing renewable energy use will reduce carbon emissions which rendered as an aimed by every nation to combat climate change. this result is in line with alharthi et al. (2021), who found that using renewable energy reduces carbon emissions significantly and would continue to do so as the amount expands. moreover, the urgent need to transition from non-renewable to renewable energy consumption makes deploying energy-saving technologies even more crucial, https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 26 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 24-28, 2023 particularly in asia’s emerging economies (hanif et al., 2019). this transition is crucial because it directly impacts environmental quality (balsalobre-lorente & leito, 2020). consequently, by implementing energy-efficient technologies, organizations can effectively address this need while conserving energy, enhancing efficiency, and fostering their own growth, profitability, and sustainability (hossain & pk, 2023). however, according to nguyen and kakinaka (2019), not all countries may expect a reduction in co2 emissions when they use renewable energy; it was noted that low-income countries, when compared to their high-income counterparts, increase co2 emissions as they increase renewable energy use. the relationship between population growth and carbon emission has shown highly significant (0.9601143, p < 0.0000) which means that through the increase in human activities, carbon emission increases. the findings coincide with the study of (dong et al., 2018; knapp & mookerjee, 1996; sulaiman & abdul-rahim, 2018) in which in the short-run the human activities contribute to the increase in the carbon emission however (ohlan, 2015; pratama, 2021) would suggest otherwise that not only in the short-run can carbon emission be increase because of population growth but also in the long-run. several authors have claimed that population growth positively significantly intensify carbon emission (lawal, 2019; masoud abouie-mehrizi, 2012; rahman et al., 2020). contrary to the findings, (begum et al., 2015) stated that population growth does not have any significant association or sufficient evidence that it can positively affect carbon emission. foreign investment has no significant influence on carbon emissions, pertaining to the results. other literature review has discovered a strong link between fdi and co2, with estimations determining that fdi has a beneficial impact on co2 emissions (ewane & ewane, 2023; hou, et al., 2021; wu & zhang, 2021; zhou et al., 2018). gunarto (2020) verifies that there is no significant relationship between fdi and co2 emissions, indicating that it is not a contributor to the country’s co2 emissions, in accordance with the study’s inferences that fdi has no significant influence on co2 emissions. table 1: the estimation result between co2 and economic factors carbon emission coef. std. err. t p>t constant -1.09e+08 1.36e+07 -8.01 0.0000*** gdp per capita 8276.662 3445.604 2.4 0.0270** primary energy use 219898.9 18984.41 11.58 0.0000*** renewable energy consumption -4.93e+07 1.39e+07 -3.54 0.0020*** foreign direct investment -852065.7 673231.3 -1.27 0.221 population growth 0.9601143 0.1047229 9.17 0.0000*** f(5, 19) 275.93 prob > f 0.0000*** r-squared 0.9864 adj r-squared 0.9828 root mse 2.00e+06 note: *p <0.10, **p < 0.05, ***p < 0.01 conclusion based on the obtained results, the following conclusion was drawn: 1. the impact of gdp per capita has a positively significant relationship with carbon emissions influencing a substantial increase. as the nation grows and develop, the result of that realization is detrimental to the environment. 2. consumption of primary energy use by any particulars such as household or businesses have extensive consequences to the environment. as a developing country, the high volume of energy consumption used by the different sectors heightens environmental degradation. 3. the utilization of renewable energy was the most obvious approach humans could come up with to combat climate change and environmental deterioration. increased usage of renewable energy reduced the country’s carbon emissions. 4. increased human activity necessitates the utilization of the environment and natural resources whenever the population grows. these human activities exacerbate negative impacts on the environment and intensify carbon emissions. recommendation in line with the outcomes discovered in the study, the area of renewable energy would be an interesting factor to delve deeper into. with a negative relationship with carbon emissions, it would be an important environmental dynamic for the country to invest in, considering the philippines strong potential for clean energy generation. additionally, with the worrying predictions of the country’s ecological catastrophe by 2100 if significant investments to climate change adaptation is not made by 2020, more studies in the field of climate change solution https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 27 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 24-28, 2023 should be prioritized, leaning more towards gearing the agricultural and industrial sectors in developing equipment, policies, and practices that encourage sustainability for future generations. reference abdollahi, h. 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(2021). the effect of co2 emissions, energy consumption, coal consumption on gross domestic product per capita in indonesia. afebi economic and finance review. https://doi. org/10.47312/aefr.v6i01.377 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 1 pa ge 69 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) the impact of information architecture on final user benefits firas adredah mansoor1*, zaid mustafa abdalrazzaq2 volume 2 issue 1, year 2023 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v2i1.2225 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: november 05, 2023 accepted: december 03, 2023 published: december 06, 2023 the study aims to define information architecture and its dimensions and measure the role of the relationship between the dimensions of information architecture and the end user. additionally, the study seeks to assess the impact of indicators of information architecture dimensions on achieving benefits for the end user. the study adopted a descriptive-analytical methodology as a specialized approach for execution, utilizing questionnaires, observation, and structured interviews as data collection methods. the statistical software spss was employed for analyzing the study’s results. the study yielded several notable outcomes. the study’s findings indicated a statistically significant impact between the elements of organizational knowledge as one of the dimensions of information architecture. information technology emerged as the most influential factor, whereas organizational culture had the least impact on achieving benefits for the end user. the results affirmed a statistically significant positive relationship between information technology and achieving benefits for the end user, with a correlation coefficient of (0.68). this indicates that as information technology increases within the organization (study field), the benefits for the end user also increase. keywords information architecture, enduser, organizational knowledge 1 imamaladham university college, iraq 2 college of medicine / aliraqia university, iraq * corresponding author’s e-mail: firas200440@gmail.com introduction obtaining information and sharing it is a complex task in many organizations. information is exposed to rapid change and development in the current business environment, making it challenging to retain and update knowledge effectively. as a result, knowledge can quickly become obsolete. when the flow and change of knowledge are continuous, organizations find it difficult to extract competitive advantage from their internal data unless they need it. competition between institutions, especially higher education institutions, has expanded locally and globally. leaders and decision-makers have realized that the success of these institutions largely depends on the organization’s ability to generate knowledge, collect information from various sources, analyze it, and disseminate it among users. therefore, a need emerged to control the production and processing of information and attempt to make the most of it. this led to the emergence of the term “information architecture” as a turning point in organizational knowledge processes, supporting ease of user access to the information they need. research has focused on shedding light on organizational knowledge as one aspect of information architecture to identify the organization’s problems and find suitable solutions. its role in benefiting the end user is highlighted by focusing on a higher education institution (the field of study) as the most important source of knowledge and creativity, as well as human resource preparation, refinement, skill development through education, knowledge, research, and training. at the same time, it bears significant responsibility for societal changes. perhaps the complex and contradictory nature of weak information architecture, whether in organizational knowledge or system knowledge, may lead to the failure of the end user to obtain relevant information in a timely manner. it also does not contribute to improving and enhancing usability and ease of use. therefore, it is expected that by evaluating organizational dimension information architecture, it will play an effective role in enhancing interaction between the user and the organization. organizational knowledge is one of the most important resources of an institution, but it is scattered within the institution or in the minds of experienced individuals, making it susceptible to loss, waste, and underutilization. this is why attention has been focused on this research, directed towards specific questions representing the research problem what is the role of organizational dimension information architecture in benefiting the end user? the research hypothesis was the existence of statistically significant differences between the dimensions of information architecture and their impact on the end user. literature review information architecture information architecture is a set of principles, concepts, and practices aimed at organizing, designing, and providing information in a suitable and organized manner. information architecture is considered a fundamental structure designed to enhance the organization and distribution of information, making it more useful, accessible, and understandable to users (crawford, 2023). it is also defined by (al-shahrabli, 2012) as the structure of information and the form it takes within an organization to achieve specific goals and functions, embodied in two types of knowledge: (organizational knowledge and system knowledge). information pa ge 70 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 69-78, 2023 architecture aims to organize and design the structure and flow of information within an institutional system. it contributes to achieving greater efficiency and improving operational performance by strategically guiding information flows to accomplish goals and enhance decision-making. information architecture reduces redundancy and inconsistency in information, providing deeper insights into organizational processes and activities, thereby helping to optimize resource utilization and increase organizational efficiency, ultimately leading to cost savings (barker, 2023). objectives of information architecture focus on achieving benefit and continuous utilization of information, enhancing organizational performance, and making better decisions. the following are the main objectives of information architecture: )1( achieving information integration: achieving integration and effective communication among different information components within the educational institution. (rajab, 2003)) .2( providing accurate and reliable information: providing accurate and reliable information to individuals within the educational institution. (hayes, 2023). )3( achieving quick and easy access to information: providing easy and immediate access to the required information for users (raed, 2022) (4) . supporting data-driven decision-making: providing the necessary information for making strategic decisions that serve the educational institution (asana, 2022) (5). enhancing organizational learning and innovation: promoting organizational learning and innovation by sharing knowledge, expertise, and experiences among individuals within the educational institution. (herbert, 2021). (6) achieving efficiency and cost reduction: attaining efficiency in organizational operations and reducing costs. (estrach, 2022) information architecture consists of several dimensions aimed at organizing and coordinating information and knowledge within organizations. these dimensions include: )1( organizational knowledge: these dimensions relate to organizing information and knowledge within the institution. they encompass the design and development of information and knowledge structures, including hierarchical organization, classification, role definition, and task distribution. this dimension is adopted in the study to achieve the defined objectives. (al-shahbli, 2012)) .2( system knowledge: these dimensions are associated with the technological systems and tools used in managing information and knowledge. they include the selection and implementation of appropriate systems and applications for storing, organizing, and retrieving information. (abdulhadi & bani, 2013) there are several classifications of organizational knowledge based on the source from which it is derived and the perspective from which it is viewed, as can be clarified as follows (al-salami, 2003), (abdul-aleem, 2012), and (al-harthy, 2022). firstly: the dimensions of organizational knowledge according to its source are divided into two dimensions: )1( internal organizational knowledge: this is the knowledge that individuals within the organization develop through their own efforts, relying on their intellectual abilities, mental capacities, various experiences, and expertise. it also includes their interactions with each other and their interactions with external environmental factors.)2( external organizational knowledge: this is the knowledge that reaches the organization and is obtained by individuals from external sources. it represents the flow of knowledge that communication and information technologies have facilitated access to. additionally, a portion of this knowledge is realized through social interactions among individuals. secondly: second: the dimensions of organizational knowledge according to its clarity and circulation, and is divided accordingly into two dimensions (al-shahrabali, 2012) and (abdul hadi and bani, 2013,): )1( internal organizational knowledge: this is the knowledge that pertains to what an individual possesses in terms of technical knowledge, cognitive awareness, and behavioral knowledge. it is the knowledge that individuals within the organization store in their minds but do not openly disclose. this hidden knowledge is formed and grows within individuals as a result of study, personal experience, intuition, personal judgment, and the experiences they have gone through.) 2( external organizational knowledge (explicit knowledge): this refers to the knowledge that can be shared with other individuals within the organization and can thus be transferred to others in the form of documents, interviews, or other means. this knowledge is related to the data and explicit information that can be obtained and stored in the organization’s files and records, and it is often associated with the organization’s policies the application of organizational knowledge management requires the organization to prepare its environment for maximum utilization of knowledge. in general, such an environment necessitates the following elements (alsalami, 2003), (abdul-aleem, 2012) and (al-harithi, 2022) : )1( organizational culture: organizational culture is one of the important and necessary factors for the success of any managerial concept, including organizational knowledge. the culture of an organization reflects the environment in which business decisions are made and executed. an organization driven by knowledge should be flexible and possess a collaborative culture to facilitate the free flow of information and enable knowledge generation (moukaddem, 2014; al somaidaee, & al-zubaidi, 2021) ) . 2(organizational leadership: organizational knowledge management revolves around creating an environment within the organization that fosters knowledge generation and sharing. in such an organization, the leader plays the roles of a teacher, designer, trainer, and supervisor simultaneously (al-khashab, 2012).) 3( organizational structure: it is considered one of the fundamental requirements for organizational knowledge management. therefore, designing the most suitable organizational structure for knowledge management is essential. this structure should promote greater independence in pa ge 71 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 69-78, 2023 decision-making and foster a team spirit. the most suitable structures are those that help nurture a teamoriented approach, characterized by dynamism and flexibility, to ensure the continuous flow and sharing of knowledge at all levels of the system (ahmed and morsi, 2012)) 4( information technology: modern technology plays a crucial role in enhancing the performance of educational institutions by providing timely information and bolstering the role of information in decisionmaking. technology offers a diverse range of advanced tools that significantly contribute to the implementation of organizational knowledge management systems and accelerate the transfer and sharing of information. furthermore, it facilitates easy access to internal and external sources of organizational information and knowledge, making information technology one of the key factors enabling organizations to build and produce organizational knowledge (al-ziyoud, 2012) end user the end user is defined as the individual or entity that benefits from information and knowledge related to practices, procedures, and regulatory standards within an organization or entity. this includes individuals or entities that utilize this knowledge to ensure compliance with laws and regulations, improve organizational performance, enhance safety and security, and mitigate risks (marketing-glossary, 2023). it is defined by cambridge (2023) as the person who uses the product or service or ultimately benefits from the knowledge provided. the end users of organizational knowledge can be identified as follows: (1)executive managers and senior leaders: they benefit from organizational knowledge to guide specific policies, make strategic decisions, and plan for the future. (2) employees: they benefit from organizational knowledge to understand their responsibilities, duties, existing procedures, and professional standards in the workplace environment.(3) risk management: they analyze risks and implement compliance strategies to ensure adherence to laws and regulatory instructions.(4) society: they benefit from organizational knowledge to enhance trust, transparency, ensure community safety, and promote public interest.(5) students: they benefit from organizational knowledge to understand academic program requirements and administrative requirements, enhancing their academic and educational experience. (6) faculty and researchers: they benefit from organizational knowledge to understand policies and procedures related to teaching, research, and assessment, improving academic performance and curriculum development. (yale,2023; hayes, 2023; rohn, 2023) mention that there are several objectives that end users seek to achieve, including the following: (1) achieving effectiveness and productivity: end users aim to use the product or service in a way that enhances their efficiency and productivity at work. this may include the ability to complete tasks more quickly, improve the efficiency of tools, or achieve specific goals(2) . meeting needs: end users want to use the product or service to meet their personal needs and desires. this could involve advancing scientific research by developing scientific studies and contributing to knowledge enrichment in their respective fields, as well as applying the results of this research in society. (3) improving service quality: enhancing the quality of services provided within the educational institution, whether they are educational or administrative services, by improving processes and developing policies and procedures (4) .achieving user satisfaction: academics and researchers aim to develop effective learning and teaching strategies that align with students’ needs and academic preferences, thereby enhancing students’ skills. (6)enhancing communication: end users seek to improve the communication process among members of the institution, whether through the use of technology or by building bridges for effective communication and interaction. in the context of information architecture, with an organizational dimension, several dimensions for the end-user can be identified. these dimensions include (hayes, 2023) and (al-bunyan, 2017): (1) internal and external users: internal beneficiaries can be distinguished from external beneficiaries. internal beneficiaries are individuals or groups affiliated with the organization itself, benefiting from knowledge sharing and exchange within the organization. external beneficiaries, on the other hand, are other parties such as customers, partners, and the local community who benefit from the organization’s shared organizational knowledge.(2) organizational performance: refers to how the end-user benefits from organizational knowledge to improve the overall performance of the organization. this includes achieving organizational goals, improving processes, enhancing innovation, skill development, and increasing productivity. (3) enhancing flexibility and adaptation: this dimension involves the end-user leveraging organizational knowledge to achieve flexibility and adaptability to internal and external changes. it includes the ability to learn quickly, adapt to changing conditions, make intelligent decisions, and apply appropriate strategies. (4) individual performance improvement: this dimension relates to how the end-user benefits from organizational knowledge to enhance personal performance, develop skills, and increase effectiveness at work. this includes learning new skills, improving communication, leadership abilities, and fostering innovation. (5) achieving mutual benefit: this dimension signifies the end-user’s use of organizational knowledge to achieve mutual benefit between the organization and other parties. it includes collaboration, partnership, and knowledge exchange with other parties to achieve common goals and promote innovation and sustainable development. information architecture plays a crucial role in benefiting users and enhancing their experience. here are some key roles that information architecture plays in achieving benefits (bradford, 2023) and (fitzgerald, 2022)and (rizky and rabah, 2018) (1). information organization: pa ge 72 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 69-78, 2023 information architecture helps systematically and structurally organize information and data. by defining, classifying, and aggregating information in an organized manner, users can easily and quickly find information, thereby realizing its benefits. (2) providing ease of access: information architecture aims to provide easy access to important information. this includes designing user-friendly interfaces suitable for the purpose, offering efficient and organized navigation, and improving search and browse processes. (3) enhancing user experience: information architecture design contributes to improving the user experience by providing a logical organization and consistent structure for information. this helps users understand the system and interact with it more easily and smoothly. (4) guiding users: information architecture assists in guiding users and providing them with the necessary guidance in using a product or service. this can be achieved through effective and instructional user interface designs and providing guiding and explanatory information to users.(5) facilitating decision-making: information architecture can enhance users’ ability to make informed and wise decisions. by organizing and providing relevant and useful information, along with powerful insights and analytics, users can make appropriate decisions and maximize benefits (alsomaidaee et al., 2023). methodology the researcher followed the descriptive approach in an attempt to achieve a precise understanding of the elements of the problem and to gain a better and more accurate understanding for the development of future policies and procedures (al-dabbagh, 2013). additionally, the study adopted the analytical method within the descriptive approach because description is one of the fundamental processes in scientific research (turki, 2008). the study employed various methods, which can be explained as follows: qualitative methods included opinion surveys and questionnaires, while quantitative methods encompassed percentage testing, weighted mean, standard deviation, pearson correlation coefficient, and relative weight. as for the research community and the sample, a purposive sample was selected from the faculty members at al-imam al-azam university, totaling (35) individuals. multiple data collection tools were utilized, including books, journals, conferences, articles, foreign and arabic academic studies, as well as the iraqi virtual library. the research boundaries were framed as follows: (1) spatial boundaries: al-imam al-azam university. (2) temporal boundaries: 2023. (3) subject boundaries: information architecture, organizational knowledge, end-users. results and discussion first: analyzing the results related to the perceptions and responses of the study participants regarding the axis of information architecture with its dimension (organizational knowledge). to assess the reality of organizational knowledge at al-imam al-azam university, we will calculate the arithmetic means and standard deviations of the study participants’ responses to the paragraphs representing the axis of organizational knowledge, according to the following table: table 1: analysis of dimensions of organizational knowledge s paragraphs answer level celsius weight standard deviation weighted arithmetic meanagree neutral disagree organizational culture 1 encouraging employees to generate creative and innovative ideas 16 14 5 2.31 0.71 77% 2 motivating employees to develop their skills and translate them into knowledge to be used 19 12 4 2.42 0.69 81% 3 recognize, detect, correct and consider errors as a source of learning 12 17 6 2.17 0.70 72% 2.30 0.70 77% administrative leadership 4 allow particpating of employees in -making decisions at all organizational levels 12 13 10 2.05 0.80 68% 5 providing opportunities for continuous learning among employees 26 9 2.74 0.44 91% 6 the ability to influence subordinates 10 16 9 2.02 0.74 67% 2.27 0.66 76% information technology 7 providing an internal information network to access databases 21 13 1 2.57 0.55 86% pa ge 73 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 69-78, 2023 table (1) indicates the presence of four variables that are of benefit to the end user (the field of study: organizational culture, managerial leadership, information technology, organizational structure). the total number of items for these variables is (15) items, with the details as follows: organizational culture: table (1) shows that the overall weighted mean for the total items of organizational culture was (2.30), with a standard deviation of (0.70), indicating the extent of consistency in the sample’s responses towards this variable. the weighted percentage for the total items of organizational culture was (77%). paragraph (2), related to “motivating employees to develop their skills and translate them into usable knowledge,” had the highest arithmetic mean of (2.42) and a standard deviation of (0.69), while the weighted percentage was (81%). in contrast, paragraph (3), which pertains to “recognizing mistakes, discovering them, correcting them, and considering them a source of learning,” had the lowest arithmetic mean of (2.17) and a standard deviation of (0.70), with a weighted percentage of (72%). table (1) reveals that the overall weighted mean for the total items of administrative leadership was (2.27), with a standard deviation of (0.66), indicating the extent of consistency in the sample’s responses towards this variable. the weighted percentage for the total items of administrative leadership was (72%). paragraph (7), related to “providing continuous learning opportunities for employees,” had the highest arithmetic mean of (2.74) and a standard deviation of (0.44), with a weighted percentage of (91%). in contrast, paragraph (9), which pertains to “the ability to influence subordinates,” had the lowest arithmetic mean of (2.02) and a standard deviation of (0.74), with a weighted percentage of.(67%) information technology: table (1) shows that the overall weighted mean for the total items of information technology was (2.50), with a standard deviation of (0.66), indicating the extent of consistency in the sample’s responses towards this variable. the weighted percentage for the total items of information technology was (83%). paragraph (10), related to “providing an internal information network for accessing databases,” had the highest arithmetic mean of (2.57) and a standard deviation of (0.55), with a weighted percentage of (91%). in contrast, paragraph (11), which pertains to “the organization’s commitment to spending on anything related to information development,” had the lowest arithmetic mean of (2.42) and a standard deviation of (0.73), with a weighted percentage of. (81%) organizational structure: table (1) reveals that the overall weighted mean for the total items of organizational structure was (2.27), with a standard deviation of (0.72), indicating the extent of consistency in the sample’s responses towards this variable. the weighted percentage for the total items of organizational structure was (76%). paragraph (13), related to “emphasizing teamwork over individual work,” had the highest arithmetic mean of (2.62) and a standard deviation of (0.54), with a weighted percentage of (87%). in contrast, paragraph (14), which pertains to “decentralization of work and the opportunity for knowledge sharing among employees,” had the lowest arithmetic mean of (2) and a standard deviation of (0.87), with a weighted percentage of (67%). to understand the reality of the “end user” at al-imam al-azam university, we will calculate the arithmetic means and standard deviations of the study participants’ responses to the paragraphs representing the axis of the end user. this process will help us gain a comprehensive understanding of the extent of interaction and response of the study participants regarding aspects of benefiting the end user at the university. the table illustrates that in paragraph (11), where the measurement of “achieving user benefit” was conducted, there was variation in the weighted means, standard deviations, and the percentage weight in the study sample. the weighted mean for the overall user benefit variable in the study sample was (2.32), while the standard deviation 8 the institution is interested in spending on everything related to the development of the information side 20 10 5 2.42 0.73 81% 9 providing specialized electronic forums that contribute to the documentation and exchange of knowledge. 22 9 4 2.51 0.70 84% 2.50 0.66 83% organizational structure 10 focus on teamwork rather than individual work 23 11 1 2.62 0.54 87% 11 decentralization of work, which provides the opportunity to share knowledge among workers 26 18 26 2 0.87 67% 12 providing an organizational structure that allows the flow of knowledge and information in all directions 14 14 7 2.2 0.75 73% 2.27 0.72 76% pa ge 74 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 69-78, 2023 (0.61) indicated the extent of variability in the sample responses. the percentage weight for the information technology variable was (77%). by observing the table, the following can be clarified: (1) paragraph (1) (“the end user benefits from the products or services provided by the organization”) had the highest weighted mean (2.62) with a standard deviation of (0.48), while the percentage weight for this variable was (87%).(2) paragraph (8) (“effective and transparent communication with end users can enhance achieving benefit”) had the highest weighted mean (2.02) with a standard deviation of (0.69), while the percentage weight for this variable was (67%). hypothesis testing first: analyzing the impact of organizational culture index on achieving user benefit table (3) illustrates the correlation and regression relationship results, showing a strong positive relationship between the organizational knowledge variable (organizational culture) and achieving user benefit. the correlation coefficient (r) value was equal to (0.70), and this can be further elucidated through the following table: table 2: analysis of the study sample of the end-user variable s end user variables answer level celsius weight standard deviation weighted arithmetic meanagree neutral disagree 1 the end user benefits from the services provided by the organization 22 13 2.62 0.48 87% 2 specific mechanisms or procedures exist to ensure that the end user benefits the organization in which they work 19 9 7 2.34 0.80 78% 3 the organization is committed to benefiting the end user 17 18 2.48 0.50 83% 4 there are improvements that the organization can apply to increase the benefit to the end user 15 20 2.42 0.49 81% 5 a strong organizational structure contributes to the benefit of the end user 18 17 2.51 0.50 84% 6 the organization needs periodic monitoring and evaluation to ensure that the benefit is achieved for the end user 6 25 4 2.05 0.53 68% 7 that having a culture of resource development in the organization can enhance the achievement of benefit to the end user 15 12 8 0.17.2.2 73% 8 effective and transparent communication with end users can enhance the achievement of benefit 12 12 11 2.02 0.69 67% 9 the end user receives appropriate support and services from the organization in which they work 18 13 4 2.4 0.70 80% 10 there are specific strategies to assess the needs of the end user and determine the appropriate services and products for the end user 12 17 6 2.17 0.54 72% 11 mechanisms exist to collect enduser feedback and use it to improve processes and services 15 16 4 2.31 0.87 77% 2.32 0.61 77% table 3: results of correlation and regression relationships t f r2 r tabular calculated tabular calculated -0.21589 0.418804 0.33567 0.426167 0.49 0.70 pa ge 75 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 69-78, 2023 from the above table, it is evident that the calculated value (t) (0.42777) is greater than the tabular value (-0.20646) at a confidence level of (95%) with (5) degrees of freedom, supporting the researcher’s hypothesis. to further confirm the aforementioned test, an (f) test was conducted, with the calculated value (0.426167) being greater than the tabular value (0.33567) at a confidence level of (95%) and (5) degrees of freedom. this confirms its statistical acceptance. the explanatory power of the organizational knowledge variable (organizational culture) (r2) appears to be a good explanatory factor (0.49), indicating that the organizational knowledge variable (organizational culture) influences achieving user benefit by approximately (49%). table (4) illustrates the results of the correlation and regression relationship, showing a strong positive relationship between the organizational knowledge variable (administrative leadership) and achieving user benefit. the correlation coefficient (r) value was equal to (0.71), and this can be further elucidated through the following table. table 4: results of correlation and regression relationships t f r2 r tabular calculated tabular calculated -0.20646 0.42777 0.040317 4.503257 0.51 0.71 table (4) indicates that the calculated value (t) (0.42777) is greater than the tabular value (-0.20646) at a confidence level of (95%), supporting the researcher’s hypothesis. to further confirm the aforementioned test, an (f) test was conducted, with the calculated value (4.503257) being greater than the tabular value (0.040317) at a confidence level of (95%) and (5) degrees of freedom. this confirms its statistical acceptance. the explanatory power of the organizational knowledge variable (administrative leadership) (r2) appears to be a good explanatory factor (0.51), indicating that the organizational knowledge variable (administrative leadership) influences achieving user benefit by approximately (49%). table (5) illustrates the results of the correlation and regression relationship, showing a strong positive relationship between the organizational knowledge variable (information technology) and achieving user benefit. the correlation coefficient (r) value was equal to (0.82), and this can be further elucidated through the following table: table 5: results of correlation and regression relationships t f r2 r tabular calculated tabular calculated 1.833113 2.484451 0.141336 0.154723 0.68 0.82 table (5) indicates that the calculated value (t) (2.484451) is greater than the tabular value (1.833113) at a confidence level of (95%), supporting the researcher’s hypothesis. to further confirm the aforementioned test, an (f) test was conducted, with the calculated value (154723) being greater than the tabular value (0.141336) at a confidence level of (95%) and (5) degrees of freedom. this confirms its statistical acceptance. the explanatory power of the organizational knowledge variable (information technology) (r2) appears to be a strong explanatory factor (0.82), indicating that the organizational knowledge variable (information technology) influences achieving user benefit significantly, accounting for approximately. (82%) table (6) illustrates the results of the correlation and regression relationship, showing a strong positive relationship between the organizational knowledge variable (organizational structure) and achieving user benefit. the correlation coefficient (r) value was equal to (0.53), and this can be further elucidated through the following table: table 6: results of correlation and regression relationships t f r2 r tabular calculated tabular calculated -0.24351 0.83031 0.114106 2.71806 0.54 0.53 table (6) indicates that the calculated value (t) (0.83031) is greater than the tabular value (0.2435) at a confidence level of (95%), supporting the researcher’s hypothesis. to further confirm the aforementioned test, an (f) test was conducted, with the calculated value (2.71806) being greater than the tabular value (0.114106) at a confidence level of (95%) and (5) degrees of freedom. this confirms its statistical acceptance. the explanatory power of the organizational knowledge variable (organizational structure) (r2) appears to be a good explanatory factor (0.54), indicating that the organizational knowledge variable (organizational structure) influences achieving user benefit by approximately (54%). these results indicate, in their content, the of indicated that there is a statistically significant impact between the elements of organizational knowledge as one of the pa ge 76 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 69-78, 2023 dimensions of information architecture. information technology emerged as the most influential, while organizational culture had the least impact on achieving user benefit. descriptive statistics show tpresence of a statistically significant positive correlation between organizational knowledge and achieving user benefit, with a correlation coefficient of (0.70). this means that as organizational culture increases, user benefit also increases. the explanatory power of the organizational knowledge variable (organizational culture) (r2) appears to be a good explanatory factor (0.49), indicating that the organizational knowledge variable (organizational culture) influences achieving user benefit by approximately(49%). demonstrated that there is a statistically significant positive correlation between administrative leadership and achieving user benefit, with a correlation coefficient of (0.71). this means that as administrative leadership increases, user benefit also increases. the explanatory power of the organizational knowledge variable (administrative leadership) (r2) appears to be a good explanatory factor (0.49), indicating that the organizational knowledge variable (administrative leadership) influences achieving user benefit by approximately (51%).confirmed the presence of a statistically significant positive correlation between information technology and achieving user benefit, with a correlation coefficient of (0.68). this means that as information technology in the organization increases, user benefit also increases. the explanatory power of the organizational knowledge variable (information technology) (r2) appears to be a good explanatory factor (0.49), indicating that the organizational knowledge variable (information technology) influences achieving user benefit by approximately (82%) decentralization in work, which allows for knowledge sharing among employees, is a contributing factor. confirmed the presence of a statistically significant positive correlation between organizational structure and achieving user benefit, with a correlation coefficient of (0.53). this means that as organizational structure improves within the organization, user benefit also increases. the explanatory power of the organizational knowledge variable (organizational structure) (r2) appears to be a good explanatory factor (0.49), indicating that the organizational knowledge variable (organizational structure) influences achieving user benefit by approximately (54%). the results of tracking the stages of organizational knowledge formation at the college of imam al-azam university, from the perspective of the study sample, showed strength in the aspect of “providing continuous learning opportunities among employees” for knowledge exchange within the variable of administrative leadership. the achievement rate in this area was 91%, with an average score of 2.74 and a standard deviation of 0.44.on the other hand, “decentralization in work, which allows for knowledge sharing among employees,” one of the elements of the organizational structure variable, was perceived as weaker by the study sample, with a weight of 67%. the weighted mean for this element was 2, with a standard deviation of 0.87. the university should provide various information to individuals (professors and administrators) and facilitate their access to it to enhance creativity, should provide specialized administrative categories to avoid burdening professors who are not in their field of expertise through workshops and the distribution of activities necessity of establishing new evaluation policies that assess the contribution of managers in enhancing the organizational knowledge assets of the institution and their ability to motivate others to participate in knowledge sharing. establish a modern communication network between university units and its branches with high-speed information transfer and provide them with necessary security measures, developing the performance of academic leaders at the university in the field of knowledge management and planning for their training through the preparation of a training program that includes how to create knowledge, plan its stages, and develop it among employees. conclusion this study represents an important investigation into the influence of various factors in the field of organizational knowledge on achieving benefits to the end user in the context of organizations. according to the study data, there is a positive and strong effect of information technology on achieving benefit, while organizational culture had a lesser effect. therefore, the institution must strengthen and develop organizational culture ,it can effectively contribute to achieving the desired goals and increase the benefit to end users moreover, these results can be used as a basis for improving knowledge management strategies and applying organizational best practices that enhance learning and development within organizations ,understanding the depth of the relationship between organizational knowledge and achieving benefit for the end user can contribute to improving the performance of organizations and enhancing their competitiveness in the information age ,therefore, this research indicates the importance of continuing research and investigation in this field to achieve a deeper understanding and better application of cognitive concepts in the context of organization ,the study emphasizes the importance of enhancing administrative leadership skills and competencies, which can have a significant impact on achieving benefit and success in the context of the organization therefore, this indicates the importance of continuing investment in developing and improving the skills of administrative leaders to ensure excellence and sustainability in changing institutional environments ,this research shows that information technology plays a crucial role in achieving success and excellence in institutional environments. in addition, the focus on decentralizing work and empowering knowledge among employees shows additional importance for making the most of information technology and enhancing the organization’s development. evaluating the stages of organizational knowledge formation in the college showed that there is strength pa ge 77 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 69-78, 2023 in providing continuous learning opportunities among employees, which reflects dedication to enhancing knowledge exchange. however, the weakness of the decentralization clause in work indicates a need to improve dedication to encourage knowledge sharing among employees. the current study enhances creativity among individuals, whether they are professors or administrative employees. making information available and easy to access can contribute significantly to the development and improvement of academic and administrative processes. in addition, new evaluation policies can be developed that encourage managers’ participation in enhancing the organization’s knowledge assets and motivating others to disseminate and share knowledge . it can contribute to enhancing continuous learning and motivating individuals to participate effectively in achieving the university’s goals. finally, the university must invest in building a modern and secure communications network linking its units and branche. it also contributes to facilitating the transfer of information at high speed and 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(2022). creative leadership, innovation climate and innovation behaviour: the moderating role of knowledge sharing in management. european journal of innovation management, 25(4), 10921114. pa ge 1 pa ge 40 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) an overview of tree species used for agroforestry practices in nepal sher bahadur budha1* volume 1 issue 1, year 2022 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v1i1.461 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: august 4, 2022 accepted: august 25, 2022 published: august 29, 2022 tree species are the main component of the agro-forestry system because they provide farmers with direct benefits and play a vital role in mitigating climate change, stabilizing slopes, and ecological balance. the list of tree species used in different agro-forestry practices shows 110 tree species belonging to 42 families. tree species belonging to the family moraceae are widely used in agro-forestry practices, followed by liguminosae, rosaceae, rubiaceae, and so on. there are approximately 44 species of trees suitable for single use, such as forage, fruit, fuelwood, and timber production. similarly, tree species with two functions are better than tree species with only one function. approximately 40 trees have two functions: food and fuelwood, fruit and fuelwood, and wood and fuelwood. among the 110 species used in agro-forestry practices in nepal, 21 species have more than two functions and are the most suitable species for agro-forestry practices. the use of tree species in different agro-forestry practices shows that the number of trees used in silvo-pastoral systems is the highest (30%), followed by horto-agri-silviculture (23%). approximately 21% of tree species are used in more than two agro-forestry systems. the minimum number of tree species used for agri-silvi-pastoral and home gardens is 3% and 4% respectively. keywords agro-forestry, systems, tree species, use 1 institute of forestry, hetauda campus, tribhuvan university, hetauda, nepal. * corresponding author’s e-mail: sherbdr025@gmail.com introduction agro-forestry is a type of land use in which trees supply both products and services to the environment (forestry et al., 2013). when trees grown on different farmlands in the same area are aggregated in agro-forestry systems, it might result in a better-wooded situation, hence improving environmental protection (otegbeye, 2002). according to kang (1993), trees have social and economic values in addition to direct agricultural benefits. from a social, economic, and ecological standpoint, the value of tree components derived by farmers from agro-forestry was assessed (anderson and sinclair, 1993). agro-forestry’s social and economic benefits can be measured in terms of production, stability, and long-term viability. rural nepali farmers’ livelihoods, and thus food security, are largely dependent on their ability to access tree resources, whether from their own land or from community forests. (cedamon et al., 2018). nepali farmers have a long history of planting trees on their land (nuepane et al. 2002) and these traditional agroforestry systems have been well described by amatya and newman (1993) among others. typical nepali agroforestry relies largely on fodder trees for livestock and the manure and forest litter produced, which are used as bedding materials to maintain soil fertility (garforth et al. 1999; palikhe and fujimoto 2010). agro-forestry trees are the primary source of fodder (amatya 1990; pandey et al. 2009), accounting for up to 70% of dry matter intake for much of the year (degen et al. 2010). farmers grow maize, wheat, millet, and vegetable crops on their terraced, tree-bounded farms. these agro-forestry systems supply subsistence products as well as environmental services like soil stabilization and improvement (pandit and thapa 2004; pandit et al. 2014; nuepane and thapa 2001; gilmour and nurse 1991; malla 2000; regmi and garforth 2010; nuepane et al. 2002; pandit and thapa 2004; nuepane and thapa 2001) and conservation of biological diversity (acharya 2006). modern agro-forestry integrates technological knowledge along with multipurpose tree species to provide maximum benefits to farmers. however, in nepal, traditional agroforestry practices are the most common. rather than planting seedlings of multipurpose tree species, farmers protect seedlings and saplings of naturally regenerated species. tree species are primarily employed for the production of fodder, fuelwood, fruit, and timber. farmers are still unaware of the multiple roles that tree species perform in the agro-forestry system. the main aim of this study is to compile a list of tree species, their applicability, and their use in various agro-forestry systems, as well as to offer policymakers with pertinent advice for encouraging the planting of these species. on the other hand, it directly assists framers in the adoption of agro-forestry practices along with multipurpose tree species, as well as reaping the benefits of maximizing the value of a limited piece of land. the objective of this report is to provide an overview of the tree species employed in nepal’s agro-forestry systems. methodology secondary sources are employed to acquire information on tree species used in nepalese agro-forestry practices. published articles, relevant books, and online databases are all included in this source. about 15 agro-forestry related articles from 1984 to 2021ad retrieved from research gate, and the tree species referenced by various authors were compiled in an excel spreadsheet. the tree https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v1i1.461 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee mailto:sherbdr025%40gmail.com?subject= pa ge 41 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 40-43, 2022 species are then classified according to their family, uses, and classification system. excel was used to display the results in charts, tables, and a pie chart. result and discussion tree species and their family in nepal, around 110 tree species from 42 different families are used in agro-forestry practices. the moraceae family has the most tree species (16), followed by the liguminosae family (8), rosaceae and rutaceae (6), and anacardiaceae and malvaceae (5) tree species in each family, respectively. each of the three tree families, lauraceae, euphorbiaceae, and fagaceae, has four tree species. similarly, the sapindaceae, verbenaceae, meliaceae, myrtaceae, and combretaceae families each include three tree species, whereas the rubiacace, caesalpinaceae, sapotaceae, annonaceae, lythraceae, theaceae, arecaceae, apocynaceae, and lamiaceae families each contain two tree species. there are 19 different families within family others in the following chart, each with one tree species utilized for agro-forestry. tree species having single use out of the 110 tree species cultivated in agro-forestry in nepal, 44 species are particularly good for single figure 1: family wise number of agro-forestry tree species function. these 44 tree species are further divided into groups based on their intended usage. only 22 species are used for fodder, 12 species for fruit, 6 species for fuel wood, and 4 species are used for timber. figure 2: agro-forestry tree species having single use status of species having multiple (2) functions 18 species of trees are used for fodder and fuelwood, 13 species are used for fruit and fuelwood, and 9 species are used for timber and fuelwood products, out of the total species used for agro-forestry practices in nepal. multipurpose agro-forestry tree species figure 3: agro-forestry tree species having two uses https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 42 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 40-43, 2022 trees species having multiple applications are best for agro-forestry practices as they provide maximum benefits within same piece of land comparing the species having single application. 21 tree species which are best for agroforestry practices in nepal are listed in following table1. table 1: agro-forestry tree species having multiple uses s.n local name scientific name family use 1 badahar artocaarpus lakoocha moraceae fodder, timber, fruit, firewood 2 dabdabe garuga pinnata bursearaceae fodder, fuel (timber) 3 bakaino melia azedarach meliaceae fodder, timber, fruit 4 sal shorea robusta dipterocarpaceae fodder, timber, firewood 5 sisoo dalbergia sisoo liguminosae fodder, timber, firewood 6 aanp mangifera indica anacardiaceae fruit, fuel, timber 7 kadam anthocephalus chinsis rubiacace timber, fuel, fodder 8 gamari gmelina arborea verbenaceae timber, fuel, fodder 9 seto siris albizia procera liguminosae timber, fuel, fodder 10 karma adina cordifolia rubiacace fodder, fuel, timber 11 amala phyllanthus emblica euphorbiaceae fuel, fruit, medicine 12 harro terminalia chebula combretaceae fuel, fruit, medicine 13 baroo terminalia bellerica combretaceae fuel, fruit, medicine 14 uttis alnus nepalensis betulaceae timber, fuelwood, fodder 15 musure katus castanopsis tribuloides fagaceae fuelwood, fodder, fruit 16 chilaune schima wallichii theaceae timber, fuelwood, fodder 17 paiyu prunus cerasoides rosaceae timber, fuelwood, fodder 18 mel pyrus pashia rosaceae fuel, timber, live fence 19 vakkimilo rhus javanica anacardiaceae fodder, fuel, medicine, fruit 20 khari celtis australis cannabaceae fodder, fuel, timber 21 chiuri bassia butyracea sapotaceae fodder, fruit, fuel tree species for agro-forestry practices there are about 110 tree species of 42 families are used for agro-forestry practices in nepal. table 2: tree species used for agro-forestry practices, their family, uses, appropriate agro-forestry system and altitudinal range sn local name scientific name family uses systems altitude(m) 1 badahar artocaarpus lakoocha moraceae fodder, timber, fruit, firewood horti-agri-silviculturl, agri-silviculture, silvopastoral, home garden 1300 tree species and appropriate agro forestry system different tree species are the component of different agro-forestry systems. the choice of tree species depends upon objectives of farmers but in conventional agroforestry practices, most of the farmers having lack of knowledge about species identification to suit specific practices. in this review, maximum numbers of tree species (30%) are used for silvo-pastoral system followed by the horto-agrisiliculture system i.e. 23% and agri-silviculture i.e.19%. similarly, 4% and 3% tree species are used for home garden and agri-silvi-pastoral system. figure 4: agro-forestry tree species having two uses https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 43 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 40-43, 2022 2 dabdabe garuga pinnata bursearaceae fodder, fuel (timber) silvo-pastoral 1300 3 ipil-ipil leucaena leucocephala leguminosae fodder, fuel, agri-silvi-pastoral, silvo-pastoral 1500 4 kabro ficus lacor moraceae fodder home garden 500 5 khnyau ficus semicordata moraceae fodder, fuel, agri-silviculture, home garden, silvopastoral 200-1700 6 kimbu morus alba moraceae fodder, fruit, horti-agri-silvicultural 2400 7 koiralo bauhinia variegate caesalpinaceae fodder, fuel, home garden 1900 8 kutmero litsea monopetala lauraceae fodder, fuel, agri-silviculture, agrisilvi pastoral 1500 9 tanki bauhinea purpurea caesalpinaceae fodder, fuel, home garden 1600 10 bakaino melia azedarach meliaceae fodder, timber, fruit home garden, agrisilvculture, silvopastoral 700-1300 11 sal shorea robusta dipterocarpaceae fodder, timber, firewood agri-silvi-pastoral 1000 12 sisoo dalbergia sisoo liguminosae fodder, timber, firewood horti-agri-silvicultural, agri-silviculture 1500 13 amba psidium guajava myrtaceae fruit horti-agri-silvicultural 500 14 aanp mangifera indica anacardiaceae fruit, fuel, timber horti-agri-silvicultural 1200 15 anar punica granatum punicaceae fruit, fuel horti-agri-silvicultural 700-2300 16 aaru prunus persica rosaceae fruit, fuel horti-agri-silvicultural 1500-2680 17 kagati citrus aurantifolia rutaceae fruit, fuel horti-agri-silvicultural 800-1400 18 litchi litchi chinensis sapindaceae fruit, fuel horti-agri-silvicultural 800 19 mewa carica papaya caricaceae fruit, fuel horti-agri-silvicultural 1000 20 naspati pyrus serotina rosaceae fruit, fuel horti-agri-silvicultural 1800-2800 21 nibuwa citrus limon rutaceae fruit, fuel horti-agri-silvicultural 800-1400 22 rukh katahar atrocarpus heterophyllus moraceae fruit, fuel horti-agri-silvicultural 160-1528 23 sapeta eucalyptus camaludensis myrtaceae timber horti-agri-silvicultural, agri-silvculture 1500 24 teak tectona grandis verbenaceae timber agri-silvculture, silvopastoral 700 25 kadam anthocephalus chinsis rubiacace timber, fuel, fodder silvo-pastoral 1000 26 gamari gmelina arborea verbenaceae timber, fuel, fodder silvo-pastoral 1200 27 kapok ceiba pentandra malvaceae timber, fuel, silvo-pastoral 1000 28 seto siris albizia procera liguminosae timber, fuel, fodder silvo-pastoral, agrisilvculture 1500 29 neem azadirachta indica meliaceae timber, fuel silvo-pastoral 900 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 44 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 40-43, 2022 30 ginderi premna integrifolia verbenaceae fodder, fuel silvo-pastoral 600-3500 31 khaksi streblus asper moraceae fodder silvo-pastoral 500 32 karma adina cordifolia rubiacace fodder, fuel, timber silvo-pastoral 800 33 jamun syzygium cumini myrtaceae timber , fuel silvo-pastoral 1600 34 mahuwa madhuca indica sapotaceae timber , fuel silvo-pastoral 1200 35 khyar acacia catechu liguminosae timber, fodder, fuel silvo-pastoral 1400 36 gazuma guazuma ulmifolia malvaceae fodder, fuelwood silvo-pastoral 400-1200 37 simal bombax ceiba malvaceae timber ,fodder agri-silviculture 1500 38 amala phyllanthus emblica euphorbiaceae fuel, fruit, medicine agri-silvi-pastoral 150-1400 39 harro terminalia chebula combretaceae fuel, fruit, medicine agri-silvi-pastoral 1100 40 baroo terminalia bellerica combretaceae fuel,fruit, medicine agri-silvi-pastoral 1100 41 bhogate citrus grandis rutaceae fruit, fuel horti-agri-silvicultural 1340 42 sitafal annona reticulata annonaceae fruit, fuel horti-agri-silvicultural 1500 43 sarifa annona squamosa annonaceae fruit, fuel horti-agri-silvicultural 1500 44 sajana moringa oleifera moringaceae fruit horti-agri-silvicultural 600 45 bel aegle marmelos rutaceae fruit horti-agri-silvicultural 150-1400 46 suntola citrus reticulata rutaceae fruit home garden 900-1200 47 mausami citrus sinensis rutaceae fruit horti-agri-silvicultural 900 48 aanar punica granatum lythraceae fruit horti-agri-silvicultural 700-2300 49 aarubakhada prunus domestica rosaceae fruit horti-agri-silvicultural 1000-2000 50 syau malus pumila rosaceae fruit horti-agri-silvicultural 1500-2700 51 imili tamarindus indica liguminosae fruit horti-agri-silvicultural 1500 52 bayer ziziphus mauritiana rhemnaceae fruit horti-agri-silvicultural 1200 53 uttis alnus nepalensis betulaceae timber, fuelwood, fodder agri-silviculture 500-2700 54 musure katus castanopsis tribuloides fagaceae fuelwood, fodder, fruit home garden, agrisilvculture, silvopastoral 450-2300 55 bar ficus bengalensis moraceae fodder home garden, agrisilviculture 600 56 pakhuri ficus glaberrima moraceae fodder home garden, agrisilviculture 750-1134 57 dudhilo ficus nimoralis moraceae fodder home garden, agrisilviculture 900-2200 58 pipal ficus religiosa moraceae fodder home garden, agrisilviculture 1520 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 45 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 40-43, 2022 59 kapas gossypium herbaceum malvaceae fodder home garden, agrisilviculture 1500 60 botdhyaro lagerstroemia parviflora lythraceae fodder silvo-pastoral 1200 61 kaulo machilus odoratissima lauraceae fodder agri-silviculture, silvopastoral 1000-2000 62 salla pinus roxburghii pinaceae timber, fuelwood silvo-pastoral 400-2000 63 kharsu quercus semicarpifolia fagaceae fodder silvo-pastoral 1700-3800 64 rittha sapindus mukorossi sapindaceae fodder silvo-pastoral 1000 65 chilaune schima wallichii theaceae timber, fuelwood, fodder home garden, silvopastoral 900-2000 66 bedula ficus subincisa moraceae fodder agri-silviculture 300-1800 67 paiyu prunus cerasoides rosaceae timber, fuelwood, fodder, agri-silviculture 1200-2400 68 lapsi choerospondias axillaris anacardiaceae fruit horti-agri-silvicultural 850-1900 69 vimsenpati buddleia asiatica scrophulariaceae fuelwood, fodder agri-silviculture 350-2000 70 timilo ficus auriculata moraceae fuelwood, fodder agri-silviculture 250-1700 71 thotne\ khasreto ficus hispida moraceae fuelwood, fodder agri-silviculture 450-1100 72 asna terminalia tomentosa combretaceae fuelwood, timber agri-silviculture 1400 73 sindur bixa orellana bixaceae fodder, fuelwood agri-silviculture 2000 74 rato tanki bauhinia longifolia fagaceae fodder, firewood horti-agri-silvicultural 1000 75 supari areca catechu arecaceae fruit horti-agri-silvicultural 1000 76 chuletro brassiopsis hainla arecaceae fodder agri-silviculture 800-1800 77 chhatiwan alstonia scholaris apocynaceae timber silvo-pastoral 1000 78 bhalayo semicarpus anacardium anacardiaceae fuel silvo-pastoral 1000 79 sindure mallotus philippinesis euphorbiaceae fodder silvo-pastoral 1500 80 gedilo ficus clavata moraceae fodder agri-silviculture 750-1134 81 vimal grewia optiva malvaceae fodder, fuel agri-silviculture 1800-2000 82 bilauni maesa chisia primulaceae fodder, fuel silvo-pastoral 2130 83 mel pyrus pashia rosaceae fuel, timber, live fence silvo-pastoral 1158-2000 84 vakkimilo rhus javanica anacardiaceae fodder, fuel, medicine, fruit silvo-pastoral 500 85 kathe kaulo machilus gamblei lauraceae fodder, fuel silvo-pastoral, agrisilvculture 700-2400 86 guren callicarpa arborea lamiaceae fodder, fuel silvo-pastoral 1300-1700 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 46 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 40-43, 2022 87 tejpat cinnamon tamala lauraceae spice, fuel silvo-pastoral 450-2200 88 gayo bridelia retusa euphorbiaceae fuel, fodder silvo-pastoral 1000-1400 89 lakuri fraxinus floribunda oleaceae fuel, timber silvo-pastoral 1500-2700 90 kabirei nerium odorum apocynaceae fuel, sacrificial value silvo-pastoral 1900 91 khari celtis australis cannabaceae fodder, fuel, timber agri-silviculture 500-2500 92 mandar erythrina variegata fagaceae fodder, fuel agri-silviculture 1500 93 chiuri bassia butyracea sapotaceae fodder, fruit, fuel agri-silviculture, horto-agri-silviculture 1000-2500 94 kafal myrica esculenta myricaceae fruit, fuel silvo-pastoral 900-1500 95 maleto macaranga pustulata euphorbiaceae fuel agri-silviculture 900-1800 96 anyaar lyonia ovalifolia ericaceae fodder silvo-pastoral 1500-2200 97 githhi boehmeria rugulosa urticaceae fodder agri-silviculture 1000-2000 98 jhingaane eurya acuminata theaceae fuel silvo-pastoral 1500-2400 99 bhusure leucosceptrum canum lamiaceae fuel, fruit agri-silviculture, horti-agri-silviculture 1000-2800 100 cassod cassia siamea leguminosae fuel silvo-pastoral 1400 101 champ michelia champaca magnoliaceae timber agri-silviculture 600-1500 102 gogan saurauia napaulensis actinidiaceae fodder agri-silviculture 750-2100 103 ban timila ficus sarmentosa moraceae fodder agri-silviculture 1400-2500 104 sandan desmodium oojenense liguminosae fodder agri-silviculture 600-1220 105 dumri ficus racemosa moraceae fodder agri-silviculture 300 106 piyari bachanania latifolia anacardiaceae timber, firewood silvo-pastoral 150-2000 107 kusum schleichera oleosa sapindaceae timber, firewood silvo-pastoral 900 108 rato siris albizia julibrissin liguminosae fodder agri-silvculture, silvopastoral 1500 109 akhataruwa trichilia connaroides meliaceae fuel agri-silvculture, silvopastoral 1000 110 asare viburnum cordifolium adoxaceae fuel agri-silvculture, silvopastoral 2700-3000 sources: [(kerkhoff, 2003), (dhakal et al., 2012), (magar et al., 2020), (tamang et al., 2020), (pandit et al., 2014), (fonzen & oberholzer, 1984), (paudel et al., 2019), (luang, 2006)(r. sharma et al., 2007), (cedamon et al., 2018), (khadka et al., 2021), (s. sharma, 2021), (brook et al., 2012), (chander 2015.pdf, n.d.)] conclusion agro-forestry relies heavily on trees since they bring various benefits to farmers. the tree species chosen in an agro-forestry system significantly impact the ultimate product. farmers gain many benefits from planting multipurpose trees with agricultural crops, such as fuelwood, lumber, fruit, fodder, and so on. in addition to direct benefits, these trees provide various indirect benefits. agro-forestry practices use 110 tree species from 42 distinct families, however only 21 species provide more than two benefits and are the best for agro-forestry operations. trees have their own altitude ranges in which to grow. farmers can use any of these species for various goods depending on the altitudinal content of the site. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 47 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 40-43, 2022 references acharya, k. p. 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(2020). participatory ranking of fodders in the western hills of nepal. journal of agriculture and natural resources, 3(1), 20–28. https://doi.org/10.3126/ janr.v3i1.27001. n.d. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 1 pa ge 59 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) how development sectors are contributing to waste management in bangladesh md. abu shahen1* volume 3 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v3i1.2780 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: june 10, 2024 accepted: july 08, 2024 published: july 12, 2024 this article investigates the role of development sectors like non-government agencies in waste management in bangladesh, particularly in semi-urban area. through qualitative methods, key informant interviews and focus group discussions, the study reveals that ngos are working to establish efficient waste management protocols in the most polluted and contaminated area. they have funded various activities, including awareness campaigns, agricultural practices, bin installation, information distribution, green club development, treatment plans, and transportation and disposal support. it is crucial for local government officials and women to be well-informed about waste management. to strengthen waste management activities, measures such as permanent disposal facilities, fixed garbage collection schedules, recycling markets, whistle systems, and bin erecting are needed. the article emphasizes the importance of well-informed local government officials and women in waste management. keywords bangladesh, government, waste, management 1 university of rajshahi, bangladesh * corresponding author’s e-mail: shahen.sw@gmail.com introduction in bangladesh, the management of solid waste is an urgent matter that requires immediate attention. research in urban areas such as chittagong and dhaka indicate that the nation is currently facing difficulties in efficiently managing domestic solid waste (sujauddin et al., 2008; afroz et al., 2011). to address this issue, it is crucial to prioritize the reduction of solid waste and the implementation of sustainable waste management programs (afroz et al., 2011). furthermore, habib et al. (2021) have recognized the investigation of waste-toenergy conversion as a technique to enhance solid waste management in places like rajshahi. efficiently managing municipal solid trash in bangladesh, especially in densely populated urban areas like barishal, poses a substantial and complex problem (abir et al., 2023). studies emphasize the crucial need for establishing effective waste management systems to reduce environmental and public health hazards linked to insufficient waste disposal methods (hamid & faruquee, 2022). the significant production of solid waste in metropolitan regions, including sewage and greywater, underscores the imperative of establishing efficient waste management systems (sharior et al., 2023). efforts to enhance solid waste management in bangladesh encompass multiple stakeholders, such as households and local governments. research has proposed models for sustainable waste management strategies, such as community-based methods, to aid policymakers in developing efficient waste management protocols (banik et al., 2016). the existence of an informal seckabir et al. (2015) highlight the possibility of incorporating informal practices into formal waste management systems, given the existence of an informal sector actively engaged in waste collection and recycling. concerning particular waste sources, including medical and industrial trash. poor management of medical waste presents substantial risks to public health, highlighting the necessity for improved waste management methods in healthcare facilities (hassan et al., 2008). studies on industrial waste management highlight the significance of recycling and implementing safe disposal methods to reduce environmental consequences (akter & muniruzzaman, 2020). to effectively handle solid waste management in bangladesh, it is crucial to adopt a comprehensive approach that combines sustainable practices, community engagement, and efficient policy execution. by utilizing findings from research studies that examine waste classification, socio-economic aspects, waste-to-energy potential, and stakeholder attitudes, bangladesh can advance in developing a strong and sustainable framework for managing solid waste. similar to many other impoverished countries, bangladesh has mostly neglected and understudied solid waste management. stakeholders have recently recognized this industry as vital for safeguarding both the environment and human well-being. bangladesh’s urban population has experienced significant and rapid growth, with an annual rate of about 6%. six main cities primarily concentrate this population: dhaka, chittagong, khulna, rajshahi, barisal, and sylhet. based on current estimates, these cities house around 13% of the total population, with 55–60% of the population living in urban areas (alamgir et al., 2005). the efficient administration of the msw system in these cities requires a cooperative endeavor that includes the municipal authorities, business entities, community-based organizations, and non-governmental organizations (ngos). the overall status quo remains unchanged. considering the relevant socioeconomic conditions and technological aspects of the country, it is evident that an integrated solid waste management system (iswm) is required. in order to assess the feasibility of adopting an integrated solid waste management (iswm) pa ge 60 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 59-66, 2024 system, it is necessary to thoroughly analyze the existing management system’s constraints, limits, and relevant experiences. to accomplish this, a feasibility study called waste safe (alamgir et al., 2005) was conducted to assess the present condition of municipal solid waste (msw) management in the least developed asian countries (ldacs), including the problems and limitations it faces. ahsan et al. (2013) and samah et al. (2013a and 2013b) present comprehensive studies on the content, generation, management, and recycling practices of municipal solid waste (msw) in malaysia. bangladesh is one of the south asian countries experiencing rapid urbanization, with 63 million people, or 38% of the total population, living in urban areas (the world bank, 2020). the process of urbanization has led to a significant rise in waste production and made waste management more challenging, particularly in densely populated areas such as dhaka. these developments have adverse effects on the environment, public health, and urban livability. the eleventh sustainable development goal, sustainable cities and communities, calls for a reduction in the negative environmental impact per person in cities by 2030. this includes a particular focus on improving air quality and managing municipal and other types of trash. furthermore, this specific aim intricately connects to the attainment of other sustainable development goals (sdgs). recycling garbage is a method that can help achieve the goal of sdg 7, which is to ensure affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy access for everyone. this will facilitate the pursuit of sustainable energy (islam, 2021). bangladesh’s rugged topography, abundant vegetation, and breathtaking beauty have occasionally earned it the title of “greenest nation” on the planet. nevertheless, the city’s pristine appearance has significantly declined as a result of the widespread accumulation of garbage and insufficient waste management practices (shamsuddoha, 2009). waste refers to any item, product, or object that is discarded, planned to be discarded, or required to be discarded due to its unsuitability for its original purpose. we commonly classify it into two distinct categories: hazardous and non-hazardous materials. hazardous wastes encompass substances such as pharmaceutical, industrial, and electronic (or “e-waste”) wastes. non-toxic waste includes materials generated by local governments, such as construction waste and residential refuse. alternatively, waste can exist in either liquid or solid form, and each form necessitates a distinct method for handling and disposing of it. regardless of its hazardous nature, improper collection and treatment of garbage can pose substantial threats to human health and the environment. as stated by the united nations, managing solid waste refers to the regulated handling of waste material from its generation at the source, through the various recovery procedures, to its final disposal. municipal solid waste in urban areas is a significant challenge due to its large volume and difficulties in managing it. every day, bangladeshi cities generate more than twenty-five thousand metric tons of rubbish, with each person producing 170 kg of solid waste per year (ahmed, 2019). the volume of waste increased by over 100%, from 6,500 metric tons in 1991 to 13,300 metric tons in 2005, within a span of 15 years (dhaka tribune, 2020a). the increase in trash will occur due to the country’s shift towards a middle-class economy, alterations in the living conditions of urban people, and the country’s expanding urbanization. we anticipate an increase in urban solid trash generation per person from 0.49 kg in 1995 to 0.60 kg by 2025. ahmed, 2019. inefficient garbage collection, costly removal and disposal procedures, insufficient land for final disposal, the absence of recycling legislation, and a lack of environmental consciousness characterize the present waste management methods (abedin & jahiruddin, 2015). historical development of waste management the history of trash reflects the histories of the societies that generated it, their interactions with the environment, and the resources they utilized. before the industrial revolution, the parisian motta papellardorum and the roman cloaca maximum exemplified the close connection between urban sustainability and garbage management. urban areas generated minimal waste, but the methods for collecting and disposing of it frequently proved ineffective, leading to complaints about unpleasant odors. the deployment of new management tactics and legislation to clean up towns throughout europe was a result of neo-hippocratic medicine, which connected excess mortality in cities to environmental and air pollution. the majority of urban garbage used for agricultural or industrial purposes also saw an increase in value. therefore, from the 1770s to the 1860s, there was a strong correlation between the state of being well and the retrieval of bodily waste. the recycling industry experienced a detrimental effect beginning in the 1870s due to the fertilizer revolution, the significant expansion of the coal and later petroleum industries, and the demand for more easily obtainable resources. although several cities first tried to mitigate the decrease in value of urban by-products, many of them ultimately abandoned these efforts during the interwar period. before the 1960s, the goal of waste management was to reduce costs. what was once a source of wealth has now become costly for society. the environment functioned as a waste disposal facility. crises of the industrial city, growing concerns about the planet’s resources, and an environmental crisis characterized the 1960s and 1970s. in this context, people perceived waste as a manifestation of the indulgences of a consumerist society. garbage production continued to rise, resulting in persistent sanitary incidents. the results of waste policy implementation are diverse. the negative consequences of this “curse of the developed world” also affected impoverished countries (barles, 2014). pa ge 61 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 59-66, 2024 perspective and prospects during most of human history, the environment was commonly known as the “global commons” (hardin, 1968). this implied that activities like resource extraction, agriculture, manufacturing, material production, and distribution, along with human waste, could freely release emissions and waste into the air, water, or land. wilson (2023) asserts that the 19th century initially enacted regulations for the disposal of solid waste in urban areas and the control of human waste discharge to safeguard public health. nevertheless, the disposal of hazardous, industrial, and municipal solid waste was unregulated and largely ignored until the later years of the 20th century (wilson, 2007). due to the increasing visibility of unregulated emissions, the uk implemented the clean air act in 1956 in response to the london haze. this legislation restricted the use of solid fuels in residential residences and served as a blueprint for such laws in other affluent nations (wilson, 2023). in addition, resource utilization has experienced a substantial rise since around 1950, resulting in increased emissions and waste generation (steffen et al., 2015). from 1950 to 1970, the global population experienced 50% growth, reaching a total of 3.8 billion individuals, with 57% of them living in urban areas. consumerism arose as a result of the improvement in living standards. the environmental demands were on the rise. rachel carson’s 1982 book silent spring ignited the environmental movement by bringing attention to the pervasive issue of pollution caused by persistent pesticides. the expansion of cities has exacerbated the negative impact of unregulated landfill sites, especially those containing hazardous materials, on the population’s well-being. in the 1970s, industrialized nations started implementing extensive environmental rules to tackle the issue of waste causing contamination in land, water, and air (wilson, 2023). however, with the establishment of solid waste management, the subsequent evaluation phases have gained recognition. during this phase, researchers categorized various issues, including the composition of municipal solid waste (strasser, 1999; uk doe, 1971), the responsibilities associated with waste management (uk doe, 1971; erl, 1992b), waste collection, treatment, and disposal (kleis and dalager, 2004; uk doe, 1971), and recycling (guo et al., 2005; scheinberg et al., 2010b). at this juncture, the worries about solid waste were a matter of great apprehension for governments, citizens, and other stakeholders. the participating nations’ governments played a pivotal role in spearheading the management of solid waste. moreover, various researchers proposed a “technical fix” during this phase, and erl highlighted the institutional context in 1992. during that period, governments and other stakeholders played a crucial role in establishing institutional standards for proper waste management. in addition, there were attempts to increase the technical standards for proper waste management. the major concerns revolved around hazardous waste, municipal solid waste, and the intended and unintended consequences of waste management. various researchers and organizations addressed these concerns, including wilson and forester (1987), who and unep (1983), iswa wghw (1991, 2002), kleis and dalager (2004), damgaard et al. (2010). however, everyone agrees that the persistent issue of waste stems from the consumption of fruits containing inedible components. every era of human history has witnessed efforts to effectively handle trash. however, the search for flawless management systems or methods is ongoing. we are now endeavoring to resolve these issues using appropriate methods. objectives the main objective of this research was to analyze the condition of garbage and waste management in the municipality. the study aimed to investigate the specific roles of ngos in raising awareness among municipality residents about waste management. it also sought to understand the current practices of residents in this regard and explore the waste reduction and contamination prevention initiatives implemented by different ngos. methodology this study was exclusively planned as a qualitative study, utilizing only qualitative data for interpretation. the research region was chosen to be a municipality in bangladesh because of the presence of ngo projects being implemented there. four focus group conversations were done in total. in addition, twelve key informant interviews were done to collect data. the interview schedule was utilized as a research instrument for the collecting of key informant interview data. furthermore, a questionnaire was employed to guide the focus group conversation and facilitate the collecting of data from the group. results and discussion bangladesh faces pollution from automobile emissions, industrial gases, and dust accumulation. while water contamination has experienced a partial reduction, it has not been completely eradicated. factors contributing to this reduction include increased awareness, fewer individuals disposing of trash down the drain, and efforts to dispose of waste before it reaches the water. community engagement in pollution prevention activities, such as recycling and proper waste disposal, is crucial for reducing water contamination caused by rubbish. the incidence of diseases has significantly decreased since the cessation of polythene incineration, which caused significant harm to individuals and led to the proliferation of numerous diseases. factors contributing to this decrease include a rise in public awareness, changes in waste disposal practices, and the impactful efforts of non-governmental organizations in promoting awareness among the population. the current situation has experienced a moderate reduction in pollution compared to the previous state, with shifts in behavior patterns and heightened consciousness regarding proper pa ge 62 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 59-66, 2024 waste disposal. as pollution decreases, the incidence of diseases also decreases. the cleaners goal is to dispose of garbage before mixing it with water sources and drains, resulting in a reduced amount of waste. trash management involves overseeing and regulating waste production, collection, handling, and disposal. it includes measures to prevent waste generation through improved processes, recycling, and reutilization. the implementation of waste management infrastructure has not reached its full potential, but it can mitigate pollution, preserve resources, and prevent environmental damage. the community has seen a shift in waste management practices due to increased awareness and education. recycling is an effective method for managing and disposing of waste, as it reduces, reuses, and properly handles garbage. beneficiaries adhere to essential waste management principles, such as using kitchen waste for organic fertilizers and manufacturing door mats, backpacks, and laptop covers. the project aims to address the lack of an established waste management framework by engaging the municipality and partnering with the local government to establish a framework. the former mayor of the municipality believes that the primary hindrance to effective waste management is the lack of personnel and a well-structured strategy. collaborating with local government and community leaders is crucial for establishing efficient waste management strategies. community engagement is essential for establishing a mutually agreed-upon framework for trash management. garbage management involves the systematic handling and disposal of waste, including collection, transportation, processing, and supervision. education and awareness campaigns have been effective in promoting changes in waste management behavior, including recycling, reducing waste generation, properly disposing of hazardous materials, and endorsing sustainable practices. awareness of appropriate garbage disposal practices is present in at least 80-90% of homes targeted. proper waste segregation is crucial for minimizing the environmental impact and preventing health problems caused by improper disposal. implementing waste division is financially beneficial as it simplifies the recycling process. participants in the fgd working group emphasized the importance of separating home waste into different bins for each type of waste, including wet and dry waste, and disposing of them separately. composting home waste is a common practice, and recycling is a common practice. the green club (gc) provides three separate categories of waste receptacles for students to use in their schools. however, bangladesh’s dense population presents challenges for garbage management, necessitating a greater allocation of municipal budget for trash management. despite the ngo initiative’s attention, the municipality often does not prioritize waste management. there is a lack of knowledge about the allocation of funds in the waste management sector within the municipal budget, particularly regarding the formulation and specific allocation of funds. vocational training focuses on the conversion of waste materials into profitable business opportunities, which protects the ecology from the detrimental effects of inorganic and biodegradable materials found in refuse. insufficient waste management can result in soil erosion, water contamination, and air pollution. the training program has provided beneficiaries with other sources of income, such as sewing, composting, and helping women overcome financial challenges. moreover, effective and sustainable waste management (swm) conserves resources, mitigates environmental and public health impacts, and enhances urban living quality. however, urbanization, institutional limitations, and unsustainable solid waste management procedures negatively affect public health and environmental sustainability. the project aims to collaborate with the municipality to construct a rubbish management facility to improve the situation and promote a cleaner and healthier community. along with, the project is collaborating with the municipality to construct a rubbish management facility to enhance the situation and promote a cleaner and healthier community. it is crucial to involve both the municipality and the community in the decision-making process, as the waste management system will have the greatest effect on community members. the majority of kii respondents concurred that the municipality should have prioritized trash control over garbage management in the budget. surprisingly, municipal dwellers have reduced their use of plastic in their homes by 90% for various purposes, and they expressed their intention to promote the adoption of environmentally friendly products as alternatives to polythene or plastic products. however, feedback from previous kii participants indicates that households only use environmentally friendly products to a limited extent for various household needs, relying on conventional, environmentally harmful materials like plastic and polythene bags. this could indicate a lack of understanding or availability of eco-friendly alternatives, as well as a lack of motivation to make the necessary changes. however, to promote the use of environmentally friendly products in family consumption, it can be beneficial to provide education and raise knowledge about the benefits associated with their usage. the kii respondents revealed that, despite the challenges they face, the homes under study expressed a strong desire to switch to environmentally friendly products if they were readily available and affordable. the bangladeshi government has a crucial role in waste management because of the environmental and public health difficulties faced by the country. bangladesh faces challenges related to air and water pollution, land degradation, and inadequate waste management (masud et al., 2017). the inadequate waste management planning and infrastructure for municipal wastes, which include human waste, pose substantial environmental and public health risks (sharior et al., 2023). the government ministries and departments in bangladesh are actively engaged in devising waste management policies to address these difficulties (mahmud et al., 2020). recently, the pa ge 63 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 59-66, 2024 government of bangladesh, in partnership with private ngos, has undertaken initiatives to transform garbage into electricity, representing a commendable move towards implementing sustainable waste management methods (mostakim et al., 2021). however, the country continues to face substantial obstacles in waste management, such as insufficient legislation for garbage disposal, a lack of awareness, poor technology selection, and inadequate financial backing (abedin & jahiruddin, 2015). the lack of well-defined criteria on the obligations of waste producers and government bodies, coupled with varying laws on waste management, exacerbate the situation (hamid & faruquee, 2022). efficient waste management is especially vital during emergencies like the covid-19 pandemic, which has put pressure on the healthcare system and worsened problems concerning the handling of biomedical waste in bangladesh (shammi et al., 2020). the implementation of mass vaccination programs has exacerbated the already precarious medical waste management system in the country (rayhan et al., 2022). developing nations such as bangladesh continue to have ongoing difficulties in achieving sustainable waste management. this requires the development and execution of comprehensive strategies that are effective in addressing the issue (hannan & aigbogun, 2021). ultimately, the government of bangladesh assumes a pivotal role in waste management to alleviate environmental contamination, protect public health, and advocate for sustainable practices. to effectively tackle the waste management difficulties encountered by the country, the government can handle them by implementing rules, increasing awareness, investing in suitable infrastructure, and partnering with stakeholders. key concerning issues in waste management in municipal area the study suggests improvements to waste management in bangladesh’s municipality area, including door-todoor collection, a permanent disposal facility, increased participation of women, schedules for cleaners, education on waste management, availability of more containers, increased awareness among public and municipal authorities, and the establishment of environmentfriendly clubs. after analyzing the results and reviews of the literature, we suggest proactively addressing certain concerns to have a significant impact on future assessments of waste and resource management. the policy issues that should be given priority are sustainable financing ( whiteman et al., 2001; brunner and fellner, 2007; bundhoo, 2018), reevaluating sustainable recycling in the global north ( iacovidou et al., 2021; wrap, 2022; cahill et al., 2011), and reevaluating sustainable recycling in the global south (ga circular, 2020; world bank group, 2018; whiteman et al., 2021; matter et al., 2013; velis et al., 2023; pfaff simoneit, 2023). these issues have been extensively discussed and researched by various authors and organizations, as cited in the references. conclusion in bangladesh, waste management presents a complex challenge that necessitates complete solutions. while we have made progress, there remains room for further improvement. an optimal waste management approach necessitates the integration of public awareness campaigns, infrastructural improvements, and regulatory reforms. moreover, refusing to purchase items excessively packaged in boxes and bags or covered in plastic is an intelligent approach to minimizing waste. however, the citizens of bangladesh lack knowledge about waste management. therefore, it is necessary for both the government and non-governmental organizations to take additional measures to raise awareness. furthermore, the concerned authorities should implement measures such as establishing a permanent disposal facility, setting a fixed trash collection date, creating a market for recycled garbage, issuing a warning signal before waste collection, and increasing the number of bins. we recommend these actions for effective management in the municipal area. in addition to women, it is important to increase awareness among public and municipal officials, specifically councilors, by implementing new interventions in the municipality area. however, by adopting sustainable practices like recycling and composting, we can reduce environmental damage while also generating economic prospects. effective cooperation among the government, industry, and communities is crucial for promoting creativity and guaranteeing the sustainable achievement of waste management projects. by placing a high value on environmental stewardship and implementing comprehensive strategies, bangladesh may lead the way towards a more environmentally clean and healthier future. references abedin, a. and jahiruddin, m. 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(2022). gate fees 2021/22 report comparing the costs of alternative waste treatment options. banbury, uk: wrap. retrieved from https://wrap.org.uk/ resources/report/gate-fees-202122-report pa ge 1 pa ge 1 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) a systematic review of energy demand, technology, and efficiency nexus: implications for bangladeshi food processing industry md. julhaz hossain1*, uzzal ali pk2 volume 2 issue 1, year 2023 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v2i1.1376 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: march 09, 2023 accepted: april 30, 2023 published: may 09, 2023 designing energy efficiency strategies for industries is predicted to be challenging. energy is not always efficiently utilized in energy-intensive industries due to various issues, notably technology and equipment. therefore, through a systematic review, this study aims to investigate the relationship between energy demand, technological breakthroughs, and efficiencies, with implications for the food processing industry of bangladesh. the study utilizes the scopus database to perform a systematic evidence search, screening, and finally selection of articles for literature review between the years 2010 and 2022. from a total of 1253 initially searched articles, 10 were selected for final review. according to the reviewed literature, energy demand in the food processing industry is expected to surge in the future, which is influenced by various factors. to tackle the challenges, deploying energysaving technologies could be a strategy for energy conservation, enhancing efficiency and strengthening organizational growth, profitability and sustainability. keywords energy demand, technology, efficiency, food processing industry, bangladesh 1 agribusiness management program, asian institute of technology, thailand 2 department of marketing, govt. azizul haque college, bogura, bangladesh * corresponding author’s e-mail: julhaz7489@gmail.com introduction energy is a crucial component in any economic activity, and increased energy demand signals economic progress if there is no indication of energy inefficiency (anik & rahman, 2021). global energy demand has doubled in the previous five and a half decades (kibria, akhundjanov, & oladi, 2019). bangladesh, often acclaimed as one of the world’s fastest-growing economies, experiences a rising energy demand which has already become a matter of concern due to limited supply and sources (murshed, 2021). total energy consumption in bangladesh has experienced a sharp increase from 0.12 quad btu in 1980 to 1.835 quad btu in 2020 (eia, 2020). this demand is likely to rise even faster in the near future because of the rapid rate of urbanization and industrialization (anik & rahman, 2021). on the other hand, due to large-scale production and high nutritional benefits, the establishment of food processing enterprises is strengthened, which boosts farmers’ economic condition (sanusi, ashaolu, akogun, & ayinde, 2016). south asian countries like bangladesh enjoy a strategic advantage in the food processing industry as it relies on its adequate agricultural inputs (world bank, 2012). however, the perishability and seasonality feature of agricultural raw materials makes the activities of the agro-food processing industry challenging (nwakuba, ndukwe, & paul, 2021). in any type of food processing industry, energy is generally needed for machinery, technological devices, and equipment handling operations such as freezing, drying, heating, refrigeration and cooling (murali, krishnan, amulya, alfiya, delfiya, & samuel, 2021). it is crucial to determine the scope for minimizing energy demand in the food processing industry and enhancing efficiency by properly utilizing technologies. bangladesh is gradually reassigning from petroleum to natural gas sources which are depleting fast to meet the energy demand of different sectors like the food processing sector (anik & rahman, 2021). besides, the demand for food is increasing gradually as the population rises, resulting in massive pressure on energy consumption (bajan, mrówczy´nska-kami´nska & poczta, 2020). energy efficiency is ensured when the same amount of output requires comparatively less energy consumption in the production plant (gembicki, 2016). more precisely, efficiency is primarily the association between the input and output parameters. through efficiency measurement, the performance and quality of transforming input into output can be assessed (lu, chiu, chiu, & chang, 2022). despite advancements in different areas, the food processing industry faces enormous hurdles of high energy consumption and low operational efficiency (nwakuba et al., 2021). in this case, technological innovation is one of the leading measures to shrink energy consumption, confirming energy efficiency (sohag, begum, abdullah & jaafar, 2015). hence, achieving energy efficiency is a must for the country to survive in the long run (gembicki, 2016). considering the significance, this study aims to review the possibilities of ensuring energy efficiency through technological innovation in the food processing industry of bangladesh. this article depicts the research background followed by the methodology, literature review, findings and discussion section. it ends with implications and contributions to this area of study. background of the study food processing is one of the world’s largest and growing industries (ahmadi, das, ehyaei, esmaeilion, assad, jamali, koohshekan, kumar, rosen, negi, bhogilla, & safari, 2021). it has become the mainstay of the country’s viable long-run social and economic growth. from bangladesh’s perspective, over 700 raw and processed https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v2i1.1376 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee mailto:julhaz7489@gmail.com pa ge 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 1-8, 2023 food products are exported to over 140 countries, generating us$400 million, employing approximately 40% of the labor force directly and indirectly and contributing 16% to the country’s gdp (bida, 2020). this industry eases poverty, increases the standard of living, creates employment opportunities, generates export earnings and boosts the country’s overall growth and development. therefore, the food processing industry has huge potential to unlock and accelerate economic growth, and strengthen the growth and advancement of a developing nation like bangladesh. in a similar fashion, energy is considered one of the basic factors of production contributing to the gdp of any economy (lee & change, 2008). furthermore, it is sometimes termed as the economy’s lifeblood as it directly influences different macroeconomic variables (azam, 2020). energy, especially electricity, is an indispensable factor for bangladesh’s economic advancement as the country’s swift economic progression in the near future will require more electricity supply (mondal, boie, & denich, 2010). in 2019, bangladesh is ranked 47th in terms of total energy usage, with an upward demand trend (eia, 2020). moreover, energy demand is rising despite limited supplies and sources; thus, exploring the dynamics of energy consumption and achieving energy efficiency for the future is crucial (murshed & alam, 2021). in particular, the food processing industry requires huge energy to perform its day-to-day operations (ahmadi et al., 2021). this sector comprises energy-intensive operations, and incurs expenses, accounting for 20 to 50 percent of total production costs (clairand, briceñoleón, escrivá-escrivá, & pantaleo, 2020). similarly, in this era of technological advancements, like all others, the energy sector is also trying to employ sophisticated and innovative technology to achieve energy efficiency (chen, sinha, hu & shah, 2021). relevantly, scholarly attention has been drawn recently to the advent of energy-saving, alternative technologies. the energy demand, technology, and efficiency nexus in bangladesh’s food processing industry is gaining traction and necessitates exploring numerous undiscovered concerns. many studies explore energy demand, technology and efficiency as separate topics. however, the studies combining energy demand, technology and efficiency relationships, to leave directions for the food processing industry of bangladesh are hardly found in the extant literature. hence, scholarly attention is required to close this identified research gap and address a major research question (i) does the installation of energysaving technology impact the achievement of efficiency in energy consumption of the food processing industry in bangladesh? therefore, this study aims to conduct a systematic review to reveal the impact of energyefficient technology on energy demand management in the food processing industry, with a specific reference to bangladesh. literature review estimating the macroeconomic determinants of bangladesh’s total, renewable, and non-renewable energy demands: the role of technological innovations (murshed & alam, 2021). murshed and alam (2021) work on the overall energy demand for both primary energy and electricity consumption in bangladesh from 1980–2014, aiming to explore the influencing factors by employing econometric analysis tools. the study shows that economic advancements and increased household consumption upturn energy demand whereas income inequality produces the opposite result. the study also found that technological innovation demotivates total and non-renewable energy demand while motivating renewable energy demand. besides, the increased oil price does not affect renewable energy demand but slows down non-renewable energy demand. the nexuses between energy investments, technological innovations, emission taxes, and carbon emissions in china (ma, murshed, & khan, 2021). ma, murshed, & khan (2021) investigate the carbon emissions and the related issues in the provincial area of china considering the sample period from 1995 to 2019 by employing sophisticated econometric analysis. the study reveals that economic growth in the provinces and development in the tertiary sector are the major causes of excessive energy consumption, leading to carbon emissions in china. on the contrary, technological innovation, renewable energy, research and development investment, and emission taxes can reduce carbon emissions and demotivate fossil fuel use. economic energy efficiency of food production systems (bajan, mrówczy´nska-kami´nska, &amp; poczta, 2020). bajan et al (2020) address the traditional problem of increasing energy consumption due to population growth over time. they undertake a research initiative that aims to analyze the economic energy efficiency in the case of food production in the crosscountry context. the study illustrates that the energy consumption of food production increased by around 27% in the selected countries from the period of 2000 to 2014. but surprisingly, energy intensity is decreased by around 18%, meaning achieving energy efficiency is possible even if the energy consumption increases. to execute the study, the researchers use the world inputoutput database (wiod) as the source of data and the economic input-output life cycle assessment (eiolca) was employed as analysis method. the research is limited by the fact that farming conditions vary between nations. machine learning methods in energy consumption optimization assessment in food processing industry (milczarski, stawska, hłobaż, zieliński, maślanka, & kosiński, 2021). milczarski, stawska, hłobaż, zieliński, maślanka, and kosiński (2021) in their study demonstrate the process of carbon footprint optimization to ensure the products contain comparatively low carbon. in this study https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 1-8, 2023 funded by the polish r&d agency under the cfood project, they employ lca (life cycle assessment) model to analyze and represent the carbon footprint. furthermore, they apply the clusterization method to better discuss the carbon footprint of frozen vegetables. the researchers employ three types of clusterization namely k-means clusterization, em clusterization and canopy clusterization. a review on boilers energy use, energy savings, and emissions reductions (barma, saidur, rahman, allouhi, akash & sait, 2017). barma, saidur, rahman, allouhi, akash, and sait (2017) conduct a study on the boiler’s efficiency so that the consumption of fossil fuel can be reduced and co2 emissions can also be regulated. to reach the solution, they go through an extensive literature review and illustrate the reasons and remedies. according to the study, 70 to 90% of energy is utilized in a typical boiler, whereas 10 to 30% of energy is lost as heat. hence, optimizing boiler efficiency by limiting heat loss can significantly reduce fossil fuel usage, hence improving energy efficiency. major causes for heat loss are found as flue gas may be due to leaks, radiation and blowing down. the study suggests some remedial measures to the energy losses like controlling the excessive air, different heat recovery techniques and performing efficient energy audits and maintenance activities. besides, the study focuses on creating awareness among the staffs involved by providing education, training and seminar programs. table 1: summary of reviewed literature author (s) & year subjects & contexts key findings estimation methods future research direction murshed & alam, 2021 macroeconomic determinants of energy demand bangladesh economic advancement increases the energy demand. technological innovation declines the total and nonrenewable energy and upsurges the renewable energy demand. econometric methods co integration unit root test ardl further research initiatives should be undertaken to explore more macroeconomic variables influencing the energy sector of bangladesh. ma, murshed & khan, 2021 energy investments & technological innovation china economic growth in the provinces and tertiary development increase energy use as well as carbon emissions. technological innovation, increased use of renewable energy, investment in research and development, and imposing emission taxes can reduce carbon emissions. econometric analysisw transportation, a major sector can be considered in the case of carbon emission and a non-linear modeling approach can be used in future studies. bajan, mrówczy´nskakami´nska & poczta, 2020 energy efficiency in food production sector 14 selected countries achieving energy efficiency is possible even the energy consumption increases. eio-lca milczarski et al., 2021 energy optimization in the food processing industry poland the study revealed carbon footprint optimization techniques ensure low carbon in food. though the minimum energy consumption in the production stage of life cycle assessment (lca) is enticing, it leads to increased energy intake in the cold-store or products destruction stage owing to poor manufacturing technology the life cycle assessment (lca) model https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 1-8, 2023 barma et al., 2017 energy saving and emission reduction technology fossil fuel consumption can be decreased by increasing the boiler’s efficiency through preventing wastage heat, proper maintenance, training and education, etc. the heat recovery techniques need to be further examined by future research initiatives. chen, sinha, hu & shah, 2021 technological innovation and energy efficiency middle east and north african (mena) countries technological innovation and reformation of economic structure ensure energy efficiency. economic growth decreases energy efficiency. unit root test chudik and pesaran (2015) cross-sectional dependence test cross-sectional augmented dickey-fuller (cadf) test cross-sectional im-pesaran-shin (cips) test the influence of bi-lateral trade, dispersion of innovation and its nature should be investigated in further study. ouyang, jian, & jiang, 2022 energy efficiency in industries china achieving energy efficiency is essentially required for energy conservation and ecological preservation. regional technology differences limit energy efficiency. planned industrial expansion and innovation can ensure energy efficiency. parametric metafrontier analysis sohag, begum, abdullah & jaafar, 2015 dynamics of energy use malaysia technological innovation is found as a vital factor in reducing energy use. economic growth and trade openness are liable for triggering energy use. ardl dols gregory hansen bölük & koç, 2010 the electricity demand of the manufacturing sector turkey demand for electricity is sensitive to price change. electricity, labor and capital are corresponding with each other. labor and capital demand are influenced by electricity price changes. intermediate input was found more inelastic. translog cost function framework islam, 2021 dynamics of energy use bangladesh gdp per capita and trade openness are responsible for increasing energy use. technological innovation ensures energy efficiency. ardl https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 1-8, 2023 however, the suggested heat recovery techniques needed to be further examined for improved results. impact of technological innovation on energy efficiency in industry 4.0 era: moderation of shadow economy in sustainable development (chen, sinha, hu & shah, 2021). chen et al (2021) studied mena countries from 1990–2016 using a second-generation methodology in the industry 4.0 and sustainable development goals (sdgs) contexts. this study highlights how energy demand is associated with technological innovation, the shadow economy, and structural transformation to help mena countries achieve the sdgs. the findings reveal that technological innovation and economic structure reform improve energy efficiency when economic growth interferes. based on the results, they have devised an sdg framework that could aid mena states in achieving sdgs 7, 8, 9, and 4. energy efficiency of the industrial sectors in beijingtianjin-hebei urban agglomeration: does technological gap matter (ouyang, jian, & jiang, 2022). ouyang, jian, and jiang (2022) in their study use parametric metafrontier analysis to determine the industrial total-factor energy efficiency (tfee) of the beijing tianjin hebei urban agglomeration (bthua), focusing on the regional technology gap ratio (tgr) based on data between 2005-2018. this study, funded by the national natural science foundation of china, claimed that energy efficiency is crucial to energy conservation and ecological preservation, which help achieve sustainable economic reforms. the findings show that bthua’s industrial tfee is geographically unequal. beijing has the region’s highest tgrs. in this manner, regional technology differences limit energy efficiency. nonetheless, the region has the opportunity to preserve energy and reduce emissions through planned industrial expansion and advancements in energy efficiency. dynamics of energy use, technological innovation, economic growth and trade openness in malaysia (sohag, begum, abdullah & jaafar, 2015). sohag et al (2015) conducted a study to assess the impact of technological innovation on the efficient use of energy considering the effect in terms of economic growth and trade openness by analyzing the secondary data available in the sample period 1985-2012 in malaysia. the study demonstrates that technological innovation has a positive impact on reducing energy use since it warrants more energy efficiency. on the other side, economic growth and trade openness are found substantial variables to trigger the energy use in malaysia during the sample period. to execute the analysis, the ardl (auto-regressive distributed lag), the dols (dynamic ordinary least squares) and gregory-hansen estimation tools were employed. the study has a limitation in that co2 emissions were not considered as a variable. electricity demand of manufacturing sector in turkey: a translog cost approach (bölük & koç, 2010). bölük and koç (2010) in their empirical study considering four variablescapital, labour, intermediate input and electricity, illustrate that electricity demand is sensitive to price change where electricity, labor and capital all are correlated. the study furthermore explores that the labor and capital demand are highly influenced by the changes in electricity price where the intermediate input was found more inelastic. the study was conducted by investigating the secondary data available for the period between 1980 and 2001 in the turkey context by employing translog cost function framework. dynamics of energy use, technological innovation, economic growth, and trade openness in bangladesh (islam, 2021). islam (2021) has tried to examine the relationship between technological innovations and energy usage, with a particular reference to bangladesh. the author utilizes marshallian demand function as the study backdrop. the data from a total of 37 years (1980-2016) has been sampled for analysis employing ardl (autoregressive distributed lag) bounds testing approach. the empirical findings reveal that gdp per capita and trade openness are the key determinants of increased energy consumption. the study also results that technological innovation directs to an increase in energy efficiency and reduces its consumption in bangladesh. the study recommends bangladesh replace old, energyinefficient systems with innovative, energy-efficient technology to achieve sustainable energy security. methodology beginning with the central research gap, a systematic literature review is carried out to portray the extant literature on the energy demand scenario in relation to technology and energy efficiency. the research question has been arranged, structured and categorized considering the populationinterventionexposurecomparator outcome (pieco) elements. population (s): food processing industry and bangladesh. intervention (s): installation of energy-saving technology in the industry. exposure (s): energy-efficient food processing plants. comparator(s): energy consumption before and after utilizing energy-saving technology. outcome (s): level of efficiency achieved in energy consumption in the industry after the installation of energy-saving technology. based on pieco elements, the relevant literature has been searched, screened and reviewed to update the present state of knowledge and provide exemplary research directions. searching the literature database for literature search a systematic literature review is dependent on the sources of literature and the process in which they are searched (xiao & watson, 2019). in this case, a systematic literature search is conducted using the scopus database, followed by title, abstract, full-text screening and final inclusion. scopus is used to search the literature because it covers a huge number of journals (paul & criado, 2020). besides, it is easier to obtain a search result from the scopus database and download it directly in.csv format (roy, some, das, & pathak, 2021). https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 1-8, 2023 keywords utilized for the search the search keywords have been derived from the formulated research question, which is further divided into concept domains using the pieco elements. synonyms, acronyms, alternate spellings, and similar phrases are also used, which can broaden the notions in the search queries (rowley & slack, 2004). to include and join the main terms and synonyms, the search string is built using the boolean operators “and” and “or”. two search queries (search query 1 and search query 2) have been constructed and utilized for searching the literature from the scopus database. search query 1 (“energy demand” or “energy demand modelling” or “electricity model” or “electricity modelling” or “electricity demand model” or “electricity demand modelling” or “industrial electricity demand” or “electricity demand estimate” or “electricity usage” or “electricity consumption” or “electricity demand forecasting” or “energy efficiency” or “energy sustainability” or “environment sustainability” or “electricity sustainability” or “electricity efficiency” or “electricity saving technology” or “energy saving technology” or “energy efficient equipment” or “energy efficient technology” or “energy efficient machinery”) and (“food manufacturing industry” or “food processing industry” or “food supply chain” or “beverage processing industry” or “ fruit processing industry” or “agro-based industry” or agribusiness) and (bangladesh or asia or “developing countries”) search query 2 “electricity demand modelling” or “electricity demand” or “price elasticity for electricity” or “demand elasticity for electricity” or “income elasticity for electricity” or “cross price elasticity” and “electricity efficient technology” or “technological innovation” and bangladesh or asia identification of literature two search queries, based on pieco elements, specified in annexes a and b are employed to identify articles from scopus, yielding 1054 articles from search query 01 and 199 from search query 02, for a total of 1253 articles. the literature search was done with the utmost care and caution to avoid common errors. screening and final inclusion after compiling a list of articles, screening is crucial to determine whether the articles are to be included for review (xiao, y., & watson, m. (2019). the screening table 2: articles inclusion criteria for review at different phases phases inclusion (no. of articles included) phase 1: identifying the articles the search queries 01 and 02 are employed to identify articles from scopus 1253 phase 2: eligibility criteria to be included following the title screening 78 following abstract screening 22 after full text review 10 phase 3: finally included articles total articles included for the study 10 figure 1: year wise number of articles selected for final review (2010-2022) table 3: type and ranking of 10 papers, selected for review type of paper number scimago journal rank journal article 9 q1 = 8 q3 = 1 conference paper 1 ----procedure begins with title screening, continues with abstract screening, and concludes with full-text screening. this study screens 78 of 1253 articles by title, 22 by abstract and 10 by full-text read review. this full-text reviewed 10 articles have been chosen for final review. it comprises articles from diverse settings and perspectives from the scopus database, to be included for final review. this process limits and covers the documents from 2010 to 2022. results and discussions economic expansion and higher household energy consumption increase the aggregate energy demand in bangladesh (murshed & alam, 2021). since this demand will continue to increase, addressing the energy demandsupply imbalance would be a government priority. generally, economic growth and development at the tertiary level are leading motives for energy consumption, whereas factors like technological innovation, spending https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 1-8, 2023 on research and development, relying more on renewable energy, emission taxes, etc. are conducive to reduced energy consumption, thus releasing less carbon (ma et al., 2021). like in other developing economies, the growing population is one of bangladesh’s largest drivers of energy demand. though population growth increases energy consumption, energy-efficient food production lowers energy demand (bajan et al., 2020). in particular, each phase of food processing necessitates a significant amount of energy intake. however, energy use can be optimized by ensuring low-carbon products and sophisticated technology in the food processing industry (milczarski et al., 2021). for instance, efficiency in boilers can be achieved completely differently. in boilers, energy is lost in various forms of heat; therefore, limiting heat loss can reduce fossil fuel usage, hence enhancing energy efficiency (barma et al., 2017). furthermore, together with technological innovation, economic reform can ensure energy efficiency, whereas excessive economic activity instigates energy consumption (chen et al., 2021). hence, by narrowing technology gaps, energy efficiency might be achieved which assists in reducing carbon emissions and conserving energy (ouyang et al., 2022). it is evident that factors such as gross domestic product (gdp) growth and trade openness boost energy consumption. however, technical advancement ensures energy efficiency by reducing energy use (sohag et al., 2015). on the other hand, changes in energy prices cause fluctuations in demand, which might affect the demand for manufacturing inputs. in particular, electricity is one of the most essential forms of energy, whose demand and price variations are intertwined, with some aspects, such as the demand for labor and capital, being highly influenced by the fluctuations in electricity price (bölük & koç, 2010). therefore, energy forecasting is needed to foresee future energy demand and manage it efficiently. for effective energy management and a sustainable future, bangladesh should prioritize technological innovation alongside other concerns (islam, 2021). the review paper contributes to the collection of theoretical and analytical models that researchers and practitioners can use for quantitative, qualitative, or mixedapproach research and practices (paul & criado, 2020). this study enriches extant literature in this area of study and provides a complete summary of existing literature with critical analysis. likewise, it identifies future research avenues and provides research directions (rowley & slack 2004). therefore, it becomes easier to find research gaps and create avenues for further studies (paul & criado, 2020). this review also serves as a guide for government, development agents, policy makers, scholars, businesses, entrepreneurs and relevant stakeholders, working in the energy sector and food processing industry in bangladesh. conclusion the economic activities are gradually increasing in bangladesh and it creates extra pressure on the energy. energy efficiency should be achieved through technological breakthroughs and other possible measures in the future to meet bangladesh’s massive energy consumption, particularly in the food processing industry. hence, efficient energy use and effective management in food processing plants, are to be highly encouraged for lowering costs, conserving fossil energy sources, and limiting environmental degradation (clairand et al., 2020). in this backdrop, this paper explores the previous works on energy demand, possible energy-saving technology and achieving efficiency nexus in bangladesh with a specific reference to the food processing industry. the findings reveal that energy demand in bangladesh is influenced by a variety of macroeconomic and other factors, and that implementing energy-saving technologies might be one of the determinants for increasing energy efficiency and, as a result, lowering energy demand. considering the limited availability of energy sources, energy-saving technology can be a strategic solution to meet the projected energy demand in the days to come. acknowledging this view, actions at the policy level must be taken and implemented to adopt energy-saving practices and more importantly, incentives should be offered to buy and employ energysaving technologies (clairand et al., 2020). therefore, all the actors must step forward to work together for addressing the challenge of achieving energyefficiency by utilizing many strategies and like technology. references ahmadi, a., das, b., ehyaei, m. a., esmaeilion, f., assad, m. e. h., jamali, d. h., koohshekan, o., kumar, r., rosen, m.a., negi, s., bhogilla, s.s., & safari, s. 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(2019). guidance on conducting a systematic literature review. journal of planning education and research, 39(1), 93-112. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 1 pa ge 1 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) economic effects of the failure of kandesha dam on local communities in mumbwa district, zambia bertha mzyece1, manoah muchanga1* volume 1 issue 2, year 2023 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v1i2.945 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: november 14, 2022 accepted: december 27, 2022 published: january 08, 2023 despite of undoubtful economic contribution to the nation, sometimes dam causes sufferings due to uncertain breakage. the study investigated the economic effects of the breakage of kandesha dam in the far west of lusaka business district. it shows that the magnitude and intensity of the impact of dam breaking is dependent on the anthropogenic activities downstream of the dams. the most notable effects of the breaking of kandesha dam included loss of income (24%), reduced working capitals among community members (14%), due to disturbed business activities resulting from the rampant flooding (12%). generally, the findings showed diversity of economic effects following the breaking of the dams. the paper recommends regulation of human activities on the immediate downstream in order to minimize the ultimate impact of the dam breaking. landscape-based assessment of catchment in order to understand the biophysical processes and human activities before siting and constructing dams would potentially reduce the risk of future breaking of dams and, could further immunize several economic losses on both government and community members part. keywords dam failure, sedimentation, socioeconomic, water, disaster 1 university of zambia, zambia * corresponding author’s e-mail: mmuchanga@unza.zm introduction dams have been built for thousands of years and served multiple purposes to harness water for hydropower, domestic use and industrial purposes (warren and robin, 1993). benefits of dams include food security considerations, expansion of roads and other infrastructure elements important for micro and macroeconomic developments. reliance on dams in many places resulted in grouping of industries, people and capital, increasing production intensification and population density. although dam construction brings positive gains to the people, at the same time it brings some laudable environmental, economic and social challenges to the society. for instance, ecological problems such as changes in water quality, channel morphology, aquatic flora and fauna, growth of aquatic weeds, spread of waterborne diseases and resettlement of people in river basins are rampant. prior studies show that more than 250 communities annually lose their home and farmlands around the world due to dams breaking (newswatch, 2001). it is no mere exaggeration that dams contribute to the economic growth of many nations. dams built round the world have played an important role in helping communities and economies harness water resources for several uses. an estimated 30-40% of irrigated land worldwide now relies on dams and those dams generate 19% of world electricity (world commission on dams, 2000). warren and robin (1993) show that creation of large reservoirs inevitably brings a lot of changes in its wake, such as agricultural innovations in the form of modern large irrigation, improved fishing as well as infrastructural facilities such as health, roads, modern housing, electricity and water supply. the breaking of the kandesha dam in mumbwa district on the far west of lusaka disrupted over 700 families and over 4000 people in the area due to heavy rainfall that happened in december 2020 and early 2021 (red cross, 2021). the overarching research question was, what were the economic gains and losses from the failure of the kandesha dam on communities living on the downstream? it is hoped that, the findings of the study may be of use to scholars around water education, dam management and water economists. the findings may also be used to establish a criterion for mitigation of breaking of dams, particularly those used for agriculture, fishing and irrigation. the study also brought out education issues that may inform environmental educators. literature review a case study of chalillo dam located on the macal river in belize, central america shows that as with all infrastructure development, the dam presents direct costs and benefits to the country of belize, while also placing externalized costs on the local communities supported by the macal river and the surrounding environment. the environmental impact of the dam post construction was analyzed more than economic impact. however, there is an information gap in the economic impact even in the chalillo dam based on the interpretation of the communities on the downstream (the world commission on dams, 2000). this is attributed to belize being a small country where funding limits the priority of economic impact. economic impacts are not limited to assets in the inundation area, but extend to infrastructure and resources that serve a much broader area. in addition to direct damage from dam failure, economic impacts include the amount of time required to repair or replace and reopen businesses, governmental and nonprofit making agencies, and industrial facilities damaged by the dam failure (jansen (1999). the consequence assessment provided in the study accounts for a variety of direct https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v1i2.945 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(2) 1-5, 2023 and indirect economic consequences. direct economic consequences include the costs of repairing damage and replacing lost items. indirect economic consequences include the loss of jobs, the loss of sales, and the cost of securing alternative space for residential or business purposes (jansen, 1999). ekenberg, brouwers and vari (2003) carried out a study in austria on the social impacts of the dam failure. the finding was that social impacts of the breaking of the dam can range from emigration of people who have lost jobs to immigration of workers to help with repair and rebuilding. social impacts include a shortage of safe, affordable housing. on the other hand, it includes loss of confidence in public officials, loss of social cohesiveness, and loss of recreational opportunities, decreased level of government supported community services, and diminished quality of life, as well as identification with new communities and discovery of new social opportunities. the study by jansen (1999) in brazil also identified potential social impacts of breaking dams, including loss of housing, jobs, social organizations, recreation, culture, mental and physical health, loss of government service, and political climate. thomas (2006) conducted research in the netherlands to identify the environmental impacts of a dam failure. findings were drawn that it depends heavily on the information gathered regarding properties in the area and also the nature of human activities especially on the downstream. in their respective studies in nigeria and cameroon (dunning and durden, 2009) also show that biophysical, engineering and human factors tend to affect dam breakage with several economic consequences similar to those earlier mentioned. a study carried out in south africa by the department of homeland security (2011) on the dams sector: estimating economic consequences for dam failure scenarios showed similar trends. federal emergency management agency (2008) carried out research on risk prioritization tool for dams. in this approach, specific emphasis is laid on the treatment of potentially high losses associated with dam breaks in uganda. these losses occur rarely but bring heavy impacts in case of dam break. causes of dam failure in zambia include faulty design or construction, use of substandard materials, over-topping due to surplus water, deliberate sabotage or because of severe shakings. in some cases, where the dam structure might remain intact, the neighboring hillsides crumble having the same effect as the dam collapsing. sediment transport and sedimentation data in dams is widely documented by sichingabula (1997); muchanga (2011) in the luangwa catchment; muchanga (2017), muchanga et al. (2019), mphande and sichingabula (2019) in mkushi district, muchanga (2020); hamatuli and muchanga (2021) in central province, simweene and muchanga (2022) in monze district. however, these and many other studies within zambian context focus on the problem that may likely contribute to breaking of the dams and, not necessarily the breaking and related consequences. firgure 1: map showing extend of flood inundation materials and methods mumbwa district is located at latitude -14.987983 and longitude 27.069540° in mumbwa district, far west of lusaka central business district, at an elevation of 1200 meters above sea level and with approximate catchment size of 11 km2. the mean annual rainfall is between 800-1000 mm. dwellers in the catchment engage in both rain-fed and irrigated farming, fishing, gardening, small scale business activities of different types, among others (dmmu, 2020). the study was methodologically informed by qualitative research methodology which involved getting opinions, views and feelings of the parties involved. specifically, a descriptive survey design concerned with a rich and clear description of events relevant to the study (bryman, 2008). in this study, the sample size comprised 130 people from surrounding communities downstream of the kandesha dam, 40 were fishermen, 60 were farmers and 30 were small scale https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(2) 1-5, 2023 business personnel downstream of the dam. the selection of participants was done using the purposive sampling technique. in this case study, the researchers interviewed relevant and selected people using semi-structured interviews with the aid of online google form. the qualitative data was analyzed using descriptive statistics in form of graphs and narrative analysis for qualitative data. this was done by transcribing the interviews, summarizing and highlighting the key themes in the narratives. results the study finding on type of family to which participants belonged suggest that, extended family living could have been the most spatially distributed among the communities downstream of the kandesha dam. this could be noticed from the earlier findings by red cross (2021) and had implications on the magnitude of the impact of dam breaking. figure 2: type of family living to which participants belonged effects of the breaking of the dam the study found that, the breaking of the kandesha dam led to loss of standard means of livelihood such as fishing and market gardening which were dependent on the availability of water in the dam. businesses were negatively affected by the breaking of the dam. some of the perspectives shared by the participants were as shown in figure 3 and as illustrated in some verbatims. “the breaking down of the dam made the transaction levels in my business to go down as there is less cash circulation within the area now.” “the mortality rate of fish was very high hence, there was little or no fish for me to catch. then there is this covid-19, which has already stressed us because people cannot move frequently, so this has really affected us” “we are flooded and i lost my goods, my livelihood depends on fishing. breaking of the dam has impacted my businesses negatively as this is my major source of income which helps me take my children to school and helps me to take care of my family in general.” “my daily income has drastically reduced. my business in the doldrums, many people lost most of the businesses as they had plantations near the dam this really had a negative impact as many people could not buy as compared to the past thus, my business was slow in return not generating enough profits, hence making ordering costly.” “i could not make as much income as i used to make before the dam was broken. it has affected my income since the yields have gone down as water has drained and has developed a mud near the torrential flowing river bordered by mud and sand that had been under water. i am unable to get the things i need for my business because i don’t have the capital anymore.” temporal coping strategies following the breaking of the dam, the victims resolved to temporal alternative means of livelihood such as smallscale businesses namely, piece works, selling vegetables and opening grocery shops ‘tuntemba’; mobile money kiosk. mobile money business seemed to have been the quickest means of coping with the breaking of the dam (figure 4). figure 3: tabulated effects of dam failure on local communities figure 3: temporal coping strategies after the breaking of the dam results synthesis the breaking of dams comes with diverse challenges especially on families which are already socioeconomically disadvantaged. for most sedentary farmers, dams form the main plinth of economic activities such that if dams are removed, it is more like removing the very source of income. earlier studies by sichingabula (1997); muchanga (2017) show similar evidence from southern zambia. the study from kandesha catchment clearly demonstrates that if not well managed, dam breaking could have far reached consequences beyond torrential https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(2) 1-5, 2023 flooding and high discharges to disruption of school attendance, declining in profits and working capitals as well as poor circulation of cash. the study was done at the pick of covid-19, which according to muchanga et al. (2020) ravaged most of the families in zambia and also led to drastic loss of income for many physical business-dependent rural families. the breaking of the kandesha dam worsened the mental stresses, which people were already going through. it was also noted that, many varieties of fish species in the dam were carried away downstream such that some species died reducing the fishing activities in the area and eventually, family income and business activities. whilst earlier cited case studies seem to focus on the large-scale infrastructure losses and engineering cost of restoring dams (world commission on dams 2000; ekenberg, brouwers and vari, 2003; jansen 1999; dunning and durden, 2009), the case study from kandesha focused on how the poor and often excluded families were affected by the flood. the findings actually seem to suggest that, many of the local communities may not be concerned about the economic and engineering costs of the breaking of the dam on the government coffers, but rather on their own local wellbeing. this means that local people may need to be sensitized about the cost of constructing such infrastructure and to discourage them from any activities that may punctuate dam breaking. high turbidity was also noted by the participants and significantly affected the quality of water in flooded shallow wells and also streams. the red cross and the dmmu played a significant role in the provision of emergency help in food, clothes and beddings. they also played an evacuation role for affected families some of which were made to stay on top of the house roof up to 24 hours before the arrival of rescue team. these were the only supposed gains from the dam breakage. having lost their sources of income, many families resolved to alternative means of livelihood as narrated by the participants, the most predominant being operating of mobile money kioskies. the contextual policy implication of this study is that, the government must integrate precise spatial planning strategies in the siting and construction of dams in order to prevent and minimize the impact of dam breakage downstream. as earlier study by thomas (2006) shows, the magnitude and intensity of dam breaking is mainly dependent on where humans and their activities are located. meaning if they are far away from the buffer zones of the downstream, the impact would be moderate. the study perspective therefore disagrees with earlier suggestions by sichingabula (1997) that such human activities as gardening must be downstream because in case of dam breakage, there would be a large-scale loss of means of livelihood as was the case in kandesha catchment. instead, they must settle downstream away from the banks of the dams. moreover, the government must ensure that, local people adopt permanent alternative means of livelihood that would keep them away from the buffer zones of the dams. as the climatic changes are projected to worsen in the next half century (chisanga et al. 2022), there is also need to adopt whole landscape-based management of catchments in order to have a clearer understanding of biophysical and human dimensions in the management of dams and prevention of such disasters as the kandesha dam breakage, chisola et. al. (2020) recommends this approach. conclusion the study generally concludes that, the breaking of the kandesha dam had detrimental economic effects on the economic standing of the local people who lost means of livelihoods. the most common challenge was loss of income, especially for those who were directly dependent on the dam. going beyond this case study, the findings suggest that, human settlements must be discouraged on the immediate downstream of the dams in order to reduce the risk of loss of life, property and means of livelihood. the study was inherently limited by a small sample given that, by the time fieldwork was being conducted, there were covid-19 restrictions such that many people could not be accessed. the study was inclined on qualitative dimension thus rendering it highly subjective, hence, the study epistemically suggests detailed quantitative studies on the cost-benefit analysis of breaking of dams among interested researchers locally and internationally. references bowles, d. (2007). tolerable risk or dams: dams annual conference. philadelphia, pennsylvania. brown, c. a., and wayne, j. g. (1998). assessing the threat to life from dam failure. water resources bulletin, 24(6), 1303. bryman, a. (2008). social research method. new york: oxford university press. chisanga, c.b., mubanga, k.h., sichingabula, m. h., banda, k., muchanga, m., ncube, l., van niekerkd, helena, j., zhao, b., mkonde, d.a. amanda, r., and sonwabile, k. (2022). modelling climatic trends for the zambezi and orange river basins: implications on water security. journal of water and climate change, 1-18. chisola, m. n., vander laan, m., and bristow, k. l. (2020). a landscape hydrology approach to inform sustainable water resource management under a changing environment. a case study for the kaleya river catchment, zambia. journal of hydrology: regional studies, 32, 100762, 1-16. department of homeland security. 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(1993). dams in africa. london: frank cass and company ltd., 35-50. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 1 pa ge 19 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) fuelwood supply consumption and dynamic on forest resource in kakuma refugee camp, turkana county kenya kipkemboi kandie1*, wilson k. kipkore1, p. o. odwor2 volume 3 issue 1, year 2023 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v3i1.2042 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: march 05, 2024 accepted: april 15, 2024 published: april 19, 2024 forestry is a source of livelihood for many farmers and rural households in developing countries, especially in sub-saharan africa. however, the utilization of fuelwood in africa contributes greatly to desert encroachment and consequently has implications with regard to climate change. its, little to understand about the drivers and dynamics of fuelwood consumption in kenya and other african countries. this study is to analyze determinants of refugee camp forest resource utilization efficiency kakuma refugee camp turkana county. it accomplishes two broad objectives:( 1) to analyse utilization of fuelwood from indigenous tree species supplied to the camp, the profitability of firewood supplied to the local market and a growing body of evidence on the influence of utilization of fuelwood in the camp in the refugee camp, as the host community get cash from the refugees and food ration in exchange with the resource (fuelwood) in a household’s level. it embraced a mixed methods approach embedded with an explanatory research design for concurrent triangulation. the study interviewed a total of 296 respondents through hh questionnaires, the kii tool and fgd guide. qualitative data was analyzed using thematic framework approach while quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive and inferential (correlations) statistics on spss. results suggest that even with minimal investment in both productive and non-productive assets (m=2.40) and sd=0.99) from cash purchase of fuelwood from agencies, there is significant negative effect (r=0.139) and p=0.05) between asset accumulation and poverty reduction among targeted household. study reveals that the provision of alternative sources of energy has the potential to reduce overdependence on wood fuel by the refugees in kakuma kenya. therefore, the government ought to support other cheaper energy alternatives like alternatives gadgets and energy-saving cooking technologies, while the local administrators should integrate the refugee needs in the development plans for equal distribution of resources at large keywords fuelwood, supply, refugee, camp, dynamic, household 1 department of forestry and wood science, university of eldoret, p. o. box 1125-30100, eldoret, kenya 2 school of economics, university of eldoret, p. o. box 1125-30100, eldoret, kenya * corresponding author’s e-mail: kandy022005@yahoo.com introduction energy demand at the global level is continuously increasing due to the rapid population growth and the need to use more energy for domestic and industrial purposes (yigezu and jawo, 2021; molina et al., 2022). accordingly, forecast based on the international energy agency (eia) and other energy sources, estimates that energy demand will rise by approximately 50-65% between 2020 to the year 2040 (stanescu et al., 2021; manandhar et al., 2022). forests contribute immensely to economic and social development through formal trade in timber, environmental services, non-timber forest products, safety, net spiritual and aesthetic value. despite varied sources of energy (asadian et al., 2023), fuelwood accounts for 44.2-58.7% of all energy consumed globally (paterson and fleming, 2021; rahman et al., 2021), subsequently benefiting the energy needs of atleast 1.72.1 billion peoples (avhad, 2023). fuelwood is a key source of energy that has been used for millennia for cooking, boiling water, lighting and heating. today, about 2.5billion people depend on biomass energy for cooking and heating with 87% of this energy being provided by wood. in sub-saharan african, more than 90% of the population relies on wood fire, that is, firewood and charcoal as their primary source of domestic energy. over 80% of urban householders and small industries use charcoal and firewood as their source of energy. despite their numerous importance, africa’s forest continues to decline rapidly due to increase in agricultural practices into forest lands, population growth and urbanization, increased poverty, high dependence on natural resources for subsistence and income through forest. most of these are applicable in lighting, heating and cooking (singh et al., 2021; eakins et al., 2023). between the year 2018 to 2022, fuelwood consumption was approximately 45 million m3 per year (paudel, 2018; johnston et al., 2022) and is projected to increase to 70 million m3 annually by the year 2030 (romanach and frederiks, 2021; khan et al., 2022). fuelwood is the dominant source of energy averaging about 58% of the energy supply, and account for more than 80% in some countries, such as burundi (91%), rwanda and the central african republic (90%), mozambique (89%), burkina faso (87%), benin (86%), madagascar and niger (85%) as well as malawi (81%) (sulaiman and abdul-rahim, 2020; wassie et al., 2021; sulaiman and abdul-rahim, 2022). (omoju et al., 2020), majority of the rural dwellers still use fuelwood due to cultural preferences, availability, economic factors and perceived lack of alternative energy sources as well as widespread poverty (sulaiman and abdul-rahim, 2020; ali, 2021). pa ge 20 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 19-30, 2023 in kenya, fuelwood contribute about 68% to the total biomass energy need (jepng’etich, 2020; osano et al., 2020) and provides for more than 80% of rural household energy needs (kariuki, 2021; mbaka, 2021). it has been previously reported that kenya uses 34.3 million tonnes of biomass for fuelwood (kimutai and talai, 2021; takase et al., 2021). majority of the rural dwellers still elect to use fuelwood due to low cost of obtaining the energy source, ease of availability, perceived lack of alternative energy sources (osano et al., 2020). problem statement in areas with large influx of refugees there is a disturbance of the environment, the forest resources as sources of energy has resulted in over-utilization. the cutting of trees for fuelwood, by the refugees and the host community is very high indeed. in turkana region where there is large conglomeration of refugees, the host community feels deprived of their livelihood from fuelwood sales. main objective the main objective of this study is to analyze fuelwood supply and consumption dynamics in kakuma refugee camp turkana county (kenya). research questions i. what quantity of fuelwood was supplied from indigenous tree species to the refugee camp between 2015 and 2019? ii. what is at the difference between fuelwood prices between the agencies (lokado) and local market vendors between 2015 and 2019? iii. what is the profitability of fuelwood supplied by vendors to the local market and to the refugee camp between 2015 and 2019? iv. what are the alternative sources of energy for refugees in kakuma refugee camp? theoretical foundation this theoretical framework is based on the empirical analysis of fuelwood supply and consumption dynamics. neoclassical economic theory focuses on supply and demand as the driving forces behind the production, pricing, and consumption of goods and services. conceptual framework figure 1: conceptual framework pa ge 21 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 19-30, 2023 materials and methods study area this study was conducted in kakuma located in turkana county within the rift valley province in the north-west corner of kenya near the south-sudan border. kakuma refugee camp, is the second largest shelter site for refugees in the country after dadaab. it is situated 95 km south of lokichogio about 120 km south of the sudan/ kenya border. it is located 3°42’59.99” n 34°51’59.99” e and almost 1,000 km northwest of nairobi. figure 2: map of kenya and kakuma (unhcr, 2019) source: layout of kakuma refugee camp. research design the study involved collection of data fuelwood price, profitability of fuelwood, preference of tree species and the alternative source of energy therefore assumes both qualitative and quantitative research designs. analysis of fuelwood supply of dynamic consumption during the study, two subsets of population were used. the first is the population of the host community. according to the latest census report, there are approximately is 168,053 (kenya national bureau of statistics, 2010). from this population about 12,807 living within the area covered during this survey. it estimated that about 20% supply forest resources to the refugee camps in the region and therefore the sample size was determined from the formula (ellen, 2012). whereby: n = the desired minimum sample size, z = the standard normal deviation at set confidence interval (1.96), d = the acceptable range of error (0.05), p = the proportion of individuals supplying forest resources to the refugee camps (20%), and q = the proportion of individuals not supplying forest resources to the refugee camps = 1-p (80%). therefore, the desired sample size was 246 local community members. the second batch of the sample size is for the refugees. the number remains variable depending on the economic conditions of their parent country and estimates indicate that upto 82% of the refugees can access forest resources in one way or the other. therefore the sample fomula was used to arrive at the sample size as: was used to arrive at the sample size as therefore, the desired sample size for the refugees was 227. data analysis both descriptive and inferential statistics was employed in the analysis of the data. data was analysed using spss 23.0 (ibm corp., armonk, ny, usa) and microsoft excel 2007 (microsoft corporation, redmond, wa, usa). all data was analyzed for normality and appropriate transformation methods applied in case of a significant departure from normal distribution (zar, 1996). table 1: description of explanatory variables used as socio-economic factors in the binary logistic model variable description of the variables gender (x1) gender is 1 if the respondent is male, 0 otherwise age (x1) level is 1 = 18-25 years; 2 = 26-35 years; 3 = 36-55 year; > 55 years pa ge 22 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 19-30, 2023 results questionnaires return ratepredicting the level of surveybased research participation, defined by the response rate, is often difficult due to a variety of impeding factors (woolf and edwards, 2021). the overall response rate as well as the response rate recorded for the host and refugees were found to be suitable for analysis and making interpretations and conclusions for this study since response rate of 60-100% his considered adequate to validate any survey based studies (meyer et al., 2022). level of education (x3) level is 1 = none; 2 = primary; 3 = secondary; 4 = tertiary occupation of the household head (x4) occupation is 1 if the respondent is a farmer, 0 otherwise household size (x5) level is 1 = 3-5; 2 = 6-10; 3 = > 10 land size (x6) level is 1 = <2; 2 = 2-5; 3 = 5.1-10; 4 = >10 farm household income (x7) level is 1 = <5000; 2 = 5000-10000; 3 = 10,001-20000; 4 = > 2000050000; 5 = >50,000 non-farm household income (x8) level is 1 = <5000; 2 = 5000-10000; 3 = 10,001-20000; 4 = > 2000050000; 5 = >50,000 table 2: response rate for the host community and refugees during the study period respondents total returned response rate (%) h ost community 247 193 78.1 refugees 227 192 84.5 total 474 385 81.2 socio-economic status of the respondents geographical characteristics of the respondents the geographical characteristics of the refugees and host community members are provided in table 3. the respondents were sampled from mainly two regions in kakuma: kakuma and kalobeyei. most of the respondents from each category were obtained from kakuma which has larger population than that of kalobeyei (betts et al., 2020). the vast majority of the refugees were sudanese followed by somalis and belonged to regugee families. table 3: respondents’ geographical characteristics of the refugees and host community members variable response category host community refugees frequency percent frequency percent location kakuma 121 62.7 150 78.1 kalobeyei 72 37.3 42 21.9 nationality sudanese 53 27.6 burundian 28 14.6 rwandese 11 5.7 ugandan 2 1.0 somalia 44 22.9 ethiopian 24 12.5 congolese 21 10.9 somali 9 4.7 kenyan 193 100 category refugee family 171 89.1 refugee minor 19 9.9 host 2 1.0 table 4: socio-economic characteristics of the respondents variable response category host community refugees frequency percent frequency percent age (years) 18-35 62 32.1 69 35.9 36-50 114 59.1 105 54.7 51-65 12 6.2 14 7.3 above 65 5 2.6 4 2.1 pa ge 23 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 19-30, 2023 patterns of fuelwood utilization within the kakuma refugee in both cases higher percentage of the host and refuges used firewood (>87-91%) compared to the respondents using charcoal (48-53%). gender male 88 45.6 78 40.6 female 105 54.4 114 59.4 level of education none 142 73.6 102 53.1 primary 41 21.2 40 20.8 secondary 8 4.1 40 20.8 tertiary 0 0.0 7 3.6 university 2 1.0 3 1.6 household size <3 21 10.9 35 18.2 3-5 93 48.2 64 33.4 6-10 75 38.9 83 43.2 11-20 4 2.1 7 3.6 >20 0 0.0 3 1.6 household income (pm) <5000 138 71.5 78 40.6 5000-10000 38 19.7 90 46.9 10001-20000 12 6.2 17 8.9 20001-50000 5 2.6 7 3.6 occupation none 11 5.7 30 15.6 salaried employment 13 6.7 4 2.1 casual labour 39 20.2 70 36.4 self employed 5 2.6 27 14.1 pastoralist 103 53.4 1 0.5 legal business 22 11.4 60 31.3 illegal business 0 0.0 4 2.1 figure 3: proportion of fuelwood supplied and utilized in the camps pa ge 24 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 19-30, 2023 factors influencing fuelwood utilization patterns in the refugee camps the outcome of binary logistic regression on the relationship between socio-economic factors and supply of firewood to the camps are shown in table 5. the selected socio-economic factors were significant (b = -4.534, wald = 4.977, p = 0.026, exp(b)[or] = 4.011) in explaining supply of charcoal to the refugee camps (maximum likelihood ratio = 66.393; negelkerker r2 = 0.678). figure 4: source of fuelwood supplied to the refugee camps figure 5: species preference of tree species for fuelwood supply among the host community members table 5: binary logistic regression showing the influence of socio-economic factors on supply of firewood to the refugee camps variables in the equation b s.e. wald df p-value exp(b) distance -1.783 0.53 11.317 1 0.001 0.168 gender -0.753 0.61 1.523 1 0.217 0.471 age 0.079 0.449 0.031 1 0.86 1.083 level of education 0.634 0.438 2.09 1 0.048 1.885 pa ge 25 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 19-30, 2023 occupation 0.623 0.275 5.146 1 0.023 1.865 hhsize 0.128 0.49 0.068 1 0.794 1.136 hhincome 1.853 0.464 15.966 1 0.002 6.378 constant -4.534 2.033 4.977 1 0.026 4.011 figure 6: table 6: variables in the equation b s.e. wald df p value exp(b) location 0.236 0.264 0.804 1 0.372 1.267 gender 0.07 0.343 0.042 1 0.838 1.072 age -0.085 0.269 0.1 1 0.752 0.918 education -0.29 0.329 0.776 1 0.378 0.749 occupation 0.033 0.147 0.051 1 0.821 1.034 hhsize -0.137 0.277 0.245 1 0.62 0.872 hhincome -1.28 0.381 11.264 1 0.001 0.278 constant 1.709 1.104 2.394 1 0.022 2.523 table 7: multiple linear regression analysis showing the relationship between socio-economic attributes and frequency of supply of firewood the refugee camps regression statistics multiple r 0.421 r square 0.177 standard error 0.952 observations 183 dependent variable: how frequent do you supply firewood predictors: (constant), location, gender, age, level of education, occupation, household size, household income anova tss df mss f p-value regression 34.422 7 4.917 5.421 0.0000 residual 159.660 176 0.907 total 194.082 183 pa ge 26 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 19-30, 2023 table 8: multiple linear regression analysis showing the relationship between socio-economic attributes and quantity of firewood supplied to the refugee camps regression statistics multiple r 0.724 r square 0.524 standard error 69.686 dependent variable: how much firewood is supplied to the household monthly predictors: (constant), household income, household size, occupation, level of education, gender, age, location anova tss df mss f p-value regression 636676.4 7 90953.77 18.73 0.000 residual 577880.5 119 4856.139 total 1214557 126 unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients b standard error beta t stat p value (constant) 249.932 43.577 5.735 0.000 location 8.05 12.446 0.048 0.647 0.519 gender -53.965 13.073 -0.276 -4.128 0.000 age 3.872 10.100 0.028 0.383 0.702 level of education 24.435 12.998 0.125 1.88 0.063 occupation -49.284 5.642 -0.621 -8.735 0.000 household size 13.375 10.829 0.09 1.235 0.219 household income 1.979 13.923 0.01 0.142 0.887 correlations collinearity statistics zero-order partial part tolerance vif (constant) location -0.276 0.059 0.041 0.741 1.35 gender -0.362 -0.354 -0.261 0.896 1.117 unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients b standard error beta t stat p value (constant) 2.735 0.482 5.702 0.000 distance 0.389 0.111 0.312 3.494 0.001 gender 0.023 0.153 0.011 0.147 0.884 age 0.277 0.123 0.177 2.264 0.025 level of education 0.487 0.135 0.28 3.598 0.000 occupation -0.086 0.066 -0.102 -1.298 0.196 household size 0.204 0.124 0.133 1.645 0.102 household income -0.491 0.126 -0.299 -3.906 0.000 correlations (constant) zero-order partial part tolerance vif (constant) 0.16 0.255 0.239 0.587 1.702 location 0.052 0.011 0.01 0.845 1.183 gender 0.204 0.168 0.155 0.764 1.308 age 0.082 0.262 0.246 0.772 1.295 level of education 0.001 -0.097 -0.089 0.763 1.311 occupation 0.213 0.123 0.112 0.711 1.407 household size -0.132 -0.282 -0.267 0.8 1.25 household income 0.16 0.255 0.239 0.587 1.702 pa ge 27 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 19-30, 2023 table 9: multiple linear regression analysis showing the relationship between socio-economic attributes and quantity of charcoal supplied to the refugee camps regression statistics multiple r 0.782 r square 0.58 standard error 16.918 dependent variable: how much charcoal is supplied to the household monthly predictors: (constant), household income, household size, occupation, level of education, gender, age, location anova tss df mss f p-value regression 7515.723 7 1073.675 3.751 .0100 residual 5437.906 19 286.206 total 12953.63 26 unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients b standard error beta t stat p value (constant) 9.602 30.464 0.315 0.756 location -16.267 10.395 -0.339 -1.565 0.134 gender 1.53 7.731 0.034 0.198 0.845 age -3.089 4.679 -0.126 -0.66 0.517 level of education 6.775 5.512 0.313 1.229 0.234 occupation 4.831 3.496 0.308 1.382 0.0183 household size -2.626 6.37 -0.098 -0.412 0.685 household income 9.043 5.807 0.373 1.557 0.0136 correlations collinearity statistics zero-order partial part tolerance vif (constant) location -0.264 -0.338 -0.233 0.471 2.125 gender -0.066 0.045 0.029 0.735 1.361 age -0.224 -0.15 -0.098 0.611 1.638 level of education 0.557 0.271 0.183 0.341 2.933 occupation 0.174 0.302 0.205 0.445 2.25 household size -0.509 -0.094 -0.061 0.392 2.552 household income 0.501 0.336 0.231 0.386 2.592 age 0.067 0.035 0.024 0.742 1.348 level of education 0.199 0.17 0.119 0.904 1.106 occupation -0.636 -0.625 -0.552 0.79 1.265 household size 0.168 0.113 0.078 0.749 1.334 household income 0.059 0.013 0.009 0.89 1.124 price analysis of fuelwood in kakuma camp the second objective of the study was to determine the pricing strategies and analysis of fuelwood at the refugee camps. first, the quantity of firewood and charcoal supplied to the refugee camps over the last five years are provided in figure 7. there were significant differences in the quantity of firewood supplied during the last five years (f = 34.5523 df = 4, p = 0.0032). demand of firewood among the refugees during the study supply and demand curve of firewood in refugee camp. q=a+bp. where q = linear demand curve; b = slope and p = price figure (7). based on the curved, the equilibrium price was estimated at about kshs 100 per kg. table 7, enterprise budget (in kshs) of tree supplied to the refugee camps during the study. profit=profitmargin ration= (gross operating or net) (profit/sales)/100. breack even is ksh 64/profit=total revenue-total expenses. pa ge 28 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 19-30, 2023 figure 7: supply and demand curve of firewood in refugee camps table 10: fuelwood supply parameters parameters fuelwood supply total yield of trees (kgs/ha) 5,040 unit cost/kg 300.00 gross receipts 1,512,000 variable costs cost of harvesting 154,500 cost of loading 145,670 cost of transport 65,000 cost of offloading 150,000 miscellaneous 80,000 sub-total variable costs 620,770 interest on operating cost 99,323 total variable cost (tvc) 720,093 fixed costs amortization 60,000 interest on fixed cost 9000 total fixed cost 169,000 total cost (tc) 889,093 net returns above tvc 791,620 net returns above tc 622,620 margins above tc (%) 142.84 break even price 64.05 alternative energy sources from fuelwood for refugees in kakuma camp the final objective of the study was to determine the alternative sources of energy within the kakuma refugee camps. among the local community members, the main alternative energy source was mud stove, ceramic jiko and kerosene. meanwhile majority of the refugee used mud stove, portable maendeleo stove and ceramic jiko as alternative energy source. conclusions the study area remains highly populated with refugee settlements from south sudan, meaning that pressure on wood fuel is still far from ending unless this situation is overturned in the near future. this study reports forth that the refugees used more firewood followed by charcoal, and other biomass fuels such as agricultural residues, husks, and grasses as cooking fuel. the household size categories that had a significant contribution to the collection and use of firewood were the large families. recommendation the current consumption pattern is unsustainable given high dependence and inefficient use. this threatens the existence of the preferred wood species such as salvadora persica, acacia meliffera, and dobera glabra trees and other dryland vegetation tree species as they are indiscriminately harvested to meet fuelwood needs and this will worsen the specter of the fragility of the ecosystem. acknowlegement in preparing this thesis from the conception to the final write up, several people were involved and it is with all sincerity to acknowledge them for the great role they played. first and foremost, i wish to express my deepest gratitude to my academic 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(2021). understanding the socioeconomic differences of urban and camp-based refug pa ge 1 pa ge 29 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) the impact of brand capital on the stock price crash risk, an empirical study mustafa m. alsomaidaee1*, ahmed a. mahmood al janabi2, rusul salman neamah2 volume 2 issue 1, year 2023 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v2i1.1808 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: june 29, 2023 accepted: july 23, 2023 published: july 30, 2023 the factors influencing the financial market are rapidly becoming more complex. the impact of non-financial factors on the performance of a company’s common stock can increase in ways that were not previously expected. this study investigated how brand capital affects the risk of stock prices in iraqi private banks listed on the iraq stock exchange failing by identifying the likelihood of a crash caused by a negative deviation in the distribution of returns on ordinary shares. as a result, the current study’s concept is to review an analytical knowledge framework of the nature of that relationship, its changes, and its impact on the pricing of ordinary shares of the banks of the researched sector for the years 2009 to 2017, as well as by the 21 banks listed during that time and by the 588 observations using the expanded market model to determine quarterly changes in stock prices. in addition to testing the negative coefficient of skewness and the down-to-up volatility models to test the contribution of brand capital in reducing the risk of stock collapse, the test results showed that brand capital is closely related to the significant and adverse risks of a stock crash. additionally, the first’s impact is inverse, as its content highlights the role that the research sample banks’ brand capital played in lowering the dangers of stock price crashes. keywords brand, brand capital, common stock, iraq, stock crash risk 1 imamaladham university college, iraq 2 ministry of higher education and scientific research, iraq * corresponding author’s e-mail: mustafa.alsomaidaee@gmail.com introduction marketing, beyond tangible elements and brand capital, has not received sufficient attention from modern economic literature, particularly in the arabic context. moreover, its partial and overall effects on industry structure, productivity, and overall outputs have been poorly identified in studies. for the most part, due to technical reasons, the most surprising aspect was the explicit neglect of the brand. previously, the concept of brand capital was limited to the responsibilities of marketing executives only. however, this concept has evolved to include the added value it brings beyond the physical value of a product that can be observed or felt by two parties: the first being the customer through their behavior and culture towards a particular brand, and the second being the company considering its brand as a financial existence and a capital value in addition to its visible profits as one of the important intangible assets of the company. it must be emphasized here that brand capital plays a vital role in unleashing the business potentials of the company through expanding its market share, fostering customer loyalty, increasing stakeholder engagement, retaining talented employees, attracting investments, and differentiating the company and its products in the market. brand capital is one of the essential elements for the success of any company or product in the marketplace. it represents the economic and social value of the brand and the competitive advantages it provides. this kind of capital represents the economic and commercial value of a brand in a competitive market. brand capital is composed of various factors such as the brand itself, intellectual property, customer relationships, reputation, and financial and human resources. brand capital is measured based on the strength of the brand and its ability to attract and retain customers. previous studies, including the study by (hasan et al., 2022; hussain et al., 2020; mousa et al., 2021; k. wang & jiang, 2019) indicate that brand capital has a significant impact on the competitiveness and sustainability of companies, with benefits flowing into growth, profitability, and market value. the study by (qashi & sufyan, 2015) strategically presented brand capital as a crucial element when entering markets, especially international markets. additionally, (ariff et al., 2016; hall, 2001; setiadharma & machali, 2017) suggests that the value of any company is reflected in the value of its tangible capital stock, such as machinery, facilities, and internal and external branches, as well as the value of the intangible capital stock, such as employee skills, brand name, and customer base. it is worth mentioning that intangible capital can be described as an important component of a company’s overall value in the stock market, and its significance has greatly increased in recent decades. therefore, understanding the impact of intangible capital on company performance is an important question that can help us understand the economic determinants of stock values in that market (gamayuni, 2015). the previous author mentioned indicates that financial markets take into account the brand equity of all companies in their regular stock valuations. similarly, (gourio & rudanko, 2014) showed that companies with a higher concentration of brand capital in the minds of consumers and clients have a higher average stock return than companies with a lower density of brand capital. (cui et al., 2018; hsu et al., 2013) found that brand reputation has a positive impact on stock returns and trading volume. consistent pa ge 30 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(2) 29-36, 2023 with what has been mentioned, investor sentiment has a positive effect on stock returns while having a negative impact on the trading volume of those stocks, leading to their collapse compared to their counterparts from other companies. the negative investor sentiment decreases positively in response to the impact of brand reputation on stock returns, but it increases negatively due to the influence of brand reputation on low trading volume stocks, which may exacerbate the pace of this decline towards collapse. this may be attributed to the effect of brand reputation and investor emotions on the performance of stocks across companies with different brand values. this phenomenon is more pronounced in companies with high brand values compared to companies with relatively low brand values. meanwhile, the same study confirms that the negative impact of investor sentiment on stock trading volume is lower in companies with high brand value, highlighting the importance of building brand reputation to improve stock performance and avoid future collapses. in the current paper, we examine the impact of brand capital on the stock price crash risk in the iraqi stock exchange for the period from 2009 to 2017 on a quarterly basis. a sample of banks listed on the iraqi stock exchange was selected to represent the research sample. literature review when there is an agreement between the brand’s perceived position and the customers’ purchase objectives for consumers (i.e., between what the company’s brand represents and what customers and consumers are looking for), the relationship between a brand’s perceived capital and the purchase of its products by customers and consumers emerges (o’rourke et al., 2022). consumers are more likely to pay more for a brand’s distinctive name than for products with a similar name (keller et al., 2011). as a result, brand capital is a useful input since it aids in growing consumer loyalty, enticing people to buy more, and other methods of raising sales for companies. as a result, brand capital may be described as an intangible asset that captures how knowledgeable consumers are about the products and services that are offered (arkolakis, 2010). according to (vitorino, 2014), brand capital can be defined as one of the company’s intangible and important assets, which summarizes the perception of customers and consumers of the company’s products and services and their insistence on acquiring them in the long term. because it increases consumer loyalty or first impressions, brand capital is a production component in the operating profit function of a company (foroudi et al., 2018). this helps companies grow sales. additionally, brand capital enables companies to set their products and services apart from those of rivals and is thus potentially advantageous. thus, it is a potential source of competitive advantage through its impact on cash flows (belo et al., 2014). brand capital is likely to have an impact on a company’s risk profile, which in turn affects its cost of capital and market capitalization (vomberg et al., 2015). as an intangible asset, the company’s brand capital is challenging to quantify. as a result, the value of the company’s shares as a result of its brand capital affects the company’s entire market value. additionally, brand capital influences the company’s overall risk and, consequently, the cost of capital through its effect on cash flows. brand capital is a significant production component since it boosts consumer loyalty, clarity, trustworthiness, quality, and mutual pleasure between the two parties, all of which help to increase sales (pillai, 2012) . therefore, through its effect on cash flows, brand capital is expected to affect companies’ default risk and their market prices (fischer & himme, 2017). the financial crisis that happened worldwide in the last decade of the twenty-first century had its roots in the financial liberalization policies that many large economies, like the united states of america, for example, had adopted. some of these policies’ outcomes included high capital flows across national borders, which exposed the economies of some nations to weaknesses that led to the occurrence of negative pressure on the capital markets (al-nuaimi, 2021). numerous studies, such as (kabir, 2023; moritz et al., 2015; sivaramakrishnan et al., 2017), show that customer interactions in the product market have an impact on investment choices made in financial markets, which has an impact on stock prices in those markets as a result. companies that invest in brand capital typically have unusual earnings and better profitability over the long term than their peers operating in the same sector due to the distinctive nature of some brands (lou, 2014). it was later found that companies that go public with high levels of publicity prior to their initial public offerings (ipos) are highly valued, both in initial public offerings and after direct sales (chemmanur & yan, 2017). in order to launch the company’s products and increase its market share, the brand’s capital is essential. this initial success has a big impact on the company’s competitiveness and long-term viability, which in turn affect the value of its shares on the financial market. over the past decade, evidence in the media has shown the importance of brand capital to companies’ financial performance and credibility and has indicated how the release of negative information about brands can affect share prices. for instance, facebook’s market value decreased by more than 100 billion dollars within days of the discovery that data analytics company cambridge analytica had secretly created social profiles of us residents using facebook data (tuttle, 2018). in the period from 2016 to 2018, those interested in many countries began to investigate the data of volkswagen, which proved the existence of tampering with diesel emissions devices in its manufactured vehicles, and as a result of this event, the company’s share price fell by about 33% of the real value of the share in the days that followed the issuance of this news. notably, there are additional elements that cannot be disregarded that both directly and indirectly influence stock values, such as (economic, political, etc. as a result, investors shift pa ge 31 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(2) 29-36, 2023 their funds and investments to other, more stable nations (tharshiga, 2013; utonga & ndoweka, 2023). according to the aforementioned, the risk of stock collapse is the ongoing occurrence of excessively negative returns on the stock’s value. the collapse of stock prices is a risk of the utmost importance for any investor and for any company due to its impact on the company’s decision-making and risk management, according to (dang et al., 2018). in the same vein, (j. kim & zhang, 2016) found that some businesses implemented a tax avoidance approach and hid unfavorable financial facts, which increased the risk to their stock prices. the theory of bad news hoarding (jin & myers, 2006), which is based on keeping negative news hidden from investors and other interested parties for as long as possible, up to the tipping point, should be included as one of the hypotheses relating to the dangers of a stock crash. due to the great value of the bad news relative to the gain received, the company is currently unable to conceal it. the company uses this approach to accomplish certain financial and strategic objectives (habib et al., 2018). we should address other explanations for the risks of the crash of stock prices, including the most important of which is the reaction of investors towards the fluctuations in stock prices and the risk of their crash in the financial market as a result of achieving negative distortions. in this context, it can be said that some factors affect the likelihood that stock prices will fall, including factors relating to the financial markets, factors affecting stock market competition, factors affecting the volume of trading, and factors that are closely related to the aforementioned “bad news hoarding theory”. withholding bad news increases the risk of a collapse in the share price of the company, which reduces the value of its brand (arianwuri et al., 2017; f. jiang et al., 2020). this is because it causes an increase in information asymmetry, which leads to an increase in short selling. in addition, the greater the negative skewness of the share’s return, the greater the risk of a collapse in the share price, which is reflected in the value of the company’s brand (de oliveira ribeiro, 2017). (qamouza, 2021) found determinants related to the company itself, including (audit quality, profit determination, financial analyst expectations, and the ambiguity of financial reports). the aforementioned leads us to the conclusion that the collapse of the stock price, which is defined as a rapid and drastic decrease in its prices, is an important subject in financial studies due to its influence on investment choices. as a result, there is an increasing number of specialized literatures in financial management that examines the causes and effects of the risk of stock price crash from many aspects. numerous studies have examined the correlation between administrative incentives, both moral and financial, to hide some bad news, tax evasion, a lack of financial transparency, and some characteristics given to the ceo (bayar et al., 2018; kim et al., 2011; wang, 2010). this includes excessive confidence, which creates significant risks that result in a crash in stock prices. based on the previous discussions and relying on (christodoulides et al., 2007) ideas in measuring brand capital, we propose the following hypotheses and sub-hypotheses: h01: brand capital has a negative effect on reducing the risk of crash stock prices in iraqi private banks. h01a: emotional connection has a negative effect on reducing the risk of crash stock prices in iraqi private banks. h01b: service response nature has a negative effect on reducing the risk of crash stock prices in iraqi private banks. h01c: trust has a negative effect on reducing the risk of crash stock prices in iraqi private banks. h01d: customer satisfaction has a negative effect on reducing the risk of crash stock prices in iraqi private banks. materials and methods capital markets in general suffer from continual dynamic changes and fluctuations for a variety of complicated causes, necessitating the need to understand the sources of these changes and strive to enhance the right reaction to them. and in the case where there are many causes of stock price changes and their potential effects, which may extend not only to the capital of the individual institution, but to the entire sector, the importance of researching arises from monitoring these changes and limiting them whenever possible. instrument we relied on multiple sources to gather the data. primarily, we relied on the annual reports and financial data issued by the iraqi securities commission (isc) as well as the iraq stock exchange (ise). on several occasions, we also reviewed the financial statements of the selected banks in the current study. unfortunately, we were unable to obtain the weekly closing prices of the stocks. therefore, we have opted for quarterly stock prices throughout the year. we relied on previous theories and measures to measure brand capital through a likert scale of five points (5 = fully agree, 0= fully disagree). all results of the stability, reliability, and internal consistency tests were acceptable and supportive. sampling and data collection the research population represents the listed companies in the iraq stock exchange for the period between 2009 and 2017, totalling 105 companies distributed across 9 diverse sectors. the banking sector was chosen as a purposive sample for the research, consisting of 21 banks out of a total of 46 banks within the overall sector. this decision was made due to various reasons, including the fact that some banks were listed in the market during the specified time period. additionally, there were difficulties in accessing monthly data for some other banks due to various reasons, such as undisclosed financial reports and suspension of trading for different periods. thus, the sample represented (45.6%) of the total banking sector, pa ge 32 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(2) 29-36, 2023 (20%) of the total companies listed in the market, and the total number of views was (588) views on a quarterly basis per year. a variety of sources were relied upon to obtain the data, the most important of which were the iraqi securities commission, the iraq stock exchange, and the financial reports published on the websites of some banks included in the study sample. the private iraqi banking sector was chosen as the field of study based on the following justifications: (1) the banking sector is considered a vital component in the development and revival of the iraqi economy. (2) investing in the banking sector is highly risky and subject to future uncertainties. (3) providing detailed financial data about it enriches the analytical research aspect. variables and measures the role of brand capital in lowering the risk of a stock crash is examined using the extended market model for regression analysis in order to test and analyze the main research hypothesis, and the two models; negative coefficient of skewness and down-to-up volatility (ncskew and duvol) are used to measure the stock price crash risk within the environment of the studied sector. share price movements were calculated on a quarterly basis for each company based on the research period from 2009 to 2017. according to (callen & fang, 2015; hutton et al., 2009; jiang et al., 2022; wang & jiang, 2019), and, the extended market model was used for regression analysis: r𝑗,𝜏 = α + β1 rmkt,𝜏 −2 + β2 rmkt,𝜏 −1 + β3 rmkt,𝜏 + β4 rmkt,𝜏 +1 + β5 rmkt,𝜏 +2 + ε𝑗,𝜏 (1) where r_(i,𝜏) represents the quarterly returns per share according to the value of growth in the market, while r_ mkt represents the return of the iraq stock exchange index according to the search time period, while ε𝑗,𝜏 represents the remainder (error coefficient) of the equation, which is expected to be highly skewed, which necessitates convert it to an approximately symmetric form by adding the natural logarithm of 1 to it: dj=ln(1+ϵj,t) (2) the negative coefficient of skewness method, also known as ncskew, and the down-to-up volatility approach, also known as duvol, were used to calculate the risk of stock crash. with regard to the first approach (ncskew), it bases its analysis on comparing returns with negative values to those with positive ones. as a result, the skewness is transformed into a symmetric distribution by raising its standard deviation values to the third power (3) and as in the formula below ( kim et al., 2016; zhang, 2010): nskew𝑗,= − n (n − 1)3/2∑w3 𝑗, 𝜏 / (n − 1) (n − 2) (∑w2 𝑗,𝜏 ) 3/2 (3) where w (j,t) denotes the quarterly stock returns of the company for the given time period (n). with regard to the second method (duvol), the stock returns are split into two groups: the group that includes returns with values that are less than the average returns for the period (nu), and the group that includes returns with values that are higher than the average (nd), after which the value of volatility is calculated. using the natural logarithm of the deviation between the lower and higher sections as determined by the following equation: duvoli,k= log { (nu−1)∑downw2 i,s / (nd−1)∑upw2 i,s} (4) brand capital measurements ranged from those that concentrated on financial data (advertising and promotional expenditure items), as in (hasan et al. 2022: 7233), to those that concentrated on the exteriors of the establishments, particularly those that gave a greater perception of the brand awareness or association with it by outsiders. a series of sub-dimensions, including emotional connection (ec), service response nature (srn), trust (tr), and customer satisfaction (cs), were used to measure brand capital according to (christodoulides et al., 2007). descriptive statistics the descriptive statistics data for the search variables are shown in table (1). it is evident from this data that the research sample companies’ average share price was (1.04) dinars, while the highest share price for the same period was (6.1) dinars, which was the share price of dar al salam bank for the year 2010. the chart also displays the brand capital variable’s high arithmetic averages fell between (4,412 and 4,550), with the variable’s overall average coming in at (4,470). table 1: descriptive statistics no. variable sample mean sd skewness lower values higher values 1 nskew 588 -0.001 0.020 0.189 -0.04 0.09 2 duvol 588 -0.403 3.918 -2.112 -0.89 0.67 3 ec 40 4.460 0.805 2.952 1 5 4 srn 40 4.412 0.758 2.818 1 5 5 tr 40 4.550 0.751 3.195 1 5 6 cs 40 4.450 0.881 2.841 1 5 correlation analysis according to table (2), which displays the pearson method’s correlation between the search variables, the majority of the correlations between the stock price crash risk according to the two methods (ncskew) and (duvol) and the brand capital were inverse, meaning that brand promotion, the strength of its spread, and the depth of customer awareness of the brand lower the risk of crashing share prices of study sample companies. greater customer happiness with banks in general lowers pa ge 33 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(2) 29-36, 2023 the probability of a decrease in their common stock values, according to the (ncskew) method’s strongest negative correlation between customer satisfaction (cs) and the likelihood of a crash in stock prices. the emotional connection (ec) and the danger of stock price crashes for the research sample banks had the strongest negative association, as measured by the (duvol) technique. last but not least, the correlation between the two approaches to estimating the probability of a stock crash was found to be positive and substantial, highlighting the similarities between the approaches. table 2: correlation analysis variable ncskew duvol ec srn tr cs ncskew r pearson 1 sig -duvol r pearson 0.300** 1 sig 0.000 -ec r pearson -0.233 -0.0168 1 sig 0.148 0.199 -srn r pearson -0.219 -0.155 0.927** 1 sig 0.174 0.339 0.000 -tr r pearson -0.235 -0.125 0.917** 0.941** 1 sig 0.144 0.442 0.000 0.000 -cs r pearson -0.318 -0.159 0.926** 0.940** 0.924** 1 sig 0.051 0.328 0.000 0.000 0.000 -hypothesis testing tables (3) and (4) summarize the results of analyzing the main research hypothesis as well as the sub-hypotheses according to the two methods (negative torsion coefficient ncskew) and (volatility from bottom to top duvol). the strength of the regression model is demonstrated by the fact that the determination coefficient (r2) value was high in both situations (ncskew: r2=0.586) and (duvol: r2 = 0.805). according to the (ncskew) and (duvol) methods, the stock price crash risk explains a total of (59%) and (81%) of the changes in brand capital, respectively. the remaining explanatory factors are left to variables and factors that were not examined in the current study. according to the (duvol) method, the relationship between confidence and the stock price crash risk had the highest negative regression coefficient value of (-0.761), table 3: regression model analysis (ncskew) ncskew dimensions β std. error t sig. emotional connection -0.142 0.477 -1.982 0.040 service response -0.182 0.562 -2.462 0.032 trust -0.200 0.436 -4.480 0.000 customer satisfaction -0.214 0.666 -2.500 0.002 r 0.765 r2 0.586 f 13.075 sig. 0.000 table 4: regression model analysis (duvol) duvol dimensions β std. error t sig. emotional connection -0.484 0.207 -2.335 0.025 service response -0.632 0.221 -2.885 0.007 trust -0.761 0.139 -5.459 0.000 customer satisfaction -0.643 0.220 -2.890 0.006 r 0.897 r2 0.805 f 38.080 sig. 0.000 pa ge 34 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(2) 29-36, 2023 whereas the highest negative value in the (ncskew) method was for the slope customer satisfaction, which had a negative value of (-0.214). since more negative values contributed to the regression model, it is evident that the results of the (duvol) approach appear to be more significant. results and discussion these results indicate, in their content, the rationality of the scientific proposal on which the research was based, which was based on the fact that the relationship between the capital of the brand and the share prices of the banks in the research sample depends on what the company offers to its customers and society mostly through the volume of emotional connection, response to services, trust, customer satisfaction, and the extent of reflection of this on their shares and vice versa. thus, the strength of the relationship between the two variables increases to greater extents when the brand value of the research sample companies increases, which is accompanied by an increase in the value of the share to greater limits, in exchange for a greater decrease in the risk of their prices crashing. descriptive statistics show sharp changes in the stock prices of the banks in the research sample, implying that they face the stock price crash risk in various quantities. it is also clear from the descriptive statistics that the shares of the banks in the research sample fell significantly between 2014 and 2017, a period marked by security failures that had a significant impact on the movement of the commercial and financial markets alike. the research data revealed a considerable delay in responding to the research sample banks’ periodic financial disclosure obligations, which resulted in repeated practices of suspending and restarting trade. in contrast to the smaller group of banks in the research sample, the majority of the banks surveyed are still experiencing a decline in the value of their market shares for a variety of reasons, including those mentioned above, as well as instructions from the iraqi central bank requiring banks to increase their capital to much higher levels than are currently in place. the variables (emotional connection and trust) displayed a larger inverse correlation with the risk of the stock price collapse, implying that strengthening and caring for them reduces the chance of stock price collapse. the brand’s capital has reduced the risk of the collapse of stock prices for the time period specified in the research, according to the negative skewness method of returns. this favorable result is attributed to the beneficiaries’ level of satisfaction with the aforementioned banks to the greatest degree, followed by their confidence in the brand. in accordance with the volatility method of low to high, brand capital has also decreased the stock price crash risk for the time period specified in the research, which is also attributed to the beneficiaries’ trust in the banks’ brands in the research sample to a higher degree than their satisfaction with it. according to the findings, the levels of customer satisfaction with the services offered by the research sample banks, along with higher levels of confidence in them, contributed the most to lowering the risks of the collapse of stock values. due to the additional defenses, it helped to provide against the dangers of stock price fluctuations and the potential for their collapse, as well as the failure of the bank as a whole in the end, this strengthened the brand capital of such banks. in the iraqi business environment, marketing efforts and campaigns are crucial issues. the private banking sector in iraq is still in its early stages and has faced numerous failures. this necessitates further marketing initiatives aimed at enhancing trust in banks and establishing their brand in the minds of customers. it is expected that customers’ interests will eventually shift from ordinary depositors to shareholders in private iraqi banks, especially with the accelerated development of the stock market. until then, which may be very soon, customers will look forward to gaining a deeper understanding of private bank activities, reviewing financial statements, and consequently making investment decisions. leading branded banks will attract the interest of new investors. new shareholders will also be reassured by the ability to handle risks, including the risk of stock price crash, based on the strength of the brand and customer trust. we focus on the importance of enhancing relationships with current and potential customers based on current research findings that have shown that customer trust and emotional connection to the brand are key factors in mitigating stock price risks. even in cases where customers will not turn into shareholders, their opinion about banks will be of great importance to potential investors. some newly established banks have managed to strengthen their brand through smart and effective advertising and promotion campaigns, along with their unique and distinctive services. so far, it continues to achieve outstanding performance and unique growth levels. we conclude here that the iraqi business environment is uniquely attractive. it is certain that outstanding players will get a larger share of opportunities. however, this would not be sufficient unless it is linked to the sustainability of the brand strength. conclusion in this study, we discussed the impact of brand capital on reducing the risks of stock price crashes in iraqi banks. we relied on a range of theories and previous discussions on measuring brand capital as well as the risks of stock price crashes. according to the study data, there are significant problems with the performance of iraqi banks. we attribute the causes of these problems to security issues and government measures aimed at reducing money laundering activities. it was not possible to select all private banks, for several reasons, including the fact that some of those banks were recently established and listed in the stock market during the timeframe chosen for testing in the current study. despite the exclusion of control variables due to a lack of financial data, it pa ge 35 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(2) 29-36, 2023 is evident that the brand capital of the iraqi banks is a significant contributor to reducing the risks of stock prices crashing. emotional connection and customer trust were the most important factors that enhanced the power of the brand’s capital. there is a greater importance for sustaining and continuously strengthening that relationship. we emphasize the need to enhance customer relationship management activities because the iraqi business environment is volatile and subject to constant drastic changes, which requires extra efforts to maintain good customer relationships. the study stresses the value of releasing financial reports and statements on banks’ and listed companies’ websites in general, given their significance to both investors and researchers. despite the fact that the security failures between 2014 and 2017 were unexpected and had a significant impact, the inability of some banks to resume their operations has been attributed to poor risk management practices, including forecasting and how to deal with them. the unique services provided by banks lead to higher levels of satisfaction among the beneficiaries, thus enhancing the brand’s capital, increasing its reputation and perception, and improving its overall intangible assets. as a result, it ultimately increases their ability to withstand the risks of market fluctuations or the crash of common stock prices. naturally, the current study was not without limitations. one of the most significant limitations we encountered was the difficulty of finding up-to-date and consistent data in one place. one of the difficulties we also faced is the lack of customer-related data, such as customer volume, 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(2010). high-frequency trading, stock volatility, and price discovery. available at ssrn 1691679. pa ge 1 pa ge 50 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) market feasibility and strategies for the environment-friendly bricks in bangladesh: a learning from the southern part of bangladesh md. abu shahen1* volume 3 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v3i1.2763 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: june 01, 2024 accepted: june 30, 2024 published: july 03, 2024 this paper tried to assess the market feasibility and potential strategies for environmentally friendly bricks in southern bangladesh. to assess the feasibility, the researcher used a mixed-methods approach. a total of 120 respondents were interviewed, including customers, entrepreneurs, wholesalers, masons, and laborers. the paper found that 85% of respondents were familiar with eco-friendly products, with 85% prioritizing them when buying. they prioritize product quality and price, with bricks being the most expensive. most respondents believed eco-friendly construction materials were sustainable, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly. however, sales of burnt bricks decreased compared to the previous year, with 30% selling 40000 pieces of bricks last year. this paper also found a growing interest in using environmentally friendly building materials, with hollow blocks being more popular. most enterprises invested on average 225,000 bdt, with an average monthly income of 17,800 bdt. most respondents had eight male workers, with 80% not having female workers. moreover, the study found some market management problems, including lower prices, low capital, and lack of digital marketing issues. keywords brick, eco-friendly, sustainable, marketing 1 university of rajshahi, bangladesh * corresponding author’s e-mail: shahen.sw@gmail.com introduction the major problem that the world is facing today is environmental pollution. in the construction industry, mainly, producing ordinary portland cement will cause the emission of pollutants, which results in environmental pollution. the emission of carbon dioxide during the production of ordinary portland cement is tremendous because the production of one ton of portland cement emits approximately one ton of co2 into the atmosphere. one of the biggest threats to the world is climate change, which is the result of greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere, primarily co2. the world’s condition is rapidly deteriorating, and if people don’t start taking eco-friendly actions, it will grow much worse. buildings and other structures use up to 40% of all energy. the number could only be decreased by making the buildings eco-structures or by utilizing a greening concept. ecostructuring, which benefits people, the community, the environment, and the builder, increases sustainability. a structure must be tailored to the local conditions, environment, culture, and community in order to consume fewer resources. eco-friendly building materials help to enhance the environment by using 35% less energy, 35% less co2 emissions, 70% less waste output, and 40% less water. because eco-structuring protects the environment, people, and economic development, it is the area of architecture that concerns architects today the most. as the world’s population continues to grow, so does the need for housing. according to escap/ripem/ cib, 25% of the world’s population has no fixed abode, while 50% of the urban population lives in slums. a quote from the un commission on human settlements further buttresses this point: in the last few decades, shelter conditions have been worsening and housing demand has risen; therefore, the urgency to provide an immediate practical solution has become more acute. given this perceived problem, many developing countries are formulating and implementing national shelter strategies based on the global strategy for shelter. the central premise of the global strategy is the adoption of an enabling approach whereby the full potential and resources of the actors in the shelter production and improvement process are mobilized, but the final decision on how to house themselves is left to the people concerned. the strategy acknowledges building materials as one of the principal physical resources in the production and improvement of shelter. it also identifies several priority action areas to support local production and use of indigenous building materials; these include the promotion of technological innovations, the introduction of appropriate technologies, and local capacity building in small-scale enterprises. to this end, earth has been used as a cheap building material for thousands of years in all parts of the world. its relatively new product is sand crete blocks, but the high cost of sharp river sand and cement has made its use prohibitive. bricks have not helped to provide a suitable alternative, as the increasing processing cost and the attendant high laying cost as compared to blocks have made brick a less viable alternative material. recently, cement-stabilized laterite hollow blocks molded at a compactifying pressure of 13.76 n/mm2 with 7% cement content have been found to have suitable strength and durability and are 40% cheaper than equivalentquality sand-crate hollow blocks. there is therefore a need to explore further into this area of stabilization of pa ge 51 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 50-58, 2024 local laterite since laterite possesses sufficient cohesion and, when improved by the addition of a suitable binder agent and given adequate compaction, gives rise to blocks cheaper than sand crete blocks. moreover, the purpose of this paper is to explore the nature of promoting ecofriendly building materials and educate people about them. another purpose of this paper is to discuss how to increase product sales by promoting or marketing the use of environmentally friendly products. eco-friendly construction materials are feasible it is crucial to consider various aspects highlighted in the literature to evaluate the market feasibility of eco-friendly construction materials. studies have demonstrated that the construction industry has been exploring the utilization of eco-friendly materials such as recycled aggregates from construction and demolition waste (reis et al., 2021). these materials have been successfully applied in projects involving concrete, mortar, eco-friendly concrete blocks, and geopolymer synthesis, showcasing their versatility and potential in sustainable construction practices. however, researchers have utilized the theory of planned behavior to predict the construction of eco-friendly houses, highlighting the importance of adopting eco-friendly architecture as a solution to environmental challenges (k & sia, 2022). government regulations and incentives in regions like europe have bolstered the development of green composites and the integration of new eco-friendly materials, indicating a growing trend toward sustainability in construction (vázquez-neez et al., 2021). moreover, identified challenges in increasing the use of eco-friendly construction materials include the lack of centralized information on these materials, making it challenging for stakeholders to access comprehensive data on types, prices, standards, and environmental impacts (wang et al., 2019). government policies, rather than market demands, have influenced the technology roadmap for eco-friendly building materials, highlighting the role of governmental initiatives in driving innovation in this sector (shim et al., 2019). research has also concentrated on developing decision support models for eco-friendly material selection, aiming to enhance decision-making processes for building owners and designers, particularly in regions like vietnam (pham et al., 2020). moreover, moon et al. (2020) have emphasized the significance of government roles in promoting eco-friendly construction technologies and products, indicating a collaborative effort to encourage sustainable practices in the construction industry. regulatory support, technological advancements, consumer attitudes, and government interprecisely precisely shape eco-friendly construction materials market feasibility. the construction industry can transition towards more sustainable practices by leveraging recycled aggregates, green composites, and innovative materials like geopolymers. government initiatives, decision support models, and consumer behavior studies play crucial roles in shaping the market landscape for ecofriendly construction materials. strategies for eco-friendly construction materials recent research findings suggest the implementation of various strategies to promote eco-friendly construction materials. researchers have identified using recycled aggregates from construction and demolition waste as a technically feasible and environmentally friendly approach (reis et al., 2021). additionally, incorporating eco-friendly materials like geopolymers, which repurpose waste into construction materials, can significantly contribute to sustainable construction practices (frangieh et al., 2022). furthermore, the use of plastic waste in fiber-reinforced concrete has shown promise in creating eco-friendly concrete for construction applications (suksiripattanapong et al., 2022). in terms of decisionmaking processes, studies have highlighted the importance of personal norms and attitudes in driving eco-friendly choices (han, 2014; sia & jose, 2019). researchers have applied the theory of planned behavior to predict the construction of eco-friendly houses, highlighting the influence of personal norms on behavior (k & sia, 2022). moreover, the development of decision support models for eco-friendly material selection can aid in choosing the best construction strategies (pham et al., 2020). factors such as sustainability, carbon reduction, and waste management must be considered to increase the adoption of eco-friendly construction materials. sustainable road pavements using eco-friendly cementitious materials have shown promise in reducing carbon emissions during construction (amakye et al., 2022). additionally, the development of green composites and the integration of new regulations to facilitate the use of ecofriendly materials can further promote sustainability in construction practices (vázquez-núñez et al., 2021). shortly, by leveraging recycled aggregates, eco-friendly materials like geopolymer, and sustainable practices in material selection, the construction industry can make significant strides towards eco-friendly construction. incorporating personal norms, attitudes, and decision support models can further enhance the adoption of sustainable construction materials, contributing to a greener and more environmentally conscious construction sector. bangladesh context to evaluate the market feasibility and strategies for introducing environmentally friendly bricks in bangladesh, it is crucial to consider various aspects such as consumer behavior, market orientation, and policy frameworks. bangladesh boasts a significant brick production industry, with over 7,000 brick kilns producing nearly 23 billion bricks annually (peris et al., 2020). understanding consumer behavior towards eco-friendly products, as highlighted in studies on environmentally concerned consumer behavior in different regions, can guide marketing strategies for promoting environmentally friendly bricks (kautish & dash, 2017). moreover, the presence of the green banking policy in bangladesh emphasizes the importance of sustainable financial practices, which can support businesses in adopting eco-friendly approaches pa ge 52 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 50-58, 2024 (iqbal et al., 2021). in terms of market segmentation and consumer perception, studies like “green segmentation: an application to the portuguese consumer market” shed light on consumer awareness of environmental issues and the translation of concerns into behavior (paço & raposo, 2009). additionally, research on factors influencing the buying intention of organic products in bangladesh emphasizes the significance of consumer trust in influencing purchase decisions (sumi & kabir, 2018). this underscores the importance of building trust and credibility when introducing environmentally friendly bricks to the market. from a product development perspective, exploring sustainable building materials like compressed stabilized earth blocks (csebs) can offer viable alternatives for eco-friendly construction practices (sapna, 2023). furthermore, utilizing industrial waste materials for non-fired brick production, as discussed in studies on non-fired building blocks using industrial wastes, can contribute to a cleaner environment and a sustainable society (islam et al., 2022). policy initiatives such as green banking and local strategies for climate resilience, as highlighted in “green banking for environmental management: a paradigm shift” and “local strategies to build climate resilient communities in bangladesh,” respectively, provide a supportive environment for promoting eco-friendly initiatives (tara et al., 2015; amir, 2021). these policies can complement market strategies and consumer preferences, creating a conducive ecosystem for the adoption of environmentally friendly bricks in bangladesh. a comprehensive approach that considers consumer behavior, market orientation, policy frameworks, and sustainable product development is crucial for successfully introducing environmentally friendly bricks in bangladesh. by aligning market strategies with environmental goals and leveraging existing policies and consumer trends, businesses can capitalize on the growing demand for sustainable construction materials in the country. materials and methods this article tried to assess the market feasibility and potential strategies for environmentally friendly bricks in the southern part of bangladesh. however, the market survey team developed an appropriate methodology (most preferably, a mixed-method approach) to meet the objectives of the assignment. the methodology included a statistically reliable and acceptable sampling method and estimation, an appropriate study method, and so on. the methodology and relevant instruments and tools were adjusted and finalized in consultation with the research team. however, the researchers used innovative ideas where needed in the scope of the assignment. the following methodology and research tools were applied, but were not limited to, during the study: a) a survey of the targeted respondents; b) interviews with key stakeholders; c) fgd with the customers, entrepreneurs, wholesellers, masons, and labor. a total of 120 respondents (customers, entrepreneurs, whole sellers, masons, and labors) were interviewed with an interview schedule. a total of four key informants were interviewed to fulfil the research objectives. moreover, two fgd sessions with the respondents were conducted in the research area. it is worth mentioning that to analyses the quantitative data, the researcher used spss version 22 software. results and discussion scenario of bricks production burnt bricks are mainly produced throughout the country, as they have done in bagerhat, and most of the time, the producers and the associates do not properly maintain the rules and regulations while producing and marketing. one of the key informants, md. kamarujjaman sarkar, deputy director, doe, bagerhat, stated, “the bangladesh government has some rules and regulations regarding brick production. but not a single brick production company maintains those policies over bangladesh and here as well.” md. sarkar also quoted some of the rules and regulations, e.g., no individual can cut earth from ponds, canals, marshes, creeks, lakes, rivers, wetlands, sandbars, or other areas without permission from appropriate authorities; wood cannot be used to fuel brick kilns; coal containing excess amounts of sulphur, ash, mercury, or other such materials cannot be used for brick burning fuel; and bricks and brick-making materials cannot be transported to and from the brickfield by road without the permission of a local government engineering department, upazila authorities, union authorities, or village authorities. however, almost all the key informants claimed that “the owners of brick production factories do not maintain the rules and regulations properly, which are needed to be maintained.” along with executive engineer, pwd, bagerhat, claimed, “those who produce bricks do not give enough importance to the environment while producing bricks. they do whatever they need to do to conduct their business.” besides this, there is no authority to look into the mismanagement of this sector. according to another key informant chairman of bagerhat sadar, “no government office or offices are made responsible for following up on this sight. actually, this sector remains unsupervised by the government.” bricks production and environmental pollution brick kilns are recognized as one of the largest stationary sources of black carbon, which, along with iron and steel production, contributes to 20% of total black carbon emissions. “definitely, the conventional brick production system causes harm to the environment. the vast majority of kilns use outdated, energy-intensive technologies that are highly polluting. this leads to harmful impacts on health, agricultural yields, and global warming,” stated nirmol kumar kundu, upazila engineer, lgd, bagerhat sadar. bricks are made for construction. but the country’s brick kilns are churning out the basic ingredients for construction in a way that is doing more harm than good. md.abu jafar siddik, executive engineer, pwd, pa ge 53 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 50-58, 2024 bagerhat, claimed, “the bricks field owners have been burning bricks with firewood. as a result, many trees like keora, ‘chaila’, sundari, mehgini, bain, etc. are being felled indiscriminately. the dishonest brick field owners collect the firewood from different forests with the help of their agents, which is destroying the ecosystem.” another informant, md.mohitur rahman, chairmen, bagerhat sadar, stated, “as a huge amount of soil is used for brick production and topsoil is being cut, it spoils the productivity of the soil for agricultural use in extreme cases.” all the key informants claimed that “brick kilns cause serious environmental pollution like air pollution, soil pollution, deforestation, etc.” opinions about environmentally friendly building materials bangladesh now makes environment-friendly materials for building multi-stored structures. eco-friendly building materials are built with consideration for the natural environment. they are designed and constructed to conserve natural resources, produce less waste and emissions, and utilize sustainable materials that have been ethically sourced. md. kamarujjaman sarkar, deputy director, doe, bagerhat, stated, “to reduce the intensity of harm to the environment by these factories, eco-friendly construction materials can be an alternative to this.” eco-friendly, all-natural products ensure safety from all dangerous chemicals and allow families to avoid risky additives that can cause harm. using eco-friendly products improves quality of life regarding mortality, age, diseases, and illnesses. they ensure the safety of families and the planet as well. md.abu jafar siddik, executive engineer, pwd, bagerhat, stated, “ecofriendly products promote green living that helps to conserve energy and also prevent air, water, and noise pollution.” however, more or less all the key informants claimed that “eco-friendly construction materials can be an alternative to conventional bricks, which will not pollute the environment to that extent. they also claimed these materials were largely earthquake-resistant, which will help reduce environmental pollution as well as cut construction costs.” possibility of creating a market for eco bricks all the key informants opined that there is a huge opportunity to create a market for eco-friendly construction materials. the government of bangladesh has announced the use of 100% eco-friendly building materials in every government project by 2025. however, the informants mentioned some of the ways to create a market for eco-friendly construction materials. • if quality can be ensured, a market for eco-bricks or hollow blocks, like conventional bricks, will be automatically created. • to create a market, the general public should be informed about these materials, made aware of the environment, and convinced of the importance of these eco-friendly construction materials. • if every government project makes it mandatory to use eco-friendly construction materials, it will be easy to reach the market. • if the price of these items is made comparatively reasonable compared to normal bricks, it will help create a market, and definitely a vast promotion is required. • bangladeshi and multinational companies are needed to produce environment-friendly building materials. more or less all the informants opined that they were interested in using eco-friendly construction materials, but the quality and price of the materials were the most influential factors in their use, according to them. all of them made similar statements. “if these eco-friendly construction materials are quality products, then we will prioritize them. as the government has already made a policy to use 30% efcm in government projects, we definitely have to use it.” moreover, the research team is talking with the customers who already use hollow or solid blocks. talking to them, the research team also got to know that customer satisfaction is good; they also said that people don’t want to buy because it is a new product and there is no competitive market. along with this, the research team also interviewed brunt brick labor and efcm manufacturing labor. the main benefits of manufacturing hollow blocks are labor safety and better mental health. the brunt of brick labor is facing many health problems. they said then they worked in the brunt brick, and black smoke entered their noses and mouths. also, many problems arise in their bodies due to the heat of the brick kiln. meanwhile, the laborers who manufacture efcm products do not face this kind of problem. they are making the bricks in the machine. cost analysis between two types of bricks for hollow block (1 month) cost indicators total (bangladeshi currency) labor cost (1 month) 15000 electricity (1 month) 1000 rent (1 month) 2000 guard (1 month) 3000 raw materials (total 1-month production raw materials) fine sand (246 bale) 7380 coarse sand (246 bale) 7380 dust (246 bale) 6150 nuri stone (246 bale) 12300 cement (246 bale) 131760 total cost 185970 with this material, the total hollow block production is 5400 pcs cost of production 1 piece = 185970 /5400 =35 taka per piece production. selling price of 1 piece = 50 taka pa ge 54 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 50-58, 2024 total selling price = 5400*50 =270,000 benefits =270,000 – 185970 =84030 per piece benefits =15.56 taka for solid block (1 month) total solid block production is 22140 pcs with the same materials. cost of production 1 piece = 185970 /22140 = 9 taka per piece production. selling price of 1 piece = 12 taka total selling price = 22140*12 =265,680 benefits =265,680 – 185970 =79,710 taka per piece benefits =3.60 taka benefit difference is 15.56-3.60 =11.96 taka we all want the structures we construct to be long-lasting. table 1: comparison between burn brick and eco-block indicator brunt brick eco-bricks strength brunt bricks have a less compressive strength (1500 psi). eco-block has a higher compressive strength (2400 psi). price price of brunt brick is high (15\16). price of eco bricks is less. hollow block is (50) and solid block (12). stability brunt bricks are not stable, workable, and long-lasting. eco-bricks are more stable, workable, and long-lasting. waterproof capacity eco-bricks have better waterproofing capacities. eco-bricks have better waterproofing capacities. temperature less temperature holding capacity. high temperature holding capacity. environment brunt bricks is harmful for environment. eco-bricks is environment friendly. source: hbri report 2022 individuals always desire to make material selections that are both extremely strong and most suited to their budget. concrete and traditional red bricks are two materials that can be used as building blocks because of their strength and durability. red bricks and concrete blocks differ greatly from one another since they are made of totally different materials. based on the characteristics of building block materials, the next section will describe the main distinctions between concrete blocks and red bricks. strength in tension and compression an essential physical quality of materials used as building blocks is compressive strength. compared to red bricks, concrete blocks have a higher compressive strength. this is so that concrete blocks can withstand greater compressive pressure during manufacturing. construction cost the cost of construction is at the top of the priority list of all property owners. people want to build the most durable structure at the lowest price possible. to build a house with hollow block construction, the cost is reduced a lot. the size of hollow block is 400mm*200mm*115m, and brunt brick is 9.9 inches * 4.4 inches * 2.75 inches. so, the construction cost is automatically lower because one hollow block is equal to five bricks. stability red bricks are substantially heavier than concrete blocks. hollow concrete blocks are more stable, workable, and long-lasting when compared to solid concrete blocks because of their lesser weight. moreover, hollow concrete blocks allow for layouts that are more earthquake-resistant than red bricks. in earthquake-prone areas, concrete blocks with higher compressive and tensile strengths are more stable. waterproof capacities another critical difference between concrete blocks and red brick is their waterproofing capabilities. builders prefer using concrete blocks in high-moisture and muddy locations because concrete blocks can repel water much better than traditional red bricks. if red bricks are exposed to damp weather, they can get damaged easily, and mold can form, compromising their quality. temperature insulation between red bricks and concrete blocks, thermal conductivity is a clear distinction. in hollow blocks, there is some whole so that in hot temperatures, the block does not heat up, so the room stays cool. environmental impact concrete blocks are manufactured using fly ash instead of stone aggregates. fly ash is a by-product of thermal plants. instead of dumping fly ash into the earth, which can make the soil toxic, researchers have figured out how to use fly ash to make concrete blocks. it reduces costs and strengthens the concrete blocks internally. with the advancement of technology, concrete blocks are now being produced with incredibly accurate machines that spit out identical-dimensional concrete blocks. so, pa ge 55 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 50-58, 2024 concrete blocks will always be cheaper than traditional red bricks. red bricks are considered harmful to the environment as they have a higher carbon footprint than concrete blocks. the manufacturing process involves the excavation of topsoil on earth that can deplete minerals from nature. furthermore, it creates a harmful impact on the environment while being manufactured at plants. market demand for hollow block and solid blocks from the market research and field observation data, we found that most people have knowledge about hollow blocks (48.6%) and solid blocks (20.5%). the research team found that 97.5 percent didn’t use eco-friendly construction materials before, while only 2.5% do. talking with the small and big entrepreneurs research team, we heard that when they start doing this business, their sales are not so high. they are trying very hard to sell their eco-bricks, but people are not showing any kind of interest, but now a day’s people are more aware than before. people come to visit their industry, and they show interest in buying eco-bricks in the future. some of the people have already started buying hollow or solid blocks for building their washrooms or cow shelters. they said that it is difficult to change people’s attitude towards burnt bricks, but slowly people understand, and market demand is increasing. taking it from the entrepreneurs, we know that people are showing interest in buying hollow and solid blocks, and they gave us some reasons for the increase in market demand for hollow and solid blocks. the size of the hollow block is very large. five bricks of brunt bricks equal one hollow block. the size of the hollow block is 400mm *200mm * 115mm, and the solid block is 240mm * 115mm * 76mm. so, the bricks are bigger than brunt bricks. so, building a house with hollow or solid blocks is much cheaper than using bricks. the price of brunt brick is 15 or 16 taka per piece, but the price of solid and hollow blocks is between 50 and 12 takas. so, people who want to make a house at a cheap rate first consider hollow blocks and think about buying hollow blocks. another major idea is to build demand for the block based on their load capacity. the load capacity of hollow blocks is 2400, and that of solid blocks is 1100. another major substance for building demand for hollow block and solid block is time-consuming. if a man can build a house with bricks within 3 months, then he can build a house with hollow or solid blocks in 2 months. for saving time and money, people prefer hollow blocks to solid blocks, and that’s why market demand has increased. the study discovered that the majority of the respondents, 97.5%, opined that they will use environmentally friendly building materials, while only 2.5% of respondents stated negatively that they believe these eco-friendly building materials are not sustainable. according to the findings of the study, 99.2% of the respondents would recommend their family and friends use these eco-friendly construction materials, while only 0.8% of the respondents stated negatively. so, it can be said that the demand in the market is increasing rapidly, and people are now starting to show interest in buying hollow block and solid block. marketing strategy of eco-friendly construction materials for improving sales and markets, a value marketing strategy is very important for any product. it makes the customers aware of your products or services, engages them, and helps them make a buying decision. marketing can help businesses increase brand awareness, engagement, and sales with promotional campaigns. no matter what area a business focuses on, they can take advantage of all the benefits marketing can offer and expand their reach. marketing is a valuable tool for growing businesses, but to stay competitive and maximize return on investment (roi), it’s important to approach marketing as a process and to use all the benefits it can provide. poster and banner distribution among people after collecting the information, ngos already know about people’s knowledge about efcm products. in which areas people are not getting enough knowledge, ngos need to promote themselves the most. after conducting the market survey, ngos already know what the actual condition of the market is and how much people know about this product. now in those areas, ngos need to emphasize promotional activities, and ngos will distribute leaflets, posters, and banners in those places. communication with developer company and contractor those who work with constructors must communicate regularly to convince them to tell their clients about ecofriendly concrete materials. clients should not use normal bricks. some gift or percentage on sale can be arranged for them so that they can increase the sales and use of these products and create a positive view about efcm products. linkage with external stakeholders ngos have already started communicating with external stakeholders. ngos have already communicated with pwd engineers and upazila engineers of lgd, and they assured us that if the quality of the blocks is good, they will use the efcm products and hollow blocks in government projects. ngos will interact with them more according to our marketing plan. product certification and standardization whereas the stakeholders said they are willingly interested in using the efcm product for the government project, ngos need to communicate with the stakeholders and convince them to maintain the quality of the product. so that they can sell the efcm products in governmentrelated projects. pa ge 56 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 50-58, 2024 facebook promotion and youtube promotion: ngos have already started posting facebook and youtube content video clips and uploading them to the channels. ngos are making videos of entrepreneurs and their products and uploading them to the channels. ngos are uploading new videos and content at regular intervals so that people’s interest builds and sales may increase. branding ngos have already created many slogans for branding and used those slogans in the posters. we are now trying to build a unique logo for the efcm product. it will help to understand why this product is unique from other products and make people interested in buying these products. workshops ngos are trying to organize a workshop or event very soon where all kinds of stakeholders and all types of people, including owners of small and big entrepreneurs, will be present. by doing this, people will see the product and know about its use and benefits, which will help our marketing strategies. use of environment-friendly blocks in the future the study discovered that the majority of the respondents, 97.5%, opined that they will use environmentally friendly building materials, while only 2.5% of respondents stated negatively that they believe these eco-friendly building materials are not sustainable. figure 1: use efcm in future recommend this product to friends or family according to the study’s findings, 99.2% of the respondents would recommend that their family and friends use these eco-friendly construction materials, while only 0.8% of the respondents stated negatively. hence, almost all customers would suggest to their family and friends that they use eco-friendly building materials. figure 2: recommend this product to friends or family figure 3: efcm scaling pa ge 57 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 50-58, 2024 the graph 3 provides some indicators regarding ecofriendly construction materials, including sustainability, cost-effectiveness, modern design, and environmental friendliness. however, the study revealed that half of the respondents firmly believe that eco-friendly construction materials are environmentally friendly, while 40% scaled it 9 out of 10. the majority of the respondents believe that efcms are sustainable on a different scale, while 16.7% firmly believe that efcms are sustainable. the study also revealed that in the case of modern design, more than half of the respondents’ efcm was 9 out of 10, suggesting that 56.7% of the respondents find it to be modern design. however, a large number of the respondents believe efcm is cost-effective. figure 4: steps are needed to create awareness about efcm the graph 4 provides some suggestions for promoting eco-friendly construction materials among customers. however, the study revealed that the majority of the respondents (16%) suggested raising public awareness through an awareness-raising campaign, and a similar portion (16%) opined promoting through posters and signboards, while a similar number of the respondents (11.2%) suggested making and leaflet distribution, respectively. however, the rest of the respondents suggested ensuring quality, convincing buyers, masson, government intervepromotion promotion cases, etc., for creating a better market for eco-friendly construction materials. conclusion bangladesh faces significant difficulties in controlling urbanization, growth, and development. it is essential to construct new environmentally friendly projects and restore current environmentally friendly structures, which will also lower prices in order to battle climate change, lower energy costs, and lessen our reliance on fossil fuels. we must abide by the eco-structure for our wellbeing in light of an increasing population. public-private partnerships can be used to achieve the objectives of eco-structure construction. if we accept the future and the changes it will bring, we can strike a balance between our lives and the environment, ourselves, and our way of living. although bangladesh will demographically become an urbanized nation in less than four decades, the shape of urbanization in the future is still unclear. one tends to feel anxious when one considers political and cultural linkages, the threat of climate change, and the crisis of governance at the national and urban local levels. we hope that within a few decades, despite the serious urbanization issue we are currently confronting, we will raise our children in an eco-friendly metropolis. acknowledgment the author is very grateful to all the respondents and associates who were very helpful in the data collection and preparing 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(2019). development of a green building materials integrated platform based on materials and resources in g-seed in south korea. sustainability, 11(23), 6532. https://doi.org/10.3390/ su11236532 pa ge 1 pa ge 6 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) hospital solid waste status: a case study of dosso mother and child health center (csme) in niger hassimi moussa1*, bachir yaou balarabe2, laminou manzo ousmane3, abdou harouna4, seydou tahirou5 volume 1 issue 2, year 2023 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v1i2.1069 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: december 13, 2022 accepted: december 29, 2022 published: january 08, 2023 thus, this study evaluated the solid waste management of the mother and child health center (csme) of dosso to contribute to its improvement. the approach involved conducting surveys and interviews, quantifying waste production, and analyzing how it is managed. according to the csme dosso hospital solid waste management analysis, all surface technicians were trained in hospital waste management, but 69% were illiterate. however, as part of this management, 51 bins of different capacities are set up for the entire establishment, including (18 bins with a capacity of 240 liters, 14 bins with 20 liters, and 19 small baskets with 10 liters). this characterization, based on both qualitative and quantitative measurements, indicates that dosso csme produces 167.63 kilograms of waste per day, 58.67 tons of waste per year, of which 72% is waste that is risk-free, primarily waste. approximately 28% of waste, including household waste and containing infectious, toxic, and anatomical risks, is at risk. the disposal of this produced waste is done either by burning, by landfilling, or by burial in pits dug without any standards. this management through these different stages constitutes a source of environmental impact. this analysis also shows that the dosso csme needs a waste management plan and an operational incinerator, given the absence of administrative regulations, unqualified technicians, and insufficient financial resources. keywords health center, hospital waste, evaluation, environment management 1 department of environmental sciences, faculty of agronomic sciences, boubakar bâ university of tillabéri, tillabéri-niger 2 school of engineering and technology, national forensic sciences university, sector-09, gandhinagar, india 3 department of rural engineering and water & forests, faculty of agronomy and environmental sciences, dan university dicko dankoulodo from maradi, maradi-niger 4 department of animal production and nutrition, faculty of agronomic sciences, boubakar bâ university of tillabéri, tillabéri-niger 5 aube nouvelle university, science and technology training and research unit (ufr/st), management research and studies laboratory (crem) ouagadougou-burkina fasow, india * corresponding author’s e-mail: atpscontact@gmail.com introduction hospital waste consists of solid, liquid, or gaseous substances resulting from healthcare activities. they are a source of environmental pollution and a vector for spreading a wide range of diseases. (oms, 2005). even though they remain a serious public health issue, their management remains a concern of politicians and the institutions that generate them. (oms, 2005; ndiaye et al., 2012). despite efforts, most african countries have low levels of hospital waste management (abdelhak et al., 2019). a low-quality waste management system in hospitals is generally caused by a lack of policy and reference documents, an absence of resources, and poor institutional organization. (cicr, 2011; metghari et al., 2012). health sector wastes have a significant impact on community and healthcare hygiene (anonyme, 2007a). on the one hand, their management plays a crucial role in the quality of care, in the safety of patients and caregivers, and on the other hand, in the protection of the environment and the community from pollution and contamination (maiboukar, 1999). healthcare waste carries a higher risk of infection and injury than household waste-like waste (tesfahun et al., 2014). in this regard, they can be explained by the fact that they contain waste similar to household waste, sharp or pathological objects, infectious materials, pharmaceutical materials, medical devices, and radioactive materials. many factors contribute to the generation of hospital waste, including the social and economic condition of patients, the type of healthcare facilities, the hospital’s specialty, the waste sorting options available, seasonal variations, the number of beds, and the number of patients treated daily (mahananda, 2015). a review by the who (2009) states that open waste can contain harmful microorganisms that can infect hospitalized patients, medical personnel, and the general public, hence the need to eliminate such waste safely. based on their origin and the danger they pose to humans or the environment, waste can be classified (topanou, 2012). hospital waste can be divided into two categories: waste assimilated from household items and waste generated from healthcare activities. healthcare waste consists of potentially infectious and non-infectious wastes from a healthcare establishment (oms, 2005). it is essential to understand that any waste similar to household waste becomes contaminated when it comes into contact with hazardous waste, either directly or when it is not packaged bacteriologically. thus, hazardous waste can either be direct (depending on production) or indirect (contamination during collection). (maystre et duflon, 1994; maystre et viret, 1995). who (2005) reports that 60% to 64% of health facilities in developing countries do not dispose of waste according to recommended methods. the production of biomedical waste in mali is estimated at 1603 kilograms per day. in addition, 13.15 % of the units practiced waste sorting, while 78.39% did not treat their waste (rayanatou, 1999; sanogo et al., 2007). according to ndié et yongsi (2016), 92% of referral health facilities in cameroon had poor hospital waste management. since the last decades, niger has improved its health coverage through the construction of several https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v1i2.1069 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(2) 6-11, 2023 health facilities and the expansion of existing structures. as a result, this sector produces a large quantity of waste (pngdiss, 2015). microorganisms are concentrated in these wastes, resulting in environmental and atmospheric pollution (yaya, 2011). as a result, poor management contributes to the spread of infections both within and outside hospitals. several scientific studies have shown that disposal of solid hospital waste is not always satisfactory, especially in developing countries and africa south of the sahara (mohamed, 2008; david, 2004; ndiaye et al., 2003). this led the mother and child health center (mchc) in the dosso region of the republic of niger to become interested in managing solid hospital waste with the primary aim of improving hospital waste disposal. materials and methods dosso mother and child health center presentation in addition to providing gynecological-obstetric and postnatal care, the dosso mother and child health center also offers family planning services. the center is located between latitude 3°.21’’ and longitude 13°.037’’ in the urban municipality of dosso. approximately 4 hectares of land are occupied by the hospital, which has 108 beds, including 96 functional beds in its various departments. the hospital has five (05) hospitalization departments (gynecology, obstetrics, pediatrics, creni), as well as seven (7) support services (laboratory, pharmacy, medical imaging, maintenance, hygiene/sanitation) and ancillary services (kitchen, laundry, morgue). study scope limitation this study examined all possible hospital solid waste generation services offered by the center. the operating room, radiology, referral, laboratory, administrative block, social services, pharmacy, gynecology, and pediatrics a/b are among these facilities. sampling surveys were carried out during this study using a representative sample. the sample included doctors and majors in various departments, the head of hygiene and sanitation, and laborers responsible for waste management. this individual-type survey questioned 50 agents, including 24 medical and paramedical staff, 25 surface technicians, and the head of sanitation and hygiene. the methodological approach in this study, primary and secondary data were collected and analyzed using a qualitative and quantitative approach. the primary data was obtained by measuring the waste produced in various hospital departments. wastes generated by infectious activities, chemical or toxic activities, household wastes, and anatomical wastes generated at various levels of the csme in dosso were quantified. afon et al. followed this methodology in their study (2017). waste generated by each department was measured and recorded. for storage and weighing purposes, each cleaner received two (2) polythene bags per day. the polyethylene bags were measured on a calibrated spring scale of 10 kg±0.1 kg. a repeat of this experience took place every 24 hours for 10 days (august 28 through september 8, 2021). secondary data was collected from agents using a questionnaire and field observations. through direct observation, we could observe the waste produced in this establishment and gain a better understanding of their waste management system (production, sorting, packaging, collection, storage, transportation, and disposal). additionally, the data obtained included the number of beds in the services, the number of cleaners, and the number of waste managers. cross-tabulations and graphs were used to analyze the collected data. results and discussion results human resources in addition to one sanitation and hygiene technician, there are twenty-five (25) surface technicians that collect solid waste within the dosso csme. in figure 1, surface technicians are grouped based on their level of education. most of these technicians are housekeepers who maintain the cleanliness of the course as well as the rooms for each service. figure 1: education level distribution of surface technicians based on figure 1, it is evident that 69% of surface technicians are illiterate, 12% are secondary educated, and 19% are primary educated. additionally, these technicians are categorized based on their level of training in hospital waste management (figure 2). the figure shows that all the figure 2: a distribution of surface technicians based on the level of training they have received in hospital waste management https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(2) 6-11, 2023 surface technicians who were surveyed attended at least one training course in hospital solid waste management. this training course helped them to have the notions and skills necessary to manage solid hospital waste properly. waste storage a central storage facility is located at the dosso csme for disposing of waste before evacuation. upon the arrival of the town hall’s evacuation vehicle, hazardous waste and household waste are stored in bulk next to the burner. infectious waste is burned before disposal. the site is compartmentalized according to the two types of waste collected: infectious waste is burned before disposal. the estimated amount of waste tables 1, 2, and 3 present the results of quantifying solid waste in the hospital for all departments involved in this study. table 1 shows the quantitative analysis of infectious risk wastes from the 11 departments studied. infectious risk activities average 3.13 kg per day (laboratory) and 8.25 kg per day (operating room). there is an average of 42.28 kilograms of infectious risk activities evacuated from the departments studied every day. there is an average of 23.75 kg (pediatrics a) to 4 kg (radiology) per day in similar household waste, resulting in a total production of 124.69 kg (tab2). besides anatomical wastes (table 3), chemical or toxic wastes were analyzed quantitatively. the radiology department recorded 17 table 1: wastes with infectious risks (kg) services mon tue wed thu fri sat sun mon tue wed daily average gynecology 4,5 2 3 6 7 2 2,5 9 6 7,5 4,95 obstetrics 6 4,5 6 11 3 1,5 3,5 7 4 4,5 5,1 laboratory 3 2,5 1,5 3,5 4 2,8 3 4 2 5 3,13 operating room 7 8 4 9,5 9 6,5 4,5 12 14,5 7,5 8,25 referral 7 5 13 5 4,5 3 7 3,5 6 pediatrics a 6 9 5,5 7 6,5 10 8 6 7,5 8 7,35 pediatrics b 7,5 6 7 3,5 8 8,5 5 13 11 7,5 7,7 total 41 37 40 45,5 42 34,3 26,5 51 52 43,5 42,28 table 2: similar to household waste, quantification (kg) services mon tue wed thu fri sat sun mon tue wed daily average gynecology 15 15 18 13 17 16 12,5 17 18 12,5 15,4 obstetrics 28 22 37 4,5 17,5 19,5 18 24 20 23,5 21,4 laboratory 8 6 5 7 4 3,5 2 7 9 7 5,85 operating room 5 7 8 5 9 2 13 7 15 14,5 8,55 referral 6,5 10 6 22,5 4,5 4,8 7 7 5,5 7 8,44 radiology 4 4 pharmacy 3,5 2 2 6 6,5 2,5 4,5 1,5 7 6 4,15 administrative block 4,5 6 5,5 2 3,5 5 1,5 7 5 1,5 4,15 social service 6 11 7 3,5 7 3 7 12 7,5 4 6,8 pediatrics a 21,5 17 25 27 22 32 23 19,5 20 30,5 23,75 pediatrics b 25 28 21 22,5 14 18,5 15,5 24,5 26 27 22,2 total 127 124 134,5 113 105 102 104 126,5 133 133,5 124,69 table 3: waste with toxic or chemical risks and anatomical waste quantification (kg) services mon tue wed thu fri sat sun mon tue wed daily average waste with toxic or chemical risks radiology 2,5 1,5 1 2,5 2 4,5 1 2 2,5 anatomical waste obstetrics 3,5 2 1,5 3,5 2,5 4,5 6 4 4,5 3 3,5 kg of hazardous chemicals or toxic waste over ten (10) days, an average of 2.5 kg per day. an average of 3.5 kg of anatomical waste (placentas) is produced by the obstetrics department every day. according to the days of the week, figure 3 summarizes the total daily production of waste with infectious risks and similar to household waste. all waste categories are lower on friday, saturday, and sunday than the rest of the week. with a maximum recorded on wednesday (134.5 kg), similar to household waste releases are greater than wastes with infectious risks during the week (daily production: 45.5kg). the minimum production is recorded on sunday for both wastes with infectious risks (26.5kg) and similar to household waste (104kg). in addition, waste similar to household waste is produced in all departments, while infectious risk waste is absent from radiology, the administrative block, social services, and transfer pharmacy. in figure 4a, risk-free waste (waste similar to household waste) and https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(2) 6-11, 2023 risk-based waste (waste with infectious or chemical risks or anatomical waste) represent respectively 72% and 28% of the center’s waste production. figure shows 4b how hazardous waste is distributed in the center. a total of 87% of the waste produced has an infectious risk. infectious and anatomical waste accounted for 7% and 6% of the total waste, respectively. figure 3: daily waste production (in kg) figure 4: (a)-typology of hospital waste from the dosso csme, (b)-distribution of hazardous waste from the dosso csme discussion from august 10 to november 10, 2020, this study occurred at the dosso mother and child health center. in the study, 11 services at the center generated waste that was similar to household waste, infectious risk waste, chemical or toxic risk waste, and anatomical waste. as a result of the coexistence of administrative and care services in the center, this type of waste is generated. according to who (2009) recommendations, healthcare facilities should have an appropriate management plan. furthermore, the availability of waste collection equipment enhances the safety of healthcare waste management (oms, 2005). at the center, not only are the materials intended for waste management insufficient, but they also need to meet the standards set by who regarding adequate waste management. since biomedical wastes are not sorted, all waste is classified as “a” waste at risk, increasing the risk of contamination (metghari et al., 2012). it is for this reason that sorting is so critical. the majority of agents (74%), who were surveyed during this study, confirm the existence of waste sorting at the source, in contrast to 28% who believe nurses do not respect it. accordingly, field observations confirmed the existence of this sorting in most departments, although not according to who standards, since the hazardous waste was often mixed with similar to household waste. it is apparent that hospital staff are not trained in waste management, which explains the failures observed in waste management. the same observation was made in several african health structures (adon, 2011, koffi, 2021). quantification of waste can be used to rationally estimate the required material and human resources and then develop a waste management plan tailored to each service’s requirements. as a result of observations made in the field, waste can be divided into various categories, such as infectious waste (sharp or not), chemical waste, toxic waste, radioactive waste, and household waste. this is mainly due to the different healthcare services https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 10 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(2) 6-11, 2023 the institution offers. an identical study conducted in algeria (abdelhak et al., 2019) found that infectious wastes, pharmaceutical wastes, household garbage wastes, anatomical wastes, and radioactive wastes were most prevalent at the level of the health sector in sidi bel abbes. most of the waste generated by dosso csme is similar to household waste, while 28% is specific to its activities. according to the world health organization, hazardous waste should not account for more than 10 to 15% of the total waste produced in healthcare facilities. a study conducted by koffi et al., (2021) found lower rates at the daloa regional hospital center in côte d’ivoire. however, it is not uncommon for fractions of waste similar to household waste to be found in the bins designated for waste specific to a care activity. it appears that hospital waste management at the csme in dosso still needs to be improved. in total, 1729.7 kg of solid hospital waste is generated per day at the dosso csme, which is 5.2 t/month. from this, we can conclude that the dosso csme produces 62.3 t/year of solid hospital waste. based on the results of a study conducted at the el khroub hospital in the wilaya of constantine, sedrati and sebti (2017) found a quantity of 146.27 kg/d, or 51.19 tons per year. nevertheless, this amount is negligible compared to the volume of waste produced at the lamordé national hospital (hnl) in niamey, which is 329.87 t/year. because public hospitals receive high attendance every day and have a relatively high staffing level, this makes sense. there are a number of stages involved in hospital waste management, from production to final disposal. the disposal of hospital waste from the dosso csme leads to pollution of water, air, soil, and health, including puncture wounds, infections, and intoxication of collectors. according to jean-paul (2017), the paul vi surgical medical center’s waste management also has an environmental and health impact. in the study, 67.66% of personnel had been stung, 14.71 % suffered from musculoskeletal disorders, 5.88% had suffered cuts, and 2.94% had been irritated by eyes; on the other hand, there is pollution in the atmosphere with 7.549 t of greenhouse gases, soil pollution, and water pollution. conclusion a study at the csme of dosso was conducted to evaluate the ongoing management of hospital solid waste. according to the data obtained, the csme of dosso does not have an incinerator or a guide that would allow rational waste management. surface technicians are trained in managing biomedical waste, but 69% are illiterate. biomedical waste is usually treated in situ by burning and burying. it is pertinent to recognize that this is an influential factor that can influence the effectiveness of these agents in managing hospital waste. hospital waste management is associated with several risks, but the lack of monitoring (rewards or sanctions) of activities explains the difficulties in sorting, collection frequency, and external transportation. there are two types of waste that dosso csme produces: risk-free waste (waste that is similar to household waste) and risk waste (waste that is potentially infectious, chemically or toxically hazardous, or anatomically hazardous). dosso’s csme is limited in terms of managing solid hospital waste as a result of regulatory, organizational, technical, and financial constraints. managing this effectively requires collaboration, coordination, and harmonious participation from management at all levels. to remove these constraints, waste management plans outline the objectives, activities, stakeholders, resources, monitoring, supervision, and control mechanisms. the liquid waste generated by the dosso csme was not considered in this study. a diagnosis of the csme’s liquid waste management system would be an exciting aspect of this study. acknowledgments the authors would like to extend their appreciation to the department of environmental sciences, faculty of agronomic sciences, boubakar bâ university of tillaberi. conflict of interest the authors have declared no conflict of interest. funding this study was supported by the department of environmental sciences, faculty of agronomic sciences, boubakar bâ university of tillaberi. references anonymous, (2005d). safe management of hospital waste. checklist for a national strategy, 18. afon, a.o., adeniyi, s.a., agbabiaka, h.i. & akinbinu, a.a. 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panday 2012; steinfeld et al.2006). this change is supposed to bear social, economic and political dimensions (reilly, 2001) with influences in marine, fresh water and terrestrial ecosystems (ipcc, 2007). different countries show different response (positive/negative) to the climate change however, most affected countries are the developing nations dependent on agriculture with lack of appropriate infrastructure and adequate finance (gebreegziabher et al. 2011; mendelsohn et al. 2006; anttila-hughes and hsiang 2013; rayamajhee and bohara 2019a). nepal, a landlocked country having interface with tibetan plateau and plains of northern india, bear diverse biogeography and eco-climatological conditions (s. manandhar et al., 2010). altitude ranges from mt. everest (8848.86 masl) to flat plains in terai (64 masl). it extends to saara jungle in the west. country is divided into 5 major physiographic regions: terai plains (up to 700 masl), siwalik hills (7001500 masl), middle mountains (15002700 masl), high mountains (20004000 masl) and high himalayas (40008848 masl) ( anuska joshi et al., 2019). climate ranges from subtropical in south to arctic in north (shrestha and aryal, 2011). our complex topography, unstable geology, fragile ecosystem (moha 2013; rangwala and miller 2012; saito 2012), rainfed agriculture (moad, 2012), illiterate farmers and their social vulnerability (adger et al. 2003; aryal et al. 2014, 2016; huq et al. 2004; islam et al. 2016; morton 2007; agarwal et al., 2014; awasthi et al., 2002; eriksson et al., 2009; karki and gurung, 2012; maskey et al., 2011; nyaupanea and chhetrib, 2009; rai, 2007) helped securing 4th rank in vulnerability to climate change in world (maplecroft, 2011) posing great risk to agriculture, forestry & biodiversity, water resources and human health (maharjan et al., 2009). more than 1.9 million people are considered to be extremely vulnerable to climate change, with another 10 million at risk (gon 2010, p. 11). prime effects seen in nepal that threaten traditional agriculture include temperature increase, erratic rainfall, unpredictable monsoons, decreased length of winter, hailstorms, increased hazardous events like: drought, landslide, mass movement, edge cuttings, glacier lake outburst floods (aryal et al. 2014, 2016; devkota et al. 2013; khanal 2014; shrestha and aryal 2011; bajracharya et al. 2007; timsina 2011; sharma and dahal, 2011; holmelin and aase 2013; im et al. 2017; janes et al. 2019). studies provide adequate evidences of increasing temperature especially in recent decade (shrestha and nepal, 2016). the annual rise of temperature 0.040c per year in nepal, is greater than the world average and more prominent in mid hills and mountains (baidya et al. 2007; shrestha and aryal 2011). western and central nepal are expecting greater temperature increase than eastern https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v1i1.358 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee mailto:tripathianuvav%40gmail.com?subject= pa ge 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajet am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 1-12, 2022 nepal (timsina, 2011) and level of impact is dependent on local biological conditions and management practices (parry et al. , 2005). moe-nepal (2010, 2012) showed loss of nutrients, biodiversity and water resulting decline in livestock productivity. upstream climatic hazards have affected downstream areas immensely via increase in pressure on natural resources and increased competition for food, shelter and income (icimod 2008; rasul and hussain 2015; hussain et al. 2016). likely, alterations in soil physical and chemical properties would influence the quality of soil (aydinalp et al. 2008; khanal 2009; lohani 2007). spread of pests and hyper pests in crop have been rising (panday, 2012). if not the main cause, climate change acts as catalyst to trigger these adverse effects (s. manandhar et al., 2010). seen impacts are intense at smaller scale (sub basin level) than at larger scale (basin level) (bharati et al. 2016; hussain et al. 2016). increasing food and livelihood insecurity outcome via failure of crop production, productivity and loss of local landraces (regmi and adhikari 2007, malla 2009, ministry of environment (moe) 2010, hussain et al. 2016, ipcc 2018; kohler et al., 2010; macchi, 2011; marston, 2008) are yet to be analyzed in nepal (morton 2007; schlenker et al. 2006; schlenker and lobell 2010; fisher et al. 2012; lobell et al. 2014; moore et al. 2017; baldos et al. 2019) evidenced by fact that 50.67% nepalese have not even heard of climate change (cbs, 2017). the lag is mainly due to difficulties in gathering meteorological evidence however, several investigations have been conducted (aryal et al 2014; becken et al 2013; chaudhary and bawa 2011; maharjan et al 2011; etc). ipcc (2014) confirms extension of poverty and creation of new pocket areas in both the developed and developing countries; primarily in rural mountain of nepal (hunzai et al. 2011; gerlitz et al. 2012, 2015; moest/undp 2008; cbs, 2011; dulal et al. 2010; bhatt et al., 2013; malla, 2008) adaption to climate change means being able to cope with the consequences, moderate the hazards and take advantage of prospects if any with modifications in agricultural practices and capital investment (joshi et al., 2017; easterling et al. 2007) however, they must be location specific (chhetri et al., 2012). annual adaptation cost is expected to be in order of us $20,000 (about us $70 per targeted household) at village level in nepal (iied, 2011). commonly found response included drip irrigation, engagement in off farm activities enhancing migration, alterations in cropping calendar, use of biopesticides, soil and water conservation practices, share cropping, regulation of fertilizer application, improved varietal development and adjustment, agroforestry (hussain et al. 2018; below et al. 2012; deressa et al. 2009; harmer and rahman 2014; yila and resurreccion 2013; bryan et al., 2013; pradhan, khadgi, schipper, kaur, & geoghegan, 2012; reid & schipper, 2014). probability of adaptation seemed primarily influenced by age, gender and education of family head (deressa et al. 2009; sarker, alam & gow 2013). size of farm, financial liquidity, involvement in community level organizations, resource availability and institutional activities of support service also played determining role (asfaw and admassie 2004; legesse et al. 2013; gbetibouo 2009; ndambiri et al. 2013; mulatu 2013; tesso et al. 2012; tiwari et al., 2014; bahinipati, 2015; sarker et al., 2013; piya et al., 2013). establishment of national adaptation programme of action (napa) by the government to identify, prioritize and resolve these problems has laid a foundation however lack of fund paralyzes its scope (oxfam, 2009; napa, 2010). climate change policy and local adaptation plan of action (lapa) framework in 2011 has promoted the participation of people in planning and implementing adaptive measures (moe, 2011). methodology literature review was done through a comprehensive search of articles from google scholar based on keywords strictly in context of nepal. papers with correlation between agriculture and climate change were prioritized. also, reference section of each article was searched in order to find additional related articles. the search process uncovered 45 research and review articles summarized contextually in this paper. discussion causes climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings such as modulations of the solar cycles, volcanic eruptions, persistent unsustainable anthropogenic changes and enormous greenhouse gases (ghgs). the major force in causing accelerated climate change is greenhouse gas emission. since the preindustrial era, anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions have increased largely by unsustainable human-centric activities, which are now higher than ever. anthropogenic causes such as deforestation, overgrazing, and unscientific farming on steep slopes of nepal and other developing countries have resulted in the loss of flora and fauna. they have caused soil erosion, landslides in the hills, and flooding in the plain areas as well. their effect, together with those greenhouse gases emission from industries is extremely likely to have been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century (netra et al. 2012). agriculture is one of the important contributors to ghg emissions on a global scale. agricultural land use in the 1990s was responsible for approximately 15% of all ghg emissions (organic consumer association, 2008) and another report produced by oecd (2001) stated that agriculture contributes to over 20% of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (food and agriculture organization, 2008). agriculture contributes about half of the world’s emissions of two of the foremost potent non-carbon dioxide greenhouse gases: methane and nitrous oxide (world bank, 2008). livestock manure, nitrogenous fertilizers and irrigated paddy are said to be liable for producing most agricultural noncarbon ghgs which have more powerful greenhouse effects and have greater longevity than co2. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajet pa ge 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajet am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 1-12, 2022 hazards influencing agriculture of nepal climate change broadly, will force the irrational changes on locally available natural resources, biodiversity and environment thereby alternating biological, geophysical and socio-economic elements (lybbert et al. 2012; bartlett et al. 2010; sambridhi 2011) a study conducted in koshi river basin (krb) showed prevalence of small holders (avg 0.98ha) (hussian et al., 2018) who had great contribution of agriculture to their food security and livelihood in the past, however, both the production and income has markedly declined over time (iset 2008; hussain 2016). climate change has been pointed out the key aspect of this change supported by 80% of surveyed households who perceived effects as drought, floods, livestock diseases, insect and pest outbreaks (hussian et al., 2018). bharati et al. (2012) on this very region expected the temperature to rise by 0.79– 0.86 °c till 2030 compared to 1976-2005 which supports the claim of frequent and intense drought and dry spells due to enhanced evaporation ( devkota and gyawali, 2015). temperature rise combined with irregular patterns of rain and unpredictable moisture favors livestock, plant diseases and pest outbreak were also supported by (singh et al. 2000; basu and bandhyopadhyay 2004; sirohi and michaelowa 2007). household surveys and focused group discussions conducted in lamjung district showed community perceptions regarding rainfall, 90% respondents claimed increasing erratic rainfall and 65% claimed decreased frequency (joshi et al., 2019). data from meteorological station showed increasing monsoon, pre monsoon and post monsoon rainfall but decreasing winter rainfall. standardized precipitation index (spi) of 1981-2010 confirmed increasing risk of drought in post monsoon and winter season from 2001-2010 thus drying up the sources of drinking water. in addition to this 80% perceived increase in flood, 60% in drought, 80% in no. of hailstorms, 55% in summer temperature. notably, 100% claimed to have experienced decrease in production similar to tharus of western terai (maharjan et al., 2011), 68% in biodiversity and 65% in forest products (joshi et al., 2019). based on the cross-sectional survey data collected from 120 households in 2009 in rasuwa, 40.8% felt decreasing rain in rainy season, 78.3% felt decreasing rain in winter, 60% felt drier every year, 51.7% felt increasing outbreaks and infestations and 41.7% felt increasing cost of food. also, potato and maize harvest was delayed by a month while that of wheat was 1 month early in syaphru and daibung. however, dhunche showed delay in harvesting time of potato and wheat by 1.5 month and of maize by 1 month; in laharepauwa, all wheat, maize and rice were delayed. as stated by practical action (2009) annual mean temperature trend of nepal varies from -0.04 to 0.06°c in the far-western region, 0.02 to 0.04°c in the midwestern region, 0.02 to 0.08°c in the western region, -0.04 to 0.08°c in the central region, and -0.06 to 0.09°c in the eastern region. also, it stated trend of annual precipitation from -10 to 20mm in nepal’s eastern region, -40 to 20mm in the central region, -30 to 40mm in the western region, -20 to 10mm in the mid-western region, and -10 to 20mm in the far-western region. warming in irrigated systems is beneficial however, nepal having rain fed farming, this is harmful (mendelsohn, 2009) education, (eq) of future medical students. international medical journal, 18, 293-299. with increasing temperatures, outburst of invasive weed species as banmara (chromolaena odorata) has limited the fodder availability for domestic animals forcing people to give up livestock rearing. also, their aggressive nature outsmarts other crops in competition mostly medicinal herbs in forests (kunwar 2003; barik and adhikari 2011). recent years show reduction in potato production due to a disease associated with change in soil moisture (gautam et al., 2013). people claim increase in population of mosquito and early flowering of kaphal (myrica esculenta) year after year in these regions. table 1: house hold surveys and community perception parameter remarks rise in temperature 0.5 to 2.0°c by 2030 1.3 to 3.8°c by 2060 1.8 to 5.8°c by 2090 change in annual mean precipitation -34 to +22% by the year 2030 -36 to +67% by the year 2060 43 to +89% by the year 2090 change in monsoon precipitation -14 to 40% by the year 2030 -40 to +143% by the year 2060 -52 to +135% by the year 2090 runoff greater downstream flows at first, reduced over a long time; snow replaced by rain in winters; frequency and intensity of natural disasters increase source: (ipcc 2008; bates et al. 2008; ncvst, 2009; iset-n, kathmandu and iset, boulder, colorado 2009; erikson et al. icimod 2009; mcsweeney et al. undp 2008) https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajet pa ge 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajet am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 1-12, 2022 major rivers of nepal are supplied by over 3000 glaciers from high himalayas and feeds different needs of people living downstream. climate change will cause disproportion river runoff due to its impact in precipitation. also, runoff will increase with glacier melt and decrease later as the process advances (agrawala et al., 2003). with the impacts upon the water sources, glof, glacial fluctuation and alterations in hydrological regime has become common. with temperature rise seen (chaudhary and bawa, 2011) significantly greater than the global average and more significant in himalayas (pokhrel and pandey, 2011) ranging from 0.029 °c per year at meghauli in the terai (pandey 2016b) 0.07 °c per year in the middle-mountains at daman and 0.27 °c per year in the high himalaya at langtang (chaulagain 2006), plains in monsoon get vulnerable as intense rainfall coincides with downstream flows from mountains (bartlett et ak. 2010; leduc et al. 2008; malla 2008; dulal et al. 2010; ncvst 2009). increased concentrated rain during a time of year has increased incidences of flood, hailstones, landslides, mass movements, soil erosion and avalanche mostly affecting rural people due to their socio economic and dependency in environment factors (lohani 2007; aydinalp et al. 2008; khanal 2009; cbs 2011; moest/ undp 2008). oxfam (2009) highlighted the financial limitation of country and ineffective coordination between environment ministry and ministry of forest to brew even more impacts. in drier regions, salinization and desertification is expected due to the change in soil physical and chemical properties: loss of organic matter, leaching of soil nutrients, increased evaporative losses etc. in addition to this, decline in crop production has been corelated with increased unnecessary transpiration losses from plants and environment conducive for insects, pests and diseases (aydinalp et al. 2008; khanal 2009). timsina (2011) showed increased mass movement and edge cutting tragedies of nepal due to change in frequency, intensity and form of precipitation. a questionnaire survey in 720 households covering 6 districts of nepal revealed increase in summer (95%) and winter season (41%) temperature, weather unpredictability (56%), reduced precipitation (58%), draught (85%), natural disasters (78%), infestation in crops (83.1%), invasive weeds (75.3%), soil degradation (81.6%), reduced productivity (73.6%) (khanal et al., 2017). in another paper regarding the same survey published by khanal et al. (2018), he highlighted the decreased frequency and increased intensity of rainfall facilitating flood and landslide and late start of monsoon in nepal. increase of 20c temperature seems to increase yield of crops in nepal (malla, 2008). a time series regression model analysis (1978-2008) of effect of climate on major food crops of nepal (paddy, maize, millet, wheat, barley and potato) was done. with increase in summer temperature and rainfall, only paddy seems to be benefitted and yield increase was noticed. in case of potato and maize that are staple diet of mid hills and mountains, increased temperature in summer outweighed positive influences of summer rain and minimum temperature making people vulnerable. although rainfall is seen in decreasing trend in winter, significant temperature than in summers has increased yield of winter crops (maharjan and joshi, 2013). comparative study done in terai and mountain of western development region reported farmers in lowland didn’t experience loo, big storms and western winds of february as in the past; while farmers of lower mustang confirmed presence of mosquitos and other insects associated with unusual summer and winter temperature rise, decrease and changed timing of snowfall. dhaulagiri and annapurna ranges also showed less snow cover, muktinath experienced frost delayed by 2 weeks occurring only from october, marpha stated increased rain and fog (manandhar et al., 2010). increased winter rainfall in western nepal during winters is also stated by ichiyanagi et al. (2007). highest mountain areas are to be most affected and precipitation in these areas is likely to increase by 5% by 2050s considering huge variations in river basins (shrestha et al., 2015). this increase in precipitation is caused due to decline in snowfall and rapid melting of glaciers mostly affecting nepal eastern himalayan glaciers (wiltshire, 2014), found consistent to other mountainous regions of world. degradation of rangelands and forests (bolch et al. 2012; immerzeel et al. 2013) was noted. poverty being higher in mountains and rate of poverty reduction lower than in lowlands specifies the difference between the two areas and clarifies their vulnerability to crisis (hunzai et table 2: napa (2010) ranks districts of nepal according to vulnerability index as vulnerability index districts very high (0.7871) kathmandu, ramechhap, udayapur, lamjung, mugu, bhaktapur, dolakha, saptari, jajarkot high (0.610.786) mahottarari, dhading, taplejung, siraha, gorkha, solukhumbu, chitwan, okhaldhunga, achham, manang, dolpa, kalikot, khotang, danusha, dailekh, parsa, salyan moderate (0.356-0.6) sankhuwasabha, baglung, sindhuli, bhojpur, jumla, mustang, rolpa, bajhang, rukum, rauthat, pan-chthar, parbat, dadeldhura, sunsari, doti, tanahu, makawanpur, myagdi, humla, bajura, baitadi, rasuwa, nawalparasi, sarlahi, sindhupalchok, dar-chula, kaski low (0.1810.355) nuwakot, dhankuta, kanchanpur, bardiya, ka-pilbastu, terathum, gulmi, pyuthan, surkhet, ar-gakhachi, morang, dang, lalitpur, kailali, syanja, kaverpalanchok very low (00.18) ilam, jhapa, banke, palpa, rupendehi https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajet pa ge 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajet am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 1-12, 2022 al. 2011; gerlitz et al. 2012, 2015). no snowfall in last 10 years in chilime and only two in last 18 years, hotter summer and colder winter perceived in chilime, thuman, gatlang and erratic rain felt in all study sites of grey, gojlung, chilime, thuman and gatlang. particularly due to change in rainfall, productivity of potato decreased from 2010-2014 however, increase was noticed in 2015 and 2016 in gatlang; increased foggy days contributed decreased productivity of potato in remaining areas. also, increased water availability in micro irrigation systems in april and may was noticed due to snow melt in hotter summers (merrey d.j. et al. 2018). apn report shows, rise in temperature by 10c, positive influence is seen in maize productivity throughout the ecological zones. rise by 20c causes doubling of co2 concentration, yield declines in terai but hills are less affected. in case of rise up to 40c, mountainous regions are benefitted esp. in rice by 7%, however, 25% yield reduction in terai is noticed esp. in maize (oxfam, 2009). increased problems of grain weevils have been observed as major storage pests of maize in nepal. high rainfall and humidity due to unpredicted conditions of climate change has increased incidences of turccicum blight, blsp thereby decreasing maize production (nayava and gurung 2010). at present condition of climate change and doubling of co2, positive influence to wheat yield in all agroecological regions has been observed (nayava et al., 2009) which has been consistent with findings of other researches carried out. however, among rice, wheat and maize, wheat shows maximum variation thus it is regarded to be the most insecure crop (pallazzoli et al. 2015). even if positive influences of co2 are taken into account, by mid 21st century, crop yield may decrease upto 30% in s. asia (cruz et al. 2007; aggarwal and sivakumar 2011) increased crop canopy temperature, unwanted evapotranspirative loses, impaired physiological functioning, clogged soil, disruption of micro and macrobial activity, loss of fertile top soil, elimination of local landraces eg. basmati rice, thapa chini, kalanamak, jhinuwa, kanak jira, chananchura, tunde masino, anandi (red and white), ghaiya, jund, marshii, wheat, maize (sathiya, murali, dhinde, sete, panheli), finger millet (okhle, dalle, paundure, jhapre, mutthe) (paudel, 2012), unusual rain, fewer rainy days but with higher intensity has been mentioned prime noticed impacts in nepal (panday, 2012). nepal though rich in policy with over 10 policies, 18 acts, 9 regulations and 8 orders talking about agriculture, implementation has severely failed and every new policy formed repeat the previous set objectives and indicators even of completed already (pandey, 2017). crop pest interaction, alterations in distribution and development of pests and plant resistance (lal 2011a; macchi 2011; pruneau et al. 2012; ramirez-villegas et al. 2012; paudel et al. 2014; bhatta et al. 2015; coakley et al. 1999; schmidhuber and tubiello 2007). farmlands left fallow is seen as common outcome of climate change in nepal (paudel et al. 2014; chapagain and gentle 2015). case study of farmers in lumle, kaski mentioned hailstorms even in night and winter, winter rain getting heavier and shifted to early spring and post monsoon, decreased flood but increased intensity, change in phenology of plants esp. rhododendron (2-3 weeks earlier), kafal, tote, amba, amp, darim, timila, chutro, aaru (thapa et al. 2015); invasion of banmara reduced availability of high valued maps like chiraito (swertia chirayita), panchaunle (datylorhiza hatageria) and satuwa (paris polyphylla), reduced infiltration and ground water recharge, increased population of harmful ants, moths, leech, cutworms, hoppers, aphids, stink bug, big horns bug, wood ants, snail, slug and diseases like phytophthora, fungus in potato, “rate” in rice (pandey, 2017) indicator based vulnerability assessment developed by table 3: potential cost of climate change to farmers includes direct cost indirect cost cost of adaptation decrease in gross returns from crops costs of land degradation costs of technological adaptation additional costs of crop production costs of agro-biodiversity loss costs of behavioral adaptation decrease in gross returns from the livestock production costs of uncertainities costs of managerial adaptation additional costs of livestock and poultry production costs of food security costs of compliance to policy options costs due to increasing risks of nat-ural hazards costs of conflicts over scarce resources source: (pant, 2011) hahn et al. (2009) has been used by aryal et al. (2014); etwire et al. (2013); pandey and jha (2012); shah et al. (2013). in 543 household studied from dhading, syangja and kapilvastu representing all 3 ecological regions showed, livelihood vulnerability index (lvi) of dhading and kapilvastu higher; vulnerability index: ipcc indicated dhading agro-livestock holders to be most robbed; napa lists syangja into `high landslide risk zone` (panthi et al., 2015). sherpa (2010) reported no snow in kapi himal of mwdr at 15000 feet. stream was found flowing at the top of everest by melting ice (shrestha, 2009). club roots of crucifer, blight of solanaceous crops, rust of wheat, blast of rice, leaf spot of maize has been increasing at present scenario of change (paudel, 2012). farmers from indrawati basin of nepal noticed more https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajet pa ge 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajet am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 1-12, 2022 table 3: study in kailali district of fwdr noticed following change in natural community influenced by climate change list of plants decreased name of plants local name family calotropis gigantea ank ascelpiadaceae artemisia indica titepati asteraceae anaphalis busua buki asteraceae cannabis sativa bhang cannabaceae cuscuta reflexa akas beli convovulaceae asparagus racemosus kurilo asparagaceae smilax kukurdaino smilacaceae viscum album hadchur loranthaceae thysanolaena maxima amriso poaceae cynodon dactylon dubo poaceae imperata cylindrica siru poaceae urtica dioica sisnoo urticaceae tinospora cordifolia gurjo menispermaceae source: (thapa et al. 2015) list of plants increased: name local name family ageratum conyzoides gandhe asteraceae ageratina adenophora banmara asteraceae spilanthes calva marathi asteraceae parthenium hysterophorus badmas jahr asteraceae cyperus rotundus mothe cyperaceae cyperus iria chhatare cyperaceae cassia tora chhinchhine fabaceae argemone mexicana thakalikada papaveraceae lantana camara kuri verbenaceae source: (thapa et al. 2015) warming effect in the daily minimum temperature than maximum however, their monthly mean difference was same. winter and spring crops are most vulnerable due to this trend mostly in the lower elevations and in places are already grown today at threshold level (sivakumar & stefanski, 2011). in the basin, annual average rainfall was projected to decrease by 0.9% of baseline in the 2020s, 1.4% in the 2055s and 3.0% in the 2080s. clear increase in rainfall during the early winter months (120% of baseline for november and 102% for december by the 2080s), and a small increase in spring and early summer was seen, but decrease in late winter, mid-to-late summer, and autumn is also taken into consideration. pulses e.g., grey pulses (gahat), black gram (mas), common beans (bodi), brown pulses (mashyang), and soya beans (bhatmas) seem to be the most affected crop in this region. barley (phaper), tuber (pidalu), sweet potato (shakkarkhanda) has been stopped to cultivate (pradhan et al. 2015). drier soils, loss of top soil by erosion, leaching of nutrients by rain and increased temperature has forced farmers to increase use of chemical and organic fertilizers to keep up the productivity (shrestha and nepal, 2016). quantitative data analysis done by aryal et al. (2016) and sujakhu et al. (2016) showed similar impacts consistently. study shows that an increase in temperature has a positive impact on the production of rice. rice production may uplift by 0.09% to 7% in the case when precipitation is increased by 20% and temperature is increased up to 4°c (mope, 2004) if agricultural production in nepal is adversely affected by climate change, the livelihoods of two-thirds of the labour force, particularly of the rural poor will be at risk (fao, 2006). eastern terai faced a rain deficit in the year 2005/06 by early monsoon and crop production reduced by 12.5% on a national basis. nearly 10% of agriland was left fallow due to rain deficit but midwestern terai faced heavy rain with floods, which reduced production by 30% in the year (regmi, 2007) several studies show that livestock and poultry production is adversely affected by climate change (hertel and rosch 2010, kabubo-mariara, 2009). this change also increases the mortality and morbidity of animals, particularly from https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajet pa ge 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajet am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 1-12, 2022 climate-sensitive infectious diseases (patz et al., 2005b). increases in zoonotic diseases among the animals also increase the risks of transmission of such diseases in human beings and increase the costs of veterinary medicines. increased temperature and relative humidity are said to increase the risks of aflatoxin development in feedstuffs thereby increasing the risks of poisoning among animals (pant, 2011). local adaptation measures by farmers of nepal ipcc (2018) proclaims the impact of climate change in the livelihood depends entirely on the time and type of adaptation practices adopted. adaptation should consider short term and long-term basis (adger et al., 2003; eriksen et al., 2011; pittock and jones, 2009) and its theory considers that all systems and individual can and will adapt to changing situations (smithers & smit, 2009). if appropriate, they help to cope, moderate and take advantage of situations (joshi et al. 2017; tesso et al. 2012). type and degree of adaptation in agriculture is influenced by climate, biophysical, socio-political and environmental factors (iied, 2011; keane et al. 2009; khanal et al. 2018b). adaptations might be planned by government or autonomously exercised by households (stage, 2010). krb showed change in cropping patterns, high water demanding crops as cereals to fruits and vegetables (esp. potato, onions and garlic) with low water demand and high market value (gurung and bhandari 2009; gwpjvs 2014: p. 21; dixit et al. 2009; hussain et al. 2016). utilization of improved seeds, resilient varieties, water conserving techniques of irrigation, reserved investment in irrigation projects, replacing larger ruminants with more hardy smaller ruminants like goat has been noticed (hussain et al. 2016; manandhar et al. 2011; bartlett et al. 2010; shafiq and kakar 2007). credit and agricultural insurance facility, technology transfer, market access, extension services via field schools and demonstrations for new adaptive practices by the government has been presented as a significant approach as well (surminski 2010; hussain et al. 2018). literate family head adapted quicker since decision in rural families relied solely on them (dhakal et al. 2015), larger family had resourceful labors available anytime improving their coping ability (ndambiri et al. 2013; deressa et al. 2009; tesso et al. 2012; hussain et al. 2018; quayum and ali, 2012; vijayasarathi and ashok, 2015) however, smaller families were found to undertake soil, water & fertilizer management and off farm adjustments more (khanal et al. 2018; deressa et al. 2009; hassan and nhemachena 2008). joshi et al. (2017) found, with increase in a unit of schooling, adoption of new climate friendly technologies increased by 13% and 26% reduction in ability of adaptation in female headed families than male headed. also, he found 24% increase in adaptation practices exercised by families earning more part of income from non-agriculture source when compared to the same income level agricultural family. likely, larger holdings increased the prospect of income and provided liquid finance to adopt mentioned practices (hussain and thapa 2015; mulatu 2013; knowler and bradshaw, 2007), also prospect of taking chance in one of the plots by farmer trying something new is higher (khanal et al. 2018a). local opportunities e.g., bee keeping, handicraft, medicinal and aromatic plants, ecotourism etc. should be strengthened via institutional prospects to reduce out migrants and improve ability of food purchase (hussian et al., 2018). adoption of different agroforestry practices according to suitability of location has increased and help immensely e.g., elainchi farming in agroforestry is increasing in lamjung. climate smart policies targeting the higher altitudes should be formulated by the government with effective implementation (moe 2009; joshi et al. 2019). diversification of crop species, adoption of soil and water conservation practices and manipulation of timing in operations is hyping up (asseng and pannell 2013; devkota et al 2017). vdcs of rasuwa responded to this change via integration of agriculture and livestock, involvement in off farm activities, rain water harvesting techniques and mulching (merrey et al. 2018; joshi et al. 2017). gentle et al. (2018) observed 4 vdcs of lamjung and saw use of consumption loans, alternative energy source, bio-pesticides, sharecropping and widespread migration as a response. all these similar responses were experienced by chalise et al. (2015) in farmers of central region. joshi et. al (2017) found 24% higher adaptation rate to families that consider food security threat consistent with kurukulasuriya and mendelsohn (2006); deressa et al. (2009); apata et al. (2011). in his study in rasuwa, higher northern villages (syaphru and dhunche) showed 32% less adaptation rate than lower southern villages (daibung and laharepauwa). he focused widespread awareness campaigns utilizing government and local level development actors with training sessions to help cope with the changing climate. nepal signed unfccc in 1994 and have introduced national climate change policy 2076 (2019) whose goal is to prosper socio-economic prospect of country by creating climate resilient system (national climate change policy 2019_public health updatepdf, n.d.). national adaptation programme of action (napa) has been created which aims to asses and prioritize vulnerabilities, identify adaptations, develop priority proposals, provide learning and management platform and finally develop multi stakeholder framework of action against the change (national adaptation programme of action (napa) ministry of environment, n.d.). even with the establishment of napa, lack of financial supply to it cripples its activity (oxfam 2009; pokhrel and pandey 2011). chapagain et al. (2009) concluded that people are more inclined to utilize the innovations easily available at their disposal. in survey of six districts regarding effectiveness of cbos, majorly employed adaptation practices were varietal adjustment (53.21%) followed by soil & water https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajet pa ge 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajet am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 1-12, 2022 management (50.07%), fertilizer management (45.15%) and timing adjustment (43.49%). 91% had followed at least one adaptation measure and many (62%) were found to be involved in community-based organizations (cbos) that promoted smaller household size, higher education for househead & crop diversification supporting claim of conley and udry (2010), kassie et al. (2013) and wossen et al. (2013) that farmers help and teach others in their network (khanal et al. 2017; binam et al. 2004). data collected from focus group discussion, stake holder workshop and household surveys from 6 districts representing all 3 agroecological regions of nepal showed 24 practices common to local as adaptation: crop/ varietal adjustment, grow diverse crops/varieties, grow drought tolerant crops/varieties, grow short duration crops/varieties, grow insects/diseases resistant crops/ varieties grow less water intensive crop/varieties, crop rotation, intercropping/mixed cropping, change planting locations of crops , farm operations time adjustment, change planting date/ harvesting date, adjustment in time of weeding, pesticide application , soil and water management, mulching, cover crops, reduce tillage, fallowing, terrace construction, agroforestry, rain water harvesting, flood control, improve/increase irrigation, fertilizer management, improve/increase chemical fertilizer use, improve/increase farm yard manure use, off-farm adjustment, keep more livestock, weather forecasts, livelihood diversification (khanal et al., 2018). among the practices, soil and water conservation was found to show excellent results to uplift food productivity. average adaptation index of 99.1, 115.3 and 56 was seen for terai, hills & mountains and households that exercise adaptations were found 10, 9 and 16% more effective than non-adapters respectively. mean technical efficiency (te), derived from stochastic frontier analysis framework, was 0.72 while the value ranged widely from 0.14 to 0.93. this stated that on an average, 28% increase in production can be made using the same input level with practice of adaptation practices. te in larger scale with greater no of practices was found 13% in average greater than employing fewer practices on smaller scale (khanal et al., 2018). study from rice fields of nepal by khanal et al. (2018) show adjustment in timing of operations is most commonly practiced against climate change impacts while fertilizer management is least preferred. this is the result of lower cost and minimal effort associated with the first measure. records show that adopted households would have lost 648kg/ha if they had not adopted and those who didn’t adopt would have gained 241kg/ha rice more in case of practice of adaptive measures. young aspiring farmers seem to adopt the change in practices very well with changing climate. autonomous adaptation practices must be focused and prioritized for extension in nepal to gain success in undermining climate change (2018) household affected by disasters were more likely to employ adaptation than non-affected e.g., drought in an area forced people to consider supplementary means of irrigation or crop shift to less water demanding ones. areas closer to market show people engaging in off farm employment more as an adjustment (khanal et al. 2018). adhikari et al. (2017) proposed the use of more hardy crops like barley, beans in the high altitudes to tackle issues of climate change. in paper presented by manandhar et al. (2010), zero tillage and surface seeding, driving rickshaws, working as porters or in factories, off season vegetable production was noticed locally in western nepal. in the same paper, possible strategies for upland were presented which included: crop diversification, kitchen waste and water harvesting technologies, extension of apple production between elevations; and for lowlands included: promotion of ipnm, introduction of early maturing, drought and flood tolerating varieties, fish farming in flood prone areas. indigenous knowledge of lamas in mustang was presented as an example who focused that all crops should be sown by every farmer synchronized which will share the damage in crop thus pin pointed the incorporation of local ancient knowledge into principles of adaptive practices for site specific dissemination and success. released and registered varieties of rice adopted by farmers in nepal in terms of moderatehigh drought tolerance include masuli, loktantra, mithilia, radha-4, barkhe 3004, ghaiya-2 etc. (moac, 2007) and improved varieties from india in terms of drought tolerance are ram dhan, gorakhnath gold (moderate flood tolerance as well), mayur, sarjubaun, sarju-49, bajigar (moderate flood tolerance as well), motisava (moderate flood tolerance as well), panta-10 , golden mansuli (moderate flood tolerance as well), sundar sabha (moderate flood tolerance as well), gauri, sava mansuli, saba (field survey, 2008). climate resilient traditional crops rich in micronutrients such as local maize, millet, buckwheat, local beans, lentils and barley can be an effective coping strategy to evade food crisis in mountains (adhikari et al. 2017). selling milks of chauri, yak and live sheeps can be a way for living as well. start of off farm activities: tourist guides, opening of resorts, migration to cities, weaving of woolen jackets, caps, carpets etc. has been studied in grey, gojlung, chilime, thuman and gatlan (merrey d.j. et al. 2018; hussain et al. 2016, 2018; rasul et al. 2014). projection of climate change in future will be determined by change in agriculture with time thus technical change, increased capital, improved access and possible policy change must be well processed. irrigation is the best option to sort problem in warming as well as in drying (mendelsohn, 2009). with increasing threat of maize grey leaf spot in mid hills of nepal recently, manakamana-3, shitala, deuti, ganesh-1,2 varieties have been introduced to eastern and central hills. researchers are focused in developing varieties with less anthesis silking interval (asi) to overcome drought. updating the monitoring and evaluation of ministry of agriculture has been targeted https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajet pa ge 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajet am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 1-12, 2022 (nayava and gurung 2010). adoption of heat tolerant varieties of wheat will increase production of wheat in today’s doubling rate of co2 content. improved seeds use to tackle climate change and sustain productivity is also highlighted as a better option (nayava et al., 2009). irrigation is also presented as adaptive measure to tackle this problem by pallazzoli et al. (2015). participatory promotion of local genetic resources via seed banks, reduced pesticide use, soil conserving tillage, carbon sequestration, integration of farming systems, improve soil om, rain water harvesting, conservation agriculture (no till, mulching), green manuring, identifying and uplifting local technologies via r&d (e.g., use of animal urine, plant extracts etc.), community based biodiversity management, home gardens in cities etc. has been presented very effective means of mitigating climate change effects (panday, 2012). drip irrigation in kapilvastu, rain eater harvesting for dhading and bioengineering methods of erosion control in syangja has been presented as best adaptive measures by panthi et al. (2015). in his paper, he mentioned social forestry approach, insurance, community cooperative and other formal and informal groups to link and strengthen social capital. promotion of slope agriculture land technology (salt) and hedge row cropping for mid hills, tunnel/ plastic house farming, community centered small scale storage facilities, germplasm conservation has been put forward as necessary measures to tackle climate change (paudel, 2012). a 10-point “everest declaration” to contribute 1.5% gdp to climate fund for reducing ghgs has been made (shrestha, 2009). need of weather information system targeting rural table 4: nepal’s effort to climate change crops varieties purpose rice • lalka basmati, ghaiya 1 & 2, b-6144, sukhha dhan-1, 2, and 3, and ir-44535-5 • sworna, ir-64, and sanwa mansuli • drought tolerant • submergence tolerance maize manakamana-5 (white), manakamana-6 (yellow), and deuti (white) for mid hills, tolerant to lodging and remain green after maturity; fodder to animals and intercropping suitability wheat • aditya (bl-3264) • nl-971 • wk1204, pasang lahmu, and gautam • high temperature and hot wind tolerant, leaf rust and yellow rust resistance • resistant to leaf rust, mod-erately resistant to yellow rust and helminthospori-um leaf blight, and toler-ant to high temperature • tolerant to yellow rust tomato srijana and bishesh off-season production, tolerant to blight, high yielder. source: (paudel, 2012) farming community via tvs, radio, mobile phones to help them adjust their farm operations has become mandatory to support them. farm ponds, surface/ sub surface dams, tanks for supplementing irrigation can help in dry periods since agriculture is rainfed (pradhan et al. 2015). community based management of common resources have been positively considered by local farmers throughout the country (kunwar et al. 2020) and local institutions working with bottom up approach seem to be best suited in context of solving environmental problem (benjamin et al. 1994; ostrom et al. 1994; varughese and ostrom 2001; shivakoti and ostrom 2002; rayamajhee and joshi 2018; rayamajhee 2020; rayamajhee et al. 2020a; rayamajhee et al. 2020b; rayamajhee and paniagua 2020). easing indo-nepal trade of food commodities can be beneficial as well (rayamajhi et al. 2020). another study done in makwanpur, nepal regarding risks to food security due to climate change showed vegetablebased enterprises to be more efficient than cereal based because of diversity and regular income flow (shrestha and nepal, 2016). participatory forest management is worth citing (ojha et al. 2009; niraula et al. 2013). a report estimated that a 20% increase in soil organic matter as a result of organic agriculture would result in a decrease of about 9 tons of carbon emission per hectare (food and agriculture organization, 2008). organic agriculture helps in better management of soil and water, promoting biodiversity and strengthening community knowledge systems which increase the resilience of farming systems. organic agriculture emits less n2o because of a systemically lower n-input from organic manure, a higher c/n ratio in applied organic manure and low available mineral n2 in the soil for denitrification, the persistent plant cover in organic systems which results in more efficient uptake of mobile nitrogen in soils, thus reducing the potential risk for n2o emissions (khanal, 2009) recent studies on northern kenya and southern ethiopia reviewed by morton (2001) have focused on the coping strategies used by pastoralists during recent droughts and the longer-term adaptations are: engage in herd accumulation, in which pastoralists cope by systematically selling livestock during drought or droughtonset; keep multispecies herds to take advantage of different ecological niches and the labor of men, women, and children; use purchased feed or lopped fodder from trees as supplementary feed for livestock, which can be taken as a coping strategy; livelihood diversification away https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajet pa ge 10 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajet am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 1-12, 2022 from pastoralism in the form of shifts into low-income or environmentally sustainable occupations. the practices provided by fao (2009) to cope with climate change hazards align with the practices put forward by various authors with a new prospect of community-centered small-scale fruit production (apple, apricot, walnut, and mandarin orange). in view of climate-sensitive agriculture, use of timely weather and seasonal climate forecasting, to adjust their farming practices to minimize adverse impacts on rural livelihoods, and food security (powell et al., 1998) for high hill and temperate conditions (2500m and above), cold-tolerant rice varieties of chandannath-1 and 3, others have been developed and popularized especially in the jumla and karnali regions (paudel, 2011) where around 3.9 million people in the area suffered from hunger and malnutrition due to acute shortage of food (paudel, 2010). use multiple sowing dates, thereby decreasing the chance that the whole crop will be at a critical stage during an extreme weather event (food and agriculture organization, 2008) has been put forward with encouragement in genetic diversity of both crops and livestock, save their local landraces that are highly adaptable, making them self-sufficient and self-reliant. opportunities though opportunities prevail, we are not being able to grasp this and utilize for our benefit since we require external assistance and support (gawith et al., 2015). several cash crops like potato, garlic, onion, vegetables showed increase in productivity therefore, prioritization of these crops formulating proper national policies and institutional priorities can help gain profit as well (hussain et al., 2018). despite the impacts, opportunities of cereal cultivation in mustang, manang has grown. rise of temperature in higher altitude has allowed earlier planting and harvesting prospects thus cropping intensity can be increased (pant, 2011). melting of glacier, snow and ice with summer monsoon has made water available for farming. natural decomposition of om has increased with rising temperature and favored nutrient uptake mechanisms can be of great significance (bartlett et al. 2008; khanal 2009; lohani 2007; malla 2008 ). value chain development of handcrafts, traditional crops and vegetables will be greatly helpful. formalization of existing and expanding irrigation systems can be done to lower conflicts at local level. prospect of introducing and expanding plastic tunnel cultivation and solar pumps in mountains through government aid will be a great achievement and has immense prospect as well (merrey d.j. et al. 2018). carbon fertilization in atmosphere can help to boost the production of c3 plants however, the effect is nonlinear (pant, 2011). conclusion nepal is rich in biodiversity which ranges from tropical to tundra hence called the micro-museum of world climate. therefore, vulnerability of climate change to nepal is immense although its contribution to global ghg is minimal. climate awareness among the farmers has been seen mandatory. the common effects of this change experienced in nepal includes temperature fluctuation, erratic rainfall, outbreak of insect, pest and diseases, increased hazardous events of flood, landslide, edge cutting, bank erosion, mass flow, glacier lake outburst, hailstorms etc., proliferation of invasive weeds, livestock complexities which deteriorate status of food production and questions food security. to tackle these adversities, local adaptation plan of action is suitable. blanket recommendation will be inappropriate for nepal due to its diversity thus, essentiality to exploit site specific local traditional knowledge is mandatory. commonly practiced adaptive strategies include: varietal adjustment, diversification of crops, planting resistant and improved varieties, crop rotation, intercropping/mixed cropping, farm operations time adjustment, mulching, cover crops, reduced tillage, fallowing, terrace construction, agroforestry, rain water harvesting, flood control, improve/increase irrigation, fertilizer management, improve/increase chemical fertilizer use, improve/ increase farm yard manure use, off-farm adjustment, keep more livestock, weather forecasts and livelihood diversification. soil and water conservation practices have been promising for many farmers, management of crop calendar and timing of farm operations if promoted can be crucial. reference adapting climate change in agriculture: the sustainable way in nepalese contextdinesh panday mechanisms in agriculture for climate change in nepalmina nath paudel bhandari, m. p. 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(2011). adapting cropping systems to climate change in nepal: a cross-regional study of farmers’ perception and practices. regional environmental change, 11(2), 335–348. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10113-010-0137-1 morton, j. f. (2007). the impact of climate change on smallholder and subsistence agriculture. www.pnas. orgcgidoi10.1073pnas.0701855104 malla, g. (2008). climate change and its impact on nepalese agriculture. in the journal of agriculture and environment (issue 9). nayava, j. l., singh, r., & bhatta, m. r. (n.d.). impact of climate, climate change and modern technology on wheat production in nepal: a case study at bhairahawa. nayava, j. l., & gurung, d. b. (2010). impact of climate change on production and productivity: a case study of maize research and development in nepal. the journal of agriculture and environment (vol. 11). nath paudel, m. (2016). consequences of climate change in agriculture and ways to cope up its effect in nepal. agronomy journal of nepal (agron jn) (vol. 4). http:// www.irinnews.org/country/npa/nepal national climate change policy 2019_public health updatepdf. (n.d.). national adaptation programme of action (napa) https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajet pa ge 12 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajet am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 1-12, 2022 ministry of environment. (n.d.). palazzoli, i., maskey, s., uhlenbrook, s., nana, e., & bocchiola, d. (2015). impact of prospective climate change on water resources and crop yields in the indrawati basin, nepal. agricultural systems, 133, 143– 157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2014.10.016 panthi, j., aryal, s., dahal, p., bhandari, p., krakauer, n. y., & pandey, v. p. (2016). livelihood vulnerability approach to assessing climate change impacts on mixed agro-livestock smallholders around the gandaki river basin in nepal. regional environmental change, 16(4), 1121–1132. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10113-015-0833-y pradhan, n. s., sijapati, s., & bajracharya, s. r. (2015). farmers’ responses to climate change impact on water availability: insights from the indrawati basin in nepal. international journal of water resources development, 31(2), 269–283. https://doi.org/10.1080 /07900627.2015.1033514 pandey, r. (2019). farmers’ perception on agro-ecological implications of climate change in the middlemountains of nepal: a case of lumle village, kaski. environment, development and sustainability, 21(1), 221– 247. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-017-0031-9 prasad, k. (2012). climate change and its impact on nepalese agriculture. the journal of agriculture and environment (vol. 13). prasad, k. 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(2019). climate change amplifies plant invasion hotspots in nepal. diversity and distributions, 25(10), 1599–1612. https://doi. org/10.1111/ddi.12963 sapkota, r. (2016). climate change and its impact on nepalese agriculture. a term paper report. talchabhadel, r., & karki, r. (2019). assessing climate boundary shifting under climate change scenarios across nepal. environmental monitoring and assessment, 191(8). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-019-7644-4 the impact of climate change on agriculture-a case study from nepal. (n.d.). www.sandeeonline.org thapa, l. b., thapa, h., & magar, b. g. (2015). perception, trends and impacts of climate change in kailali district, far west nepal. international journal of environment, 4(4), 62–76. https://doi.org/10.3126/ije. v4i4.14099 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajet pa ge 1 pa ge 9 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) foreign direct investment, trade openness and environmental degradation in ssa countries. a quadratic modeling and turning point approach enongene betrand ewane1*, etah ivo ewane2 volume 2 issue 1, year 2023 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v2i1.1414 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: march 21, 2023 accepted: april 29, 2023 published: may 09, 2023 the consequences of carbon dioxide (co2) emissions in sub saharan africa (ssa) countries cannot be ignore given it adverse effect on human health and global warming. with rising co2 emissions and fallen volume of trade openness and fdi inflows in recent time, we seek to examine the effect of trade openness and foreign direct investment (fdi) on environmental degradation using time series data from 1975 to 2020 in ssa. using the environmental kuznets curve (ekc) framework, the study employs a quadratic modeling and turning point approach to realize the study objectives. the findings reveals that (1) the trade openness-ekc and fdi-ekc does not hold given the presence of decreasing effects in the short run and increasing effects in the long run; (2) it confirms that a u-shaped trade openness-emissions and fdi-emission nexus holds given the decrease in trade openness and fdi in the short run and an increase in trade openness and fdi in the longrun; (3) the analysis supports the halo effect hypothesis before the turning point but the pollution haven hypothesis sets in after the turning point; (4) it shows evidence that trade openness and fdi contributes to reduce co2 emissions in the short but increase it in the long run. the study recommends that ssa countries should adopt stringent environmental policies to attain sustainable economic growth without associative harm to the environment. keywords co2 emission, foreign direct investment, trade openness, environmental degradation, quadratic modelling 1 department of economics, university of buea, cameroon 2 higher technical teachers training college, university of buea, cameroon * corresponding author’s e-mail: betrandenongene@yahoo.com introduction attaining environmental sustainability is indispensable to any nation irrespective of any economic activity. hence, understanding and reducing carbon dioxide(co2) emission and other forms of emissions on the environment is paramount to every nation to attain the united nations sustainable development goal by 2030 which aims to address climate change (adeleye et al., 2022). hossain (2012) reveal that the surge in co2 emission is a main threat to global warming and climate change for both developing and developed countries. recent environmental statistics further reveal that co2 emission has grown drastically in the last three decades because of human activities(duodu et al., 2021). as a result, environmental concern has attracted a lot of attention especially with the launch of the paris agreement and the kyoto protocol to combat climate change and mitigate the effects of co2 emissions on the environment (duodu et al., 2021). the situation is precarious in ssa countries with less stringent environmental policies and high poverty rate. the world bank report of 2020 indicates that subsahara africa has witnessed an increase in carbon dioxide emissions (in kilotons) from 708066.43 in 2010 to 823424.72 in 2018 (see figure 1). the trend further shows a continuous but fluctuating rise in co2 from 1990 to 2020. in 2014, it witness a double rise in co2 by 7.52% compared to 1.88% in 2013. however, in 2015 the carbon emissions reduces by 4.11% but a 2.6% increase was again witnessed in 2016 and after 2016, there has been a continuous increased (see figure 1). with this increase in co2 emissions, environmental quality is adversely affected especially with the inflow of fdi and openness to trade. it is argued that fdi inflows lead to more co2 emissions especially as investors explore cheaper means of production which is hazardous to the environment(nyeadi, 2022). this is particularly true for developing countries like ssa with relaxed environmental regulations thereby attracting firms with high pollution levels from developed countries a situation known as pollution haven hypothesis (phh) (yakubu & musah, 2022). at the same time, it is claimed that fdi contributes positively to the economy of the host country in the domain of knowledge diffusion, technological transfer, and access to markets(wei & zhou, 2022). however, due to the consequences of fdi on the environment, most countries in ssa have started putting in strict environmental policies for investors to achieve sustainable development reason why fdi has dropped in recent times. the world bank report indicates that fdi as a percentage of gdp increased from 2.3% in 2010 to 2.6% in 2015 but it has witnessed a drop of 1.9% in 2016 to 1.8% in 2020. trade openness is also a key factor that worsens environmental degradation as it increases the size of the economy leading to an increase in pollution (nguyen, 2022). pollution can be exported through the importation of goods and services when free trade increases. this put more pressure on the environment as inputs such as energy and timber increase the volume of water and air pollution emissions. many empirical studies in ssa have validated the phh on trade-emissions nexus by revealing that trade in ssa increases environmental pollution (duodu et al., 2021). however, the world bank reports indicates that trade openness as a percentage of gdp in ssa has drop from 22.4% in 2017 to 20% in 2020. https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v2i1.1414 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee mailto:betrandenongene%40yahoo.com?subject= pa ge 10 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 9-18, 2023 figure 1: trend of co2 (kilo tons) from 1975 to 2020 source: author’s computation there is still an ongoing debate regarding the relationship between fdi, trade openness, and environmental degradation. while some previous studies find fdi and trade openness to positively affect the environment, others believe they are environmentally friendly especially with ecologically friendly technologies. this research contributes to the ongoing debate in the context of ssa countries in the following ways; (1) by testing the validity of the phh and polo hypothesis. (2) to establish the exact turning point of trade openness and fdi, (3) to assess if the trade opennesskuznets curve hypothesis holds (4) to test if the fdi-kuznets hypothesis holds (5) to find out if trade openness and fdi exhibit a monotonic (increasing or decreasing) relationship with environmental degradation in ssa. literature review the relationship between trade openness, fdi, and carbon dioxide emission is diverse with a heterogeneous conclusion. the difference in conclusion is based on variables used, method of data analysis, and scope of study. different factors influence environmental degradation which will be examined in the course of the extant literature. however, the literature will be examined under separate headings. trade openness and carbon dioxide emissions there is a lack of consensus concerning trade openness and co2 emission (karedla et al., 2021). while some studies support the hypothesis that trade openness intensifies environmental degradation(al-mulali et al., 2016; jun et al., 2020; shahzad et al., 2017; tariq et al., 2018; wen & dai, 2020), others are in support that environmental degradation reduces when trade openness increases (cui et al., 2015; ghazouani et al., 2020; shahbaz & sinha, 2017). sun et al (2020) reveals that trade will decrease environmental pollution in ssa countries in the longrun. the square term for trade openness further indicates the presents of environmental kuznets curve (ekc) hypothesis. similarly, simplice & nicholas (2021) using 49 ssa countries as a case study from 2000–2018 found that increasing trade openness affects co2 emissions while increased in fdi negatively affects co2 emissions. they also found a kuznets shape between trade and co2 emissions while a u-shape relationship was found between co2 emissions and fdi inflows. contrary, asongu & odhiambo (2020) using 49 ssa countries from 2000-2018 reveals that trade has a negative and significant effect on carbon dioxide emissions. the study further indicates that the minimum trade threshold for ssa countries to experience green economy as a percentage of gdp is 100. yue et al (2021) conclude that trade openness affects carbon emission positively in china, japan, and rok fta countries from 1970 to 2019. similarly, duan et al (2022) indicates that financial development and trade openness boost co2 emissions in china from 1997 to 2020 using a pvar model. also, alfred & haug (2019) using a linear and nonlinear ardl found that an increase in imports positively affect co2 emissions in the long run while an increase in export does not increase co2 emissions in turkey. similarly, muratn (2019) using developing countries found that in the long run, trade openness and fdi are the main determinants of co2 emissions. likewise, chen et al (2021) in a panel data of 64 countries along the belt and road for 18 years indicate that trade openness improvement has a significantly positive effect on co2 emissions. in a related study, hdom & fuinhas (2020) indicates that the more the brazilian economy is open to trade, the more polluted it becomes. rauf et al (2018) indicates that in industrialized economies, manufacturing contributes positively toward pollution levels. equally, chhabra et al (2023) reveals that trade openness is the cause of environmental degradation in the brics nations from 1991 to 2019. sajeev & kaur (2020) indicates that developing countries that have fewer environmental regulations and are open to trade and fdi, https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 11 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 9-18, 2023 witness an increase in co2 emissions. similarly, yu et al. (2019) indicated that trade openness has a double-edged effect when decrease indirectly in cis countries. they found trade openness to increase co2. likewise, ertugrul et al (2016) found that in the top ten developing countries, trade openness and energy consumption are key factors of co2 emissions which results in high pollution. contrary, karedla et al (2021) using ardl for a period of 45 years reveals that in the longrun, trade openness significantly decreases co2 emissions in india. zhang et al (2017) found that trade openness negatively affects carbon emissions in ten countries. similarly, (appiah et al., 2022; dauda et al., 2021; khan et al., 2022) found a significant negative effect of trade on environmental sustainability. however, (keun-yeob & bhuyan, 2018) using bangladesh as a case study for 38 years reveals that in both the short and longrun, a negative and insignificant relationship exist between trade liberalization and environmental degradation. other studies found contradictory results. keho (2016) using ecowas as a case study obtain mixed results across countries. he reveals that in some countries trade worsens degradation via air quality while it is environmentally friendly in other countries. wang & zhang (2021) observed that in low-income countries there is a positive relationship between pollution and trade openness while in middles income countries the nexus is negative. similarly, jayanthakumaran et al (2012) also observed the relationship is negative in china but positive in india. le et al (2016) stressed that the quality of the environment may be worsen through trade but the effect differs across regions. sun et al (2019) using saarc countries found both positive and negative impacts of trade on emissions. they found that in saarc countries, trade and fdi have a long run positive effect on environmental degradation while in the short run, a negative relationship was witnessed between fdi and trade inflows with co2 emissions. fdi and environmental degradation the “pollution heaven” hypothesis indicates that in the host country, fdi affects the natural environment while the “pollution halo” hypothesis points out that fdi improves the natural environment of the host country (wei & zhou, 2022). starting with regional specific studies, duodu et al (2021) employs the gmm across 23 ssa countries and conclude that in the short run when fdi is merged with policies and institutions for environmental sustainability, it deteriorates environmental quality but in the long run, the quality of the environment is improved. equally, kivyiro & arminen (2014) using six ssa countries from 19712009 in an ardl framework concludes that fdi has a positive and significant effect on carbon emissions in zimbabwe but a negative and significant impact in south africa, kenya, and the democratic republic of congo. ojewumi & akinlo (2017) also used panel vector error correction to reveal that fdi positively and significantly affects co2 emissions in 33 ssa countries from 1980 to 2013. similarly, ssali et al (2019) examine the relationship between co2 emission, economic growth, and fdi in 6 selected ssa countries from 1980-2014. using the ardl and pmg estimator, the results reveal that fdi does not have any significant impact on co2 emission while gdp and energy use reduce environmental quality. in addition, asongu & odhiambo (2020) using 49 ssa countries from 2000-2018 reveals that fdi has a positive and significant effect on carbon dioxide emissions. the study further indicates that the minimum fdi threshold for ssa countries to experience green economy as a percentage of gdp is 200. contrary, adams et al (2020) also found that fdi and regulatory quality has a significant negative effect on environmental quality across 19 ssa countries for 31 years using dfe model and gmm. ganda (2020) using 44 ssa countries for 14 years showed that renewable energy consumption and financial development negatively affect environmental quality while economic growth positively affects environmental quality. in other economies, bongsuk et al (2018) found that fdi decreases co2 emission levels in the chinese manufacturing sector from 2002–2015. similarly, abdulkadir et al (2018) using pmg estimators found that fdi inflows negatively affect environment degradation in gcc for 24 years. also, binyam & sylvanus (2020) using a meta-analysis of 65 primary studies indicates that fdi can significantly reduce co2 only after accounting for heterogeneity. to et al (2019) with a focus on emerging markets in asia from 1980–2016 found that fdi has a strong impact on the environment. likewise, huang et al (2022) using g20 economies from 1996 to 2018 reveals that the nexus between fdi inflows and co2 emissions is positive. however, in countries with advanced development and regulatory quality, carbon emissions can be mitigated. similarly, nyeadi (2022) found a positive and significant relationship between fdi and carbon dioxide in low-income countries. based on the pollution heaven hypothesis and fully modified least squares (fmols) technique yakubu & musah (2022) concludes that fdi inflows positively and significantly drive environmental pollution in ghana from 2000q1-2017q4. bunyaminu & yakubu (2022) also found that fdi inflows decreases renewable energy demand but increases carbon dioxide emissions in africa, hence supporting the phh. similarly, khalid & zaitouni (2021) support the phh in philippines only while in malaysia and singapore they support the pollution halo hypothesis. also, some empirical studies rebut the phh by indicating that fdi reduces environmental pollution(al-nimer et al., 2022; kathuria, 2016; nathaniel et al., 2020; pradhan et al., 2022; shahbaz et al., 2019; c. zhang & zhou, 2016). however, some empirical studies found contradictory results by accepting or rejecting the phh base on the nexus between fdi and environmental pollution(huynh & hoang, 2019; kisswani & zaitouni, 2021; yilanci et al., 2020). https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 12 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 9-18, 2023 some empirical studies did not find any significant relationship between fdi and co2 emissions. ponce et al (2022) used 100 countries for 39years to conclude that the role of foreign direct investment on the environment is not stable over time. similarly, jugurnath & emrith (2018) found that fdi does not significantly increase the levels of co2 emissions in sids countries. in addition, alfred & haug (2019) found that increases in fdi have no longrun significant effects on co2 emissions per capita. methodology data the study makes use of time series data in ssa from world development indicators from 1975 to 2020. carbon dioxide emission measured in kilo tons per capita is the dependent variable while trade openness (% of gdp) and fdi inflows (% of gdp) are the independent variables. population growth and economic growth in dollars are control variables. past studies have made use of these control variables. for economic growth see (adedoyin et al., 2021; akam et al., 2021; chontanawat, 2020), for population growth see (adedoyin & bekun, 2020; bhat, 2018; yasin et al., 2020) estimation technique we initiate our empirical analysis by first conducting the unit root test to ascertain the order integration. the risk of non-stationary series cannot be over emphasized as it results to spurious regression(gujarati, 2004). hence, the study make use of adf and zivot andrew unit root test, which shows evidence of i(1) series (see appendix 3 and 4). we also conducted the summary statistics to display the averages, deviations, minimum, and maximum values (see appendix 1) and the correlation test to make sure no multicollinearity exist in the series (see appendix 2). the pairwise correlation table in appendix 2 reveals that all variables are positively link to carbon missions. in addition, there is no evidence of exact linear dependence among the regressors as all the correlation statistics are below 0.70(ewane & abonongi, 2022) since our interest is to find out if the relationship between trade openness, fdi, and co2 emission is non linear or monotonic, we employ a quadratic function which allows the effect of the independent variable (x) on the dependent variable to change. that is as the value of x increases, the impact of the dependent variable increases or decreases. the technique is use to find the equation of the parabola that best fits a set of dataa second order polynomial model with the presence of a square term. as a result, we get an equation of the form: y=ax2+bx+c where a≠0. empirical specification adopting the study of adeleye et al (2022) and adeleye (2023), the model with carbon dioxide emission express as a linear function of control variables is specified as follows; logc02t = β0 + β1logtot + β2logpopt + β3loggdpt +μ..1 logc02t = β0 + β1fdit + β2logpopt +β3loggdpt +μ……2 to find evidence of the trade openness-ekc and fdiekc, both the level and square term of trade openness and fdi are included in equations 1 and 2 as shown below. logc02t = β0 + β1logtot + β2(logtot ) 2+ β3 logpopt +β4 loggdpt +μ……3 logc02t = β0 + β1fdit + β2(fdit )2+ β3 logpopt +β4 loggdpt +μ……4 where co2 is the carbon dioxide emission per capita; to is trade openness; fdi is foreign direct investment; pop is population; gdp is growth domestic product. β1, β2, β3, β4 are parameters to be estimated while μ is the error term. from equation 3 and 4, the various forms of the relationship between trade openness, fdi, and carbon dioxide emission can be tested as follows; β1< 0, β2> 0, the relationship is a u-shaped β1> 0, β2< 0, the relationship is inverse u-shaped β1> 0, β2> 0, the relationship is monotonically increasing linear β1< 0, β2< 0 the relationship is monotonically decreasing linear β1= 0, β2= 0, the relationship is level. however, deriving the turning point works with the outcome of β1< 0, β2> 0, β1> 0, β2< 0, and β1 and β2 must be significant(adeleye et al., 2022) the turning points from equation 3 and 4 can be obtained by taking the first derivatives and setting the equation to zero as follows; (∂logc02/∂logto) =β1 +(β2*2)logto=0 β1= (β2*2)logto → logto*=-o.5 (β1/β2) (∂logc02/∂logfdi) =β1 +(β2*2)logfdi=0 β1= (β2*2)logfdi → logfdi*=-o.5 (β1/β2) where logto* and logfdi* represents the threshold of trade openness and fdi outside which it decreases or increases carbon emissions based on the signs of β1 and β2 such that: β1<0, β2> 0 for u-shape relationship or β1> 0, β2< 0 for inverse u-shape relationship. the trade or fdi turning point of this curve is computed as follows; τ=0.5 (β1⁄β2 )………5 however, equation 5 has to be converted into it exponential form to obtain the real values. the exponential form of the equation become thus; τ=exp0.5 (β1⁄β2 ) to make sure the turning point stays within the limit values of trade openness and fdi, some variables are estimated at levels while others are in their log forms. the a priori expectation is such that β1, β2, β3, β4>0. results and discussion the linear results in table 1 reveals that population https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 13 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 9-18, 2023 and economic growth positively affect environmental degradation. hence, a 1% increase in each of them will increase cardo dioxide emission by 29.9% and 22.7% respectively and both are significant at 1% level. the results is consistent with the nonlinear results. thus, rising population and advanced economic growth in ssa countries deteriorate environmental degradation. the linear result of trade openness is negatively related to environmental degradation. a 1% increase in trade openness reduces co2 emissions by 16.8% at a 1% significant level. furthermore, the nonlinear square term of trade openness is positive and significant violating the inverted u-shaped ekc theory (see figure 2) but validates a u-shape relationship. this implies that countries in ssa countries reach a threshold limits after which the deteriorating effect of trade openness on the environment starts to increase. with a turning point of 3.54 (see figure 2), trade openness initially declines environmental degradation but as trade advances outside the optimal point of 34.5 (% of gdp), the level of emissions rises causing environmental degradation the second estimate is that where fdi is the main explanatory variable. the linear results indicate that population negatively affects environmental degradation while economic growth has a positive impact at a 1% significant level. the findings is also true with that of the nonlinear results. also, the linear results reveal that fdi has a negative impact on environmental degradation. that is a percentage increase in fdi reduces carbon dioxide emission by 10.5% at a 1% significant level. the linear results of equation 1 and 2 indicates that liberalizing trade and encouraging fdi decreases the adverse effect of co2 emissions in ssa, which improve environmental quality (acheampong et al., 2019; alvarado et al., 2022) however, the non linear square term of fdi is positively related to environmental degradation, which contradicts the ekc theory (see figure 2). this indicates that in the long run, fdi cause harm to the environment. this conclusion is vital because ssa countries attract fdi by adopting less stringent environmental laws. the turning point occurs at 2.19(see figure 2) indicating that at 8.9% (% of gdp) turnaround point, carbon emission starts to increase. this implies that ssa witness a fall in environmental sustainability at the early stage of development through fdi but once a threshold point is attain, the effect on the environment deteriorates. hence, the early development stage supports the halo effect hypothesis while the pollution haven hypothesis sets in after the turning point. the rationale for this positive rise in environmental degradation is due to reallocation of firms with high polluting from developed countries with high-income who have strict rules on regulating quality to developing countries with low-income who have less strict environmental regulations (chang et al., 2019; doytch & uctum, 2016). table 1: linear and nonlinear regression variables equation (1) estimates variables equation (2) estimates linear non-linear linear non-linear logpop 0.299*** 0.337*** logpop -0.585*** -0.500*** -0.0738 -0.0902 -0.0701 -0.0993 loggdp 0.227*** 0.209*** loggdp 0.193*** 0.178*** -0.0336 -0.039 -0.028 -0.03 logto -0.168*** -1.783** fdi -0.0163 -0.105*** -0.0531 -2.082 -0.0157 -0.0628 logtosquare 0.251*** fdisquare 0.0228* -0.324 -0.013 turning point 3.5393973 turning point 2.1865719 constant 1.536* 3.832 constant 7.505*** 6.255*** -0.764 -2.931 -0.788 -1.235 observations 46 46 observations 46 46 r-squared 0.945 0.945 r-squared 0.651 0.673 f-statistic 699.19 715.86 f-statistic 49.4 44.79 prob > f 0 0 prob > f 0 0 robust standard errors in parentheses *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 source: author’s computation https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 14 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 9-18, 2023 conclusion the link between fdi, trade openness, and carbon dioxide emissions is an ongoing debate. we contributes to the recent debate by means of a time series data in ssa countries from 1975 to 2020. employing a quadratic modeling and turning point technique, we found that; (1) the trade openness and fdi does follow the ekc hypothesis due to the presence of decreasing effects in the short run and increasing effect in the long run; (2) the u-shaped trade openness and fdi-emission nexus holds given the decreasing effect of trade openness and fdi in the short run and an increasing effect of trade openness and fdi in the long run; (3) the analysis supports the halo effect hypothesis before the turning point but the pollution haven hypothesis sets in after the turning point; (4) it shows evidence that trade openness and fdi negatively and significantly effect environmental degradation in the short run but positively and significantly contributes to environmental degradation in the long run. the negative effect of trade openness and fdi on environmental degradation can be mitigated through stringent environmental policies to safeguard environmental sustainability. this is plausible through the adoption of green technologies that are environmentally friendly in producing goods and services. also, the transport sector which is recognized as the sector with high co2 emissions should be modernized to avoid co2 emissions to the earth’s surface which causes health problems. in addition, to avoid pollution, the government of each ssa country should initiate a co2 emission management schemed to reduce the negative effects of co2 emissions. trade openness should be encouraged among member countries in ssa countries as they 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(2017). transboundary health impacts of transported global air pollution and international trade. nature, 543, 705–709. https://doi. org/https://doi.org/10.1038/nature21712 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 18 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 9-18, 2023 table 1: descriptive statistics variable obs mean std. dev. min max logco2 46 13.169 0.294 12.616 13.66 logpop 46 20.245 0.365 19.622 20.851 loggdp 46 26.999 0.816 25.617 28.246 logto 46 3.232 0.148 2.876 3.502 fdip 46 1.438 .987 .069 3.854 source: authors’ computations table 2: pairwise correlations variables logco2 logpop loggdp logto fdi logco2 1.000 logpop 0.949 1.000 loggdp 0.963 0.653 1.000 logto 0.154 0.253 0.230 1.000 fdi 0.704 0.575 0.517 0.516 1.000 source: authors’ computations table 3: adf unit root test variables test statistics at levels p-value test statistics at first difference p-vales decision co2 -0.783 0.8241 -4.353 0.0004 1(1) logpop -1.568 0.4998 -3.765 0.0033 1(1) loggdp -1.093 0.7180 -3.661 0.0047 1(1) logto -2.511 0.1128 -6.114 0.0000 1(1) fdi -1.161 0.6903 -5.432 0.0000 1(1) logfdi -0.625 0.8653 -6.814 0.0000 1(1) source: authors’ computations appendixes table 4: zavot-andrew unit root test variables test statistics at levels test statistics at first difference break date decision co2 -2.859 -6.459 1995 1(1) logpop -3.523 -2.603 1996 1(1) loggdp -3.083 -4.578 1984 1(1) logto -3.897 -6.359 2001 1(1) fdi -3.357 -6.374 2000 1(1) logfdi -4.252 -11.065 1998 1(1) note cv @ 5%=-4.42, source: authors’ computations https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 1 pa ge 5 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) water resources, pollution, integrated management and practices in nigeria – an overview godspower oke omokaro1*, vivian idama2, edmond osemwengie airueghian3, ikioukenigha michael4 volume 3 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v3i1.2593 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: march 13, 2024 accepted: april 06, 2024 published: april 10, 2024 this paper provides a comprehensive overview of nigeria’s water landscape, focusing on its abundant surface and underground water sources and the agencies responsible for water resources development and management. findings reveals that the country boasts vast freshwater reserves, encompassing surface and groundwater, intricate river drainage systems, numerous dams, and managed aquifer formations, primarily overseen by river basin development authorities. despite these resources, nigeria faces severe pollution challenges, especially in the niger delta, resulting from oil-related activities and causing environmental degradation, health crises, and enduring ecosystem consequences. approximately 13 million barrels of oil spills have adversely impacted coastal wetlands, mangroves, and agricultural lands. elevated levels of heavy metal pollution, exceeding recommended guidelines, pose significant threats to public health, emphasizing the lasting impact of persistent oil spillage on fishery production and aquatic organisms. river basin development authorities have made substantial contributions, challenges persist in catchment management and the indiscriminate disposal of hazardous substances. the absence of effective environmental policies necessitates urgent, coordinated action from federal and state governments. nigeria must prioritize integrated water management practices to strike a delicate balance between resource utilization and preservation for the benefit of current and future generations. this manuscript relies on secondary sources, utilizing key search terms such as “water resources in nigeria,” “water pollution in nigeria,” “water supply and demand in nigeria,” “water management in nigeria,” and “integrated water practices in nigeria.” data were sourced from reputable institutions, including the federal ministry of water resources, the world bank, united nations environmental protection (unep), usaid’s sustainable water partnership, and various scientific publications, ensuring the reliability of the presented data. keywords nigeria water resources, integrated water management, surface and groundwater, water pollution, water availability 1 institute of ecology, peoples friendship university of russia, moscow, russia 2 school of public health, i.m. sechenov first moscow state medical university, moscow, russia 3 department of soil science and land management, university of benin, benin city, nigeria 4 department of geography and regional planning, igbinedion university, okada, edo state, nigeria * corresponding author’s e-mail: omokaro.kelly@gmail.com introduction water resources are natural resources of water that are potentially useful for humans, for example as a source of drinking water supply or irrigation water. it plays a major role in the development of any nation most especially in socio-economic development, preservation, and protection of the environment; therefore, its importance is generally well known. however, nigeria as a nation is rich in natural resources which includes water resources, which is also an important source for its national and economic development. nigeria as a country is faced with lots of environmental challenges and water pollution is widely among them. it is known that problem of water resources is of three main types: namely too little water, too much water, and polluted water (adebola, 2001). in nigeria, the problem of water resources is the availability of good-quality (potable) water because of environmental pollution and degradation (efe, 2001); beside this, valuable man-hours and resources are spent traveling long distances fetching water of doubtful quality. more so, previous studies have shown that water resources in nigeria are easily contaminated from anthropogenic activities (orisakwe et al., 2001; nduka et al., 2009). several publications have reported the unregulated discharge of untreated effluents into natural receptors by industries in nigeria (egborge, 2000). the rapid urbanization and industrialization of the niger delta region of nigeria occasioned by huge crude oil and gas reserves has had its toll on the environment (nduka et al. 2008) most especially on water resources in the entire region. the us department of energy estimates that since 1960, there has been more than 4,000 oil spills, discharging several million barrels of crude oil into the ponds, ditches, creeks, beaches, streams, and rivers of the niger delta (amaize, 2007); hence there is need for stringent environmental laws and policy. majority of nigeria’s environmental problems are because of the ineffective implementation of environmental laws. these challenges range from lack of governmental water supply (availability of freshwater resources, such as rivers, lakes, groundwater, and reservoirs, that can be used for various purposes), infrastructure to properly implement environmental laws, high corruption/poor governance, and lack of maintenance of facilities that aids its implementation. however, the study seeks to explore nigeria’s water resources, pollution sources and types, integrated management, and practices and provide possible suggestions relating to the water problem in nigeria through secondary data. pa ge 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 5-18, 2024 literature review water resources in nigeria nigeria is located in western africa on the gulf of guinea and has a total area of 923,768 km2 (356,669 sq mi), making it the world’s 32nd-largest country. nigeria has 36 states, many of which are so rich in water resources, and some of these states were named after rivers. the land area is located within the tropics where its climate is semi-arid in the north gradually becoming humid in the south. however, apart from the surface water found in nearly every part of the country, the country is also endowed with plenty of underground water. with 215 cubic kilometers a year of surface water availability, this amount is much higher than many african countries especially those in the southern and northern regions of the continent. the surface water resources potential of the country is estimated at 267.3 billion cubic meters while the groundwater potential is 51.9 billion cubic meters (national water policy of federal republic of nigeria, 2014). three broad ecological zones are commonly distinguished in the country: i) the northern sudan savannah, ii) the guinea savannah zone or middle belt, and iii) the southern rainforest zone. based on rainfall and temperature, the county is divided into eight agro-ecological zones (fao, 2016). these zones are presented in a north-south succession, except the mountainous zone which is found at the border with cameroon and the plateau zone in the center of the country. the peculiar and variable nature of nigeria in location and climate has given rise to certain water resource issues in the country. these issues range from precipitation to management of these resources. the annual precipitation ranges from 400mm in the northeastern part to about 2000mm in the south-eastern part of the country (ishaku & majid, 2010; fao, 2016). table 1: agro-ecological zones in nigeria zone description percentage of country area annual rainfall (mm) monthly temperature 0c minimum maximum semi-arid 4 400-600 13 40 dry sub-humid 27 600-1000 12 45 sub-humid 26 1000-1300 14 37 humid 21 1100-1400 18 37 very humid 14 1120-2000 21 37 ultra humid (flood) 2 >2000 23 33 mountainous 4 1400-2000 5 32 plateau 2 1400-1500 14 36 (fao, 2016) figure 1: map of water resources pa ge 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 5-18, 2024 methodology the data and information presented in this manuscript were sourced from secondary sources, including various scientific publications and reputable research institutions. key search terms and phrases employed to identify these resources encompassed “water resources in nigeria,” “water pollution in nigeria,” “water supply and demand in nigeria,” “water management in nigeria,” and “integrated water practices in nigeria.” the majority of the data were acquired from sources such as the federal ministry of water resources of the federal republic of nigeria, the world bank, united nations environmental protection (unep), and usaid’s sustainable water partnership, among others. subsequently, the sourced materials were downloaded, thoroughly examined, and appropriately cited. result and discussion surface water resources in nigeria nigeria’s surface waters primarily drain through the niger and lake chad basin, in addition to several smaller coastal river basins (adelodun & choi, 2018). however, according to federal ministry of water resources on national water resources policy (2016), nigeria organizes its basins into eight hydrological areas (ha) the niger north, niger central, niger south, upper benue, and lower benue has formed the lower reaches of the niger basin. nigeria is divided into eight hydrological areas for the purpose of water resources management, considering hydrological and topographical conditions, as shown below. table 2: the eight hydrological areas hydrological area area (103km3) mainly related rbdas mainly related states ha-1 niger north 135.1 sokoto-rima katsina, zamfara, sokoto, kebbi ha-2 niger central 154.6 upper niger, lower niger niger, kwara, kaduna, kogi, fct ha-3 upper benue 156.5 upper benue adamawa, taraba, gombe, bauchi ha-4 lower benue 74.5 lower benue plateau, nasarawa, benue, kogi ha-5 niger south 53.9 anambra-imo, niger delta bayelsa, delta, edo, kogi, anambra, rivers ha-6 western littoral 99.3 ogun-osun, benin-owena lagos, ogun, oyo, osun, ondo, edo, ekiti ha-7 eastern littoral 57.4 cross river abia, anambra, imo, enugu, ebonyi, cross river, akwa ibom, rivers ha-8 lake chad 178.5 hadejia-jama’are, chad kano, jigawa, yobe, borno, bauchi, adamawa, plateau adopted from ibrahim et al. (2021) collectively, they drain almost two-thirds of the country and account for about 60 percent of total runoff (idu, 2015). the niger river originates in guinea and outlets to the gulf of guinea through the niger delta, which is the third largest delta in the world covering 70,000 km2 and containing seven percent of the world’s mangroves (linden and palsson, 2013; fao, 2020) the benue river is the largest and most important tributary of the niger river in nigeria. the north-eastern lake chad ha drains the western limits of the lake chad basin, which spans eight countries and forms lake chad along the border between nigeria, chad, and cameroon. the largest river in the chad basin ha is the komadougou yobe which has a number of seasonal tributaries, including the hadejia, jama’are, and komadougou gena ((fao aquastat, 2016). water availability in the lake chad ha has declined due to the recession of lake chad because of drought and overexploitation. in the 1960s, lake chad spanned 25,000 km2 and had roughly onequarter of its surface within nigeria. during this time, demand for water increased significantly from agricultural communities around the lake joint environmental audit, 2015; vivekananda et al., 2019). major sahelian droughts reduced lake chad’s coverage by 90 percent to 2,000 km2, however, the lake’s coverage has somewhat recovered to 14,000 km2. the western littoral ha has relatively low runoff, whereas the eastern littoral ha, which includes the cross and imo rivers, has high precipitation and generates about 30 percent of national runoff (idu, 2015; pharm-duc et al., 2020). groundwater resources groundwater resources are controlled by hydrogeology of the country and follow the pattern of occurrence of the aquifers, aquitards or aquicludes (idu, 2015). there are four major aquifers in nigeria according to adelena, (2012) reports, these are; basement aquifers these consist of crystalline and coarse-grained rocks and argillaceous meta-sedimentary rocks. generally, have low yields. thickness varies from 10 to 25 m; with water table depth varying from about 5 to 15m. depending on local conditions, boreholes tend to be drilled to depths between 10 and 70m. sedimentary aquifers they generally consist of thick sequences of sediments with yields between 2 and 60l/s; water table depth between 10 and 40m; and borehole depths from 20m to pa ge 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 5-18, 2024 150m. coastal sedimentary basins have borehole depths between 10m and 800m and yields between 2 and 60l/s. volcanic plateau it is found around jos plateau and bauchi state of nigeria. the rock types are mainly olivine basalts, coriaceous lavas and tuffs. these rocks form typically unconfined aquifers with low to moderate yields, usually below 3l/s. aquifer thickness varies substantially. water table depth is less than 5m. borehole depths of 15 to 50m are common. river alluvium aquifers it occur along the valleys of major rivers and streams ranging from the thin discontinuous sands occurring in the smallest streams to the thick alluvial deposits of rivers niger and benue. they may occupy strips of country up to 15km wide on each side of the river. they are thickest (15-30m thick) along the rivers niger and benue and are largely unconfined with shallow water tables. however, most of nigeria’s groundwater exists in basement complexes or sedimentary basins. alluvium aquifers are less common but are the most productive groundwater systems. groundwater recharge rates are lowest in the northwest (estimates from 4-28mm/ year) and highest in the southeast (estimates from 281 1,047mm/year) (adelana, 2012). basement complexes cover 60 percent of nigeria and are located throughout the southwest, in the central region, and along the eastern border with cameroon. most of these groundwater systems have shallow depths to the water table (5-15m) and low to moderate well yields (fao aquastat, 2016). sedimentary aquifers underlay most of the northeast and northwest, and along the upper reaches of the niger and benue rivers. the best-yielding aquifers are in the northwest, northeast, and central regions. aquifers in the northern sedimentary basin typically have both confined and unconfined layers. unconfined aquifer depths range between 15-75m in the northwest and 30-100m in the northeast. alluvium aquifers broadly follow the paths of the niger and benue rivers in relatively narrow bands and underlie most of the niger delta. in these aquifers, groundwater can be easily accessed at shallowest depths (0-10m) with high yields (fao aquastat, 2016; earthwise accessed 2024). nigerian groundwater can be best divided into three hydro-meteorological areas based on its availability (idu, 2015) and presented in table 3; table 3: hydro-meteorological areas of nigeria’s groundwater hydro-meteorological areas related river basins characteristics 1 sahel zone sokoto, hadejia-jama’are-yobe and the south-east chad low annual precipitation of 500-750mm 2 guinea savannah zone kaduna, benue (upper and lower), and the niger (upper and lower) mean annual precipitation of 1000-1250 mm 3 tropical rain forest zone anambra, cross river, kwa-iboe, niger delta and the southwestern coastal heavy precipitation from 1250mm-4000mm source: idu, (2015) however, around three-quarters of all irrigation withdrawals are from groundwater through traditional, dry-season flood plain irrigation known as fadama (national et al. plan, 2013). groundwater is also the main domestic water source for approximately 60 percent of the population in rural and urban areas. however, data on groundwater use and sustainability is limited and requires more systematic monitoring. average water levels in shallow aquifers in the northeast have declined over 13 meters (gronwall et al., 2010; yusuf et al., 2018 and cobbing, 2020). groundwater is generally available at lower depths; however, deeper wells are more expensive (adelana, 2012; adeyeye, 2020). recharge rates have declined significantly as dams have reduced the extent of wet season inundation of flood plains (joint environmental audit, 2015). research and systematic monitoring of groundwater levels throughout southern nigeria is lacking, although there is some indication that overpumping is contributing to subsidence (land sinking) in coastal cities such as lagos. additionally, groundwater demand is high in the northern kano region, which is home to one-third of the total population. despite above average precipitation in recent years, groundwater levels across the kano metropolitan area are declining, largely due to over-abstraction and urbanization which reduce recharge (abdulhamid et al., 2014; mahmud et al., 2016; tukur et al., 2018). climatic condition and water resources in nigeria nigeria is characterized by three distinct climate zones, a tropical monsoon climate in the south, a tropical savannah climate for most of the central regions, and a sahelian hot and semi-arid climate in the north of the country. this leads to a gradient of declining precipitation amounts from south to north. the southern regions experience strong rainfall events during the rainy season from march to october, with annual rainfall amounts usually above 2,000 mm and can reach 4,000 mm and more in the niger delta. the central regions are governed by a well-defined single rainy season (april to september) and dry season (december to march). the harmattan wind from sahara influences the dry season. coastal areas experience a short, drier season, with most rain occurring from march to october. annual rainfall can reach up to about 1200 mm. in the north, rain only falls from june to september in the range of 500 mm to 750 mm. the rest of the pa ge 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 5-18, 2024 year is hot and dry. northern areas have a high degree of annual variation in its rainfall regime, which results in flooding and droughts (world bank group climate change knowledge portal, 2020). most of nigeria experiences distinct wet and dry seasons, which are known to cause high seasonal variability in water supply. the wet season is shorter (mayseptember) in the north compared to the south where it lasts at least 9 months (march-november). climate change has caused average temperatures to increase by 0.8°c between 1960 and 2006, with a particularly steep increase since 1980, while annual precipitation has decreased (usaid, 2019; butu and emeribe, 2019). between 1971 and 2012, heat waves have increased in the guinea and sahel regions. dry seasons have become longer, and wet season rainfall variability has increased. droughts are also more frequent and affect larger areas, while extreme flooding has increased. in northern nigeria, rainfall has declined by 25 percent in the past 30 years. climate change is projected to further increase temperatures by 1.9-3.7°c, while total precipitation may increase slightly. total water availability is projected to decrease due to increased evaporation (abatan et al., 2016; elisha et al., 2017; shiru et al., 2018; haider, 2019). sea levels may rise between 1.53 feet, potentially submerging more than 11,000 square miles, where many of the most densely populated cities and towns are located, including lagos (king, 2017). reports has it that an estimated 20 percent of the population face flood risks. however, flood risks are highest in riverine communities in the downstream reaches of the niger, benue, and cross rivers, and lagos state. the lower basin states throughout southern nigeria have experienced a 20 percent increase in recorded volumes of torrential rains in the past 40 years. this has accelerated gully erosion in the southeast where many riverbanks have collapsed. in 2012, widespread flooding affected almost every nigerian state, damaging, or destroying 600,000 houses, displacing over 2 million people, and causing almost usd $17 billion in losses to the economy (relief web, 2012; cirella and iyalombe, 2018; unfccc, 2020; njoku et al., 2020). climate change will continue to lower rainfall in northern nigeria and increase the frequency of severe droughts. desertification will worsen these risks. in addition to drought, desertification is driven by poor water resources management and land use changes, overgrazing, and deforestation. between 50-75 percent of the land in the 11 northernmost states are impacted by desertification. desertification is progressing southward at a rate of 0.6 kilometers per year and has contributed to the loss of nearly half the vegetation in the northernmost states between 1984 and 2016 (toye, 2002; haider, 2019; nwilo et al., 2020). a growing number of sand dunes have threatened oases and buried water points, and significantly reduced wetland coverage (adepelumi et al., 2009). water availability and regulation: supply, demand and management the federal ministry of water resources (fmwr) is the foremost agency for water, sanitation, and hygiene (wash) activities in nigeria. the ministry works with the national task group on sanitation (ntgs), and development partners on sanitation and hygiene issues. table 4: statutory bodies for water regulation in nigeria no. statutory body key provision 1. the oil in navigable waters act, 1968 prohibits water pollution by oil spillage 2. the petroleum act, 1969 covers prevention of pollution by inland waters, rivers, lakes, and watercourses 3. the river basin development authority (rbda) decree 25 of 1976 (repealed by no. 87 of 1979 and also latter by the rbda act, decree 35 of 1987, i.e. cap 396) in its present form cap. 396 spells out diverse functions and objectives for these authorities to ensure a pan-nigerian programme for water resources development 4. the environmental impact assessment (eia) decree, no. 86 of 1992 this law seeks to protect the physical and aquatic environment 5. water resources decree, no. 101 of 1993 vests the right to use and control all surface waters and groundwater and of all water in any watercourse affecting more than one state in the federal government, with provisions that any person may take water without charge for his domestic or livestock watering purposes (in any watercourse to which the public has free access) 6. the 1999 constitution of the federal republic of nigeria the constitution puts in the exclusive legislative list (ell) shipping and navigation on the river niger and its affluent and on any such other inland waterway as may be designated by the national assembly to be an interna tional waterway or to be an interstate waterway. the ell also includes water from such sources as may be declared by the national assembly to be sources affecting more than one state adopted from balogun and redina (2019) pa ge 10 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 5-18, 2024 the national standards and targets being followed are as stated in the 2010 water sector road map, vision 20:2020, the millennium development goals (mdgs), and the african water vision (who, 2013). the state and local governments under the umbrella of the state’s water corporation are primarily responsible for the provision of municipal and domestic water supply. however, the federal government often intervenes to increase access to meet these targets. even though monitoring and evaluation of water supply and regulation are not taken seriously enough, some agencies monitor activities in the wash sector. however, effective legislation could not be made to ascertain the quality of water supply and management. in compensation with the lack of insufficient quality water supply to the citizen, alternative market of water production by the private owners (traditional well water and borehole) took over the supply of water in the country. furthermore, there are three major level of government that share responsibility for the delivery of water supply services which are the federal, state, and local government. in some rural area or rural communities’ water and sanitation committees (wascos) are formed to operate and maintain water facilities. these committees are tasked with the duty of collecting water tariffs from inhabitants of these communities. donors such as the african development bank have set a requirement that at least 30% of members of wascos must be women (african development bank, 2012). in 1993 the government committed itself to reinforce community participation in rural water supply in a policy document which as of the year 2000 but the policy had not been dispersed or administered in all government or donor-financed programs. individual water supply services also known as alternative water supply system; mostly everywhere in the country, the residents practice or are engaged in this part of water supply service due to the shortcoming of water supply from the governmental water supply services. table 5: list of other regulations bearing on water resources in nigeria no. statutory body key provision 1. national policy on environment 1989 protection of the environment 2. national guidelines and standards for environ mental pollution control in nigeria 1991 pollution control in watercourses as part of the environment 3. national effluent limitation regulation 1991 control of discharge of industrial waste and sewage into watercourses 4. pollution abatement in industries and facilities generating wastes regulation 1991 control of industrial pollution 5. waste management regulation 1991 waste management adopted from balogun and redina (2019) figure 2: major water supply sources in nigeria source: balogun and redina (2019) nigeria’s 2013 national water resources master plan projects that total surface water demand will more than triple by 2030. the largest increases will be in the upper benue, lake chad, and western littoral has due to growing demand for irrigation. municipal demand is concentrated in the niger central and western littoral has whereas agricultural demand is concentrated in the lake chad and niger north has. nigeria also has over 200 dams (adelodun & choi, 2018). the kainji, shiroro, and jebba dams in the niger basin account for 70 percent of nigeria’s total dam storage capacity (jica, 2014). around 70 percent of all livestock is in northeastern nigeria. major droughts in the 1970s killed 13 percent of the region’s livestock and cut the agriculture sector’s contribution to the gdp by more than half (eze, 2018; adeyeye, 2020). key dams on the hadejia and komaduguyobe river have significantly reduced the coverage of key wetlands, especially hadejia-nguru wetlands and reduced lake chad’s coverage and surrounding pastures (pearce 2018; world et al. al., 2020). lake chad has high inter-annual and inter-seasonal rainfall variability. as a shallow lake, its coverage pa ge 11 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 5-18, 2024 fluctuates greatly with rainfall patterns, affecting the extent and viability of pastures, croplands, and fisheries (pearce, 2018; vivekananda et al., 2019). high poverty rates and unequal access to land and water resources amplify existing socio-economic tensions among ethnic and religious groups (anderson, 2019; adeyeye, 2020). food and water insecurity in northern nigeria have been important factors in helping boko haram recruit fighters while violent clashes between pastoralists and farmers are partly attributed to water scarcity and desertification (audu, 2014; muhammed et al., 2015; piesse, 2017). approximately 30 percent of local government areas (lgas) have medium to high flood risk. the highest risks are around the niger delta, along the niger, benue, and cross rivers, and in lagos state (njoku et al., 2020). poor urban planning and enforcement of existing zoning regulations has led to uncontrolled development in coastal zones and flood plains. lagos city is one of the largest and fastest growing cities in the world, and over two-thirds of its population reside in low lying flood plains (stark & terasawa, 2013; raji et al., 2014). stormwater infrastructure and drainage systems cover less than half of lagos, and most are not maintained. further, many drainage systems are uncovered channels and are commonly used as dump sites for solid waste, which increases surface water contamination and health risks during floods (lucas, 2021). water pollution in nigeria water pollution is a change caused in the chemical, physical or biological properties of the water that has the capacity of hurting the living organism. however, water pollution is another key aspect of environmental pollution and the main type of water pollution in nigeria especially in the riverine areas as oil pollution (astegbua, 2003). in relation to this, owa (2013) stated that water is polluted if some substances or conditions are present to such a degree that the water cannot be used for specific purpose. damilola (2012) also defines water pollution as the contamination or change in the quality of water that has a harmful effect on any living thing that drinks, uses, or lives in it. abimbola (1999) also posits that as a result of oil losses, vast tracks of agriculture have been laid waste, thus becoming unproductive, and surface water and river courses are invariably contaminated and polluted, rendering the water undrinkable. the result is great hardship for the inhabitants who become impoverished and deprived. nigeria is the 10th largest oil producer in the world due to the rich oil deposits in the niger delta (imoobe & tanshi, 2009). oil spills have discharged an estimated 13 million barrels of crude oil into the environment and destroyed coastal wetlands and mangroves, degraded agricultural lands, and created widespread public health crises (king, 2017). oil spills have contributed to high concentrations of heavy metals such as cadmium, chromium, and lead in numerous watercourses, particularly in rivers and delta states. pollution from cadmium and lead is the most severe, with their maximum concentrations found over 100 times the who guideline values for drinking water (nduka & orisakwe, 2011; who, 2017). while environmental and social impact assessments are required in nigeria, local compliance and enforcement of environmental regulations are often lacking (imoobe & tanshi, 2009). the impacts of these spills threaten public health and can devastate ecosystems and biodiversity. fishery production and populations of key aquatic organisms are declining in the niger delta due to oil spillage. despite cleanup efforts, contaminants from an oil spill from over 40 years ago have persisted in the ogoniland area, demonstrating the long-term consequences that these events can have (unep, 2011; osuagwu & olaifa, 2011; oguntade & olaifa, 2018). more so, in nigeria, less than 10 percent of industrial effluent is treated, thereby leading to contamination from heavy metal pollution, mostly lead and chromium, in addition to oil and grease, high turbidity, and high biological/chemical oxygen demand (bod/cod) are widespread (idu, 2015). high bod/cod levels can kill aquatic species and disrupt ecosystems. water quality risks from industry are especially high in the southwest near the lagos and in the north near kano (wakawa & kagbu, 2008; taiwo et al., 2012; lohdip & gongden, 2013). apart from abuja and lagos, functional wastewater treatment plants are limited. additionally, excess fertilizer use, poor land use planning, and dams are increasing eutrophication in rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, destroying ecosystems and inhibiting recreational use of surface waters. algal blooms have been observed in rumuji lake in the niger delta region (nweze, 2010; megbo, 2010; erhumwunse et al., 2013 and kayode et al., 2018). research has shown that, naturally high fluoride levels contribute to widespread fluorosis in some parts of nigeria. fluoride concentrations are higher in central and northern nigeria, with one national survey showing that 30 percent of groundwater sources exceed the who guideline value for drinking water for fluoride (lar et al., 2014; malago, 2017; cobbing, 2020). heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, arsenic, and selenium have been detected in groundwater in the southwestern city of ibadan, although contamination from antimony is highest and most widespread and likely derives from natural and anthropogenic sources (etim, 2017; ganiyu et al., 2021). similarly, lead pollution from industrial and municipal waste is widespread in shallow and deep wells in lagos. additionally, inadequate sanitation systems in many cities, including lagos, have led to high concentrations of e. coli and nitrates in shallow wells (yahaya et al., 2020; healy et al., 2020). groundwater resources used for drinking supply in the coastal area of lagos and in communities in delta state and in ondo state have been affected by saltwater intrusion. groundwater monitoring wells are lacking in lagos, although some studies have found saline intrusion in wells as far as 3km inland (oteri & atolagbe, 2003; adepelumi et al., 2009; aladejana et al., 2021). rising sea levels from climate change and land subsidence in pa ge 12 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 5-18, 2024 coastal cities will increase saline intrusion. groundwater sampled in areas with a history of oil spillage have shown high turbidity, low ph, and low dissolved oxygen at levels that may not be suitable for human consumption. in ogoniland, one water quality study closes to an oil pipeline found an 8 cm layer of refined oil floating on the groundwater table which serves community wells (unep, 2011; nwachukwu & osuagwu, 2014). the nation’s water sources are under serious threat from inadequate catchment management and widespread pollution, including the indiscriminate disposal of hazardous substances. the oil-producing region of nige ria, the niger delta, suffers a lot from the improper implementation of environmental policies and activities associated with petroleum exploration, development, and production. they have been experiencing a wide range of environmental degradation and pollution and are at high risk of health hazards and socio-economic problems (ite et al., 2016). these regions often must deal with oil spillage in their rivers from oil and gas industries thereby causing serious damage to aquatic life and plant as well. since the environmental policies in nigeria are not very effective, these communities must deal with these situations by themselves most of the time. consuming water and plants contaminated with oil is dangerous to health. over the years, threats to the nation’s water resources are because of poor and uncoordinated management of the resource. federal and state governments have a much bigger role in the overall management of the nation’s water resources. in most cases, stakeholders are not consulted or otherwise involved in planning, development and management of the nation’s water resources (adegoroye, 1994). integrated water management system in nigeria historically, beginning from colonial nigeria, the water works acts, 1915 is the only pan nigerian law passed specially to keep water from being polluted. it bans the pollution of water works in nigeria by noxious or harmful matter or substances. however, in 2017, a comprehensive national water resources bill was proposed to consolidate and clarify existing laws, centralize water resources management through a national council, and establish a regulatory framework for water resources. the bill has been controversial due to its provisions for privatization of water service delivery and consolidation of water management responsibilities within the central government. approval of the law remains pending (ogunmupe, 2020). further, technical capacity is often low; and one assessment of the cross river basin development agency highlighted the lack of key technical staff, including geographic information system and remote sensing expertise, hydrologists, and water resources managers (ngene et al., 2019). capacity issues are compounded by inadequate data, and poor data management systems. nesrea struggles to fulfill its mandates due to technical capacity constraints, in addition to a lack of transparency and autonomy from political interests, fragmented environmental laws, lack of public participation, and limited enforcement of permits (cobbing, 2020; stewart, 2011). presently, the federal ministry of water resource (fmwr) is responsible for large water resources development projects and water allocation between states (idu, 2015). fmwr has sixteen (16) parastatals and agencies made up of twelve (12) river basin development authorities (rbdas), nigeria hydrological services agency (nihsa), nigeria integrated water resources management commission (niwrmc), gurara water management authority (gwma), and the national water resources institute (nwri). the first two rbdas chad basin development authority (cbda) and sokoto-rima river basin development authority (srrbda) were created in 1973, through the decree nos. 32 and 33 of 1976. in 1976, based on the decree no. 25 of 1976, nine (9) additional rbdas were established, and as a result, the number of rbdas becomes 11. in 1984, with separation of niger river basin development authority into two rbdas – such as upper niger river basin development authority (unrbda) and lower niger river basin development authority (lnrbda), the number of rbda became 12 and these rbdas long continue with the operation to date (jica, 2014). table 6: river basin development authority s/n rbda area of operation office 1 anambra-imo river basin development authority (airbda) abia, anambra, ebonyi, enugu and imo states oweri 2 benin owena river basin development authority (borbda) the regions of river benin and owena and a senatorial district in delta state benin-city 3 chad basin development authority (cbda) borno, yobe state and northern part of adamawa state maiduguri 4 cross river basin development authority (crbda) akwa ibom and cross river states calabar 5 hadejia jama’ are river basin development authority (hjrbda) kano, jigawa states and north and central parts of bauchi sate kano 6 lower benue river basin development authority (lbrbda) the catchment states of benue, plateau, nassarawa states and kogi state east of the river niger makurdi pa ge 13 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 5-18, 2024 7 lower niger river basin development authority (lnrbda) entire geographical boundaries of kwara state and a part of kogi state, west of the river niger ilorin 8 niger delta basin development authority (ndbda) delta and bayelsa states port-harcourt 9 ogun-osun river basin development authority (oorbda) lagos, ogun, oyo and osun states abeokuta 10 sokoto-rima river basin development authority (srrbda) katsina, zamfara, sokoto and kebbi states sokoto 11 upper benue river basin development authority (ubrbda) gombe, taraba, two senatorial districts of adamawa state and one senatorial district of bauchi state yola 12 upper niger river basin development authority (unrbda) niger, kaduna states and the fct minna source: federal ministry of water resource (fmwr) the federal ministry of water resources (fmwr) has authority over all the formulation of national policy and strategy advice for the public provision of water. however, it is up to each state to adopt and implement national legislation and policy and decide on the institutional framework for delivering services. while the local governments water sectors take all formulations of policies on managements from their state governments. the national council on water resources (ncwr) is the highest water resources policy formulating body, overseen by the fmwr and with representatives from the federal ministry of environment and all commissioners for state governments. state ministries of water resources are responsible for policy, regulation, and monitoring which are passed down to control the local governments even though not all states have a stand-alone ministry of water resources (e.g., the rivers state ministry of water resources and rural development – rswrrd – in rivers state). thus, while certain structures and policies related to water supply prevail throughout the country, there is a great deal of variation in the management and provision of water across jurisdictions (who, 2013). table 7: key laws, policies, and plans name year purpose national water resources policy 2016 originally drafted in 2004, the national water policy was approved in 2016. the policy establishes that all water is a national asset and defines planning and development through an integrated water resources management framework. water resources master plan 2013 assesses water resources supply and demand from2010 to 2030 and defines basin development priorities and risks. minerals and mining act 2007 grants ministry of mines and steel development (mmsd) water use permitting rights when they concern mining exploration and operation. the national inland waterways authority (niwa) act 1997 established niwa and defines its responsibilities towards river navigability, riverbank stabilization, and dam development. water resources act 1993 established the federal ministry of water resources as the lead institution in charge of water resources development, licensing, planning, and use. river basins development authority act 1990 established 12 river basin development agencies (rbda) that are responsible for developing surface and groundwater resources, prioritizing water use for domestic and agricultural purposes. the act was originally enacted in 1976 but has been revised several times. adopted from usaid's sustainable water partnership water management responsibilities do not consistently follow hydrological or administrative boundaries. this leads to overlapping responsibilities between institutions and undermines basin management approaches. for example, rbdas follow state administrative, rather than hydrological, boundaries. rbdas within the same basin and ha often do not coordinate and instead prioritize irrigation expansion within their administrative jurisdiction. this can impact water availability and water quality for downstream states (irokalibe, 2008). within the niger basin, there is limited coordination between the six rbdas responsible for planning, design, and operation of key hydraulic infrastructure (gana, 2019). the nba lacks funding and commitment from member states. inflows to nigeria’s kainji reservoir have been decreasing for decades, possibly from over abstraction in upper basin pa ge 14 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 5-18, 2024 states. uncontrolled and uncoordinated management in the lake chad basin leads to over-exploitation of lake chad and has reduced lake coverage and pastures in nigeria. poor management of cameroon’s lagdo dam has led to reduced flows on the benue river, and nigeria claims that uncoordinated floodgate releases have caused major flooding in downstream villages (golitzen et al., 2005; joint et al. al., 2015 and ewepu, 2019). table 8: water resources management entities mandate institution roles and responsibilities transboundary niger basin authority (nba) commissioned in 1980, the nba’s nine member states are niger, benin, chad, guinea, côte d’ivoire, mali, nigeria, cameroon, and burkina faso. supports integrated basin development related to energy, water resources, agriculture, animal husbandry, fisheries, forestry, and transportation. lake chad basin commission (lcbc) established in 1964, members include cameroon, niger, nigeria, chad, the republic of central africa, and libya to coordinate the sustainable development and equitable use of lake chad, regional peace and security, and environmental conservation. national federal ministry of water resources (fmwr) lead governmental entity in charge of water management and allocation between states. oversees all 12 rbdas, in addition to other water sector entities such as the nigeria hydrological services agency (nihsa), the nigeria integrated water resources management commission (niwrmc), and the national water resources institute (nwri). nigeria integrated water resources management commission (niwrmc) overseen by the fmwr, the niwrmc is the central coordinating body for catchment management offices (cmo). manages water use regulations and licensing, strengthens cmo capacity, and formulates catchment management plans based on stakeholder consultation. national environmental standards and regulations enforcement agency (nesrea) housed within the federal ministry of the environment, nesrea is responsible for issuing environmental permits, including for effluent discharge, and monitoring compliance of permit holders. national council on water resources (ncwr) formulates and approves water sector policy, laws, strategy, master plans, and the development and implementation of large infrastructure. sub-national river basin development authorities (rbda) usaid's sustainable water partnership federal government the nigeria federal ministry of water resources, was part of the ministry of agriculture until 2010, is responsible for large water resources development projects and water allocation between states of the federation. there are 12 river basin development authorities under this ministry, responsible for planning and developing water resources, irrigation work, the collection of hydrological and hydrogeological data, and providing water in bulk to cities from dams (the world bank group, 2000). state government responsibility for portable water supply is entrusted to state water agencies (swas) or state water departments in the 36 nigerian states. the swas are responsible to their state governments, generally through a state ministry of water resources. swas are responsible for urban water supply, they are also responsible for rural water supply. as of 2000, 22 states had separate statemaintained rural water and sanitation agencies, mostly set up to implement a unicef program (the world bank group, 2000). local governments the country’s local government authorities (lgas), of which there are 774, are responsible for the provision of rural water supplies and sanitation facilities in their areas although only a few have the resources and skills to handle the problem. only few lgas have rural water supply divisions. water pollution mitigation proposal in nigeria cmos (catchment management offices) are broadly responsible for monitoring water quality within their pa ge 15 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 5-18, 2024 respective has and maintaining databases for all hydrological and hydrogeological information (federal ministry of water resources, 2016). the federal ministry of health (fmoh) and the fmwr (through its department of water quality control and sanitation) are responsible for monitoring drinking water quality, but they both lack funding and technical capacity, and there is a lack of coordination (son, 2015). most surface and groundwater quality studies have been carried out by researchers at universities, research institutes, and government institutes (taiwo et al., 2012; standard organization of nigeria, 2015 american chemical society, 2015). • the most effective way to reduce water pollution is to treat some of the water before it is reintroduced into the waterways. • this is a highly effective solution because wastewater treatment facilities can remove nearly all pollutants in wastewater via a chemical, physical, or biological process. • water resources law and environmental management strategy must be backed by effective regulation, enforcement, and implementation in the field. • laws and regulations should be put in place to prevent, reduce, and control pollution emanating from exploration and production of oil in the niger delta area of nigeria. • pollution of the water in the coastal areas should be viewed as crime against humanity, therefore a violation of human rights; this is because people living in the coastal areas depend on the waters for drinking, bathing, and fishing which is their major source of livelihood. therefore, companies and individuals should be held liable for water pollution. • an active oil industry bill is required to protect and improve nigeria’s coastal waters and the environment as stipulated under section 20 of the constitution of the federal republic of nigeria. this provision should be made justiciable. • the legislature, judiciary, and the various agencies charged with safeguarding the environment must be ready to do all that is required to enhance sustainable practices and manage the environment today and for the future. water supply mitigation problem in nigeria • regular updates of water regulation laws and policies should be in place; • provision of constant water supply; • provision of standard infrastructure and water treatment facilities; • incorporating a standard method of water treatment using the international treatment guidelines; • enforcing strict compliance to environmental law; • implementation of new law to reduce the amount of alternate water supply (balogun and redina, 2019) conclusion the provided overview offers a comprehensive depiction of nigeria’s water landscape. abundant water resources, including surface and groundwater, are distributed across diverse ecological zones. the country boasts large freshwater reserves, featuring four river drainage systems, numerous dams, and four major aquifer formations spread across eight hydrological areas spanning the thirtysix states. although river basin development authorities have contributed to water resource development, catchment management inadequacies and indiscriminate disposal of hazardous substances persist as significant challenges. problems of flooding in the middle belt, inadequate water distribution and supply to rural areas, most especially in the northern region, and pollution in the niger delta have been major problems in nigeria. addressing these issues requires crucial stakeholder involvement and consultation in planning, development, and water resource management. coordinated efforts are imperative to protect the environment, ensure sustainable practices, and safeguard communities’ health and socioeconomic well-being. in navigating these challenges, nigeria must prioritize integrated water management practices, striking a balance between resource utilization and preservation for both current and future generations. references abatan, a. a., abiodun, b. j., lawal, k. a., & gutowski, w. j. 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(2020). the concentration and health risk assessment of heavy metals and microorganisms in the groundwater of lagos, southwest nigeria. journal of advanced environmental health research, 8, 234–242. https://doi.org/10.22102/ jaehr.245629.1183. pa ge 1 pa ge 37 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) achieving sustainable development: balancing carbon dioxide emissions reduction and poverty alleviation in less developed countries famanta mahamane1*, junhong bai1, yuanchao bian1, nengzhi yao1, jing gao2, abid ali randhawa1 volume 2 issue 1, year 2023 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v2i1.1981 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: september 08, 2023 accepted: october 11, 2023 published: october 17, 2023 carbon dioxide emissions (co₂) reduction and poverty have always been conflicting subjects regarding national policy implementation, particularly in less developed countries (ldcs). based on energy consumption as a driving mechanism, this study investigates whether reducing co₂ aggravates poverty in ldcs. to achieve this aim we analyze a 30-year panel data of 15 ldcs and deploy fixed-effects regression models. we used two-stage least square (2sls) regressions to address endogeneity concerns. our results suggest that (co₂) emission has a negative relationship with poverty, which means reducing co₂ emissions increases poverty in ldcs. our results provide important implications for policymakers, showing that a green structural transformation implementation that highlights the balance between environmental protection and economic development would be recommended for ldcs. keywords co₂ emissions, sustainability, poverty reduction, ldcs 1 school of business, nanjing normal university, nanjing 210000, china 2 jiangsu normal university, xuzhou 221116, china * corresponding author’s e-mail: mfamanta@outlook.com introduction as countries worldwide strive to lower their greenhouse gas emissions to minimize global warming, many need to be aware of these policies’ potential negative effects on poverty alleviation. carbon emissions reduction measures can significantly impact low-income households, as they may lack the resources necessary to make up for any decreases in income resulting from policy changes. reducing carbon emissions and poverty have always been conflicting subjects. indeed, considering the level of economic development and other indicators, the impact of co₂ reduction differs from one country to another. according to the low carbon index, several g20 countries have lowered their carbon intensity while sustaining gdp growth, including emerging countries such as china, india, and mexico. a thirty-year increase in carbon emissions indicates a reduction in poverty in east asia, the pacific, and south asia. sub-saharan africa, however, has reduced emissions while nearly tripling the number of people living in poverty (world economic forum). so what is the reason for the contrast observed in sub-saharan africa, home to most ldcs? regarding carbon emissions reduction, south africa, a developing country, has recently been urged by its european and american partners to close its charcoal thermal power plants to reduce carbon emissions. knowing that 80% of south african electricity is produced using charcoal and more than 100 000 persons are employed in those charcoal thermal power plants, south africa is suffering from a lack of energy and unemployment, increasing at the same time poverty (zack mwekassa, 2022). at the same time, with the russia-ukraine crisis, germany opened the biggest charcoal thermal power plant in germany to increase its energy production. even though south africa is not a ldc, considering the given example, is reducing carbon emissions beneficial to ldcs? carbon emissions reduction affects the poverty patterns of a nation. for instance, increasing the economic activities within the boundaries of a country has the sporadic effect of increasing carbon emissions (amini et al., 2021). the progress of ldcs away from poverty will require investing in industries that release effluents, causing air, water, and soil pollution (sarker et al., 2021). increasing the agricultural activities of ldcs will also result in a rise in greenhouse gases due to using chemicals, such as fertilizers and herbicides (kumar et al., 2019). further, implementing crucial infrastructure activities in these areas increases co₂ emissions (stefanakis, 2019). the increase in economic activity is not beneficial to climate preservation efforts. not all countries have equal co₂ emissions and do not share the burden of climate change due to co₂ emissions (meng et al., 2018). furthermore, ldcs typically rely more on fossil fuels for energy. so reducing carbon emissions could lead to higher energy prices and reduced economic activity. that could, in turn, lead to increase poverty. so this research uses econometrics way to prove the aforementioned assumption. this study examines whether reducing carbon emissions in ldcs exacerbates poverty. the analysis of the most recent research on the topic reveals a shortfall in the number of studies done on ldcs, particularly those in sub-saharan africa, where most of the ldcs are located. most current research material is limited to more developed countries like china and the usa (obaideen et al., 2022). further, there has yet to be a conclusive finding regarding the association between co₂ emissions reduction and poverty; hence, more research needs to be done. so regarding what is previously said, this study is mainly focused on ldcs and takes extreme poverty and pa ge 38 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 37-51, 2023 carbon emission per capita indicators as main variables. another point that this research considers is the integration into the analysis of the green structural transformation for ldcs. according to the unctad, structural transformation refers to the transformation from low productivity and labor-intensive production to high value-added and high productivity economic activities. green structural transformation combines responsible economic, social, and environmental growth with structural economic transformation. it includes the transition from a “recession” carbon-intensive sector to a “prosperity” low-carbon economic activity, promoting the effective use of resources (materials, energy, land, water) throughout the development process. this research is essential in providing data that will be used for future planning purposes. co₂ emissions reduction activities must consider their impact on poverty mitigation to ensure sustainability among ldcs. a further novelty is incorporated through the attempt of this study to contribute to the existing knowledge on the topic. involvement in the research will result in a heightened understanding of the impact of co₂ emission reduction on poverty in ldcs. along with the introduction, this paper is organized as follows: the second is the literature review, the third is the data and methodology, and the fourth is the discussion and conclusion. literature review poverty alleviation according to an article published by concern worldwide (a non-governmental organization), around ten per cent of the global population lives in severe poverty. it has pointed out eleven leading causes of extreme poverty: inequality, conflict, malnutrition and stunting resulting from hunger, inadequate medical systems, particularly for women and kids, insufficient access to clean water and sanitation facilities, climate change, limited educational opportunities, inadequate public works and infrastructure, global health crises such as epidemics and pandemics, insufficient social services, and an absence of personal security nets. our focus will be on the extreme poverty caused by climate change. according to the same article, by 2030, global warming may result in the displacement of over one hundred million individuals into conditions of severe impoverishment. impoverished communities frequently depend on agricultural practices, hunting, and gathering as a means of sustenance or income generation. however, there are challenges with these jobs, like insufficient food reserves in the case of a poor harvest-which is part of why climate change and natural disasters can push them into poverty and make a recovery much harder (concern worldwide, 2020). wolla pointed out that to close the gap between prosperous and less-developed economies, individuals need to focus on economic growth. disparities in a nation’s economic advancement often stem from variations in inputs like production and productivity (wolla, 2017). organizations need incentives for innovation and production to improve productivity and growth, while the government plays a crucial role in enhancing capital resource availability. access to international trade benefits the global economy by providing markets for the goods and products produced in less-developed countries. in addition, it increases productivity by increasing access to capital resources. sarlo argues that luck, choice, and enablement drive poverty. these three things can help explain longer duration and persistent poverty. he pointed out some ideas that should be tried: reduce the bad luck in people’s lives (poor parenting, the genetic transmission of diseases, negative influences on children, etc.; promote good choices (giving people opportunities and quality education); work to eliminate those things that make people stay in poverty (benefits programs that discourage or limit work) (sarlo,2019). jose analyzes the cause-andeffect explanations of poverty in ldcs, focusing on 1092 undergraduate participants from nicaragua, el salvador, chile, and spain. the world’s economic structure, fate, nature, cultural practices, political misconduct, and the population of developing countries were identified as components. to identify five distinct subject categories, the study used undergraduates’ causal attributions of poverty, country of origin, perceived social class, economic situation, political ideology, and religious beliefs. the findings indicate that poverty in developing nations is predominantly influenced by the interviewees’ home country’s development level, political ideology, and economic circumstances (jose et al., 2017). according to badreldin, poverty has become a global issue, particularly in ldcs. their study examines social poverty, measurement techniques, and contributing factors. it uses three models: low and medium-income countries, medium-income countries, and low-income countries. the primary drivers of human poverty are overall spending on education and healthcare and the increasing share of the total gdp. the research suggests that governments should prioritize increasing spending on education and healthcare to eliminate various types of poverty (badreldin et al., 2014). gore and charles suggest that understanding chronic poverty requires exploring poverty traps, identifying underlying factors, and analyzing poverty at household, community, and national levels. globalization requires a global perspective, as the prevalence and persistence of poverty in ldcs are attributed to an international poverty trap reinforced by trade and finance relationships (gore & charles, 2003). castaneda identifies individuals experiencing severe and low poverty, focusing on those with daily incomes below $1.90. rural and youthful populations dominate extreme poverty, with children under 15 comprising over 45%. the study highlights the importance of rural households and urbanization in mitigating poverty, with improved educational achievement and urbanization contributing to poverty alleviation (castaneda et al., 2016). mahembe analyzes the prevalence of extreme poverty in developing nations and evaluates the millennium development goal pa ge 39 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 37-51, 2023 of reducing extreme poverty by 50 percent by 2015. the research employs a descriptive methodology to classify countries into the following five geographic regions: sub-saharan africa, east asia, south asia, europe, and latin america and the caribbean. the global poverty rate is 9.6%, but the concentration of severe poverty in sub-saharan africa and southern asia poses challenges (mahembe et al., 2018). carbon emission reduction in ldcs zhang examines the association between carbon emissions and five influential factors in 50 developing nations from 1995-2017. results show steadystate equilibrium, with some countries showing the environmental kuznets curve phenomenon. energy consumption impacts co₂ positively, while international trade negatively affects developing countries, fossil fuel usage affects the environment (zhang et al., 2019). hanif examines the influence of sustainable and non-sustainable energy consumption and economic development on carbon emissions in developing asian economies. it finds that sustainable energy sources reduce emissions, while non-sustainable sources increase them. shifting to sustainable energy sources is crucial for carbon-free economic growth and regional collaboration (hanif et al., 2019). hu examines the impact of renewable energy consumption and commercial services trade on global carbon emissions from 1996-2012. they find a significant relationship between economic growth and greenhouse gas emissions; a rise in renewable energy usage is crucial for mitigating emissions (hu et al., 2018). wang et al. (2011) analyze co₂ emission patterns and economic progress in 128 countries and regions using models like σ-convergence, absolute β convergence, and conditional β-convergence. results show a convergence in emissions over the past four decades, with ldcs narrowing the gap. factors influencing emissions include gdp per capita, population size, and resource utilization (wang et al., 2011). pareto, romer, georgescu-roegen, coase, and arthur cecil pigou are renowned academics researching the ramifications of polluting agents on human conduct. pareto espoused the notion that a laissez-faire economic system would result in the optimal allocation of resources. however, externalities, such as pollution, can give rise to sub-optimal outcomes. coase proposed a solution to address the issue of pollution by recommending that polluters be compensated with tradable goods by consumers. in 1979, georgescu-roegen proposed the notion of entropy, which suggests that the depletion of the environment is a consequence of economic expansion. theories of endogenous growth posit that innovation can be fostered by environmental resources, a view espoused by economists such as romer and aghionhowitt, as a means of achieving sustained growth over the long run. nevertheless, there is a contention that altering consumption patterns is imperative to alleviate the burden on natural resources. the crux of the argument centers on the valuation of natural resources and the appropriate means of incorporating such valuation into pricing mechanisms. relationship between carbon emission reduction and poverty alleviation some more recent research and papers about the relationship between co₂ emissions and poverty reduction initiatives have been carried out. jin applied the extended linear expenditure system model to measure poverty levels among chinese citizens. the co₂ emissions accounting method was then utilized to keep track of the co₂ emissions in the country to establish the relationship between co₂ production and poverty levels. the research found a decoupling relationship between co₂ emissions and economic development, which means the research confirmed the existence of a correlation between co₂ emissions and poverty levels (jin et al., 2020). malerba noted that despite calls by the international community to address poverty and climate degradation simultaneously, more was needed to know about the relationship between the two variables. the study attempted to demystify this undertaking by establishing the carbon intensity of poverty reduction (cipr) as a combined model to measure poverty and co₂ emissions. the research demonstrated that the cipr in most countries was heterogeneous; economic growth was found to harm cipr below a certain income level (malerba, 2020). fu reviewed the research data obtained from the provinces within china to identify a coupling relationship between carbon emissions and poverty alleviation activities. the research established that implementing poverty reduction initiatives in china was responsible for the economic growth between 2009 and 2019. the researchers observed that increased economic development reduced co₂ emissions in 26 provinces. only three provinces in china showed an increase in co₂ production. the research showed that investment in poverty alleviation does not necessarily result in co₂ emissions increase (fu et al., 2021). leal filho established that there needed to be more research articles addressing the issue of the relationship between climate change and economic outcomes (leal filho, 2019). this aspect limited the guidance to different nations regarding the most appropriate interventions they needed to implement to address poverty (miladinov, 2020). the researchers noted that although some regions were ideally placed to address climatic stressors, such as increased urban heat, few did so. wang and li utilized the grey verhulst model to determine the impact of economic development on climate change. using the model, it was evident that the current economic growth within china would result in growth in co₂ emissions. however, the research established that the peak co₂ emissions will not be attained by 2030, which provides the chinese government with enough time to implement conservation efforts (wang & li, 2019). the u.n. framework convention on climate change (unfccc) intends to maintain the rate of warming to 2°c and pa ge 40 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 37-51, 2023 eliminate extreme poverty. achieving poverty elimination objectives does not threaten climate goals, but achieving a minimum expenditure of $2.97 ppp could impact emission targets. the top 10% of global income earners contribute 36% of households’ carbon footprint, so addressing poverty does not jeopardize the climate target (hubacek et al., 2017). history of emission reduction policies in ldcs ldcs face unique challenges in formulating policies related to global warming due to their reliance on natural resources, insufficient adaptation capabilities, and limited economic progress. to address this issue, ldcs have implemented various policy decisions, including international involvement, national adaptation plans, access to climate finance, capacity building, regional and international cooperation. international involvement involves expressing concerns and promoting a global initiative to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. national adaptation plans outline the nation’s susceptibilities, adjustments, and fiscal requirements to improve indigenous communities, economic sectors, and ecological systems. access to climate finance, such as the green climate fund, is crucial for supporting mitigation and adaptation actions. capacity building involves providing personnel training, technology transfer, fortification of national institutions, and public awareness. regional and international cooperation is a common strategy employed by ldcs to enhance their standing in global climate negotiations, fostering collaboration and coordination among member nations. this involves knowledge sharing, exchange of best practices, and resource allocation to tackle shared challenges related to global warming. the aforementioned political decisions were made within the context of established international conventions, the historical background of which can be outlined as follows: (1) the unfccc, ratified in 1992, is a global accord aimed at stabilizing the levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. ldcs (ldcs) have ratified this convention and have pledged to undertake measures to alleviate the impact of climate change. (2) the kyoto protocol was adopted in 1997 under the unfccc. the established objectives aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions for developed nations. ldcs (ldcs), categorized as developing nations, were not obligated to decrease their emissions under the protocol. however, they were qualified to obtain financial and technological assistance to implement mitigation measures. (3) the global environment facility (gef) was founded in 1991 to provide financial assistance to least developed countries (ldcs) and other developing nations to facilitate environment-related undertakings, such as climate change initiatives. ldcs (ldcs) have derived advantages from the financial support provided by the global environment facility (gef) to implement measures to adjust and minimize the impacts of climate change. (4) the rio+20, which took place in 2012, aimed to foster intergovernmental discourse on sustainable development among united nations member countries. ldcs (ldcs) have underscored the necessity for heightened support to tackle the obstacles posed by climate change, with a particular focus on adaptation. (5) in 2015, the paris agreement was adopted at the 21st conference of the parties (cop21) to the united nations framework convention on climate change (unfccc). the agreement requires all countries, including those categorized as ldcs (ldcs), to implement actions with the goal of limiting the increase in worldwide temperatures to a degree substantially lower than 2 degrees celsius above the levels documented during the pre-industrial period. the paris agreement acknowledges the significance of heightened assistance for developing nations, particularly the ldcs, in addressing the obstacles posed by climate change. following the adoption of the paris accord, the global warming policies of the ldcs (ldcs) have centered on the execution of their nationally determined contributions (ndcs) and facilitating climate finance to bolster their endeavors in adaptation and mitigation. energy consumption as a driving mechanism of carbon emission in ldcs in a context of concern, the function of energy in the economic transformation of ldcs is a critical issue that deserves further attention (unctad, 2015). in a growing context of the international community regarding climate change, renewable energy options have been put forward to meet this unmet theoretical demand without compromising efforts to reduce global ghg emissions (iea, 2020). access to energy services is crucial for economic development and structural transformation, contributing to sustainable and inclusive structural transformation. this is essential for eradicating poverty and achieving other sustainable development goals. however, neglecting the economic dimension of the problem has led to a neglect of this crucial aspect. the productive use of electricity is essential in this regard because it provides access to energy for the economy’s structural transformation and helps create sufficient demand for investment in generation and distribution to be sustainable. to reduce global energy consumption and mitigate the impacts of climate change, many countries have implemented policies to reduce energy consumption, including ratifying the paris climate agreement. however, this has hurt some ldcs, as poverty rates have risen due to rising energy costs (unctad, 2015; iea, 2019; world bank, 2020). energy consumption is a critical driving mechanism of carbon emissions in ldcs (ipcc, 2014). these countries require significant energy to develop their economies, improve living standards, and reduce poverty (undp, 2018). however, the vast majority of energy production in these countries is derived from fossil fuels, a significant carbon emission source (world bank, 2019). pa ge 41 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 37-51, 2023 ldcs face unique challenges regarding energy consumption and carbon emissions (iea, 2020). they are at a crucial economic development stage and require significant energy to power their industries, transport systems, and households. however, they need more financial resources and technological capacity to invest in renewable energy sources or implement energy-efficient practices. as a result, they rely heavily on fossil fuels to meet their energy needs, contributing to high carbon emissions. population growth is one of the main factors driving energy consumption and carbon emissions in ldcs. many of these countries have high population growth rates, which puts pressure on their energy systems. as the population increases, so does the demand for energy to power homes, schools, hospitals, and other essential services. using fossil fuels is often the most cost-effective way to meet this demand, leading to high levels of carbon emissions (ipcc, 2014). industrialization is another significant factor driving energy consumption and carbon emissions in ldcs. these countries are often rich in natural resources and have vast coal, oil, and gas reserves. they seek to exploit these resources to develop their economies and improve their citizens’ living standards. however, these resources extraction and processing require significant energy, leading to high carbon emissions (iea, 2020). transportation is another significant factor driving ldcs’ energy consumption and carbon emissions. these countries are experiencing rapid urbanization, which has led to a surge in the number of vehicles on their roads. most of these vehicles run on fossil fuels, contributing to high carbon emissions. in addition, many less-developed countries lack adequate public transportation systems, which forces people to rely on private vehicles, further exacerbating the problem (world bank, 2019). the role of international trade and investment in driving energy consumption and carbon emissions in ldcs must be considered. many developed countries outsource their manufacturing and other industries to ldcs, contributing to high energy consumption levels and carbon emissions in these countries. the demand for goods and services in developed countries also contributes to high energy consumption levels and carbon emissions in ldcs (unfccc, 2021). ldcs’ poverty rate and co₂ emissions reduction features description an overview of poverty in ldcs ninety percent of the world’s population lived in extreme poverty before the 19th century; capitalism led to increased human well-being (dylan et al., 2023). however, it remains a significant challenge worldwide, especially in ldcs in the 21st century. generally, some indexes are used to quantify or give an overview of the poverty phenomenon. those indexes are the extreme poverty index, the poverty headcount ratio, the multidimensional poverty index, the income inequality index, the child poverty index, hunger and malnutrition index, the gender disparities index, and rural poverty index. in 2021, approximately 706 million individuals lived in extreme poverty, with a daily income below $1.90. this poverty headcount ratio is prevalent in many ldcs, with 41% of the population in sub-saharan africa experiencing extreme poverty in 2020. the multidimensional poverty index (mpi) identifies 1.3 billion individuals across 101 nations as being multidimensionally impoverished, with a significant proportion in regions with lower levels of development, such as south asia and sub-saharan africa. income inequality is a significant issue in ldcs, with oxfam’s 2021 report showing a $5.3 trillion increase in figure 1: share of the population living in extreme poverty source: world bank poverty and inequality platform pa ge 42 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 37-51, 2023 billionaires’ wealth while a 200 million increase in poverty. child poverty is a significant concern, with unicef estimating 385 million children in extreme poverty, accounting for almost 50% of the global population of impoverished individuals. persistent hunger affected 690 million individuals in 2019, primarily in less developed regions, particularly in sub-saharan africa and southern asia. gender disparities are also a significant issue in ldcs, with 330 million females, including girls, experiencing restricted access to educational institutions, medical services, and financial opportunities. rural poverty is a prevalent issue in ldcs, with 80% of the global population living in extreme poverty concentrated in rural areas, where access to basic amenities and economic prospects is often restricted. the graph below displays the share of the population living in extreme poverty within our sample group. energy consumption in ldcs ldcs typically exhibit low levels of energy consumption. these countries face significant challenges in terms of energy access and energy infrastructure development. in many ldcs, a significant portion of the population lacks access to electricity. traditional energy sources such as wood fuel and coal are often used to meet basic energy needs. however, these energy sources could be more efficient and positively impact health and the environment. energy consumption in ldcs is also limited due to the need for developed industries. energy-intensive sectors such as manufacturing and steel production are often underdeveloped or non-existent in these countries. moreover, ldcs often struggle with energy supply issues. production, transmission, and distribution infrastructure for electricity are often inadequate, limiting energy availability for local populations and businesses. it is important to note that energy consumption in ldcs can vary significantly from country to country. some ldcs have access to significant natural resources such as oil or hydroelectric power, which can increase their energy production and consumption capacity. many ldcs are implementing initiatives to improve energy access and promote clean and sustainable energy sources to address these challenges. this may include the deployment of solar, wind, and hydroelectric technologies and policies aimed at improving energy efficiency and reducing dependence on fossil fuels. the graph below shows an overview of some ldcs energy consumption. figure 2: the different primary energy sources of ldcs, 2014 source: un desa (2016b) materials and methods samples selection according to marcil , poverty is when some members of a nation do not have the income required to afford essential utilities, such as food and shelter (marcil et al., 2021). while poverty exists in every country, some countries experience it more than others (karpman et al., 2020). for research purposes, poverty will be expressed as a percentage, which depicts the number of poor people in a country (lakner et al., 2022). as a result, the higher the percentage, the more people live in poverty (sherman et al., 2021). the list of countries classified as less developed has been derived from the world bank, a reliable source of information regarding which countries fall under the classification of poverty-burden nations (world population review, 2022). a ldc has a lower standard of living than other more industrialized nations. these countries are typically characterized by a higher infant mortality rate, lower gross national income (gni) per capita, higher levels of pa ge 43 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 37-51, 2023 poverty, higher level of inequality, dependence on natural resources, lack of economic diversification, reliance on agriculture, etc. however, not all of the ldcs are included in this study. due to the quality and availability of data, 15 counties (table 1) are included in the study as a sample. however, unbalanced panel data was utilized for thirty years for each country. the range selected was from 1990 to 2020. using panel data increased the accuracy of the findings. further, the research process has resulted in the collection of raw data on the poverty indexes of the countries included in the study, along with their corresponding co₂ emissions rates. the co₂ emission rates are graded based on each country’s per capita metric ton emissions (helmers et al., 2021). this data is useful when determining the relationship between poverty and co₂ emissions in ldcs. the co₂ emissions per capita data were collected from the global carbon project, and the poverty rate from global extreme poverty. both sources are reliable. a result, it is not sufficient to convert consumption levels by market exchange rates alone. key independent variable the logarithm form of co₂ per capita (lnco₂) has been selected as the key independent variable. emissions of co₂ result from the combustion of fossil fuels and the production of cement. included are co₂ from the combustion of solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels, as well as gas venting (world bank). the lnco₂ will be an indicator for measuring carbon emission in this research. control variables according to some researchers, poverty reduction cannot be solely attributed to economic growth, as evidenced by the works of datt and ravallion (datt & ravallion, 1992) and fosu (fosu, 2017). the authors posited that alterations in inequality have a statistically noteworthy impact on the mitigation of poverty, as evidenced by the works of datt and ravallion (datt & ravallion, 1992) and kraay (kraay, 2006). considering those previous arguments, the gini index (1) has been selected to indicate inequality. the gini coefficient is a statistical measure that quantifies the degree of income inequality within a given population. elevated values denote an increased degree of disparity. the highest level is 100 or 1. agriculture annual growth rate the aggregates for agriculture in 2015 are formulated using a fixed value in us dollars. the agriculture domain is classified under isic divisions 01-03, including forestry, hunting, fishing, and crop cultivation. value added is the final output of a sector, obtained by aggregating outputs and deducting intermediate inputs. the calculation does not consider depreciation or natural resource depletion. the origin of value added is established by the world bank’s isic, revision 4. first, this indicator was employed to measure the impact of agriculture on carbon emissions as a driving mechanism, and second, it was used as a control variable for the poverty rate. electricity access access to electricity is the proportion of the population that has access to electricity. the world bank collects information regarding electrification from industry, national surveys, and international sources. (world bank). this indicator was used as a driving mechanism of energy consumption on carbon emissions in ldcs and as a control variable for the poverty rate. mortality rate the gross mortality rate is a statistical measure of fatalities per 1000 individuals. natural growth rate is calculated by subtracting crude mortality rate from birth rate, resulting in population change rate without immigration (world bank). health expenditure the health expenditure of the government, with the table 1: list of the sample countries country poverty index (30 years) metric tons co₂ per capita (30years) bangladesh 26.49% 0.31 burkina faso 61.95% 0.12 burundi 80.05% 0.22 comoros 16.64% 0.32 lesotho 46.14% 1.11 malawi 69.11 0.08 mali 61.91% 0.12 mauritania 17.87 0.53 nepal 38.71% 0.19 niger 66.22% 0.07 senegal 45.59% 0.49 tanzania 66.12% 0.13 togo 52.87% 0.29 uganda 53.77% 0.08 zambia 55.93% 0.25 variables selection dependent variable the logarithm form of the poverty rate (lnpov) has been selected as the dependent variable. the poverty rate in this specific case, as defined by the united nations, is the share of the population living on less than 1.90 us dollars per day qualified as extreme poverty. the poverty rate has been added as a key measurement for poverty alleviation observation. measuring global poverty has difficulties, such as the difference in price levels in different countries. in order to understand how consumption levels differ from country to country, it is mandatory to adjust for differences in purchasing power which are also associated with differences in market exchange rates between countries (purchasing power parity adjustment ppp). as pa ge 44 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 37-51, 2023 exception of social security, is primarily borne by the central, state/regional, and local government departments, while social insurance plans are excluded from this category. this refers to entities under government units’ control and is primarily funded through non-market and non-profit means, as defined by the oecd. birth rate the term “crude birth rate” denotes the annual number of live births per 1000 individuals in a given population. the computation of the natural growth rate involves the deduction of the crude mortality rate from the crude birth rate, resulting in the population change rate in the absence of immigration (world bank). household final consumption refers to the market value of household goods and services includes enduring items like cars, laundry, and computers. it excludes real estate purchases and government payments for licenses and permits. this indicator also includes non-profit institutions’ expenditures. (world bank). the level of opening up is the sum of exports and imports of a country accounts for its share of gdp. education level the gross enrolment ratio measures the proportion of enrollment in secondary education, which is the next stage after primary school. it serves as the foundation for basic education and personal growth. secondary education aims to provide discipline and skill development through highly qualified instructors, ensuring enduring education and personal growth. (world bank). table 2: list of the different variables variables log form measure units sources poverty rate lnpov headcount ratio at 1.90 usd a day global extreme poverty carbon emission per capita lnco2 metric tons global carbon project gini index lngini gini index 100 world income inequality database agriculture's annual growth rate lnagri total percentage world bank wdi electricity access lnelec total percentage world bank wdi mortality rate lndeath crude per 1000 people world bank wdi birth rate lnbirth crude per 1000 people world bank wdi health expenditure lnheal percentage of gdp world bank wdi households final consumption lnhouse usd world bank wdi level of openness lntrade share of imports and exports in gdp penn world table 10.0 education level lnschool gross enrolment ratio world bank wdi specification of the econometric model integrating econometric models in the research is essential to determining the association between co₂ emissions reduction and poverty in ldcs. an econometric model consists of two necessary parts: equations derived from economic theory and a set of variables applied to the equation (maciejewski & wach, 2019). econometrics has been selected since it enables the investigation of real-world phenomena of the association between co₂ emissions reduction and poverty. the study has selected the regression model as the most appropriate econometric model. it is one of the simplest econometric models for researchers (werth & sigman, 2021). regression is an effective tool for determining the relationship between the variables in a data set (kibria & lukman, 2020). these variables are mapped on a curve, which is essential for modeling and analyzing the data. the model establishes a relationship between the direct and indirect variables in the research (rajabov & mustafakulov, 2020). the key independent variable is co₂ emissions per capita, while the dependent variable is the poverty rate. the three main regression models for panel data are the pooled ordinary least square, fixed effect, and random effects models. the right model selection has been decided according to the results of the different tests. in this study, the hausman test and the breuch and pagan lagrangian multiplier test were conducted. according to the p-value hausman test (0.0119) and the l.m. test (0.0000) of the respective test, the fixed effect model has been selected as the most accurate for this research. the equation of the fixed effect model is: lnpovit= αi+β1 lnco2it+ β2 lnginiit+β3 lnagriit+β4 lnelecit+β5 lnbirthit+β6 lndeathit+β7 lnhealit+β8 lnhouseit+β9 lntradeit+β10 lnschoolit+εit (1) where i represents entity, t represents time, αi (i=1 ::: n) is the unknown intercept for each entity (n entityspecific intercepts), yit is the dependent variable lnpov; xit represents the independent and control variables; βi is the coefficient for respective independent and control variables; and εit is the error term. in order to verify the veracity of energy consumption as the driving mechanism of carbon emissions in ldcs, the following intermediary effect test model is constructed referencing to the methodology introduced by wen zhonglin pa ge 45 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 37-51, 2023 table 3: descriptive statistics variable obs mean std. dev. min max poverty rate 450 50.628 22.059 4.782 87.11 co₂ per capita 455 .25 .253 .02 1.535 gini index 450 43.788 10.071 25.876 65.756 agriculture's annual growth rate 463 2.983 9.122 -33.071 68.112 electricity access 395 27.352 22.056 .53 96.2 birth rate 465 39.145 7.847 17.549 55.485 death rate 465 11.621 4.275 5.481 22.97 expenditure on health 300 5.163 1.974 2.064 11.579 households final consumption 385 4.595e+10 9.577e+10 6.000e+08 6.200e+11 openness 450 56.904 32.008 18.972 201.331 school enrollment 310 30.234 17.601 5.221 85.522 and ye baojuan (wen zhonglin & ye baojuan, 2014): (2) (3) (4) where lnco2it represents the dioxide carbon emissions,lnpov represents the poverty rate, lnelec represents the mediation variable, control represents the control variables, t represents the year, μi the individual regional effect, λt the time effect, and εit the random error terms. descriptive statistics table 4: benchmark estimation results variables (1) (2) (3) lnco2 -0.795*** -0.674*** -0.521*** (0.184) (0.0517) (0.111) lngini 0.0103 0.155 (0.124) (0.215) lnagri -0.00414 -0.00618 (0.00657) (0.00811) lnelec -0.0951*** -0.0187 (0.0308) (0.0940) lnbirth 2.669*** (0.571) lndeath -1.256*** (0.268) lnheal -0.128 (0.114) lnhouse -0.324 (0.273) lntrade -0.103 (0.126) results and discussion benchmark estimation results fixed effects regression is a method that allows the item to be linked with observed self-reliant things. it limits selection bias in the association by minimizing massive incidences of variation (mummolo & peterson, 2018). a fixed effect model involves the independent variable being constant. meanwhile, the dependent variable will shift based on the fluctuations of the independent variables. model (1) is the regression outcome without any control variables, model (2) is composed of three control variables, and model (3) represents the return result containing all control variables. the outcomes in table 4 below display that the per capita co₂ coefficient is -0.52 (model 3); therefore, the co₂ per capita increase reduces the poverty rate. all control variables are negative coefficients except for the gini index and birth rate. the p-value of co₂ per capita is 0.000, and its range is less than 0.05. therefore, the correlation between per capita co₂ and the poverty rate is very significant. pa ge 46 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 37-51, 2023 table 5: robustness and 2sls regression variables (4) (5) (6) (7) lnco₂ 0.392*** -0.193** (0.0352) (0.0841) lngini -0.158* 0.188 -0.217** 1.259*** (0.0844) (0.143) (0.101) (0.278) lnelec 0.428*** -0.323*** 0.520*** -0.465*** (0.0210) (0.0265) (0.0187) (0.0675) lnagri 0.00516 -0.00356 0.00510 -0.0108 (0.00447) (0.00720) (0.00509) (0.0139) lnbirth 1.467*** (0.192) lndeath 0.537*** (0.181) lnheal -0.00300 (0.128) lnhouse 0.261*** robustness and endogeneity test this study’s dependent and key independent variables are poverty rate and carbon emissions per capita, respectively. in order to check the robustness of the results, we use an alternative variable and rerun the regression model. we use the gross domestic product (lngdp) and per capita ecological footprint (lneco) as alternative variables to run the model. the ecological footprint measures resource consumption and waste generation in relation to nature’s ability to absorb them. it calculates total requirements for biologically productive areas, such as cropland, cotton, and forests, and converts them into standardized units called global hectares. this aggregate ecological footprint is equivalent to the sum of the global hectares needed to sustain an individual. our variable replacement method is divided into three phases. the first phase implies the substitution of only the dependent variable; the second phase implies the substitution of the key independent variable. the last phase implies the substitution of both dependent and independent variables. in model (4), the dependent variable (lnpov) has been replaced by the gdp (lngdp). the result of model (4) shows that an increase in carbon emissions boosts the economy. in model (5), the independent variable (lnco₂) has been replaced by the ecological footprint per capita (lneco). moreover, the result shows that an increase in (lneco) leads to decreased poverty (lnpov). in model (6), the poverty rate (lnpov) and the carbon emissions per capita (lnco₂) have been both replaced by (lngdp) and (lneco), respectively. the result shows a positive effect on gdp which confirms our first finding. therefore, our results are robust. it is to be noted that the data (lngdp) and (lneco) variables are from the world bank database. the results obtained from this regression confirm the robustness of our first result. since lneco has a positive impact on lngdp, the increase of lneco contributes to poverty reduction, which has been supported by some researchers on economic growth and poverty reduction, such as roemer and gugerty (roemer & gugerty, 1997). in order to avoid the endogenous problem of variables, referring to coles (coles et al., 2008), mcknight and weir (mcknight & weir, 2009), we conducted a 2sls regression model using the lagged value of endogenous variables as the instrument variable. the coefficients of our key independent variables are still negative and significant (model 7). lnschool -0.143 (0.138) constant 2.341*** 2.771*** 4.261 (0.334) (0.494) (7.967) observations 441 371 177 r-squared 0.514 0.547 0.736 lm test prob > chibar2 = 0.0000 hausman test prob>chi2 = 0.0009 number of cid 15 15 13 standard errors in parentheses *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 pa ge 47 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 37-51, 2023 table 6: intermediary analysis results variables (8) (9) (10) lnco₂ -0.538*** 0.00432 -0.517*** (0.0669) (0.0879) (0.0605) lnelec 0.125*** (0.0436) constant -12.08*** -17.42*** 6.382 (2.730) (5.522) (3.877) bootstrap test coef coef = -0.08, p<0.000 confidence interval (-. 130208 -. 0431908) f.e. yes yes yes control variable yes yes yes control time yes yes yes observations 331 297 297 r-squared 0.714 0.813 0.790 number of cid 14 14 14 standard errors in parentheses *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 intermediary effect analysis the following are the basic steps of the intermediary effect analysis proposed by baron and kenny (baron & kenny, 1986). mediation analysis included three sets of regression: x → y, x → m, and x+m → y. in table (6), we examine the association between energy consumption using electricity consumption as a measurement and poverty rate. after controlling the year, lnelec (electricity consumption) is selected as the mediation variable. the regression results confirm a mediating effect between electricity consumption and poverty because both have significant coefficients. indeed, after running the bootstrap test (coef = -0.08, p<0.000) and with a confidence interval of (-. 130208 -. 0431908), a significant mediator effect was found between lnelec and lnpov (see table 6). emissions reduction policies can substantially affect low-income households, given their potential inability to compensate for any reduction in income resulting from such measures. ldcs register diminished socioeconomic indicators and low human development index ratings. co₂ emissions are a critical indicator of environmental degradation and conservation. the list of ldcs was sourced from the world bank, a reliable data source on the economic potential of different regions. the validity and reliability of the study were also considered and determined to be high. this outlook underlined the study as a competent source of information on the topic. the research utilized panel data from 15 ldcs from 1990 to 2020, and a fixed effect regression model was run. the study finds that: (1) a significant association between carbon emissions and poverty rates in ldcs. carbon emissions reduction aggravates poverty in ldcs through energy consumption reduction policies. (2) the research indicates an inverse relationship between co₂ emission and poverty rate. its finding shows that poverty alleviation can occur by setting up viable economic opportunities for people in ldcs. (3) energy consumption is a driving mechanism of co₂ emission in ldcs. ldcs depend extensively on fossil fuels for their energy needs, and reducing emissions would mean reduced demand for these fuels. that, in turn, would lead to less investment in these countries and higher energy prices, which would disproportionately impact people experiencing poverty. policy implications the outcomes mentioned above hold significant policy implications for ldcs first, poverty alleviation can occur by setting up viable economic opportunities for people in ldcs. opportunities can be implemented with little consequence to the co₂ emissions. however, a concern arises when poverty alleviation activities are implemented without regard for the resulting impact on the climate. while the attempts to reduce the endemic poverty in these regions (0.0357) lntrade -0.152 (0.165) lnschool 0.541*** (0.0980) lneco -0.616*** 0.380*** (0.126) (0.0891) constant 22.92*** 4.082*** 22.06*** -13.78*** (0.336) (0.552) (0.391) (1.911) observations 371 365 365 177 r-squared 0.816 0.390 0.730 0.769 number of cid 15 15 15 standard errors in parentheses *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 conclusions as nations globally endeavor to diminish their carbon emissions to counteract climate change, they must consider the possible adverse impacts of such policies on poverty alleviation. the implementation of carbon pa ge 48 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 37-51, 2023 are justified, they must be done sustainably. organizations such as the u.n. and the world bank need to consider investing in projects that enhance the earning potential of the citizens in ldcs without causing severe damage to the climate of those regions. second, the “green structural transformation.” researchers like the chinese scholar justin yifu pointed out the concept of structural transformation as a main way for ldcs to end poverty and engage in economic development. the ldcs are in a “traditional economy” and “dual structure” where agriculture dominates, the transition period to initial industrialization. we must first increase the labor productivity of agriculture and solve the fundamental survival problem of “sufficiency.” then, we must liberate the labor force from agriculture and transfer it to the labor-intensive processing industry. at the same time, we must also promote urbanization and build export processing zones to improve infrastructure and transportation conditions. this series of structural transformations, if there is no role of the government and only relies on the market mechanism, will either take a long time or will not happen at all. however, it is to be noted that for the sake of climate change, the economic structural transformation must change its traditional application to a more “green” application called “green structural transformation.” third, the pursuit of co₂ reduction activities must be strengthened within the more developed countries since they have low poverty levels. it is imperative for developed nations to allocate resources toward sustainable energy sources as a means of mitigating co₂ emissions. in the future, ldcs shall bear more burden of carbon emission reduction, but for now, it will negatively impact their economies and people. two-thirds of the population of ldcs need access to electricity, particularly in africa. the african continent, where most less advanced countries are located, consumes less energy than a developed country like spain (koffi annan, 2015). reference aghion, p., & howitt, p. 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(2018). poverty reduction through entrepreneurship: incentives, social networks, and sustainability. asian business & management, 17(4), 243-259. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1057/ s41291-018-0039-5 pa ge 1 pa ge 40 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) field performance and economic analysis of different adlai (coixlacryma-jobi l.) cultivars grown under lowland conditions in cebu city, philippines marciano d. tangpos1* volume 1 issue 1, year 2022 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: july 25, 2022 accepted: august 06, 2022 published: august 27, 2022 adlai (coixlacryma – jobi l.) had a higher potential alternative crop for rice and corn, but information about this crop is still limited. this study was conducted to; a) evaluate the agronomic component, yield, and yield characteristics; and b) determine the economic analysis of different adlai cultivars under lowland conditions of carcar city, cebu. the area (360 m2) was laid out in randomized complete block design (rcbd). three adlai cultivars were designated as treatments replicated thrice. all treatments were applied uniformly with inorganic fertilizer at the rate of 120-60-60 kg/ha n, p2o5, and k2o using complete fertilizer (14-14-14) and urea (46-0-0). among cultivars, tapol and gulian markedly headed and matured earlier than ginampay. tapol cultivar grew taller and produced longer panicles with extended and broader leaves. meanwhile, gulian had a higher number of panicles than tapol and ginampay. in terms of yield, tapol cultivar produced a higher grain yield comparable to gulian and ginampay. however, only the tapol cultivar generated the highest gross margin and percent return on investment of php 59, 269.79 and 3.51 which indicated as high adaptability of tapol cultivar under lowland conditions in carcar city, cebu. keywords adlai, coixlacrima jobi, agronomic, yield, net return 1 cebu technological university barili campus, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: marciano.tangpos@ctu.edu.ph introduction nature and importance of the study the philippine government still facing the dilemma regarding food sustainability. production of domestic foods cannot suffice the filipino populace (simeon, 2019). in turn, effort must be made to attain the issues on food security. hereafter, a locally known adlai (coixlacryma – jobi l.), otherwise known as chinese pearl barley or job’s tear (simeon, 2019) from the poaceae family (gaitan and gaitan, 2017) reported as a staple food for southern zamboanga del sur in the subanen tribe (gloria et al., 2015). it was chemically analyzed to have higher amount of starch, vitamins, and minerals that can lower blood pressure, anticancer, and reduce inflammation (gaitan and gaitan, 2017. though it has had higher potential, information about this crop is still limited (gaitan and gaitan, 2017). information on the morphology, yield and economic return limit only in mindanao region. recently, there have been known cultivars that the isolated part of mindanao has used as their staple food (gaitan and gaitan, 2017) including tapol, gulian and ginampay. characteristically, tapol is dull and darker in color, yielding more than 4.50 tons per hectare. ginampay has white grain color and has a yield of more than 4.78 tons per hectare, while gulian has light, darker grains and yields 4.80 mt/ha (dela cruz, 2011), respectively. however, yield varies when planted in different topography. gloria et al. (2015) found out that yield of this cultivar was minimally obtained at about 3.5 tons per hectare in other regions. meanwhile, to give detailed on this cultivars, a varietal trial was conducted to document its morphology, yield components and economic returns. materials and methods experimental area, design and field layout the experiment was conducted at brgy. pob. iii, carcar city, cebu, approximately 2 kilometers away from the town proper of carcar. geographically, the area was situated at 10.115111 latitudes and 123.639954 longitudes and characterized as a flat gradient and dominated by grasses and vegetations therein. the area (255 m2) was arranged in a randomized complete block design (rcbd) with three treatments replicated thrice. different cultivars were designated as treatments (t1 (ginampay), t2 (gulian), and t3 (tapol)). to facilitate data gathering, replications per treatment plot were separated by 1.5 m and 1 m alleyways. each plot measured 4 m x 5 m with six rows per plot and ten hills per linear row. crop establishment adlai seeds were planted in the furrows with a distance of 90 cm between rows and 60 cm between hills at 2 seeds per hill. one (1) week after germination, thinning at one plant per hill was done while thinned plants were transferred to missing hills to complete the desired plants per plot. fertilization was done using commercial fertilizer as complete (14-14-14, n-p2o5-k2o) and urea (46-0-0, n-p2o5-k2o). half of the recommended rate (120-60-60) (np2o5k2o) using complete fertilizer was applied two weeks after emergence, while the remaining half of recommended fertilizer was applied 45 days after planting. first manual weeding was employed three (3) weeks after planting, while second weeding was done 40 days after planting. integrated pest management (ipm) was adopted in the study. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee mailto:marciano.tangpos%40ctu.edu.ph?subject= pa ge 41 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 40-43, 2022 harvesting and processing harvesting was done separately to all firmed grains and whitish color for gulian and guinampay and pale red for tapol cultivar. harvested adlai crops were threshed using the locally made threshing bed called “hampasan” or “lambos”. grains were then sundried to 14% moisture content and winnowed before gathering all the necessary data. data gathered gathered data was limited on the agronomic characteristics, yield, and yield components, and gross margin analysis. it includes the number of days from planting to heading, number of days from planting to maturity, plant height at maturity (cm), leaf area index (lai), number of productive tillers per hill at maturity, number of panicle per tiller per hill, number of spikelet per panicles, the weight of 1,000 grains (g), grain yield, dry matter yield, and net income return. statistical analysis data was summarized, tabulated, and statistically analyzed using the analysis of variance (anova). differences between treatment means were further investigated using the honestly significant difference (hsd) test at a 5 % alpha level. results and discussion agronomic characteristics statistically, adlai cultivars differed significantly regarding heading time, maturity, plant height, and leaf area index (lai). among the three cultivars, tapol is significantly headed (88 das) and matured earlier (141.67), increased plant height (255 cm), and has longer and broader leaves (1.57). however, guinampay and gulian are significantly comparable regarding heading, maturity time, and heights. in other regions, agronomic characteristics differed from the result of the study. in luzon areas particularly in cordillera valley, ginampay, gulian, and tapol matured at 158160 dap while grows up to 215 to 225 cm tall (bulong et al., 2015). in mindanao regions particularly in tangub city, gulian and ginampay matured at 162 dap and grew up to 256 cm tall. the study showed that different cultivars of adlai showed different agronomic characteristics when planted in different areas. table 1: agronomic characteristics of different adlai (coixlacryma-jobi l.) cultivars grown in lowland condition in carcar city, cebu, philippines treatments no. of days from planting plant height lai to heading to maturity t1ginampay 90.67 a 146.67 a 198.67 b 1.30b t2gulian 90.00a 143.37 ab 214.67 b 1.13 c t3tapol 88.00b 141.67 b 255.00a 1.57 a (pr value) 0.0178 0.0302 0.0068 0.002 c. v. (%) 0.7444 0.9821 4.7800 4.330 means with the same letters are not significantly different at 5 % level using hsd test a variation in its agronomic characteristics were mainly due to the variability of biotic and abiotic factors (gould & higgs, 2009; jobbágy & jackson, 2004). also, crop performance may directly influence on the presence of crop stresses. according to alizadeh et al. (2014), limited or absence of rain or soil water deficiency is the primary stress factor that can affect the growth and development of plants. in addition, prasad et al. (2006) stated that limited soil moisture, stresses plants which hinder its development. meanwhile, the result of this study implied that under carcar city, cebu, the tapol cultivar outstands the other cultivars. it matures earlier, stands taller and with broader and longer leaves, respectively. yield and yield components results showed that the tapol cultivar significantly produced more number of tillers (10.33), panicles (52.67), a higher number of spikelets (347.67), heavier 1000 weight grains (86.33 g), higher grain yield (1.52 t/ ha), and heavier dried matter yield (657 kg/ha). this significant result is attributed to its genetic, environment, and interaction effects (dilalla et al., 2009). the yield components of these cultivars also vary from region to region. in the mindanao regions, the tapol cultivar also had a higher grain yield (3.07 tons/ha), while other cultivars yield varies from 1.67 to 1.85 tons/ha (gloria et al., 2015). however, in the luzon regions, the tapol cultivar showed the lowest yield at 0.59 tons/ha, while ginampay and gulian had higher yields of o.64 to 0.78 tons/ha, respectively. this shows a wide variation of its yield performance when grown in different regions. such yield variation may be because of its existing biotic and abiotic factors (clavijo, 2016), which also differ from region to region (christensen et al., 2013; doblas-reyes et al., 2013; parmesan and hanley, 2015; anderson and song, 2020). however, the result implied that tapol performed best than the other two adlai cultivars under lowland conditions in carcar city, cebu. the performance of this cultivar shows higher tiller productivity and panicles per hill, more spikelets, and heavier grain weight per hectare. but, this field information need further investigation under several conditions in the location mentioned above. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 42 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 40-43, 2022 economic analysis table 3 shows the gross margin analysis of different adlai cultivars grown under lowland conditions in carcar city, cebu. computation of income and cost was based on the actual yield times the current buying price and the cost incurred throughout each cultivars production. tapol cultivar gave the highest gross margin income of php 59,269.79 per hectare, followed by gulian and ginampay with a positive gross margin of php 4,878.79 and php 5,128.29. further, the tapol cultivar also had the highest return on investment (3.51), which means that investment in the tapol cultivar could gain threefold more of its cost of production. therefore, under carcar city conditions, planting of adlai (tapol) cultivar could have positive higher economic returns as evident to have increased gross income and return on investment table 2: yield and yield components of different adlai (coixlacryma-jobi l.) varieties grown in lowland condition in carcar city, cebu, philippines treatment productive tillers no.of panicles no.of spikelets 1000 grains(g) grain yield(t/ha) t1ginampay 8.00b 35.67c 256.00c 76.67b 0.1455 b t2gulian 6.00c 53.00a 259.33b 73.67c 0.1472 b t3tapol 10.33 a 52.67ab 347.67a 86.33a 1.5265a (pr value) 0.009 0.045 0.032 0.021 0. 042 c. v. (%) 10.87 40.13 42.60 15.73 17.14 means followed by the same letters are not significantly different at 5 % alpha level using hsd test table 3: gross margin analysis of different adlai (coixlacryma-jobi l.) varieties grown under lowland condition in carcar city, cebu treatment grain yield gross income total variable cost gross margin return on investment (%) (tha-1) (phpha-1) (phpha-1) t1-ginampay 0.4365 21,781.35 16,902.56 4,878.79 0.29 t2-gulian 0.4415 22,030.85 16,902.56 5,128.29 0.30 t3-tapol 1.5265 76,172.35 16,902.56 59,269.79 3.51 *calculation of gross income is based on the current price of adlai at php 499/kg conclusion and recommendation based on the results, the tapol cultivar outstand agronomic characteristics, higher yield and yield components, and higher return on investment. meanwhile, tapol cultivar was highly recommended under carcar city conditions. further study is recommended focusing on the performance of this cultivars relating to food and feed production, formulation, and its socio-economic analysis in national and international level. references alizadeh, v., shokri, v., soltani, a., & yousefi, m.a. (2014). effects of climate change and droughtstress on plant physiology. international journal of advanced biological and biomedical research, 4(2), 468472. anderson, j. t., & song, b. h. (2020). plant adaptation to climate change. journal of systematics and evolution, 58(5), 533-545. bulong, m. p., guerzon, n. r. s., & goha-od, r. c. (2015). growth and yield performance of adlai (coix lacryma-jobi l.) under the organic-based condition of lamut, ifugao. the upland farm journal, 25(1), 16-24. christensen, j. h., kanikicharla, k. k., aldrian, e., an, s. i., cavalcanti, i. f. a., de castro, m., & zou, l. (2013). climate phenomena and their relevance for future regional climate change. in climate change 2013 the physical science basis: working group i contribution to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change (pp. 1217-1308). cambridge university press. clavijo, mc-c. a. (2016). can plant–natural enemy communication withstand disruption by biotic and abiotic factors?. ecology and evolution, 6(23), 85698582. dela cruz, r. t. (2011). champion crop of the subanen tribe. bar chronicle, 12(7). doblas‐reyes, f. j., garcía‐serrano, j., lienert, f., biescas, a. p., & rodrigues, l. r. (2013). seasonal climate predictability and forecasting: status and prospects. wiley interdisciplinary reviews: climate change, 4(4), 245268. gaitan,. k., and gaitan, k. (2017). adlai: a rice-like versatility. retrieved december 4, 2019, from https:// devcomconvergence.wordpress.com/2013/08/31/ adlai-a-rice-likeversatility. gloria, a. l., alegado jr, j. c., & boco, m. d. a. (2015). adaptability trial of five (5) varietes of adlai (coix lacryma, jobi l.) grown in marginal land, under san miguel environment condition, surigao del sur, mindanao, philippines. sdssu multidisciplinary research journal, 3, 70-77. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 43 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 40-43, 2022 gould, e. a., & higgs, s. (2009). impact of climate change and other factors on emerging arbovirus diseases. transactions of the royal society of tropical medicine and hygiene, 103(2), 109-121. jobbágy, e. g., & jackson, r. b. (2004). the uplift of soil nutrients by plants: biogeochemical consequences across scales. ecology, 85(9), 2380-2389. parmesan, c., & hanley, m. e. (2015). plants and climate change: complexities and surprises. annals of botany, 116(6), 849-864. prasad, p.v.v., boote, k.j., & allen, l.h. jr. (2006). adverse high temperature effects on pollen viability, seed-set, seed yield and harvest index of grain sorghum [sorghum bicolor (l.) moench] are more severe at elevated carbon dioxide due to higher tissue temperature. agric. for. meteorol., 139, 237–251. simeon, l. m. (2019). philippines rice imports to hit 2.3 million mt this year. retrieved december 4, 2019, from https:// www.philstar.com/business/2019/02/11/1892569/ philippines-rice-imports-hit-23-million-mt-year. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 1 pa ge 1 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) integrating complex derivative models in understanding dollarization’s impact on sustainable development goals and environmental economics: a neo-classical finance perspective abdulgaffar muhammad1, edirin jeroh2, john aliu nma3, anthony unyime abasido4, maryam isyaku5 anthony kolade adesugba1 volume 3 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v3i1.2357 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: november 25, 2022 accepted: december 27, 2022 published: january 02, 2023 dollarization has major implications for sustainable development and environmental economics in developing countries. this paper integrates complex derivative models from neoclassical finance theory, including stochastic volatility, copula, and regime-switching models, to quantitatively analyze the impacts of dollarization. the models examine effects on poverty, inequality, economic growth, natural capital investment, and green bond financing access related to sustainable development goals and environmental economics. despite limitations in assumptions, the models provide useful risk quantification. results suggest dollarization exacerbates volatility and negative externalities, hindering sustainability objectives. the integration of derivative modeling and development economics provides an analytical framework for examining dollarization, indicating potential gains from gradual de-dollarization policies. further empirical research is warranted to validate the theoretical insights. keywords dollarization, derivative models, stochastic volatility, copulas, regime-switching, sustainable development, environmental economics 1 department of business administration, ahmadu bello university, zaria, nigeria 2 department of accounting, delta state university abraka, nigeria 3 department of banking and finance, kaduna polytechnic, kaduna, nigeria 4 department of business administration and management, federal polytechnic daura, katsina, nigeria 5 department of business administration and entrepreneurship, bayero university kano, nigeria * corresponding author’s e-mail: muhammadabdulgaffar306@gmail.com introduction currency substitution, known as dollarization, occurs when residents of a country use a foreign currency along with or instead of the domestic currency (calvo & vegh, 1992). dollarization has become an increasingly common practice in many developing economies over the past few decades. however, the phenomenon has significant implications for sustainable economic development and environmental economics in dollarized countries. this paper aims to integrate complex derivative models to further understand dollarization’s impacts on sustainable development goals and environmental economics from a neoclassical finance perspective. sustainable development has emerged as a priority for policymakers, with the un sustainable development goals (sdgs) setting specific targets for poverty, inequality, environmental sustainability, and economic growth by 2030 (united nations, 2015). environmental economics examines the economic impacts of environmental policies and natural resource constraints on development (field & field, 2016). dollarization can constrain the development of domestic financial markets and institutions, limiting credit provision and financial services for local investment needs (quispe-agnoli & whisler, 2006). complex derivative models from neoclassical finance theory can provide valuable insights into these effects of dollarization. these models include stochastic pricing models, stochastic volatility models, and complex copula models that account for nonlinear dependencies and tail risks (jeanblanc et al., 2009). integrating these models can help analyze the risks and externalities associated with dollarization more rigorously. this paper will provide background on dollarization and its motivations, outline relevant complex derivative models, demonstrate how these models can be integrated to understand dollarization’s impacts, and discuss implications for theory and policy. the analysis aims to advance the theoretical literature on dollarization while also informing sustainable development policy in practice. literature review understanding dollarization dollarization refers to the use of a foreign currency, generally the u.s. dollar, as a medium of exchange and unit of account within the financial system of another country (cohen, 2004). it takes two main forms: unofficial, or de facto dollarization, and official, or de jure dollarization. de facto dollarization occurs when residents voluntarily hold foreign currency deposits and notes to protect against inflation and exchange rate fluctuations. de jure dollarization represents an official policy change to permanently adopt a foreign currency legally (calvo & vegh, 1992). several motivations explain the pervasiveness of dollarization, especially in developing countries. high inflation and macroeconomic instability associated with domestic currency often drives financial substitution pa ge 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 1-4, 2024 towards stable foreign currencies like the dollar (savastano, 1996). dollarization also arises from international trade and financial integration that increases the use of dollars for pricing and transactions. in some countries, it has cultural roots linked to a history of u.s. political influence (cohen, 2004). overall, dollarization reflects a lack of confidence in the domestic currency and a desire for a more stable unit of account and store of value. many consequences of dollarization for economic performance have been identified. proponents argue it promotes monetary and macroeconomic stability by importing credible policies from anchor countries (calvo & vegh, 1992). however, evidence suggests growth benefits are limited, while dollarization constrains the development of domestic financial markets and institutions (de nicolo et al., 2005). it also exposes countries to foreign monetary policy and exchange rate fluctuations vis-à-vis third currencies (reinhart et al., 2003). on balance, risks from loss of seigniorage revenues and lender of last resort ability often outweigh stability gains for dollarised economies. models copula-based models of exchange rate distributions the student’s t-copula model, as utilized by aloui et al. (2013), represents a copula function c(u1,u2) involving the multivariate t-distribution copula tν,ρ with parameters ν degrees of freedom and ρ correlation. this intricate formulation is mathematically expressed as: c(u1,u2)=tν,ρ(t−1(u1),t−1(u2)) here, t−1 denotes the inverse function of the cumulative distribution function applied to standardized variables u1 and u2. this sophisticated representation enables an intricate analysis of joint distributions, tail dependencies, and extreme event clustering within dollarized regimes, presenting a sophisticated avenue for modeling the complex dynamics and interdependencies inherent in currency crashes. stochastic interest rate models the cox-ingersoll-ross (cir) model governing interest rate dynamics involves a stochastic differential equation (sde) describing the rate of change of the interest rate r over time t: dr=k(θ-r)dt+σ√rdz in this equation, k represents the speed at which the interest rate reverts to its mean θ, while σ signifies the volatility. the term dz stands for the increment of a wiener process. this intricate sde elegantly captures the complex nature of interest rate dynamics within dollarization, delineating the mean-reverting behavior of the interest rate towards θ under the influence of volatility σ. regime-switching models hamilton’s (1988) markov-switching model elucidating the us dollar-british pound exchange rate introduces a conditional probability distribution p(yt∣i(t-1)) with state st that follows a markov process. mathematically, it is articulated as: p(yt ∣ i(t-1))= n(μ(st ), σ 2 (st )) here, yt denotes the exchange rate at time t, while i(t-1) represents historical information up to time t−1. the model incorporates the hidden regime state st governing the exchange rate behavior, enabling the detection and analysis of significant shifts in exchange rate dynamics resulting from regime changes. this sophisticated framework adeptly captures the nuanced transitions between periods of floatation and fixed regimes, offering a comprehensive understanding of exchange rate behavior within diverse economic environments. these mathematically intricate formulations lay the groundwork for sophisticated derivative models, providing a nuanced understanding and quantification of risks and value impacts associated with dollarization by capturing complex distributions, dynamic interest rate behaviors, and regime transitions within exchange rates. methodology sustainable development goals poverty dynamics model 1. income process (ravallion, 2003): dyt= μyt dt + σyt dwt 2. application of ito’s lemma to function f(yt )=log(yt): df= 1/y1 dyt 1/(2y2 1) (σyt ) 2 dt 3. substituting the income process: df= (μ 1/2 σ2)dt + σdwt 4. integration and exponential transformation (mookherjee and shorrocks, 1982): yt=y0 exp((μ-1/2 σ2) t + σwt) 5. poverty’s dependence on income volatility amplified by dollarization. inequality model 1. debt-to-income ratio process (mendoza and terrones, 2012): d(dt/yt)= (rdt gyt) dt/yt dt + σ dt/yt dwt where d represents debt, y is income, r is the interest rate, g is the income growth rate. 2. dollarization’s impact on interest rates and uncertainty increasing debt burdens and inequality. 3. application of ito’s lemma and integration (dixit & pindyck, 1994). regime-switching growth 1. markov-switching model (cerra and saxena, 2002): gyt = α0 + α1 st + εt where st indicates currency regime status, and α1 < 0 under dollarization. 2. modeling regime change probabilities (hamilton, 1989). environmental economics real options 1. project value with revenue uncertainty (pindyck, 1991): v=max[pv(r) i,0] where pv(r) represents present value of revenue and i denotes investment. pa ge 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 1-4, 2024 2. modeling revenue as a stochastic process (schwartz and smith, 2000). 3. dynamic solution using risk-neutral valuation (dixit and pindyck, 1994). green bond yields 1. capm model (fama and french, 1993): yg=rf+β(e[rm] rf) where yg denotes green bond yields, rf is the risk-free rate, β represents beta risk. 2. dollarization’s impact on beta risk for local bonds (erb et al., 1996). 3. modeling market returns as a stochastic process (campbell, lo, and mackinlay, 1997). these highly intricate mathematical formulations represent an integrated framework, facilitating an indepth exploration of the multifaceted impacts of dollarization across diverse domains such as poverty dynamics, inequality, growth regimes, environmental economics, and bond yields, capturing the complex interdependencies and dynamics within each system. results and discussion the paper integrates complex derivative models from neoclassical finance theory to analyze the impacts of dollarization on sustainable development goals and environmental economics. the models used include stochastic volatility models, copula models, and regimeswitching models to quantify the risks and dynamics associated with dollarization. the models are applied to estimate dollarization’s effects on several domains related to sustainable development, including poverty dynamics, inequality, economic growth regimes, real options valuation of natural capital investment, and green bond yields. the mathematical formulations enable nuanced analysis of distributions, dependencies, and regime changes inherent to dollarization environments. the key results suggest that dollarization exacerbates volatility and negative externalities that impede progress on sustainable development goals and environmental economics objectives. by increasing uncertainty and constraints, dollarization is estimated to amplify poverty levels, widen inequality, hinder stable economic growth, reduce natural capital investment, and limit financing via local green bonds. however, the paper notes that the theoretical models require extensive empirical validation and calibration to specific dollarized economies. assumptions may limit applicability in practice. complementary model-free evidence is called for to substantiate the quantitative insights. overall, the integration of complex derivative techniques provides a useful analytical framework to examine dollarization’s multifaceted impacts. the findings imply that gradual de-dollarization policies may yield benefits once macroeconomic stability is achieved. further research should focus on empirical estimation of model parameters and expanding behavioral model extensions. conclusion this paper has demonstrated the integration of sophisticated derivative models from neoclassical finance theory to examine dollarization’s multifaceted effects on sustainable development goals and environmental economics. the stochastic volatility models, copula models, and regime-switching models provided useful quantitative frameworks to capture risks, dependencies, and dynamics inherent to dollarized regimes. the models were applied to assess dollarization’s impacts on poverty, inequality, economic growth, natural capital investment, and green bond financing access. the findings consistently point to dollarization exacerbating volatility and negative externalities that hinder progress on sustainability objectives. however, the stringent assumptions required indicate the need for extensive empirical calibration and validation through model-free evidence. the integration of complex derivative techniques with development economics questions yields valuable analytical insights, despite the practical limitations of these theoretical models. the overall results suggest that potential economic and environmental benefits may arise from well-designed de-dollarization policies enacted once macroeconomic fundamentals stabilize. further research should focus on expanding empirical analysis, estimating model parameters specific to dollarized countries, and exploring behavioral finance extensions. in conclusion, this study demonstrates a productive bridging of derivative finance theory with sustainable development analysis. the integration provides quantitative rigor and risk modeling capabilities to enrich our understanding of dollarization’s multifaceted impacts. extending this analytical framework through empirical and behavioral enhancements remains an engaging area for future research. references aloui, r., aïssa, m. s. b., & nguyen, d. k. (2013). conditional dependence structure between oil prices and exchange rates: a copula-garch approach. journal of international money and finance, 32, 719-738. calvo, g. a., & vegh, c. a. (1992). currency substitution in developing countries: an introduction. revista de análisis económico, 7(1), 3-27. campbell, j. y., lo, a. w., & mackinlay, a. c. (1997). the econometrics of financial markets. princeton university press. cerra, v., & saxena, s. c. (2002). contagion, monsoons, and domestic turmoil in indonesia’s currency crisis. review of international economics, 10(1), 36-44. cohen, b. j. (2004). the future of money. princeton university press. cox, j. c., ingersoll jr, j. e., & ross, s. a. (1985). a theory of the term structure of interest rates. econometrica: journal of the econometric society, 385-407. pa ge 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 1-4, 2024 de nicolo, g., honohan, p., & ize, a. (2005). dollarization of bank deposits: causes and consequences. journal of banking & finance, 29(7), 1697-1727. dixit, a. k., & pindyck, r. s. (1994). investment under uncertainty. princeton university press. erb, c. b., harvey, c. r., & viskanta, t. e. (1996). political risk, economic risk and financial risk. financial analysts journal, 51(6), 29-46. fama, e. f., & french, k. r. (1993). common risk factors in the returns on stocks and bonds. journal of financial economics, 33(1), 3-56. field, b. c., & field, m. k. (2016). environmental economics: an introduction (7th ed.). mcgraw-hill education. hamilton, j. d. (1988). rational-expectations econometric analysis of changes in regime: an investigation of the term structure of interest rates. journal of economic dynamics and control, 12(2-3), 385-423. hamilton, j. d. (1989). a new approach to the economic analysis of nonstationary time series and the business cycle. econometrica: journal of the econometric society, 357-384. jeanblanc, m., yor, m., & chesney, m. (2009). mathematical methods for financial markets. springer science & business media. mendoza, e. g. and terrones, m. e. (2012). an anatomy of credits booms and their demise. journal economía chilena (the chilean economy), central bank of chile, 15(2), 04-32. mookherjee, d., & shorrocks, a. (1982). a decomposition analysis of the trend in uk income inequality. the economic journal, 92(368), 886-902. pindyck, r. s. (1991). irreversibility, uncertainty, and investment. journal of economic literature, 29(3), 1110-1148. quispe-agnoli, m., & whisler, e. (2006). official dollarization and the banking system in ecuador and el salvador. economic review-federal reserve bank of atlanta, 91(3), 55. ravallion, m. (2003, november 11). on measuring aggregate “social efficiency”. retrieved from ssrn: https://ssrn.com/abstract=636585 reinhart, c. m., rogoff, k. s., & savastano, m. a. (2003). addicted to dollars. national bureau of economic research. savastano, m. a. (1996). dollarization in latin america: recent evidence and some policy issues. imf working papers, 1-31. schwartz, e. s., & smith, j. e. (2000). short-term variations and long-term dynamics in commodity prices. management science, 46(7), 893-911. united nations. (2015). transforming our world: the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. https:// sdgs.un.org/2030agenda pa ge 1 pa ge 19 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) determinants of technical inefficiency in wheat production: an application of the stochastic frontier model nigeria bashir a. b1*, i.m ali2, togun o. m1, s.a jibrin3 volume 2 issue 1, year 2023 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v2i1.1155 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: january 03, 2023 accepted: march 07, 2023 published: may 09, 2023 this study examined wheat farming technical efficiency, its determinants and wheat production constraints among wheat farmers in the wheat producing states of nigeria. the study did not cover borno and yobe wheat producing states due to volatile insecurity situation in the areas. primary data were obtained from 866 farmers using proportionate selection from the states list of farmers. a structured questionnaire and interview schedule were administered to the farmers to collect data for the study. a stochastic frontier model was used to capture wheat production efficiency and its determinants while, likert scale was employed to reveal severity of wheat production constraints among farmers in the study area. land size, quantity of seed planted, quantity of npk fertilizer applied, quantity of urea fertilizer applied and labour used in man-day were found to be positive and statistically significant. the most severe constraints affecting wheat production in the study area were poor access to credit, lack of dependable wheat market outlay, and access to improved and quality seed among others. there should be adequate incentives (timely supply of improved wheat seed, fertilizer and irrigation facilities at affordable prices. keywords determinants, technical, inefficiency, wheat, production, nigeria 1 department of agricultural economics and extension, lake chad research institute, maiduguri, nigeria 2 department of agricultural economics, university of maiduguri, nigeria 3 departmentof agricultural economics and extension borno state university, njimtilo, nigeria * corresponding author’s e-mail: bashir5880@gmail.com introduction wheat is a global staple food usually process into wheat-based foods (flour noodles, semolina pasta, and biscuit wheat meal), beer, beverages and animal feed. many developing countries including nigeria are facing challenges of low output, productivity and constrained input supply patterns. wheat is one of the most important agricultural commodities in nigeria that needs accelerated local production as a result of population growth. nigeria produced approximately 60, 000 mt of wheat in 2016 worth $12.66 million (only 0.004% of the global production) (klynveld, peat, marwick and goerdeler (kpmg, 2016; proshare, 2018). in 2020, nigeria imported $2.15b in wheat, becoming the 4th largest importer of wheat in the world (national bureau of statistics (nbs, 2022 and the observatory of economic complexity (oec, 2022). the surging wheat import could be attributed to the supply gap in the country and improved demand in the domestic market. this could be as a result of technical inefficiency of wheat farmers that need to be measured, since it provides information as to whether or not wheat farmers are producing a given quantity of output using minimum quantity of inputs (oyekanmi, 2022) although, many studies have been conducted on technical efficiency of wheat farmers in other parts of the world( anatolia in turkey, bihar in indian, south wollo in north-central ethiopia by alender & oren (2006), prafulla (2012) and hassen (2016) respectively), in nigeria, studies carried out on technical efficiency focused on crops other than wheat. for example, mukhtar et al. (2018) employed data envelopment analysis (dea) to determine technical efficiency of small holder pearl millet farmers in kano state. however, no study has estimated technical efficiency of wheat production, its determinants along with challenges domicile in wheat producing states of the country. hence the main focus of this study is to determine the inefficiency status of nigerian wheat farmers. methodology the study was conducted in wheat growing zones of nigeria that comprised northern states of the country which lies between latitude 10026/n to 10055/ of the equator and longitudes 12026/e to 13045/ of the greenwich meridian. the climate of the area is tropical with distinct wet and dry seasons. the area experience 4-6 months of rainfall with a mean annual rainfall of about 1000mm-1500mm. the mean annual temperature is 26.30c. majority of the people are full time farmers with a good number engaged in wheat farming. the major crops cultivated along with wheat are: sorghum, maize, groundnut and millet. animal such as cattle, sheep, goat and poultry are also kept at both subsistence and commercial levels. sampling technique samples were drawn from five out of seven wheat producing states of nigeria which include: kano, bauchi, jigawa, kebbi and sokoto. borno and yobe states were excluded because of the security challenges. the study considered 866 sample farmers from sample frame obtained from the states association of wheat farmers. these samples were proportionally selected from the above list. analytical tool the study employed the use of stochastic frontiermodel https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v2i1.1155 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 20 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 19-23, 2023 (sfm) to estimatetechnical efficiency of wheat production and its determinants among wheat farmers in nigeria. model specification: inyi = β1xi + vi ui yi = wheat yield β1= estimated input parameters vi = random noise term (vi ~n(0,σ2 vi) ui = technical inefficiency cobb douglas production form inyi = β0 + inβ1x1 + inβ2x2 + inβ3x3 + inβ4x4+ inβ5x5 + vi-ui y= wheat yield (kg/farm) x1= land size (hectare) x2= seed planted (kg/ farm) x3= npk fertilizer used (kg/ farm) x4= urea fertilizer used (kg/ farm) x5 = labour (man-day/ farm) results and discussion the result from table 1 revealed how land size (lnlperhact), quantity of seed planted (lnseedq4planted), quantity of npk fertilizer applied (lnfertilizerq3a), quantity of urea fertilizer applied (lnfertilizerq3b) and labour used in man-day (lnmanday2) influence wheat yield (lnyield) across the study area. the parameter estimates showed positive signs all through which indicated direct relationship between wheat yield and its determinants. an increase in land size by one hectare will increase wheat yield by 0.2828kg which is statistically significant at 1%. roersma (1997) findings was consistent with the result that farm size and labour price ratio positively correlated with high yield for the small farmers land and labour price ratio and lower for the larger farms, resulting in more intensive cultivation (more family labour per unit of land) and higher output per unit area than on larger farms. moreover, most of the respondents cultivates wheat on small scale, but devoted to cultivating other crops such as rice, groundnut, and cowpea among others on a large scale. a unit increase in labour use will result to an increase in wheat yield by 0.1845kg which is statistically significant at 1%. this suggests that labour surpluses on smaller farms permit more labour to be used per hectare to care for crops and generate higher yields. more so, additional one kg of npk or one kg of urea fertilizer use by respondent will increase wheat yield by 0.4008kg and 0.1726kg respectively both of which are statistically significant at 1%. this result is also in line with lachew et al. (2008) that fertilizer is positively correlated with value of yield at 1% level of significance. this implies that yield is likely to increase with increase in a kg of fertilizer applied. in other words, wheat production performance could be said to be dependent on npk and urea fertilizer applied as recommended. this could be the reason why, npk and urea fertilizer are applied together alongside with wheat seed at planting before second application as at when due. furthermore, a unit increase in wheat seed planted will result to an increase in wheat yield by 0.0640kg and it is statistically significant at 10%. this may suggests that wheat farmers across wheat producing areas might be planting wheat seed below the recommended rate and therefore need to increase the rate of seed planting to be more efficient in production. more importantly, the statistically significant at 1% (prob < = z = 0.000) from truncated normal result in testing the null hypothesis (h0=there is no inefficiency component) implies that we reject the null hypothesis (h0) and conclude that inefficiency component exist table 1: stochastic frontier normal truncated-normal model table lnyield coef. std. err. z p>|z| [95% conf. interval] lnlperhact 0.2828*** 0.0356 7.94 0.000 0.2130 0.3526 lnseedq4planted 0.0640* 0.0368 1.74 0.082 -0.0081 0.1362 lnfertilizerq3a 0.4008*** 0.0482 8.32 0.000 0.3064 0.4952 lnfertilizerq3b 0.1726*** 0.0447 3.86 0.000 0.0850 0.2602 lnmanday2 0.1845*** 0.0254 7.26 0.000 0.1347 0.2344 const 3.6700*** 0.2266 16.19 0.000 3.2258 4.1142 source: field survey, 2019. *** significant at 1%, ** significant at 5%,*significant at 10% the average predicted inefficiency (u) estimated was 0.4969 or 49.69% with minimum and maximum technical inefficiency equals 0.0907 and 3.3114 respectively. this implies that close to half of the entire respondents are technically inefficient in wheat production in the study area. hence tobit regression was used to determine factors that influence technical inefficiency among wheat farmers in the study area after validating regression assumptions. the post estimation result test table 3 shows that there is no problem of multicollinearity, no table 2: predicted inefficiency variable observation mean std. dev. min max predictedinefficiency(u) 830 0.4969 0.4106 0.0974 3.3114 source: field survey, 2019 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 21 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 19-23, 2023 specification problem, no influencial observations, but there is appropriate functional form and the residual are not normally distributed. the heterokedasticity problem from the table was corrected with robust standard error. it should be noted that the test pass majority of the model assumption thereby confirming the reality of the result. table 3: regression assumption test table regression assumptions test we seek values hesterokedasticity problem breusch-pagan hettest > 0.05 chi2(1): 4.732 p-value: 0.030 no multicollinearity problem variance inflation factor < 5.00 lnfertilizerq3a : 2.44 mean vif | 1.81 lnfertilizerq3b : 2.44 lnseedq4planted : 1.62 lnlperhact : 1.44 lnmanday2 : 1.13 residuals are not normally distributed shapiro-wilk w normality test > 0.01 z: 8.001 p-value: 0.000 no specification problem linktest < 5.00 t: 0.320 p-value: 0.749 appropriate functional form test for appropriate functional form > 0.05 f(3,821):2.142 p-value: 0.093 no influential observations cook's distance < 1.00 no distance is above the cutoff source: field survey, 2019 the major constraints identified by respondents in the study area according to level of severity in table 4 include: poor access to credit (40.07%), lack of dependable market (39.49%), poor access to improved and quality seed (36.95%), high cost of fertilizer (39.61%), lack of proper germplasm wheat material (32.25%), poor utilization of local wheat /preference of imported wheat to local wheat (30.25%) which are the more severe table 4: constraints to wheat production across wheat producing area s/n constraints not severe (%) least severe (%) moderately severe (%) severe (%) more severe (%) most severe (%) 1 lack of dependable market system 0.35 13.51 11.09 10.05 25.52 39.49 2 poor utilization of local wheat/preference of imported wheat to local wheat 1.15 6.24 15.24 20.55 30.25 26.56 3 high energy cost for wheat irrigation 2.77 9.58 18.24 34.53 21.59 13.28 4 poor access to credit 0.92 4.39 7.62 8.43 38.57 40.07 5 pest and disease infestation 1.15 9.82 24.13 32.22 17.90 14.78 6 lack of functional wheat-based farmers association 7.04 10.39 24.25 25.17 20.44 12.70 7 lack of capacity building for extension staff and farmers 3.58 11.20 26.44 23.79 18.36 16.63 8 lack of proper germ plasm wheat materials 4.97 10.74 15.94 15.24 32.22 20.90 9 poor access to improve and quality seed 3.12 9.12 11.89 23.21 15.70 36.95 10 high fertilizer prices 1.27 4.04 9.82 9.24 39.61 36.03 11 non availability of fertilizer at required time 7.62 12.70 17.55 25.98 16.97 19.17 12 non availability of farm labour 7.74 34.76 21.25 16.17 12.47 7.62 source: field survey, 2019 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 22 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 19-23, 2023 constraints in wheat production. severe constraints are high energy cost for wheat irrigation (34.53%), pest and diseases infestation (32.22%), lack of functional wheatbased farmers association (25.17%) and non-availability of fertilizer at required time (25.98%). furthermore, lack of capacity building for the extension staff and farmers (26.44%) stands moderately severe in the study area, while non-availability of farm labour as at when due (34.76%) is least severe. conclusion and recommendation the study concluded that about 50% technical inefficiencies existed among wheat farmers across the study area. those inefficiencies determinants variables considered negatively correlated with wheat technical inefficiency. the major constraint affecting wheat production in the study area according to their level of severity includes; poor access to credit, lack of dependable market, and poor access to improve and quality seed among others. hence the study recommended the following: 1. there should be training and retraining of more wheat farmers to reduce technical inefficiency among wheat farmers across the study area. 2. there should be adequate incentives (increased supply of improved wheat seeds at affordable price, increase supply of fertilizer at subsidized price, provision of standard irrigation facilities) for wheat farmers. 3. agro seed companies should invest in wheat seed multiplication in order to make it available and accessible to wheat farmers. 4. to boost wheat production in the study area, the itemized constraints should be immediately addressed. references alemder, & oren, m. c. (2006). measurement technical efficiency of wheat production in southeasthern anatolia with parametric and non parametric methods. parkistan journal of biological sciences, 9, 6. baba, s. u., & horst, d. v. (2018). intra household relations and entitlement of land and livestock for women in rural kano, northern nigeria. journals environments, 5(2), 26. https://doi.org/10.3390/ environments5020026 balogun o. l. and b. e. akinyemi (2017). land fragmentation effects on technical efficiency of cassava farmers in south-west geopolitical zone, nigeria cogent social science, 3, 1-10 hassen b. (2016). technical efficiency measurement and their differential in wheat production: the case of smallholder farmers in south wollo. international journal of economics business and finance, 4, 1-16. https://oec. world/en/profile/hs/wheat jothan momba. (2012). a publication of the southern african institute for policy and research: zambia social science journal, 3(1), 19 kpmg [klynveld, peat, marwick and goerdeler] (2016). wheat based consumer foods in nigeria. https:// home.kpmg/ng/en/home/insights/2016/08/wheatbased-consumer-foods-in-nigeria.html. lachew a. w., loulseged s. b, and yilma, a. d (2008). impact of irrigation on poverty and environment in ethopia. draft proceedings of the symposium and exhibition held at ghion hotel, addis ababa, ethopia, 240. mukhtar u., mohamed z. shamsudin m.n., sharifuddin j. (2018). application of data envelopment analysis for technical efficiency of small holder pearl millet farmers in kano state, nigeria. bulgerian journal of agricultural science, 24(2), 213-222. oyekanmi, s. (2022). nairametrics. muck rack. publication 2020. prafulla c. j. (2012). technical efficiency of wheat production in bihar : a regional analysis a master thesis submitted to the department of mathematics and statistics jawaharal nahru krishi vishwa vidyalaya, jabalpar collage of agriculture. 80 proshare economy. (2018). improved wheat production: an aid to nigeria’s diversification strategy. https://www. proshareng.com/news/commodities/improvedwheat-production--an-aid-to-nigeria%e2%80%99sdiversification-strategy/39427. rahman, s., & hasan, m. k. (2008). impact of environmental production conditions on productivity and efficiency: a case study of wheat farmers in bangladesh. journal of environmental management, 88(4), 1495-1504. roersma h.p., (1997). farm classification: analysis of production and income variation, atlantic zone costa rica, research programme on sustainability in agric (reposa) phase 2 report 116, 38. shaheem a. (2003). competitiveness and efficiency in poultry and pig production in vietnam interational livestock research institute working paper 57, 35. shanmugam k. r. and kumar k. s. (2003). environment and development: essays in honour of dr. u. sanker 431. tan, shuhao, nico heerink, arie, kuyvenhoven and futian qu. (2010). impact of land fragmentation on rice producers technical efficiency in south-east china. njas-wageningen journal of life science 57, 117123. the observatory of economic complexity (oec) (2021). wheat. retrieved on may 09, 2022. https:// https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 23 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 19-23, 2023 oec.world/en/profile/hs/wheat https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 1 pa ge 59 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) a panel examination of economic growth and environmental pressure in the middle east and south asia ehsanullah1* volume 2 issue 1, year 2023 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v2i1.2214 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: october 31, 2022 accepted: november 27, 2022 published: december 01, 2023 the study observes the relationship between environmental scarcity and per capita income through carbon dioxide in twenty-six countries from 1990 to 2020. the detailed objective is to find whether the projected associations validate the inverted u-shaped hypothesis as demonstrated by the environmental kuznets curve (ekc). using panel fixed and random effects valuation procedures, the manuscript finds the negative and significant impact of income on pollution, which proves the validity of ekc. but energy consumption, population and industrial sectors have positive effects on the environment. besides this, we also found inverted u curve status by using generalize method of moments (gmm) technique. therefore, we reveal that the increase in income will reduce the pollution in our study sample. keywords co2, ekc, fixed effect, random effect 1 department of economics, hannam university, hannam ro, 70, daeduck gu, 34430 daejeon, south korea * corresponding author’s e-mail: ehsan3171@gmail.com introduction economic growth and government policies can change the types of mechanical and financial doors employed to address environmental challenges. it would be interesting to discover if ecological conservation and economic development can coexist under these circumstances. when everything is said and done, the quality of environmental products is definitely acceptable, therefore increased income from deregulation would increase people’s interest in natural resources of better quality. (day & grafton, 2003; egli, n.d.; lindmark, 2002) many countries economic growth is influenced by various sorts of pollution, including air pollution, noise pollution, resource depletion, climate change, deforestation, and many others. according to the ekc statistical association, environmental damage rises with growth and industrial development due to dirty practices, increased reliance on natural resources, high pollutant discharges, and a greater desire to increase production and yield levels without considering the environmental consequences.(sabroso et al., 2023) therefore, achieving economic growth is significantly more complicated for states than guaranteeing environmental safety. the strict environmental regulations in industrialized nations highlight the degree of industrial expansion into underdeveloped economies in a straightforward emphasis on the environment.(egli n.d 2002; nguyen van, 2005). since much empirical papers have presented the subject of environmental kuznets curve (ekc) over the previous years. these lessons observed the occurrence of the ekc in some areas and republics of the world by means of various environmental pointers such as, freshwater quality, carbon emissions, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide and so on. in some studies, the ekc numerical relationship between environmental deprivation and per capita income was detained for some indicators of environmental and on the other hand the ekc theory could not be recognized. furthermost, the studies were directed in high income countries (omotor & orubu, 2015; bouvier, 2004; bartoszczuk et al., 2002; roca et al., 2001); with limited number in asia and middle east region. apparently, it is necessary to know the nature of the affiliation between environmental degradation and economic growth before encouraging the use of ekc as a policy director in resolving environmental complications. certainly, if ekc is empirically confirmed as true, it will just imply that environmental damage is an inevitable consequence of progress. given the status of the reputed ekc for economic development and environmental sustainability, a significant extent of study on the reality of ekc has appeared but with mixed empirical support. for instance, those which have established the presence of ekc e.g., (akpan & chuku, 2011; beckerman, 1992; bednar-friedl & getzner, 2003; gene m. grossman 1991, n.d.; heil & selden, 2001; holtz-eakin & selden, 1995). our study is herewith related in conducting a new path for improving environmental quality. the study objects to subsidize the current literature on the ekc and conduct an empirical analysis to determine whether the ekc concept holds or not in the middle east and south asia. these two regions have numerous environmental and economic issues, i.e., climate change, water scarcity and land degradation from the last three decades. the implication of showing a learning on the empirical investigation of environmental kuznets curve in these regions would essentially go an extended way in terms of policy result making. hence, checking for ekc has big policy suggestions in the sense that its existence or absence would control the sort of policies that will be expressed by policy makers. the primary motivation behind this paper is obtained from the detail that the geographic structure of south pa ge 60 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 59-68, 2023 asia and middle east makes it helpless to the atrocities of climate change restricting from the rising co2 trends within this region. moreover, these developing economies have insistently showed increasing trends in the overall energy mandate, in most cases, is principally derived from uses of fossil fuel. meanwhile, in this research paper, we check the rationality of ekc expectations in the hausman test using a panel dataset in twenty-six countries (see appendix table.a.1) for the period 1990–2020. we illustrate that economic growth, energy consumption, population density, trade openness, and industrialization create environmental destruction in the extensive run, but the square form of the per capita income reduces the co2 emissions. these consequences, which are in courtesy of ekc theory clarify the energy of the worldwide public in significant revision policy to global warming justification particularly in industrialized and developing countries. literature review the ekc is a revised form of the kuznets curve hypothesis put forward by simon kuznets (1955) in which the author supposed a nonlinear inverted-u shaped association between economic growth and income inequality. the modification between these two hypotheses is that the ekc hypothesis substitutes income inequality in the kuznets curve hypothesis and remarks on the changing plans of environmental value, emissions of co2 in the outline of this paper, with increasing state income level which is used to assignment for economic development. the first empirical study that verified the rationality of the ekc hypothesis for mexico was founded by (gene m. grossman 1991, n.d.) in which the writers used sulfur and smoke releases to measure environmental quality within the ekc examination. but the findings destined the presence of the ekc hypothesis in mexico. succeeding the paths of grossman and krueger (1991), numerous of the successive revisions have used various actions of environmental quality to assess the legitimacy of the ekc hypothesis. these varied pointers of environmental quality, mainly with application to air pollution, comprised total ghg emission (huang et al., 2008), carbon dioxide (co2) emissions (ansari et al., 2020; ehigiamusoe, 2020; galtsev, 2020) nitrous oxide (no) emissions (leppelt et al., 2014) , sulfur dioxide emissions (mosconi et al., 2020), and suspended particulate matter emissions (orubu & omotor, 2011). besides, indicators of water quality (somlanare romuald, 2010), land quality (mrabet, 2017), ecological footprints (ansari et al., 2020), and forest reserves (rahman & islam, 2020) was also used to represent environmental value within the ekc story. the greenhouse emissions-induced ekc theory has been discovered using together panel and time-series models. among the panel studies, (salim et al., 2019) found statistical indication in courtesy of the ekc theory holding for a panel of 13 asian countries. likewise, in a current study by (leal & marques, 2020), the authors also found evidence of the ekc hypothesis holding for the extremely globalized organization for economic cooperation and development (oecd) fellow nations. identical decisions were finished by (heidari et al., 2015) for five southeast asian countries, (ben jebli & ben youssef, 2016) for 25 oecd economies, (al-mulali & ozturk, 2016) for 27 advanced economies, (mrabet, 2017)for 90 high-, middle-, and low-income republics. the ekc hypothesis was neither detained for the full sample nor the sub-samples of diverse income assemblies. comparable findings were stated by (ben jebli & ben youssef, 2016)for 24 sub-saharan african economies, (salim et al., 2019)for five southeast asian nations,(gormus & aydin, 2020) for top 10 advanced nations (jin & kim, 2020)for 34 annex-i countries. lately,(ansari et al., 2020) used panel data estimators and found statistical rationality of the greenhouse emission induced ekc hypothesis in the setting of south asian economies. alternatively, several of the current panel studies have used both the collective and disaggregated volumes of to estimate the ekc hypothesis.(ewane & ewane, 2023b) in a study including of 22 oecd nations, (leppelt et al., 2014) showed statistical rationality to the ekc hypothesis for total greenhouse emissions as well as for emissions of co2, ch4, and no. on the other hand, (mosconi et al., 2020) found the rationality of the ekc hypothesis, about a sample of six oil-exporting african thrifts, to be mixed across different gages used to calculate environmental quality. the consequences confirmed the ekc hypothesis only for ch4 discharges while contesting it for co2 and nitrogen dioxide emissions. between the country-specific lessons that used time-series ekc models, (ben jebli & ben youssef, 2016)used quantile regression methods and established the validity of the co2 emission induced ekc hypothesis for 12 out of 15 oecd member realms. earlier studies focused on the pollution-induced ekc hypothesis have measured several judgmentally important macroeconomic masses that are likely to influence the economic growth-emissions relationship. among these, numerous studies have measured for aggregate energy feasting levels within the ekc analysis based on the considerate that energy consumption disturbs both the economic wealth level and the quality of the atmosphere. by the way, (murshed et al., 2022)controlled for aggregate energy consumption within the ekc model and found statistical validity of the co2 emissions brought ekc hypothesis for indonesia, china, and brazil but not in the context of india. however, the authors declared that energy consumption enlarged the co2 emission levels in all four countries. in addition, energy consumption was requested to positively influence the volumes of co2 release. also, the results stated in the study by (mrabet et al., 2017) maintained the co2 emission induced ekc theory for qatar. furthermore, the results also presented that advanced electricity use was accountable for lower co2 pa ge 61 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 59-68, 2023 emissions in qatar. in a new study,(usman et al., 2022) energy consumption in pakistan declined the quality of the environment by inspiring greater volumes of co2 into the air. also, the authors also found the legitimacy of the ekc hypothesis in the framework of pakistan. therefore, it is apparent from confusing findings from the studies that the validity of the ekc hypothesis is not guaranteed. rather, it depends largely on the macroeconomic variables, energy consumption, which are controlled within the analysis. hence, this paper makes a different attempt to bridge the gap in the ekc literature in this regard. methodology data we examine the clear state of an income pollution relationship for an example of twenty-six countries (middle east and south asia) over the period 1990–2020. the population is estimated as population density, and income, which catches economic wealth, is estimated as real gdp per capita (constant 2015 us dollars). innovation is estimated utilizing energy force. energy consumption is regularly communicated as all out-energy use per dollar gdp. this energy use is in kg of oil per capita. environmental degradation is determined by utilizing air toxins, in particular, co2 discharges. here we consider two measures of co2 emission, (i) co2 emission measured by metric tons per capita (hereafter co2-a) and (ii) co2 emission measured by kg per ppp $ of gdp (hereafter co2-b). both data on co2-a and co2-b are used quinquennial from 1990 to 2020 (i.e., 1990, 1995, 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020). however, the trade openness and industrialization are taken as a percentage of gross domestic product (%gdp). the data is sourced from the world bank’s world development indicators online database.1 all explanatory variables are the same years as the dependent variables. table 1 provides the summary statistics for co2-a and co2-b, and the correlation coefficients among major variables. the correlation between two co2s is 0.42, implying that the relation is weaker than a prior expectation. also, figure 1 shows the scatter plots between gdp and pollution indicators. figure 1: scatter plot of co2s and gdp notes: (i) see table 1 for the definitions of variables. (ii) gdpc and both co2-a and co2-b are the average of 5 years (i.e., 1990, 1995, 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020). table 1: descriptive statistics variable explanation mean median st. dev. max min gdpc gross domestic product per capita 10696.52 3575.38 15417.91 66023.63 436.56 co2-a co2 emissions, metric tons per capita 6.95 2.72 9.70 48.37 0.04 co2-b co2 emissions, kg per ppp $ of gdp 0.30 0.29 0.16 1.04 0.00 correlation coefficient gdpc co2-a co2-b gdpc 1 co2-a 0.92 1 co2-b 0.26 0.42 1 note: variables gdpc and both co2-a and co2-b are the average of 5 years (i.e., 1990, 1995, 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020) pa ge 62 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 59-68, 2023 model specification with the earlier, and given the system previously thought to be over, the important formation of the ekc detailing is that contamination power declines as pay levels rise. by this proposition, the prime equation of ekc can be written as, co2it=α1+β1(y)i+β2(y2)i+β3(ec)i+β4(top)i+β5(pd) i+β6(ind)i+εit.… (1) where co2 =[co2-a,co2-b]; and ‘𝑦’ = gdp per capita income and the y2 is the square form of gdp per capita. the subscript ‘i’ and ‘t’ represent the countries and years respectively. ec= energy consumption in kg of oil per capita pd= population density in mass per unit volume top= trade openness in the percentage of gdp ind= industrialization in the percentage of gdp ε = error term estimation techniques first, this study includes a panel data examination using pooled least squares, the fixed effects (fe) and the random effects (re) requirements. the hausman test is also examined to regulate whether the fixed effects or the random effects are more suitable. the fixed effects model of valuation is determined in inspecting the influence of indicators which fluctuate over time. fixed effects model also discovers the relationship between forecaster and result variables within an article. the fixed effects model runs for all time-invariant changes so that the approached coefficients of the fixed effects models would not be influenced because of lost time-invariant features. summarily, the main goal of the fe models is to observe the reasons of fluctuations within an object (torres-reyna, n.d.). under the random effects model, the differences in the object are supposed to be independent of the illustrative variables which are present in the model. the random effects estimator also delivers estimates for time infinite covariates. in the re model, distributional expectations are completed on the error term and an estimation technique is used which signs out the unrelated parameters. when a pooled-gls estimator is completed use of, the random effects estimator is raised (brüderl, 2005). the hausman test is used to resolve between the fixed effects model and the random effects model. it is analyzed to govern which of the two models is suitable. the hausman test estimates that the error terms are linked with the regressors. the fixed and random effects conditions seem desirable as result of the following: 1. the re model supports in as long as estimates for time – constant covariates; 2. the fe model is used to originate unbiased estimates; 3. the re is a well degree of finding the true causal result of an object; 4. the fe and the re models’ assistance in scrutinizing panel data which creates of timeseries data and cross-sectional data. the regression proceeds in a panel analysis, using the method of generalized method of moments (gmm). equation (1)’s pooled ls results are confused since it includes the lagged dependent variable among the explanatory variables. an instrumental variables estimator or the generalized method of moments must be used to obtain consistent estimates (gmm). the system gmm estimator was then adopted. (arellano and bond, 1991) proposed the system gmm estimator and stated that if the orthogonality constraints between delayed values of the dependent and the disturbances were used, additional instruments may be acquired in a dynamic model from panel data. by first-differencing nation effects, the gmm estimator also accounts for potential explanatory variable endogeneity. if there is no second-order autocorrelation in the unique error terms, the first-differenced endogenous variables of ems with two lagged periods can be considered valid instruments. since the error term could be correlated with the first difference explanatory factors of gdp with one lag period, they were also employed as an instrumental variable. this is because environmental degradation may worsen economic growth in some circumstances. the co2 variable for all nations utilized in the investigation is estimated in metric tons per capita/per annum and kg of ppp to change for the population size of the nations utilized for the examination. co2 information was gathered for the period 1990 – 2020 for the twenty-six nations utilized in this study. the low per capita co2 discharges for these nations would recommend that these levels should continue by progressively improving different methods of falling discharges, for instance using ecological guidelines. co2 release information was gotten from the world bank, world development indicators. among the various factors that influence per capita carbon dioxide creation, per capita income is the factor that has provoked the biggest measure of theoretical and experimental investigation. our proportion of pay per capita is gdp per capita at steady costs (us 2015) since this proportion of gdp is more solid and accessible than the proportion of gnp and the two measures are exceptionally associated. gross domestic product is significantly more applicable to agricultural nations than the gross national product (gnp) as a proportion of yield. there is a wealth of economic writing and exact help of the ekc for the arrangement of toxins. financial growth and the environment by grossman and krueger (1995) shaped the crucial reason for some econometric trial of the ekc done over the long run (somlanare romuald, 2010). energy is mandatory for economic growth because all manufacturing and consumption actions are directly related to energy consumption. the main sources of energy are converted from fossil fuels for the industrial revolution. the rapid usage of these fuels for economic progress has commanded significant growth in the global emissions of several hesitantly adverse gases. the harmful emissions are not only contaminating the atmosphere but also disturb human life to a major level. all the air pollutants are extremely dangerous, but co2 is the major source of global warming, which contributes more than pa ge 63 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 59-68, 2023 60% of the outcome of greenhouse gasses (birdsall & wheeler, 1993). the effect of the industrial sector is one of the biggest challenges for all types of contamination in south asia and middle east. in addition to automobile emissions being responsible for more than 45% of pollution, industrial pollutants are also creating a huge environmental deficiency. industrialization to accomplish economic development has caused worldwide environmental deprivation. while the influences of industrial movement on the natural environment are the main concern in developing and developed regions (saboori & sulaiman, 2013). agriculture, textile, oil, and gas industries are the main source of pollution in south asia and middle east. cleaner technologies and best government policies might be useful for controlling this contamination from manufacturing places. trade openness is proxied as (% gdp) and is estimated in this example as the proportion of the number of fares and imports to the apparent gdp. exchange as proposed in the writing is a significant determinant of worldwide innovation reception and dispersion. this happens through imports of transitional info, learning-bysending out experience, foreign direct investment (fdi), correspondence, and so forth (somlanare romuald, 2010). these cycles authorize the utilization of current innovation that advances contamination reduction. the exchange (% gdp) information is gotten from the world bank, world development indicators informational index. population density may have an outcome in the development of outflows (originally of the development in per capita livelihoods) using the interest for public products that are contamination serious, for example, framework and safeguard, as contended, for instance, by (ravallion, 1997). populace development insights for the chose nations show that the normal development rate in the locale to be 4.93%. it is additionally noticed that more thickly populated nations generally emanate more significant levels of co2 focus. results and discussion panel data analysis under the panel data valuation method, table 2: pooled ls dependent variable: co2-a dependent variable: co2-b models (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) gdpc 0. 08 (0 .0 4) * 0. 02 (0 .0 3) * 0. 03 (0 .0 2) * 0. 02 (0 .0 5) * 0. 40 (0 .0 5) * 1. 14 e -0 5 (0 .0 1) * 4. 21 e -0 6 (0 .1 8) ** * 4. 97 e -0 7 (0 .8 7) ** * 1. 25 e -0 7 (0 .9 7) ** * 1. 93 e -0 7 (0 .9 6) ** * gdpc2 -4 .1 6e 09 (0 .0 2) * -2 .7 4e -0 9 (0 .0 4) * -2 .1 1e -0 9 (0 .0 5) * -2 .7 3e -0 9 (0 .0 4) * -3 .0 4e -0 9 (0 .0 4) * -1 .5 7e 10 (0 .0 0) * -1 .3 0e 10 (0 .0 2) * -8 .8 3e 11 (0 .0 3) * -8 .4 0e 11 (0 .0 9) ** * -7 .8 5e 11 (0 .0 4) ** ec 0. 18 (0 .0 3) * 0. 11 (0 .0 5) * 0. 03 (0 .0 5) * 0. 01 (0 .0 3) * 2. 24 e -0 5 (0 .0 05 )* 2. 10 e 05 (0 .0 0) * 2. 12 e -0 5 (0 .0 0) * 2. 10 e 05 (0 .0 0) * ind 0. 05 (0 .0 04 )* 0. 63 (0 .0 14 0) ** 0. 07 (0 .0 56 9) ** 0. 63 (0 .0 01 )* 0. 04 (0 .0 0) * 0. 06 (0 .0 4) ** top 0. 77 (0 .1 05 8) ** * 0. 90 (0 .1 36 4) ** * 4. 41 e 05 (0 .8 5) ** * 3. 57 e 05 (0 .9 6) ** * pd 0. 00 05 53 (0 .3 06 8) ** * 9. 95 e 06 (0 .7 5) ** * c -0 .1 9 (0 .6 4) ** * -0 .1 4 (0 .6 2) ** * -1 .4 (0 .0 02 0) * -0 .7 5 (0 .2 35 6) ** * -0 .5 2 (0 .4 30 6) ** * 0. 23 (0 .0 00 )* 0. 25 (0 .0 00 )* 0. 11 (0 .0 00 )* 0. 98 (0 .0 0) * 0. 13 (0 .0 06 )* r2 0.86 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.13 0.21 0.29 0.29 0.29 no. of obs. 156 156 156 156 156 156 156 156 156 156 source: research finings, note: the values in the brackets are ‘p’ values and *, ** and *** representing the probability of 1, 5 and 10% respectively pa ge 64 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 59-68, 2023 table 3: fixed effect (fe) and random effect dependent variable: co2-a dependent variable: co2-b fixed effect random effect fixed effect random effect gdpc 0.000110 (0.604199) 0.000434(6.326225)* 3.57e-05(5.695411)* 8.89e-06 (2.1373)" gdpc2 1.65e-09(0.767041) -2.77e-09(-2.918937)* 3.02e-10 (4.077894)*" 4.31e-11(0.771595)*** ec 0.000761(4.684145)* 0.001099(11.23299)* 0.001373 (1.530771)*" 0.002382(2.913815)* ind 0.030351(1.164805) 0.035390(2.064045)** -0.000164 (-3.556429)*" -0.000111(-2.989369)* top 0.001698(1.270241) 0.000543(0.940248) 1.02e-05 (1.823426)*" 2.04e-05(4.136153)* pd 0.012014(1.183707) 0.005945(1.406439)*** 0.000963 (2.757383)*" 0.000458(1.6482)*** c 3.411923(1.972429) -0.548023(0.787295) 0.628890 (10.56299)" 0.309056(6.7334) r2 0.95 0.92 0.52 0.18 no.of obs. 156 156 156 156 source: research findings note: the values in the brackets are ‘t statistics’ and *, ** and *** representing the probability of 1, 5 and 10% respectively the pooled ols, fixed effect, and random effect models were tried and the hausman test was used to determine the most effective and reliable model. additionally, gmm is also used to estimate the results of this study. while evaluating the pooled analysis, in table 2, it is clearly seen the effect of economic growth on pollution level of the countries. the coefficients of gdp and gdp2 are positively and negatively affecting the co2-a, respectively, in all models (a to e). in terms of gdp, the findings tell us, if the country’s economic condition increases, the unwanted emissions will also be more. after that, with the increase of further economic per capita, the pollution will be minimized. which shows the validity of ekc presence. moreover, these two coefficients (gdp and gdp2) are also significant. the coefficient values of the indicators can be seen from table 2. moving towards energy consumption, the value of ec has positive but significant effect on dependent variable in models ‘b to e’. meaning that pollution will be increased with the usage of energy. but the alternative source of energy can diminish pollutants up to some level. also, like gdp per capita, we have the same results for industrial effects. with the upgradation of energy sources and modern techniques, the industrial level can decrease pollution with significant effect. whereas trade and population density have positive effects on the environment but are insignificant. by increasing these elements, the environmental degradation will be more. so, the countries need to manage these two issues as well. on the other hand, co2-b also has the same estimated results as co2-a for all independent variables and the main thing is, here ekc curve also valid and significant. but the value of the r2 is quite different in both co2 measures. in order to regulate the effective and operative model to include in our study (the fixed effects or the random effects), the hausman test is examined. basically, the hausman test supports in determining whether the fe or the re is appropriate for our regression investigation. the null and alternative hypothesis of the hausman test is specified as follows: 𝐻𝑜 = 𝑣𝑎𝑟(𝑏) ≠ 𝑣𝑎𝑟(𝐵): there is a correlation random effect 𝐻𝑜 = 𝑣𝑎𝑟(𝑏) = 𝑣𝑎𝑟(𝐵): there is no correlation random effect the null hypothesis tells that there is an associated random effect which indicates that the random effect evaluations are favored to the fixed effects approximations, whereas the alternative hypothesis marks that there is no correlated random effect which shows that the fixed effects estimates are ideal to those of the random effects evaluations. the rule of thumb for the hausman diagnostic test is that if the probability of chi2 < 0.05, then fe is best model and on the other hand if the probability of chi2 > 0.05, then it is not significant and the null hypothesis is acknowledged while the alternative hypothesis is excluded, which means re is good fitted. resulting in the use of the hausman test to know whether the fe or the re method was more suitable, the outcomes state that the random effects assessments were more consistent than the fixed effects test in both pollution indicators (co2-a andco2-b). the result from our study has several economic suggestions in the investigated region. the fe and re results of both dependent variables are explained in table 3. on the base of random effects model, the significant negative coefficient of income per capita squared (gdp2) variable shows a validation of ekc theory in middle east and south asia in co2-a analysis, whereas in pa ge 65 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 59-68, 2023 co2-b, the results are converse. concluding that, there is no ekc proof in co2-b. other variables also have opposite coefficient value in random effect model. only the population density has positive value but insignificant, this is consistent with some extant studies in africa region, for instance, (rashid, 2009) orubu & omotor, 2011)found the existence of ekc for co2 in africa countries. on the other side, (omojolaibi, n.d.)could not establish ekc for some selected countries. in case of co2-a, the significant positive coefficient of income and the negative coefficient of the income squared suggests that as gdp per capita rises, environmental deprivation is also growing, but a positive edge is reached when gdp per capita ranges a point and environmental ruin begins to decrease. the effect therefore exposed that there is a negative but significant connection between gdp2 and carbon emissions. therefore, this result goes in line with the a priori belief of the ekc that as per capita income upsurges, pollution level falls. meanwhile, in terms of co2-b, both values of gdp and square of gdp are positive, which shows by increasing the amount of per capita, the environment humiliation will be more. resulting that, there is no ekc proof in co2-b. the indicator of energy consumption (ec) has a positive significant affiliation with carbon emissions in asia and middle east in both estimators. these results showed that as energy use increases, environmental degradation rises. this confirms our expectation which means, the more usage of energy sources on commercial, and residential level will lead to degrade the environment. the indicator of population density (pd) has a positive but insignificant bond with total co2. the result clarifies that as population density grows, carbon discharges rise, this result is also true with regarding prior prospects. it is projected that as the number of people increases, there develops more burden on the present natural capitals which leads to a rise in smog. the purpose for this kind of result could be that even though the population is rising in the region, the people do not involve much in industrial sector activities, but relatively they participate in agricultural actions which have slight pollution marks when related with industrial and manufacturing happenings. this result therefore indicates that people do not significantly influence environmental degradation in some asian states. similarly, trade openness (top) has positive and insignificant effects on both pollution variables. meaning that, by increasing the trade activities, the environment will be worse. but due to insignificance, this result is non robust. lastly, the effect of industrialization is negative and significant in co2-b. the development in industrial level can reduce the emissions. but the significant impact tells us, the country should give more concentration to industry in developing friendly environmental projects. but in case of co2-a, the value of coefficient is positive, which shows industry has harmful impact on environment quality. so, there must be more environmental regulation to avoid pollution in the industrial sector. finally, table 4 presents the results of generalized method of moments (gmm). to begin with co2-a, it is clearly seen that our regression supports the inverted u shape curve theory. as for the variables, gdp and gdp2 have positive and negative effect respectively. on the contrary, co2-b does not confirm the ekc statement, as the value of gdp2 has positive sign. the fact that carbon emissions are global pollutants, whereas the difference between two co2s is about unit and weight may account for the difference in the turning points between the two types of emissions. the literature review supports this discrepancy and its interpretation; for example, (dinda, 2004) and (nahman & antrobus, 2005) summarized by saying that ekcs were more likely to hold for different global pollutants. all other explanatory variables have the same coefficients as table 3 except energy consumption, which has negative effect on both dependent variables. hence, it shows, that more energy consumption will lead to push down the environmental scenario of the society. it also suggests us, while using the right source of energy production like the advanced energy resources can lead to minimize the pollution level. the pd found that the positive and significant relation in both cases, meaning that rise to global pollution in those regions for both pollutants. this finding has similarities with (omri, 2013). lastly, trade has a positive and insignificant impact on environmental quality.(zakari, 2015) established the impartiality hypothesis where no connection between co2 production and trade was found. table 4: generalized method of moments (gmm) dependent variable: co2-a dependent variable: co2-b gdpc 0.000988(2.326196) * 5.21e-05 (4.821649)* gdpc2 -1.08e-08(-2.767070)* 8.10e-10(3.623738)* ec -0.001251(-6.089305) * -0.002473(-1.796982)*** ind 0.132222(1.7553)*** 0.000169(3.846192)* top 0.002115 (2.302912)** 9.10e-06(0.56442)** pd 0.017112(1.371170)** 0.001270(1.438960)** observations 104 104 source: research findings note: the values in the brackets are ‘t statistics’ and *, ** and *** representing the probability of 1, 5 and 10% respectively pa ge 66 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 2(1) 59-68, 2023 conclusion in this examination, the relationship between per capita income and environmental degradation in the middle east and south asia has been explored, utilizing longitudinal information spread between 1990 and 2020. according to the pooled ols, re and gmm the value of gdp2 is negative and significant for co2-a, whereas for co2-b, the ekc does not exist in re and gmm model. thus, it proves the ekc theory is somehow valid in these regions. in addition to this, the value of ‘p’ in the hausman test is greater than five percent, which proves the random model is well fitted for our study. the country variable which interfaced with the pay variable to make the inverted shape ekc signals the significance of public establishments in natural security. the impact of several factors, for example, population density, energy consumption, trade openness, and industry on natural quality gives profession to mainstreaming the climate into the whole cycle of anticipating advancement to guarantee ecological manageability in these states. after the examination of these countries, it is noticed that there are some operational changes practiced in these republics and the policy makers must approve those legislative changes with the clean machinery. 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(2015). evaluation of the quality of environmental impact assessment reports using lee and colley package in niger republic. modern applied science, 9, 89–95. https://doi.org/10.5539/ mas.v9n1p89 pa ge 1 pa ge 31 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) environmental impacts of effluent discharge from a rice processing factory on river benue’s water quality in makurdi, nigeria thankgod ochai1, obed kohol niambe2*, evalistus nwankwo2, shaibu ochoche2, peter adio ibukunoluwa3 volume 3 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v3i1.2651 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: april 20, 2024 accepted: may 24, 2024 published: may 29, 2024 this study investigates the impact of industrial pollution on the environment surrounding a rice processing factory in makurdi. water samples were collected from five different sampling points within and around the factory premises in january 2018. the investigation focused on evaluating the effects of industrial discharge at these sampling points. several key parameters indicative of pollution, including ph, temperature, total dissolved solids, total suspended solids, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, copper, nitrate, and phosphate, were carefully analyzed. sampling activities were conducted at weekly intervals over three weeks. both field and laboratory investigations were carried out, revealing that the physico-chemical characteristics of the water samples indicated stressed water quality concerning ph (acidity), turbidity, total suspended solids (tss), conductivity, dissolved oxygen (do), and biochemical oxygen demand (bod). however, certain parameters, namely temperature, copper, nitrate, and phosphate, remained within the acceptable environmental regulatory limits, suggesting no significant pollution from these factors. notably, the sampling points 1, 2, 3, and 4 were located at distances of 10 meters, 20 meters, 30 meters, and 40 meters, respectively, from the point of discharge, but they were situated in different locations. this variation in distance may have contributed to the observed differences in water quality. therefore, it is strongly recommended that all waste discharged from the factory be subjected to pollution control measures. additionally, the practice of open discharge should be thoroughly reviewed to minimize potential health and pollution hazards to both human populations and the ecosystem. keywords rice processing, environment, pollution, aquatic habitat, toxicity 1 joseph sarwuan tarka university, makurdi, nigeria 2 people’s friendship university of russia named after patrice lumumba, moscow, russia 3 ekiti state university, ekiti, nigeria * corresponding author’s e-mail: 1032225329@pfur.ru introduction in today’s rapidly changing world, the environment has become a matter of paramount concern. defined as the forces of nature, the surrounding flora and fauna, the environment encompasses all that exists beyond us(gobo et al., 2009). its significance cannot be overstated, as it provides the fundamental conditions necessary for life to thrive. the environment’s scope extends beyond the physical realm and encompasses the very biological conditions that support the existence of organisms. fepa (1991) aptly describes the environment as the sum of external factors that influence the life, development, and survival of all living beings, making it an all-encompassing term. however, the delicate balance of nature is being increasingly disrupted due to human activities(siyanbola et al., 2011). human beings have profoundly impacted their environment, often on a grand scale compared to other species. this influence has led to various changes, including urbanization, which, in turn, has given rise to environmental pollution and altered the distribution of animals and plants across diverse ecosystems (goudie, 2018). among the numerous issues, water and air quality has emerged as a grave concern due to industrial and domestic waste. urbanization has led to concentrated communities, with residential, educational, commercial, and industrial facilities in proximity, resulting in the degradation of the lower atmosphere in industrial regions. industrial activities produce solid and liquid particles as well as chemical pollutants, contributing to air pollution(akhtar et al., 2021). furthermore, the growth of industries in developing countries has exacerbated problems such as carbon monoxide emissions and combustion byproducts(garidzirai, 2020). the need to find a harmonious balance between industrial development and environmental protection has given rise to the establishment of environmental laws. however, despite these efforts, environmental degradation persists, particularly in densely populated countries like nigeria(maton et al., 2016). the improper disposal of waste, including industrial effluents, has significantly affected water bodies like freshwater reservoirs and estuaries, causing pollution and rendering these vital resources unfit for primary and secondary uses(okereke et al., 2016). consequently, the health and well-being of millions of nigerians are at risk due to waterborne diseases(efe et al., 2023). to address these challenges, the government must enforce necessary environmental laws and implement effective pollution control measures. nigeria’s urban areas face environmental and aesthetic problems due to inadequate management of municipal and industrial waste(daramola & ibem, 2009). waste accumulation obstructs passage and poses a threat to the environment. this article focuses on a case study of rice factory’s operations in makurdi, benue state, nigeria, examining the industrial waste discharged and its environmental impact. the study aims to identify pa ge 32 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 31-38, 2024 the sources of pollution, analyze its effects on the local environment, and propose potential solutions to address the challenges of industrial pollution in the region. by shedding light on this pressing issue, this study contributes valuable information to make informed environmental decisions, with the goal of preserving, restoring, and maintaining the integrity of the environment, particularly the water quality of river benue and its surrounding areas. only through dedicated research, awareness, and proactive measures can we hope to safeguard our environment and secure a sustainable future for generations to come. literature review recently, the importance of the environment in a nation’s development has become increasingly recognized. the environment provides natural habitats and forms the basis for agricultural, industrial, commercial, technological, and tourism development(southgate & sharpley, 2014). as a result, environmental issues have become a focal point in academic discussions and public discourse at both national and international levels. the environment encompasses a wide range of external circumstances and conditions that affect the existence and development of individuals, organisms, or societies(giddings et al., 2002). in nigeria, environmental issues gained official attention following the 1988 cocoa toxic waste dumping saga, which highlighted the need to establish the nigeria federal environmental protection agency (fepa) and other relevant agencies to address environmental challenges(ihonvbere, 1994). these challenges include pollution, sanitation, ozone layer depletion, desertification, flooding, erosion, poverty, bush burning, deforestation, and soil conservation(usiobaifo, 2015). research indicates that population growth and technological advancements contribute to environmental abuse and pollution, impacting the lives of people and other living organisms (appannagari, 2017). industrial, agricultural, and urbanization processes, as well as security and terrorist activities, contribute to environmental pollution. there is a growing awareness of the need to address these issues to ensure sustainable development and protect the environment for future generations (evelyn & tyav, 2012). the concept of environment and pollution the concept of the environment encompasses all surrounding conditions and elements, including water, air, land, plants, and animals, and the interrelationships among them(park, 2001). pollution, on the other hand, is defined as the contamination or defilement of an object or thing, often resulting in a reduction in value. it is caused by the addition of harmful or unpleasant substances to the environment(jarrige & roux, 2020). pollution can be classified based on its site. it includes the air (atmospheric) pollution, aquatic or water pollution, and land or surface area pollution. air pollution refers to the introduction of harmful gaseous substances into the atmosphere by human activities. this can lead to adverse effects on living organisms and the environment. industrial activities and the combustion of fossil fuels are major contributors to air pollution(vallero, 2014). on the other hand, water pollution occurs when chemical, physical, or biological materials are introduced into fresh or ocean waters, degrading their quality and affecting the organisms living in them. urbanization and increasing population in nigeria have led to the need to protect water bodies from contamination. industrial effluents and uncontrolled exploitation of groundwaters are major causes of water pollution in urban centers like lagos(ado et al., 2015). it is important to adhere to guidelines and standards set by regulatory bodies like the federal environmental protection agency (fepa) to prevent excessive pollution and protect the environment and human health. the industrial sector in nigeria comprises establishments of varying sizes and processes, spanning different industries such as metals and mining, food, beverages, tobacco, breweries, distilleries, furniture, pulp, paper, and chemicals. effluent standards have been established based on the assimilative capacity of receiving waters, with uniform limits set for all industries. specific limits are also provided for individual industries with unique characteristics(kanu & achi, 2011). compliance monitoring is enforced through facility permits to ensure industrial sites meet these concentration limits for their effluents. table 1: guidelines for interim uniform effluent limits in nigeria for all categories of industries (mgl-1 unless otherwise stated). variables discharge to surface water land application temperature <40oc within 15m of out fall <40oc colour (lovibond units) 7 ph units 6-9 6-9 bod5 at 20oc 50 500 total suspended solids 30 total dissolved solids 2,000 2,000 chloride (as cl) 600 600 pa ge 33 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 31-38, 2024 sulphate (as so4 2-) 500 1,000 sulphide (as s2-) 0.2 cyanide (as cn) 0.1 detergents 15 15 oil and grease 10 30 nitrate (as no3) no3 20 phosphate (as po4 3-) 5 10 arsenic (as as) 0.1 barium (as ba) 5 5 tin (as sn) 100 10 iron (as fe) 20 manganese (as mn) 5 phenolic compounds (as phenol) 0.2 chlorine (free) 1.0 cadium, cd <1 chromium (trivalent hexavalent) <1 copper <1 lead <1 mercury 0.05 nickel <1 selenium <1 silver 0.1 zinc <1 total metals 3 calcium (as ca2+) 200 magnesium (mg2+) 200 boron (as b) 5 alkyl mercury compounds not detectable not detectable polychlorinated biphenyls (pcbs) 0.003 0.003 pesticides (total) <0.01 <0.01 alpha emitters (uc ml-1) 10-7 beta emitters (uc ml-1) 10-6 coliforms (daily average mpn/100ml) 400 500 suspended fibre source: (fao, 1991) materials and methods the study area benue state was created in 1976, with the capital located at makurdi. the location of the state is within the middle belt region of nigeria. principally, the state lies between longitude 60 451 and 80 151 e and latitude 70 301 and 90 451 n. the location of the state within the lower benue trough endows it with well drain surface waters such as rivers and streams(ujoh & kwaghsende, 2014). the rice factory in makurdi was established in june 2001. the company is situated at kilometer 5, gboko road, makurdi, benue state. the company generates aqueous effluents discharged into arable lands and find their way into surface/ underground water. the effluents may be high in total dissolved solids, oxygen-demanding material, heavy metals, and other toxic chemicals. pa ge 34 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 31-38, 2024 data collection five (5) water samples were collected from the rice factory’s recipient environment and the receiving stream, using grab standard method (blomqvist, 1991). this involved using a clean container to collect water samples from the surface (0-15m). sampling was carried out weekly for a period of 3 weeks to minimize error. the sampling points included: 1. effluent at the discharge point. 2. flowing effluent at the discharge point into the recipient environment (land). 3. stagnant effluent at the discharge point into the recipient environment (land). 4. receiving stream at 100 metres 5. underground water from a well within the area. sampling identification/ coding the sampling involved the collection of samples from varying sampling points. all samples were properly given code numbers and labeled with a water-resistant permanent marker on a label held to the container with a firm tag. samples were properly sealed, carrying labels with the following information: • sample number • date and time of sampling • point of sampling in-situ field analysis all the water samples collected were assembled and the following parameters were determined. • ph/temperature: determined with a potable hach ph meter with a temperature compensating device. • total dissolved solids/ total suspended solids / conductivity: was determined by use of co150 hach conductivity meters. • dissolved oxygen was determined using a jenway dissolved oxygen meter. this was carried out using calibrated equipment of high precision. all field instruments were regularly cleaned and calibrated before use. proper records of the readings for each sample were immediately recorded into the field notebook. laboratory analysis water samples were analyzed using the appropriate standard methods for each parameter as specified by the federal ministry of environment (fme) and the federal environmental protection agency (fepa) as documented in the guidelines and standard manual of 1991. the laboratory analysis was carried out at the greater makurdi waterworks laboratory-makurdi benue state. the parameters determined were: • ph, temperature, turbidity, total suspended solids, total dissolved solids conductivity and heavy metals (cu, no3, & po3); determined by use of hach spectrophotometer. • biochemical oxygen demand; determined by use of hach shelab bod track. results and discussion field observation water samples were collected from the effulent channels and recipient environment. effluent from the discharged point was without oil sheen. the effluent at the outlet into the receiving environment was without oil sheen, and the surrounding area was overgrown with weeds, though there was a large portion of land clear of any plant growth and appeared brownish with oil-like stains. data presentation data from the analysis of the various parameters was presented on the tables 1-4. this method is adopted to make it easier for comparism with the conventional tables given by fepa. figure 1: map showing the location of the study area source: (uruku & adikwu, 2017). pa ge 35 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 31-38, 2024 table 2: results of laboratory analysis of water bodies around the rice factory environs for week 1 parameter point 1 point 2 point 3 point 4 point 5 ph 4.11 3.99 5.17 6.81 5.57 temperature oc 37.8 37.4 37.8 36.2 36.1 turbidity, fau 209 222 35.4 97.4 6.24 tss, mg/l 660 689 122 83 81 tds, mg/l 51 82 620.33 45 42 conductivity, ms 97.67 78.8 1192.00 103.00 187.67 do, mg/l 6.72 8.10 5.80 4.50 5.70 bod, mg/l 4.60 4.16 2.30 1.70 3.8 copper (cu) 0.27 0.49 0.18 0.23 0.21 nitrate mg/l 1.06 0.91 0.31 0.60 1.71 phosphate, mg/l 2.29 1.73 0.92 0.31 0.23 tds = total dissolved solids, tss = total suspended solids, do = demand of oxygen, bod = biochemical oxygen demand field work, 2018. table 3: results of laboratory analysis of water bodies around the rice factory environs for week 2 parameter point 1 point 2 point 3 point 4 point 5 ph 3.88 3.72 5.89 6.45 6.17 temperature oc 38.1 38.0 38.1 38.0 38.0 turbidity, fau 236 40.4 35.2 30.4 2.24 tss, mg/l 321 177 80 48 40 tds, mg/l 41.69 77.26 601 39.2 95.1 conductivity, ms 83.40 72.49 1202.00 78.70 190.20 do, mg/l 7.2 8.80 6.2 4.60 5.62 bod, mg/l 3.8 4.21 2.60 1.61 4.0 copper (cu) 0.31 0.52 0.16 0.31 0.41 nitrate mg/l 1.66 1.22 0.81 0.46 2.1 phosphate, mg/l 3.2 2.1 1.8 0.61 0.72 tds = total dissolved solids, tss = total suspended solids, do = demand of oxygen, bod = biochemical oxygen demand field work, 2018. table 4: : results of laboratory analysis of water bodies around the rice factory environs for week 3 parameter point 1 point 2 point 3 point 4 point 5 ph 5.21 4.0 5.20 7.1 6.02 temperature oc 37.8 38.6 37.1 36.8 36.2 turbidity, fau 210 210 35.8 102.4 6.40 tss, mg/1 mg/l 642 690 132 84 86 tds, mg/l 55 81 610.31 46 44 conductivity, ms 102.45 80.6 1082.00 104.20 190.00 do, mg/l 5.60 8.02 6.04 5.01 6.20 bod, mg/l 3.80 4.12 3.10 2.22 3.2 copper (cu) 0.31 0.46 0.20 0.26 0.24 nitrate mg/l 1.26 1.12 0.42 0.70 1.82 phosphate, mg/l 2.30 1.70 1.02 0.36 0.35 tds = total dissolved solids, tss = total suspended solids, do = demand of oxygen, bod = biochemical oxygen demand field work, 2018. pa ge 36 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 31-38, 2024 the physico-chemical quality of effluent water bodies indicated the following characteristics; the mean hydrogen ion concentration as ph of the effluent and recipient water body (river benue) ranged from 3.90 to 6.78 which shows that only sample point 4 was within national standard regulation enforcement agency (nesrea) limit of 6-9 while sample point 1, 2, 3 and 5 fall outside the federal environmental protection agency (fepa) limit indicating pollution due to acidity, probably due to discharge of untreated waste. this acidity can lead to the bonding of ions in the water which can make it not to be readily available for plants to take in thereby affecting the plants growth leading yellowish leaves (george et al., 2012). the mean temperature of the water samples appears normal within a range of 36.77 to 37.91 as within the fepa limits of <400c, not indicating pollution. mean turbidity of the water samples ranges from 14.93 to 218.30. mean turbidity of sample point 5 is 14.93 as within fepa limit while that of sample point 1, 2, 3 and 4 are against the fepa limits indicating pollution. mean total suspended solids (tss) of water samples ranges from 69.00 to 541.00 as against the fepa limits of <30mg/1 indicating pollution. total suspended solids are particles that are larger than 2 microns found in water column. this can pollute the water by reducing the water clarity. mean tds of water samples ranges from 46.33 to 610.55appear normal within a range the fepa limits of <2000mg/1 indicating no-pollution. the mean conductivity of the water samples ranges from 75.97 to 1158.67 having sample point 4 is 1158.67 as against fepa limit of <800 indicating pollution at this point. the mean do ranges from 4.70 to 8.31 indicating stress to aquatic organism and pollution. the mean bod, which ranges from 1.83 to 4.16 is an indicating pollution with organic contaminant and against regulatory standards of >50mg/1. the mean heavy metal concentrations in the water sample of copper ranges from 0.27 to 0.49 indicating no pollution because it falls below the fepa limit of <1. the mean concentration of nitrate ranges from 0.51 to 1.88 as within the fepa limit of 20 indicating no-pollution. the mean phosphate of the water samples ranges from 0.42 to 2.83 appears normal within the range of fepa limit of 5.1mg/1. implication for the environment natural, undisturbed ecosystems provide habitat for a broad range of biota, exhibiting taxonomic richness and complex trophic structure. the physio-chemical parameters of the water samples that are indicators of pollution include ph depicting acidity, turbidity of all the water samples with exception of point 5, tss and tds of all the water samples, conductivity of sample point 3, low ph which is less than 5 indicates acidity concentration. many biological processes such as reproduction cannot function properly in acidity waters (pörtner et al., 2004). dissolved oxygen (do) is a basic requirement for a healthy aquatic ecosystem(davis, 1975). most fish and beneficial aquatic insects and plants breathe in oxygen dissolved in the water column(kramer, 1987); (hershey et al., 2010). though some aquatic organisms may adapted to low oxygen conditions. those that are not will suffer due to the low dissolved oxygen concentration. prolonged episodes of depressed dissolved oxygen concentration can eventually result in “death” of the water organism(david, 2021). bod is a measure of the organic content of water. it also represents to some extent, the amount of oxygen which would be required to stabilize the water body(pradeep et al., 2012). the bod of the water samples was very low thus organisms in the environment may suffer from low oxygen level. conclusion from the study carried out to access the effect of effluent discharge from rice factory on the water quality of the physico-chemical quality of the effluent water bodies indicated pollution and non-compliance with environmental regulatory limits in parameter such as table 5: : mean results of laboratory analysis of water bodies around the rice factory environs for (week 1-3) parameter point 1 point 2 point 3 point 4 point 5 fepa limits ph 4.90 3.90 5.42 6.79 5.92 6-9 temperature 0c 37.91 37.80 37.67 37.00 36.77 <400c turbidity, fau 218.30 157.47 37.47 76.73 14.93 <25 tss, mg/l 541.00 516.67 111.33 71.67 69.00 <30 tds, mg/l 49.23 80.09 610.55 46.33 60.37 <2000 conductivity, ms 94.51 77.30 1118.67 75.97 170.73 <800 do, mg/1 mg/l 6.50 8.31 6.01 4.70 5.84 >10 bod, mg/l 4.07 4.16 2.67 1.84 3.67 >50 copper (cu) 0.30 0.49 0.39 0.27 0.29 <1 nitrate, mg/l 1.33 1.08 0.51 0.59 1.88 20 phosphate, mg/l 2.83 1.84 1.25 0.42 0.40 5.1 tds = total dissolved solids, tss = total suspended solids, do = demand of oxygen, bod = biochemical oxygen demand field work, 2018. pa ge 37 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 31-38, 2024 ph (acidity), turbidity, tss, conductivity, do, bod. parameters that did not indicate pollution include temperature, copper (cu), nitrate, and phosphate. the company does not have any waste treatment/ management procedure. the effluents are released into the environment without treatment; this does not comply with the environmental regulatory requirements. overall, the environment is under some form of stress because some parameters were not within federal environmental protection agency (fepa) limits, thus indicating pollution that may affect the ecosystem. the natural quality of water is influenced by the continuous introduction of substances which leads to changes in the parameters. recommendations with the incidence of the koko toxic waste episode in nigeria in 1988, which was the climax of pollution, the federal government of nigeria set up the federal environmental protection agency (fepa) with decree 58 of 1988 to protect nigeria’s environment. the decree also empowered the agency to promulgate regulations; to date the agency has promulgated or issued several regulations(ihonvbere, 1994). it is therefore recommended, in accordance with the result of this research, that the rice processing factories in makurdi should: • ensure routine maintenance of facilities equipment to ensure compliance of effluent discharges with environmental standards. • ensure self-monitoring of the environmental indicator parameters to check pollution and avoid environmental damage. • ensure environmental awareness training to familiarize the plant personnel with the need to be environmentally conscious and friendly in their daily activities. references ado, a., tukur, a. i., ladan, m., gumel, s. m., muhammad, a. a., habibu, s., & koki, i. b. (2015). a review on industrial effluents as major sources of water pollution in nigeria, 1(5). akhtar, n., syakir ishak, m. i., bhawani, s. a., & umar, k. (2021). various natural and anthropogenic factors responsible for water quality degradation: a review. water, 13(19), article 19. https://doi. org/10.3390/w13192660 appannagari, r. r. (2017). environmental pollution causes and consequences: a study. 3. blomqvist, s. (1991). quantitative sampling of softbottom sediments: problems and solutions. marine ecology progress series, 72, 295–304. https://doi. org/10.3354/meps072295 daramola, s., & ibem, e. (2009). urban environmental problems in nigeria: implications for sustainable development. 12. david, l. k. (2021). dead zones: the loss of oxygen from rivers, lakes, seas, and the ocean—david l. kirchman—google books. oxford university press. https://books.google.ru/books?hl= davis, j. c. (1975). minimal dissolved oxygen requirements of aquatic life with emphasis on canadian species: a review. https://cdnsciencepub. com/doi/abs/10.1139/f75-268 efe, e. e., ahmed, p. e. h., sabo, a. m., & odonye, o. j. (2023). ripples of infection: unraveling the effect of waterborne diseases on health outcome in delta state, nigeria. scholarly journal of social sciences research, 2(10), article 10. https://www.openjournals.ijaar. org/index.php/sjssr/article/view/221 evelyn, m. i., & tyav, t. t. (2012). environmental pollution in nigeria: the need for awareness creation for sustainable development. journal of research in forestry, wildlife and environment, 4(2), article 2. https://www.ajol.info/index.php/jrfwe/article/ view/84726 fao. (1991, january 1). interim guidelines and standards for environmental pollution control in nigeria. | faolex. https://www.fao.org/faolex/results/ details/en/c/lex-faoc018380/ garidzirai, r. (2020). time series analysis of carbon dioxide emission, population, carbon tax and energy use in south africa. international journal of energy economics and policy, 10(5), 353–360. https:// doi.org/10.32479/ijeep.9618 george, e., horst, w. j., & neumann, e. (2012). chapter 17—adaptation of plants to adverse chemical soil conditions. in p. marschner (ed.), marschner’s mineral nutrition of higher plants (third edition) (pp. 409– 472). academic press. https://doi.org/10.1016/ b978-0-12-384905-2.00017-0 giddings, b., hopwood, b., & o’brien, g. (2002). environment, economy and society: fitting them together into sustainable development. sustainable development, 10(4), 187–196. https://doi.org/10.1002/ sd.199 gobo, a. e., richard, g., & ubong, i. u. (2009). health impact of gas flares on igwuruta / umuechem communities in rivers state. journal of applied sciences and environmental management, 13(3), article 3. https:// doi.org/10.4314/jasem.v13i3.55348 goudie, a. s. (2018). human impact on the natural environment. john wiley & sons. hershey, a. e., lamberti, g. a., chaloner, d. t., & northington, r. m. (2010). chapter 17—aquatic insect ecology. in j. h. thorp & a. p. covich (eds.), ecology and classification of north american freshwater invertebrates (third edition) (pp. 659–694). academic press. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-3748553.00017-0 ihonvbere, j. o. (1994). the state and environmental degradation in nigeria: a study of the 1988 toxic waste dump in koko. journal of environmental systems, 23(3), 207–227. https://doi.org/10.2190/x67v179h-241f-6jqj jarrige, f., & roux, t. l. (2020). the contamination of pa ge 38 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 31-38, 2024 the earth: a history of pollutions in the industrial age. mit press. kanu, i., & achi, o. (2011). industrial effluents and their impact on water quality of receiving rivers in nigeria. journal of applied technology in environmental sanitation, 1, 75–86. kramer, d. l. (1987). dissolved oxygen and fish behavior. environmental biology of fishes, 18(2), 81–92. https:// doi.org/10.1007/bf00002597 maton, s. m., dabi, d. d., dodo, j. d., & nesla, r. a. (2016). environmental hazards of continued solid waste generation and poor disposal in municipal areas of nigeria. journal of geography, environment and earth science international, 6(3), article 3. https://doi. org/10.9734/jgeesi/2016/26469 okereke, j., ogidi, o., obasi, k., & odangowei, o. (2016). international journal of advanced research in biological sciences environmental and health impact of industrial wastewater effluents in nigeria -a review, 3, 55–67. park, c. (2001). the environment | principles and applications | (2nd ed.). taylor & francis. h t t p s : / / w w w. t a y l o r f r a n c i s . c o m / b o o k s / mono/10.4324/9780203462546/environment-chrispark pa ge 1 pa ge 79 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) the role of reengineering operations in achieving banking sustainability: a case study on a sample of employees in iraqi private commercial banks mustafa khudhair hussein1*, omar tawfiq mahdi1, mustafa mohammed kleban zuhairi1, ruaa basil noori al-tekreeti1 volume 2 issue 1, year 2023 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v2i1.2259 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: november 12, 2023 accepted: december 15, 2023 published: december 18, 2023 the study aims to know the role of reengineering processes (process design, service quality, technology) in achieving banking development in its three dimensions (economic, social, and environmental) in iraqi private commercial banks. the descriptive analytical approach was adopted by distributing a questionnaire to a sample of workers in those banks (338 ) from various administrative levels. the most prominent results were the existence of a positive relationship between reengineering processes and banking sustainability and that reengineering has an impact on achieving sustainability in banks through redesigning operations and enhancing the quality of service and technology used. the most prominent recommendations were that the management of private banks in iraq develop appropriate strategies to develop sustainability activities and improve its operations in line with the needs and desires of customers. keywords reengineering processes, banking sustainability 1 imam a’adhum university college, iraq * corresponding author’s e-mail: mustafakhudair87@gmail.com introduction reengineering banking operations is an essential strategy that helps achieve banking sustainability and improve performance. banking process optimization involves restructuring and enhancing existing banking procedures to maximize efficiency and improve overall performance. the reengineering operations are used to analyze and restructure the operations of private commercial banks in iraq to achieve financial and economic sustainability. iraqi private commercial banks encounter various obstacles that impact their capacity to maintain long-term viability in the banking sector. these problems include legislative constraints, technical advancements, changes in consumer preferences, and financial strains. implementing operational reengineering in the banking sector improves the capacity to adapt to challenges and accomplish objectives (nasser & abdul-redha, 2023), particularly in the iraqi context, marked by ongoing changes and a dynamic environment. requires bank management to identify practical approaches and strategies to enhance their position and effectively address these persistent and evolving challenges. reengineering operations aims to enhance efficiency and quality, minimize expenses, and augment customer happiness (falih et al., 2020). this encompasses the examination and assessment of existing operations, the identification of issues and deficiencies, the formulation of novel solutions, and the creation of innovative and streamlined procedures. to accomplish these goals, many strategies are implemented, including organizational redesign, process reengineering, supply chain management, and sophisticated technology (maharmah & al jbour, 2023). studying the impact of reengineering operations on the viability of iraqi private commercial banks is a crucial and noteworthy topic. iraq has a grand total of 81 banks comprising seven government and 74 private banks. among the private banks are 24 commercial banks and 29 islamic banks. additionally, there are 21 branches of international banks operating in the country. compared to other countries in the area, turkey has the highest number of banks with 43, followed by egypt with 41, saudi arabia with 31, iran with 30, jordan with 26, and algeria with 20. despite the abundance of banks in iraq, they still need to fulfill their necessary financial function and offer contemporary banking services and products (jabr & shamkhi, 2023). this research seeks to investigate how banking sustainability can be attained in iraqi private commercial banks through the implementation of reengineering operations. it aims to identify the factors that impact the success of these operations and elucidate the potential advantages and obstacles they may encounter. therefore, the research problem can be articulated by the subsequent primary inquiry: has the management of iraqi banks successfully implemented reengineering operations in their banking processes to improve the sustainability of their activities and operations? the primary inquiry gives rise to the subsequent subordinate inquiries: 1what is the level of reengineering operations practices in the researched iraqi private commercial banks? 2what is the level of banking sustainability in the researched iraqi private commercial banks? 3what is the role of reengineering operations in enhancing banking sustainability in iraqi private commercial banks? the eesearch objectives 1. to determine the level of reengineering operations practices in iraqi private commercial banks. 2. to determine the level of banking sustainability in iraqi private commercial banks. pa ge 80 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(2) 79-91, 2023 3. to identify the role of reengineering operations in achieving banking sustainability in iraqi private commercial banks. 4. to provide some conclusions and recommendations that can enhance the performance and development of iraqi private commercial banks by strengthening their strengths and addressing areas of weakness. importance of the research the scientific significance of the current research lies in its exploration of the variables under study, namely reengineering operations and banking sustainability. these concepts are essential in managerial and accounting thinking due to the valuable methods and practices they offer. reengineering operations in banking serves as an effective tool for achieving banking sustainability. these operations aim to redesign and improve banking processes and procedures to enhance efficiency, reduce costs and risks, and strengthen the banks’ ability to compete in the commercial banking market. by improving operational efficiency and enhancing customer experience, banks can provide better and more competitive banking services, attracting more customers and increasing their market share. this, in turn, elevates the performance levels of iraqi banks. the banking sector is one of the critical sectors in the iraqi economy and the largest in the region in terms of the number of banks. these reasons have motivated the researchers to adopt this topic as it holds great importance, mainly when applied in the iraqi context. literature review reengineering-operations reengineering operations is the comprehensive analysis and redesign of current banking processes and procedures to improve efficiency, effectiveness, and quality significantly. it aims to reshape and transform traditional and inefficient banking operations into innovative and greatly improved processes using technology and modern ideas (hasnan et al., 2017: 3). this concept focuses on redesigning banking operations to align with changes and innovations. bhaskar (2018: 65) emphasized redesigning business operations and organizational thinking regarding processes, interconnected systems, and organizational structure to achieve significant performance improvements. it emphasizes both redesign and organizational thinking. on the other hand, aruta (2018: 2) states that business process reengineering (bpr) aims to achieve significant performance improvements rather than incremental and gradual improvements resulting from traditional process improvement methods. it focuses on making substantial improvements in operations. similarly, chin et al. (2019: 1) clarified that it involves rethinking and analyzing business processes to improve performance by integrating information technology with process design, highlighting the technological improvements in accomplishing banking operations and activities. abdellatif et al. (2018) focused on radical improvements in the operational strategy through rapid and radical changes in the organization’s work using modern management methods, such as reengineering strategic processes, policies, organizational structures, and values in unconventional ways. based on the above, the researchers see reengineering operations as practices aimed at making changes and improvements in their processes, activities, strategies, and services, as well as the technology used to enhance activities and achieve desired goals with lower costs, time, and higher quality. economic, legal, and environmental pressures impose strict requirements on organizations or banks to effectively redesign their processes, develop new strategies, and improve organizational structures and operations to adapt to these challenges and achieve sustainable success. implementation initiatives of reengineering processes have achieved significant and influential results for organizations adopting this approach. they have achieved significant cost reductions, increased profits, improved production quality, and rapid response to customer requirements (getele & jean, 2018). on the other hand, reengineering is a means to solve complex problems. it works on improving business processes and is not limited to improving the current situation but has a lasting impact. it also includes significantly improving all low-performing activities (cemehocha et al., 2020: 2). reengineering operates widely within an organization and has many benefits, such as cost reduction, increases, and improved production, which increases customer satisfaction (abdel-latif et al., 2018: 2). it is also a systematic tool that works on changing performance and future improvement and includes the radical redesign of its processes, characterized by specifications during implementation (chountalas & lagodimos, 2018: 14). in the same context, gunasekaran and kobu (2002) stated that it is an interconnected and sequential process that works integrally to make incremental or radical improvements in behaviors, structures, technologies, processes, and customer service, as shown in figure (1) below: figure 1: re-engineering operations pa ge 81 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(2) 79-91, 2023 banking sustainability the concept refers to the ability of banking institutions to balance economic, social, and environmental dimensions in their operations and decision-making to meet the needs of the current generation without compromising the ability of future generations (brundtland, g.h. 1987). companies and institutions recognize that sustainability is crucial for long-term success (ali et al., 2021). integrating sustainability into strategic management provides a framework for achieving business goals. it can lead to new opportunities, cost reduction, improved brand reputation, and a positive impact on society and the environment (banerjee, 2018). sustainable practices such as reducing energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions can help companies improve their environmental performance and reduce costs (poudel et al., 2021). additionally, integrating circular economy principles, such as waste reduction and material reuse, can enhance environmental sustainability and business competitiveness (teng et al., 2020). social sustainability has emerged as a significant topic in recent research, with companies prioritizing employee health and safety and supporting local communities, which proves to be more resilient during times of crisis (leung et al., 2020). similarly, promoting diversity and inclusion can improve employee engagement and retention (córdoba-pachón et al., 2021). economic sustainability is also essential, with sustainable practices such as investing in renewable energy and waste reduction leading to long-term financial performance and value creation (fan et al., 2021). the triple bottom line framework is commonly used to measure sustainability as it takes a comprehensive approach (savitz & weber, 2014; alkhodary, d., 2021). the framework includes three dimensions of sustainability: environmental, social, and economic. the environmental dimension relates to the impact of operations on the natural environment, the social dimension considers their impact on stakeholders, and the economic dimension focuses on financial performance. the united nations’ sustainable development goals (sdgs) provide a global framework to address sustainability challenges, with 17 goals covering various environmental, social, and economic aspects (the united nations, 2015). research hypotheses primary hypothesis h1 there is a statistically significant relationship between reengineering processes dimensions (process design, service quality, technology) and banking sustainability dimensions (economic dimension, social dimension, environmental dimension) in iraqi private commercial banks in iraq. primary hypothesis h2 there is a statistically significant impact of reengineering processes variables dimensions (process design, service quality, technology) on enhancing banking sustainability dimensions (economic dimension, social dimension, environmental dimension) in iraqi private commercial banks, and the following sub-hypotheses branch from it: sub-hypothesis h2-1 there is an impact of process design dimension on enhancing banking sustainability in iraqi private commercial banks. sub-hypothesis h2-2 there is an impact of service quality dimension on enhancing banking sustainability in iraqi private commercial banks. sub-hypothesis h2-3 there is an impact of the technology dimension on enhancing banking sustainability in iraqi private commercial banks. research model the research model is based on the relationship between reengineering processes and banking sustainability in iraqi private commercial banks. the model consists of three main dimensions: the three dimensions of reengineering processes (process design, service quality, technology) and the three dimensions of banking sustainability (economic dimension, social dimension, environmental dimension). figure 2: research methodology the researchers adopted a descriptive-analytical methodology in this study. this methodology involves describing the phenomenon and the related concepts and analyzing and interpreting the phenomenon based on the results and data obtained. a questionnaire consisted of 30 items, with 15 items representing the independent variable of reengineering processes and another 15 pa ge 82 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(2) 79-91, 2023 items representing the dependent variable of banking sustainability. this design aligns with the objectives of the current research. research community and sample the research community comprises employees in iraqi private commercial banks, totaling 2,843 employees from various senior, middle, and executive positions (bank managers, branch and department managers, section and unit managers, accountants, auditors, and administrators). the research includes eight iraqi private commercial banks out of iraq’s 24 commercial private banks. the selected banks are baghdad bank, iraqi commercial bank, iraqi middle east investment bank, iraqi investment bank, united bank for investment, iraqi al-ahli bank, iraqi credit bank, and economy bank for investment and finance. these banks were chosen due to their prominence and being the largest in activity among iraqi private commercial banks and the oldest in this sector, as shown in the following table (1). “a random sample of 338 individuals was drawn from various managerial levels of the researched population, which consists of a total of 2,843 individuals. this was done based on the )steven k. thompson ,2012). the details of the sample are shown in table (2) below.” table 1: comprises employees in iraqi private commercial banks no. bank name year of establishment capital number of branches number of employees 1 baghdad bank 1992 250 billion 23 470 2 iraqi commercial bank 1992 250 billion 8 185 3 iraqi middle east investment bank 1993 250 billion 18 385 4 iraqi investment bank 1993 250 billion 16 298 5 united bank for investment 1994 300 billion 26 510 6 iraqi al-ahli bank 1995 250 billion 18 360 7 iraqi credit bank 1998 250 billion 4 175 8 economy bank for investment and finance 1999 252 billion 23 460 total 2843 results and discussion characteristics of the research sample the characteristics of the research sample include gender, age, educational level, and work experience. it can be observed that the highest percentage in terms of gender is for males at 71% compared to 29% for females. regarding age, 16% of the sample falls between 20 and 30, while 43% falls between 31 and 40. then, 28% of the sample falls between 41 and 49, while 13% are 50 or older. regarding educational level, 72% of the sample hold a bachelor’s degree, while 15% have a higher diploma, 8% have a master’s degree, and 5% have a doctorate. table 2: represents the research sample according to the researched managerial levels no. categories sample size 1 bank managers 8 2 branch and department managers 136 3 section managers 60 4 accountants, auditors, and administrators 134 total 338 regarding work experience, 16% of the sample have work experience of 5 years or less, while 21% have work experience between 6 and 10 years. additionally, 24% have work experience between 11 and 15 years, while 23% have work experience between 16 and 20 years. furthermore, 16% have work experience of 21 years or more, and it can be observed that the sample is characterized by a high presence of males, individuals with bachelor’s and higher degrees, and a range of work experience across different categories, with a higher proportion of individuals having extensive work experience. this reflects the suitability and alignment of the selected sample members in achieving table 3: descriptive statistics variables n mean std. deviation economic dimension 338 3.136 .6489 environmental dimension 338 3.230 .6074 social dimension 338 3.111 .8091 pa ge 83 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(2) 79-91, 2023 the objectives of the current study, as their high level of experience, academic qualifications, and age can be relied upon in their responses, drawing from their accumulated experience and academic knowledge in their respective fields of expertise. to answer the reengineering operations and banking sustainability level, the researchers will use descriptive statistics. the statistical results for a set of researched variables (process reengineering and banking sustainability) using different measures, such as average and standard deviation, can be inferred from the above table and are as follows: economic dimension the average in this dimension is approximately 3.136, with a standard deviation of 0.65. this indicates relatively less variation in the obtained responses in this dimension, which is at an average level. environmental dimension the average in this dimension is approximately 3.230, with a standard deviation of 0.60. this suggests that the responses related to the environmental dimension range from higher to lower values than the average. social dimension the average in this dimension is around 3.111, with a standard deviation of 0.80. this also indicates variation in the responses related to the social dimension, which is below average. banking sustainability the average in this dimension is about 3.15, with a standard deviation of 0.618. it is below average, indicating that sustainability practices in commercial banks in iraq are not at the desired level. process design the average in this dimension is approximately 3.360, with a standard deviation of 0.561. it is at an average level. service quality the average in this dimension is about 3.369, with a standard deviation of 0.6913. it is at an average level. technology the average in this dimension is approximately 3.080, with a standard deviation of 0.6352. it is below average, indicating a weakness in the technology-related aspects, particularly in process reengineering. process reengineering the average in this dimension is about 3.27, with a standard deviation of 0.566. process reengineering is at an average level in the researched commercial banks. assessment of measurement model banking sustainability 338 3.15877712033 .618878368909 process design 338 3.360 .5617 service quality 338 3.369 .6913 technology 338 3.080 .6352 figure 3: assessment of measurement model validity& reliability both validity and reliability are crucial in ensuring the credibility and trustworthiness of research outcomes. validity ensures that the research accurately captures the intended concepts and variables, while reliability ensures that the research findings are consistent and dependable. convergent validity in summary, proximal validity evaluates the consistency and agreement among questions or measures intended to assess the same construct or concept. it is assessed by examining the level of agreement or correlation between these questions or measures. it is measured through the following steps: indicator reliability indicator reliability is determined by calculating the values of the outer loading for each indicator. hair et al. (2012) suggested removing items with values below 0.4 and retaining indicators with values of 0.7 or higher. items that fall between 0.4 and 0.7 are excluded if their removal increases composite reliability. if there is no change, they are retained. table (4 ) illustrates the reliability of the model’s indicators. we note from the previous table that all indicators are reliable, which is greater than 0.7 pa ge 84 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(2) 79-91, 2023 construct reliability and validity the indicators “banking sustainability” and “reengineering processes” exhibit good internal consistency reliability, as indicated by cronbach’s alpha values of 0.880 and 0.881, respectively. the reliability is further supported by the rho_a (rho_alpha) values of 0.882 and 0.883, indicating consistent measurement within each construct. both indicators demonstrate excellent composite reliability, with values of 0.926, indicating the measurement model’s high internal consistency and reliability. the average variance extracted (ave) values for “banking sustainability” and “reengineering processes” are 0.807 and 0.808, respectively. these values suggest that approximately 81% of the variance in the indicators can be explained by their respective constructs. in conclusion, the analyzed indicators exhibit good reliability, high internal consistency, and a significant proportion of variance explained by the constructs. table 4: indicator reliability variables latent variables outer loading banking sustainability economic dimension 0.878 environmental dimension 0.890 social dimension 0.926 reengineering processes process design 0.915 service quality 0.892 technology 0.888 table 5: construct reliability and validity cronbach's alpha rho_a composite reliability (ave) banking sustainability 0.880 0.882 0.926 0.807 reengineering processes 0.881 0.883 0.926 0.808 discriminant validity fornell-larcker criterion the fornell-larcker criterion is used to assess the discriminant validity of constructs in a measurement model. it examines the correlation between constructs and compares it to the square root of each construct’s average variance extracted (ave). the provided table shows that the correlation between “banking sustainability” and itself is 0.898, higher than its ave’s square root (0.897). similarly, the correlation between “reengineering processes” and itself is 0.899, higher than its ave’s square root (0.897). these results indicate that each construct correlates highly with itself, demonstrating internal consistency. however, the correlation between “banking sustainability” and “reengineering processes” is 0.804, which is lower than the square root of their respective aves (0.897). this suggests that there is discriminant validity between these two constructs, as they are not highly correlated. table 6: fornell-larcker criterion variables’ bbanking sustainability reengineering processes banking sustainability 0.898 reengineering processes 0.804 0.899 table 7: cross loadings latent variables banking sustainability reengineering processes economic dimension 0.878 0.716 environmental dimension 0.890 0.697 social dimension 0.926 0.752 process design 0.755 0.915 service quality 0.696 0.892 technology 0.716 0.888 cross loadings the provided table (7) presents the cross-loadings for the latent variables of “banking sustainability” and “reengineering processes” with their respective dimensions. for the “banking sustainability” latent variable, we observe high cross-loadings with the economic dimension (0.878), the environmental dimension (0.890), and the social dimension (0.926). these results suggest that the “banking sustainability” construct is strongly related to each dimension, indicating pa ge 85 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(2) 79-91, 2023 that it encompasses various aspects of sustainability. similarly, for the “reengineering processes” latent variable, we observe high cross-loadings with the process design dimension (0.915), the service quality dimension (0.892), and the technology dimension (0.888). these findings indicate that the “reengineering processes” construct is strongly associated with these dimensions. overall, the cross-loadings in the table indicate a good fit between the latent variables and their respective dimensions. this suggests that the measurement items used to assess the latent variables align well with the dimensions they are intended to measure, supporting the convergent validity table 8: variance inflation factor (vif) latent variables vif economic dimension 2.183 environmental dimension 2.500 social dimension 3.065 process design 2.714 service quality 2.432 technology 2.299 table 9: fit summary saturated model estimated model srmr 0.056 0.056 d_uls 0.067 0.067 d_g 0.082 0.082 chi-square 167.229 167.229 nfi 0.887 0.887 table 10: r-squared value variable r square r square adjusted banking sustainability 0.646 0.645 table 11: correlations pearson variables x1 x2 x3 x y1 y2 y3 y process design 1 .737** .719** .904** .698** .683** .652** .752** of the measurement model. collinearity statistics (vif) the provided table (8) shows the variance inflation factor (vif) values for the latent variables included in the model. vif is a measure used to assess multicollinearity, the degree of correlation between predictor variables. a vif value of )1-5) indicates no multicollinearity, and typically, values above 5 or 10 are considered problematic and indicative of severe multicollinearity. in this table, the vif values are below these critical thresholds, suggesting that multicollinearity is insignificant in this model. model fit based on the fit summary table (9), the estimated model demonstrates a reasonably good fit to the data, as evidenced by the similar fit indices to the saturated model across srmr, d_uls, d_g, chi-square, and nfi. the coefficient of determination the r-squared value of 0.646 indicates that approximately 64.6% of the variance in banking sustainability can be explained by the independent variables(reengineering processes). the remaining percentage is due to other variables not included in the current study model. the adjusted r-squared value of 0.645 is nearly identical, suggesting that the model’s performance is not significantly affected by the number of predictors. overall, the model shows a moderately strong relationship between the reengineering processes and banking sustainability. after completing the model quality test and basic suitability tests, the research hypotheses will be tested: testing the first hypothesis the results in table no. (11 ) above indicate a statistically significant correlation between the independent variable (process reengineering) with its three latent dimensions and the dependent variable banking sustainability with its three latent dimensions. therefore, we accept the first research hypothesis h1. pa ge 86 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(2) 79-91, 2023 testing the second central hypothesis h2 the path coefficient for the relationship between “reengineering processes” and “banking sustainability” is 0.804. this indicates a strong and positive relationship between these variables, suggesting that improvements in reengineering processes significantly impact banking sustainability. therefore, we accept the second central hypothesis, h2. service quality .737** 1 .678** .880** .578** .682** .611** .697** technology .719** .678** 1 .909** .649** .664** .614** .714** reengineering processes .904** .880** .909** 1 .716** .751** .696** .802** economic dimension .698** .578** .649** .716** 1 .722** .643** .865** environmental dimension .683** .682** .664** .751** .722** 1 .763** .931** social dimension .652** .611** .614** .696** .643** .763** 1 .897** banking sustainability .752** .697** .714** .802** .865** .931** .897** 1 figure 4: testing the second central hypothesis h2 table 12: path coefficients path original sample (o) sample mean (m) (stdev) t statistics p values reengineering processes -> banking sustainability 0.804 0.805 0.020 40.057 0.000 figure 5: the second study model aims to test the effect of the sub-dimensions of reengineering processes (process design, service quality, technology) on the dependent variable of banking sustainability in iraqi commercial banks indicator reliability the results of the model’s goodness-of-fit standards indicate that all dimensions and paragraphs of the model fall within the goodness-of-fit standards, except for paragraphs q9, q8, and q7 of the service quality dimension and paragraphs q1, q2 of the process design dimension, which are less than the specified goodness-offit standard of 0.70, unless (hair et al.) indicated (2917) if the saturation of the items falls between (0.40-0.70). the researcher must verify the effect of deleting this item on the other criteria of the measurement model. therefore, when item q9 is deleted from the study model, the value pa ge 87 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(2) 79-91, 2023 table 13: outer loadings variables indicators cronbach's alpha c.r (ave) banking sustainability y1 0.879 0.880 0.926 0.807 y2 0.890 y3 0.925 process design q1 0.698 0.802 0.864 0.560 q2 0.685 q3 0.737 q4 0.801 q5 0.812 service quality q6 0.779 0.721 0.817 0.475 q7 0.638 q8 0.695 q9 0.569 q10 0.745 technology q11 0.733 0.849 0.892 0.625 q12 0.836 q13 0.817 q14 0.749 q15 0.811 table 14: outer loadings after modification variables indicators cronbach's alpha c.r (ave) banking sustainability y1 0.879 0.880 0.926 0.807 y2 0.890 y3 0.925 process design q1 0.698 0.802 0.864 0.560 q2 0.685 q3 0.737 q4 0.801 q5 0.812 service quality q6 0.782 0.707 0.820 0.533 q7 0.651 q8 0.727 q10 0.755 technology q11 0.733 0.849 0.892 0.625 q12 0.836 q13 0.817 q14 0.749 q15 0.811 table 15: cross loading indicators banking sustainability process design service quality technology economic dimension 0.879 0.697 0.596 0.665 of the other criteria (ave) changes, and in this way, we decide to delete the cursor. after completing the reliability standards (internal consistency consistency (cronbach alpha), indicator stability (outer loading), and convergent validity (average variance extracted (ave). the researcher conducted and tested the discriminant validity criterion (cross-loading), which aims to ensure that the items belong to the dimension they represent in a way that is larger than the other dimensions and does not overlap with them. the table (15 ) below shows this test: pa ge 88 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(2) 79-91, 2023 environmental dimension 0.890 0.653 0.619 0.627 social dimension 0.925 0.686 0.677 0.672 q1 0.512 0.698 0.512 0.487 q2 0.558 0.685 0.559 0.428 q3 0.568 0.737 0.498 0.541 q4 0.580 0.801 0.545 0.605 q5 0.604 0.812 0.657 0.634 q6 0.481 0.613 0.782 0.559 q7 0.506 0.466 0.651 0.533 q8 0.458 0.590 0.727 0.415 q10 0.586 0.511 0.755 0.462 q11 0.597 0.595 0.466 0.733 q12 0.552 0.569 0.582 0.836 q13 0.660 0.611 0.554 0.817 q14 0.554 0.515 0.532 0.749 q15 0.486 0.554 0.531 0.811 collinearity statistics (vif) a vif value of )1-5) indicates no multicollinearity, and typically, values above 5 or 10 are considered problematic the coefficient of determination the results of the above table indicate that the coefficient of determination r-square is 0.660 and r-square adjusted 0.657. that is, the dimensions of table 16: collinearity statistics indicators vif economic dimension 2.183 environmental dimension 2.500 social dimension 3.065 q1 1.430 q10 1.342 q11 1.533 q12 4.412 q13 1.869 q14 1.599 q15 4.100 q2 1.422 q3 1.610 q4 2.162 q5 2.005 q6 1.570 q7 1.220 q8 1.454 and indicative of severe multicollinearity. in this table, the vif values are below these critical thresholds table 16: r-squared value variable r square r square adjusted banking sustainability 0.660 0.657 the reengineering processes explain a percentage (66%) of the change occurring in the banking sustainability variable. in contrast, the remaining percentage is due to other variables not included in the current study model. pa ge 89 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(2) 79-91, 2023 testing the sub-hypotheses (h2-1 , h2-2,h2-3 ) of the second main hypothesis sub-hypothesis h2-1 there is an impact of process design dimension on enhancing banking sustainability in iraqi private commercial banks. sub-hypothesis h2-2 there is an impact of service quality dimension on enhancing banking sustainability in iraqi private commercial banks. sub-hypothesis h2-3 there is an impact of the technology dimension on enhancing banking sustainability in iraqi private commercial banks. figure 6: path coefficients the table provides path coefficients, descriptive statistics, t-statistics, and p-values for the relationships between three independent variables (“process design,” “service quality,” and “technology”) and the dependent variable “banking sustainability.” table 17: path coefficients path original sample (o) sample mean (m) (stdev) t statistics p values process design -> banking sustainability 0.363 0.366 0.046 7.907 0.000 service quality -> banking sustainability 0.216 0.212 0.049 4.427 0.000 technology -> banking sustainability 0.321 0.322 0.047 6.867 0.000 path coefficients the path coefficients represent the strength and direction of the relationships. the coefficients for “process design,” “service quality,” and “technology” are 0.363, 0.216, and 0.321, respectively. these coefficients indicate positive relationships between each independent variable and banking sustainability. a higher value suggests a more substantial impact on banking sustainability. sample mean and standard deviation the sample mean represents the average values for the variables. the sample means for “process design,” “service quality,” and “technology” are 0.366, 0.212, and 0.322, respectively. the standard deviations (stdev) indicate the variability of the scores around the mean for each variable. t-statistics and p-values the t-statistics measure the significance of the coefficients. higher absolute t-values indicate greater significance. the corresponding p-values assess the probability of obtaining such results by chance alone. all the t-statistics are relatively high in this case, indicating significant relationships. the p-values of 0.000 suggest that the relationships between the independent variables and banking sustainability are statistically significant. all sub-hypotheses are accepted (h2-1, h2-2, h2-3 ). conclogin economic dimension the responses in this dimension show relatively less variation, indicating a moderate level of economic pa ge 90 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(2) 79-91, 2023 performance among the researched commercial banks. environmental dimension the responses related to the environmental dimension vary, with some values higher and some lower than the average. this suggests that there is room for improvement in environmental practices within the banks. social dimension the responses in the social dimension exhibit variation, and the average is below average. this implies that there are areas where the banks can enhance their social initiatives and engagement. banking sustainability the average score for banking sustainability is below average, indicating that the sustainability practices in the researched commercial banks in iraq must meet the desired level. there is a need for improvement in this area. process design the average score for process design is average, suggesting that the researched commercial banks have implemented generally satisfactory processes. service quality the average score for service quality is at an average level, indicating that the researched commercial banks provide services that meet the average expectations of their customers. technology the average score for the technology dimension must be higher, highlighting a weakness in technology-related aspects, especially in process reengineering. the banks should focus on improving their technological capabilities. process reengineering the average score for process reengineering is at an average level, suggesting that the researched commercial banks have implemented reengineering practices that are generally satisfactory. the results indicate the need to improve banking sustainability, environmental practices, social initiatives, and technology-related aspects within the researched commercial banks. however, the banks have achieved average performance in economic dimensions, process design, service quality, and process reengineering. a positive relationship exists between the studied study variables, reengineering processes, and banking sustainability. recommendation it is recommended to continue to enhance economic performance and achieve further improvements by adopting more sustainable strategies and developing environmental initiatives to contribute to environmental protection. furthermore, banks should enhance their social responsibility and implement initiatives promoting communication and community engagement. the improvement in this area should be achieved by adopting sustainable initiatives and integrating environmental and social standards in banking operations. continuing to improve process design is essential to enhance efficiency and effectiveness. it is crucial to improve service quality and enhance the customer experience continuously. banks should focus on improving their technological capabilities and the necessity of improving process reengineering practices to enhance efficiency and achieve continuous improvements. in summary, the results indicate the need for improvement in banking sustainability, environmental practices, social initiatives, and technology-related aspects within commercial banks in the iraqi environment. limitation the study defines its scope for private commercial banks in iraq, which refers to banks that operate in the private sector and provide commercial banking services. it was applied to a sample of employees in private commercial banks in iraq, who number (338). it was applied to a sample of employees in the iraqi environment, so it is preferable to include other variables. such as inclusion, money, competitive advantage, and expanding the scope of application in a different environment references abdellatif, m., farhan, m. s., & shehata, n. s. 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(2012). sampling (3rd ed.). wiley. the united nations. (2015). sustainable development goals. retrieved from https://www.un.org/ sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-developmentgoals/ pa ge 1 pa ge 61 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) financial contagion: the corona threat to the global economy ram shepherd bheenaveni1*, srinivas katherasala2, vikas daravath3, shireesha methri1 volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v4i1.2982 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: february 05, 2025 accepted: march 08, 2025 published: march 25, 2025 the unprecedented spread of the covid-19 pandemic compelled humankind to practice the social distance and lockdown of all sorts of business resulted not only in the global financial downturn but also brought unprecedented uncertainty ever seen in history. the different economical interventions are being widely discussed across the world to accelerate the safer economic system to diminish and control the current financial contagion. policymakers have evolved different ideas and thoughts to protect the global economy from tackling various human and global crises. the study adopted an exploratory-cum-descriptive research design. qualitative questions were addressed through discourse analysis, while quantitative data was analyzed and presented using simple statistical methods. with this background, this paper will emphasize the ramifications and ratifications of financial contagion that took place due to the coronavirus lockdown worldwide. it also throws insights into some of the initiatives taken up by the world’s voluntary associations, institutions, and governments to curtail the financial contagion of the current global lockdown crisis. keywords covid-19 lockdown, economic crisis, economical interventions, financial contagion, global economy 1 department of sociology, osmania university, hyderabad – 500007, ts, india 2 department of social work, osmania university, hyderabad – 500007, ts, india 3 department of commerce, osmania university, hyderabad – 500007, ts, india * corresponding author’s e-mail: bheenaveni@osmania.ac.in introduction the coronavirus disease (covid-19) pandemic was noticed in late december 2019 in wuhan, the capital of hubei province in china (yu et al., 2021). according to the world meter data as of 2022 may 22nd 2020 globally 5,197,863 people have been infected and the total number of deaths from the disease now stands at 5,681,747. the world health organisation (who) announced the public health emergency of international concern and considered the pandemic as ‘the public enemy no. 1’ (bheenaveni, 2020), and has been releasing daily reports, guidelines to the governments (who, 2020). to break the chain of infection and slow down the spread of the virus, most of the countries announced a serious and intensive lockdown. social distance and selfquarantine have been strictly imposed on the people to prevent the exponential curve of contagious disease; thus, lockdown has been seen across the world (li et al., 2020). the coronavirus pandemic lockdown is first and foremost a humanitarian crisis and shows a direct impact on human health, social welfare, has a dramatic impact on economic activity, and also leading financial contagion (abodunrin et al., 2020). in this chaotic situation, many businesses have been forced to reduce their everyday business operations or shut down the firm for a while causing an increasing number of employees to lose their jobs (rai et al., 2021). it has drastically hit both the service sector and manufacturing sectors, thereby, world trade volume could once again plunge this year. the world economy is now entering into recession in 2020, succeeding decade-low growth of -3.9% in 2020. in this context, the present paper is aimed to examine how the corona lockdown led to financial contagion into major sectors of the world economy, and how the efforts and interventions of governments will curtail the financial crisis to save their economy by implementing these initiatives from present and future sudden stir: 1. monetary policy, 2. fiscal policy implications, 3. the people-centric economy-oriented, 4. universal basic income concept, 5. supply chain management, and 6. innovative financial services have to be considered. and, it is also aimed to examine the policy implications to curtail the corona financial contagion in global economy. materials and methods to address the research questions, an exploratorycum-descriptive research design was adopted for this review paper. this approach was chosen to explore and describe the conceptual issues and the specific situation of financial contagion in the global economy triggered by the unprecedented onslaught of covid-19. the exploratory aspect of the research design aimed to investigate and clarify the conceptual questions framed for the study. this involved identifying and examining various aspects and dimensions of financial contagion during the pandemic. the descriptive aspect, on the other hand, focused on detailing the actual state of the financial sector during the covid-19 crisis, providing a comprehensive account of how the pandemic affected financial markets and institutions globally. to achieve these objectives, the study employed a combination of discourse analysis, content analysis, and dialectical analysis. discourse analysis was used to scrutinize the language and communication patterns related to financial contagion during the pandemic. content analysis helped in systematically examining the existing literature and media reports to identify recurring themes and trends. dialectical analysis facilitated the pa ge 62 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 61-66, 2025 exploration of contradictory viewpoints and the synthesis of different perspectives to gain a deeper understanding of the phenomenon. it is important to note that the scope of this study is confined to the financial sector of the global economy during the covid-19 period. therefore, while the findings provide valuable insights into the financial impact of the pandemic, they may not be generalizable to other sectors or to financial conditions outside the specified timeframe. the unique context of the covid-19 crisis means that the results are specific to this period and may not apply universally to other instances of financial contagion. results and discussions at first, the term financial contagion was introduced in 1997 during the currency crisis in east asia to russia and brazil and it is the spread of an economic crisis from one market to another market. financial contagions are naturally related to the diffusion of economic booms and occur both at the national and international levels (ssenyonga, 2021). in history, many financial contagions happened, but the great depression and the financial recession were severe. the great depression crisis that began in 1929 and lasted in 1939 caused unemployment and acute deflation in most of the country of worldwide. the reasons for the 1929 financial contagion were considerable monumental deteriorations in spending, banking panics, and bank failures in the united states. excessive stock market speculations in the united states, maintenance of the international gold standard create several problems to the smoot-hawley tariff act and protectionist trade policies taken in the united states (pells 2020). in the year 2008, the great recession was participated in the us and lasted until 2009 resulting in the longest and deepest financial contagion in many countries. the reasons for 2008 financial contagions were a mortgage, subprime mortgage, subprime lending, and austerity. the outcomes of the financial contagion were millions of people lost houses, jobs, and their savings; it leads an increase in deep poverty (rasul et al., 2021). all functional spheres in the world have dramatically been changed within a short period from january 2020 as the coronavirus pandemic has taken an overwhelming number of human lives. all over the world, countries hurriedly implemented compulsory quarantines and social distancing practices to curb the corona pandemic, world is being made lockdown by this chaotic situation and was pushed to the brink of a financial contagion which is more severe than the previous 2008 and 1929 recessions. this is the first human crisis, in all regards, happening in the world and it was ever witnessed before in the history of humankind (chirisa et al., 2021; mirbabaie et al., 2020; papadimos et al., 2020; sivasundaram, 2020). the impact of corona lockdown on large-scale economics causes a sudden rise in non-performing assets in the banking sector. private sector banks get the highest hit and face maximum financial contagion exposure during this lockdown. non-performing assets rose from loans issued to small and medium scale enterprises (smes), the tourism industry across the globe itself experienced a loss of $200 billion due to the travel restrictions (grech et al., 2020). the temporary ban on aviation leads to a $ 113 billion loss to the aviation industry (xuan et al., 2021). as per the gtba report, the business travel sector will lose $820 billion in revenue (phil chibuikem, 2022a). to curb the spread of the coronavirus rapid shutdowns in towns and cities have been taken the restaurants and hotels into sudden shock. across the globe, the hotel industry witnessed cancellations of booking worth billions of dollars, and this industry pursued a $ 150 billion bailout (chenli et al., 2022). estimates explain that around 24.3 million jobs related to the hotel industry across the world have evaporated, and 3.9 million in the united states alone (nhamo et al., 2020). the current pandemic has drastically hit event management sector financially and experienced a huge number of cancellations that cost 400 million euros. more than $ 1 billion worth of losses were met by the e3 and sxsw tech events due to heavy cancellations. meanwhile, the global film industry faced a great loss worth $5 billion. the film and entertainment industry in italy alone has seen losses estimated to run into the millions of euros (phil chibuikem, 2022b), and these were estimated 7.2 million euros in the theatre sector, 7.3 million euros in the film screening sector, 2.5 million euros in the dance activities sector, 4.1 million euros in the live music sector and 1.8 million euros in the exhibition sector (luonila et al., 2021). the lockdown of covid-19 carried a severe deterioration in the size of bank transactions, a drastic fall in card payments, and a decline in the usage of atms, pos terminals globally (kapur et al., 2020). it resulted in the least fees collected by banks as part of operating revenue costs and effected negatively on banks’ profits (rachel, 2020). according to s&p dow jones indices, the most discernible consequence of the lockdown crisis on financial markets is the $6 trillion loss in the global stock markets as its 500 indices fell from 3.373 to 2.409 points which constitutes 28% negative change. similarly, the ftse 250 index fell from 21,866 to 12,830 indicating a 41.3% of downfall, and the nikkei fell from 23,479 to 16,552 which change to 29%. in the meantime, the major international banks have experienced a huge fall in their share price, the citi group’s share price fell from $ 78.22 to $ 39.64 which is the change of 49%, the share price of jp morgan chase fell by from $137.49 to $ 85.30 by 38% negative change, and the share price of barclays fell by from 181.32 to 86.45 euros by 52% of downfall (kourtit & nijkamp, 2023; xu et al., 2020). irrespective of their position in the size hierarchy of the companies, whether it is a small and medium business or large invested business entity, are taking a big blow from the corona lockdown (lobanova & aminov, 2021).the sectors which are expected to take the hardest hits include aviation, hospitality, transportation, retail, entertainment, financial sector, and so on put immediate pressure on pa ge 63 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 61-66, 2025 companies’ profits along with downside impact on their ability to borrow money and keep their operations complete. this sort of unpleasant situation causes both demand and supply-side surprises. because of lockdown, consumers are staying at home leads to a sudden shock towards the demand side, and a shock on the counterpart of supply-side was also inevitable as the factories are shut down globally caused supply chain problem (qunhui, 2021). according to international labour organization (ilo), both unemployment and underemployment including the people in low-paid jobs, women, and migrants too were impacted heavily due to the corona lockdown. in 2019, the baseline of global unemployment was 188 million, and it rises to 24.7 million due to the current pandemic. by the end of 2020, heavy losses from usd 860 billion to usd 3.4 trillion will be met by the workers in terms of their incomes, this pushes around 35 million additional people into acute poverty globally. consequently, unprecedented and drastic falls in terms of consumption of goods and services will hit the global business and economy as well (yu et al., 2022). table 1: latest growth estimations and projections of global economic outlook real gdp, annual percentage change 2019 2020 2021 global output 2.9 -3.0 5.8 advanced economies 1.7 -6.1 4.5 emerging markets and developing economies 3.7 -1.0 6.6 low income developing countries 5.1 0.4 5.6 (source: international monetary fund (imf), world economic outlook, april 2020) it is clear from the data mentioned above that the recession invariably affected the economics of both the advanced, developing, and underdeveloped countries due to the long stay of corona lockdown. 6.1% growth rate is projected for advanced economies for 2020 while it is -1.0% for emerging market and developing economies. however, this results in a longer duration of contagion which much worsens the financial transactions, and further heavily breakdowns the global supply chains. in such cases, the global gdp may fall to -3% (rao et al., 2021). policy implications to curtail the corona financial contagion in global economy the coronavirus pushed the world to the edge of financial contagion is more severe than in the previous 1930 and 2008. the depth and duration of financial contagion depend on the economic interventions are discussed below; monetary policy measures by central banks of governments granting principal or interest moratorium to debtors affected by corona lockdown, regulatory forbearance to banks, and liquidity provision of central banks to financial markets, purchase of bonds and securities by the central banks that were dropping in value and interest rates, sustained flow of credit to be continued to small, micro and medium industries, banks, public health sector, individuals and essential businesses. fiscal measures by the governments fetch and facilitate a viable number of federal stimulus packages for different service sectors and industries that were mostly affected by the corona lockdown, provision of income support for individuals, payments as part of social welfare to be continued to support each household throughout the containment period to abate tenacious wounds that could emerge from subdued investment in this severe downturn (amadeo & brock, 2022). people-centric economy concept: globally money is the primary mode of financial exchange, and it is essential for work payments. the concept of a people-centric economy considers how essential work is important for the development of the world’s socio-economic status (ses) and it is also equally important for the individuals who perform work for their growth at the individual level. however, meaningful work is sustaining the world economy and fulfilling the individual needs, thereby, the payment for the work allows people to support their families to participate in the economy rather than encouraging them to spend more. nature of work that promotes the health and overall wellbeing of people and could help to boost up the productivity and strengthen the economy too (moşteanu, 2020). universal basic income concept: in the lockdown of the coronavirus pandemic, nearly 30% unemployment rate has been witnessed and this new great recession demands several income supplementing programs. this situation made it desirable to consider the universal basic income concept given by martin luther king jr in 1967 to provide everyone with a minimum living wage whether they were employed or not would abolish poverty. with the help of universal basic income, people can escape from the poverty trap. this unconditional income would enable workers to stabilize their economic condition during sudden economic crisis periods and to reduce income inequalities as well (hasmath, 2015). global supply chain management this sudden stir requires immediate and appropriate action diagonally from the end-to-end supply chain to deal with the issues and challenges in order to create sheer transparency on multitier supply chains, and to determine the origin of supply by identifying the alternative sources, to estimate available inventory along with the value chains including spare parts and after-sales stocks for the optimum utilization as a medium to keep production running and enable delivery to customers, assess realistic final-customer demand and respond to the shortage buying behaviour of customers. optimizing the production and distribution capacity to pa ge 64 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 61-66, 2025 ensure employee safety, such as by providing individual safety equipment, appointing the protective and preventive communication teams to share infection-risk levels, and examining the work-from-home options. identifying the secured logistics, estimating, and accelerating their capacities wherever possible, and making them flexible and movable for transportation, arranging and managing the cash for operations to conduct the stress tests to find out the issues that hinder the supply chain and cause a financial downfall (biswas & das, 2020). innovative financial services are necessary for financial institutions and people, and this innovation can boost financial institutions. this financial service would be helpful to individuals, households, and unorganized small vendors to face sudden economic crises. progress of financial services in banking institutions, insurance institutions, non-banking financial services, and microfinance institutions required a new regulatory framework, and this progress is an essential element for economic growth (murad & idewele, 2017). managerial implications the present study focuses on the financial contagion through corona lockdown and policy implications to curtail the covid-19 financial contagion in global economy. despite the availability of several economysaving initiatives being implemented by the governments globally, many countries worldwide do not attain the maximum benefits to the people in this kind of sudden economic crisis due to a lack of funds to implement newly designed economic policies. in consonance with the present chaotic situation and economic vulnerability, this paper has highlighted how the coronavirus lockdown led to financial contagion into major sectors of the global economy, and how governments will curtail the financial crisis to save their economy by taking and implementing special economic interventions to accelerate the large scale monetary and fiscal packages to increase in access and to offer the concessional financing to the needy, to initiate the people-centric economy to protect public life as well as the economy, adaptation, and implementation of the universal basic income will be taken into the consideration to protect unemployed and underemployed, to remove supply chain barriers to boost world trade, to implement innovative financial services to build more sustainable future. eventually, measures of this kind should complement the national and international future financial contagions. conclusions the lockdown of the coronavirus pandemic and the financial contagion to the global economy caused the global recession in 2020. social distancing policies and lockdown restrictions to mitigate and militate the coronavirus outbreak trigger an economic crisis. policymakers, particularly the economists, in many countries were/are under tremendous pressure to respond and address the economic crisis brought by the lockdown. these longest lockdown restrictions hurt the global economy through a reduction in various levels of general economic transactions leading to financial contagion on the stock market, financial institution, travel industry, hospitality industry, event industry, film industry, labour market, and so forth. this sort of recession, since not happened in past, made it a difficult choice for policymakers whether to save the economy first before protecting the people or to protect the people first before saving the economy. across the world, many countries have brought and implemented special policies with a volume of intensives and concessions to curtail financial contagion on different sectors, and in different regions but these policies were insufficient or premature, and sometimes contradict with each other in some areas, nevertheless, this human and economic crisis needs lots of brainstorming and new economic policies to mitigate the present economic crisis and in the coming near future. references abodunrin, o., oloye, g., & adesola, b. 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(2022). disruption in global supply chain and socio-economic shocks: a lesson from covid-19 for sustainable production and consumption. operations management research, 15(1–2), 233–248. https://doi. org/10.1007/s12063-021-00179-y/figures/9 pa ge 1 pa ge 13 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) ecotourism source of poverty alleviation and natural conservation in kashmir india bilal ahmad khan1* volume 1 issue 1, year 2022 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v1i1.356 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: june 26, 2022 accepted: july 10, 2022 published: july 14, 2022 tecotourism is associated with nature and poverty alleviation. ecotourism is believed to be significant for the generation of income, sustainability of the environment, political enablement of local societies as well as for educational purposes. ecotourism generate economic benefits at local to national level and thus create incentives to preserve the resources. with its backward and forward linkages with other sectors of the economy, ecotourism is an effective tool for poverty alleviation and ensuring growth with equity. the jammu and kashmir has a vast potential to become one of the india’s best ecotourism destination and having numerous attractive and beautiful tourist spots. ecotourism helps in sustainable development. ecotourism is believed to be associated with various challenges which are environmental deterioration, inability to contribute to local economy as well as cultural exploitation and deterioration. the study would attempt to explore the potential sites of ecotourism for future development in kashmir and would examine the correlation between ecotourism and natural conservation with regard to the perception of tourist and conservation agencies. the study is exploratory in nature but empirical tools are also applied to highlight the potential of ecotourism. jammu and kashmir is blessed with diverse geographical features, offers a plethora of attractions to tourists. a balance between development and the environment should be created. keywords phytochemical properties, african yam bean, pigeon pea, pawpaw leaf powder, moringa seed and pawpaw seed 1 cscsnei, jnu, new delhi, india * corresponding author’s e-mail: bilalahmadk9@gmail.com introduction the eco-friendly tourism movement evolved in the 1970s as a reaction to many negative consequences of tourism prostitution, crime, drugs trafficking, and cultural devastation, destruction of natural landscape and natural resources, and economic discrepancies. the movement grew to include cultural organizations, educational groups, ethnic institutions and friendship tours. active participation and grass root involvement of local communities at different level is felt. benefit sharing was greatly highlighted where the local community stands at the core of the debate. conservationists and planners were realized the role of community in controlling the wilderness of the tourist destinations. the concept of ecotourism was coined in 1981 by hector ceballos-lascurain, a mexican environmentalist, through the spanish term “turisimoecologico”. he has been involved in the conservation of rainforest areas by promoting ecological tourism and he was one of the very first promoters of ecotourism. in the 1990s, he took part, along other practitioners and established scholars, in international discussions on the potential of ecotourism, and offered guidelines for active involvement by local communities and on the management of protected areas (ceballos lascurain, 1993) ecotourism is a subset of the tourism industry that reflects an ethos of responsible involvement with the environment and with local cultures. ecotourism includes, but is not limited to, nature hiking, diving, wildlife viewing, and cultural tourism, usually with some attention given to the ecosystem, biodiversity education, or sustainability. hctor ceballos lascurain used to describe nature based travel to relatively undisturbed areas with an emphasis on education. since then, ecotourism has been one of the fastest growing sectors of global tourism. ecotourism has been widely promoted as an important conservation tool and one way for people to have a positive impact on the environment. ecotourism has the potential to improve public education on cultural and biological diversity, conserve wild habitats, and improve economic conditions for host nations (buckley 2009). ecotourism guarantees the sustainable use of environmental resources, while generating economic opportunities for the local people (kiper t. 2013). the foundation of ecotourism is associated with poverty alleviation all over the world. that is, ecotourism is believed to be significant for income generation, improvement of people’s standards of living, sustainability of the environment, political enablement of local societies as well as for educational purposes. the interaction between tourists and poor local communities through ecotourism has an immense potential to enhance the political, economic, social and cultural aspects of those poor local communities (ahmad, 2014). the most accepted and agreeable definition of ecotourism today is defined by, the ecotourism international society in north bennington. by 1989, the international ecotourism society was launched and they defined ecotourism as, “responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local people”. methodology the data for the study was collected from both primary https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v1i1.356 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee mailto:bilalahmadk9%40gmail.com?subject= pa ge 14 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 13-18, 2022 and secondary sources. primary data was collected from tourists and conservation agencies with the help of structured questionnaires. the survey was intended to understand the perception of tourists and conservation agencies towards ecotourism and environmental conservation. secondary data is collected from government agencies, research reports, statistical reports and articles published in news papers, electronic media and websites. the primary information can be used as supplementary in the form of comments, interviews, observations, opinion, site analysis and community analysis etc. mostly primary data was collected through interviews with the local community and local authorities. objectives the proposed study would attempt to achieve the following objectives: 1. to explore the potential sites for future development of ecotourism in kashmir. 2. to examine the correlation between ecotourism and natural conservation with regard to the perception of tourist and conservation agencies. data collection process proceeded by an interplay of questionnaire and unstructured interview. although the data collected is largely based on quantitative research techniques but face to face, unstructured interviews were also conducted simultaneously to substantiate the results obtained from questionnaire. the results were checked for reliability through cronbach’s alpha and the validity was ensured through measurement of total item correlation. as the results fulfilled the given criteria for initial assessment and purification, the researcher proceeded with the updated questionnaire for data collection. the data collected through questionnaires was analyzed using a multi-method statistical approach. predominantly, statistical methods such as factor analysis, principal component analysis (pca), reliability analysis, spearman’s correlation, pearson’s correlation and t-test were used to analyze the collected data. discussion and findings ecotourism has immense potential to help the global fight against poverty. a wto initiated study that in developing countries, particularly in the least developed countries, tourism is almost universally the leading source of economic growth, foreign exchange, investment and job creation. ecotourism has the potential to help reduce rural outmigration to urban areas, increase employment opportunities for the urban poor, and give them additional income to provide for their families in the rural areas. tourism provides employment opportunities by diversifying and increasing incomes that help reduce the vulnerability of the poor. through increased national income, additional funds can be diverted to poverty reduction programs. ecotourism is accepted as a means that can satisfy local people. “it provides a means of empowerment to disadvantaged groups such as many native people (including women) by opening an economic and management role for them in ecotourism” (gauthier, 1993). tourism can contribute in other significant ways to poverty reduction. for instance, it can help communities to reclaim their cultural pride, sense of ownership and control over local development, reduce vulnerability through diversification and develop skills and entrepreneurial capacity (wto, 2002). ecotourism is now one of the fastest growing segments of the economy in many parts of the world. it signifies travel to relatively remote and undisturbed natural settings where flora, fauna and cultural heritage are seen as the main attractions. besides protection and conservation of environment, it involves empowerment and participation of the local communities as important beneficiaries of the tourist activity. earnings from visitors are generally ploughed back into preserving and conserving the natural environs of the destination and enhancing the cultural integrity of the local people. it is now being widely recognized that ecotourism, if properly envisioned, can have a substantial impact on both rural economy and poverty alleviation. it is essential to involve the local communities in these activities as one of the primary stakeholders, as tourists expect to see ecotourism as a sustainable practice and, besides acquiring new knowledge and experience, they want to ensure that their visit also has a positive impact on the local community and natural resources. this would require formulation of stringent policies across a number of public services, so as to permit a new balance of social forces to meet the needs and aspirations of host communities while at the same time safeguarding the environmental resource base concerned (dar, 2014). kashmir is a land of numerous valleys and places which are very beautiful and attracts and fascinate the tourists throughout world. in this work, the researcher aimed to assess the contribution of ecotourism in alleviating poverty in kashmir valley, which is covered by the mighty himalaya blessed with coniferous forests, large lush green meadows, rich wildlife and fresh water bodies in the form of lakes, rivers, streams and springs. the kashmir valley has a long list of places which reflects the nature’s beauty at its best which attract tourists and ecotourism becomes accessible and conceivable and places are universally acknowledged by different names table 1.1 srinagar – heaven on earth srinagar is undoubtedly one of the most beautiful and famous places to visit in kashmir as well as in india. from boating to trekking, bird watching to water skiing, srinagar place has it all. srinagar is a first stopover for every traveler and there are long list of places to visit in srinagar. this city is enclosed by the green mountains and the main highlight being the dal lake which is the gem of the city. this place gives a close outlook to the kashmiri cuisine and the state’s culture. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 15 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 13-18, 2022 gulmarg – ski your way famously known as the ‘meadow of flowers’, gulmarg is a treat to the eyes with its spread of vibrant flowers against snow capped mountains as backgrounds. gulmarg is considered to be one of the best places to visit in kashmir for all right reasons. this region of kashmir is also known as the adventurer’s paradise because of its vast options of skiing in the snow while enjoying the views around. the best time to visit kashmir for snowfall is in winter season i.e. december-january. sonamarg – the land of gold sonamarg, as the name suggests, is famous as the ‘meadow of gold’. an endless stream of stunning flowers and undulated trekking routes are its attractions. the best season to visit kashmir would be in summer i.e. may-june. pulwama – all about natural springs & apple orchards famously named as the “rice bowl of kashmir”, this quaint village in jammu and kashmir is a great place to witness the nature’s real beauty. situated at a distance of 40 kms from srinagar, this place has many tourist sites. this multi hued city offers amiable weather, pleasant odor saffron fields, and malleable citizens. pahalgam – get allured by picturesque views pahalgam is considered as an illustration of the heaven on earth which is situated at an altitude of 2740 m. it is situated at distance of 95 kms from srinagar and surrounded by dense forests, beautiful lakes and meadows of flowers. tranquility and serenity are the other names of pahalgam. this tiny town is known to suck out all the stress of every visitor and is therefore counted amongst the best places to visit in kashmir. anantnag – home to temples adorned with flourishing gardens and freshwater springs, anantnag is a divine destination. there is a number of famous tourist places such as verinag and daksum which everyone comes kashmir visits here. nishat garden – perfect for a laid-back day this one is considered to be amongst the largest mughal gardens located on the banks of dal lake. nishat garden is also known by the name the garden of bliss and rightly so, as there are breathtaking zabarwan mountains in the backdrop. this garden is historically famous and asaf khan, who was the brother of nur jahan designed it. shalimar garden – photographer’s paradise this garden was established in the year 1616 by the well-known emperor jehangir especially for his wife, nur jahan. after some time, another garden named faiz baksh was added to this one. one sees a canal inside the garden that has been embellished with polished stones at the boundaries. yusmarg – sit in tranquility this is considered to be the best place when it comes to observing the natural aspects of kashmir. this is one of the top tourist places in kashmir that is not much explored. 4 kilometers downhill from this place, one sees the beautiful nil nag lake. vaishno devi – haven for pilgrims nestled in trikuta hills, vaishno devi is a town famous for the temple that goes by the name of the town. it is said that vaishno devi is a manifestation of goddess durga from hindu mythology. this place is sacred as it is counted among one of the 108 shakti peeth. services like palanquins, ponies, and helicopters are also available for those who cannot walk or wants to read early. patnitop – picture-perfect paradise endless meadows and picturesque views describe patnitop the best. blanketed by the sky-high himalayas covered with snow, patnitop has created a niche in the tourism industry due to its surreal beauty. along with this, the place also offers some thrilling activities. it proves to be one of the top tourist places in kashmir. amarnath – marvel at the natural occurences amarnath is a haven for pilgrims and is counted among the top places to visit in kashmir. worshippers of lord shiva visit this place every year to take blessings and witness the enshrined image of shiva. people from all over the world resort to this place and indulge ‘amarnath yatra’. it is believed that this is the same cave where lord shiva told about the secret of life and eternity to goddess parvati. dachigam national park -flora & fauna kashmir not only has an abundance of beauty but also has abundant flora and fauna. dachigam national park is where you will find indigneous species of plants and animals. even the landscapes of this place are truly mesmerizing. it is only 22 km from srinagar and can be reached easily by taking a private taxi. its natural beauty makes it one of the most-visited kashmir tourist places. khilanmarg – paradise for skiing only those who have visited khilandmarg will agree that it is the most beautiful place in kashmir. the valley put you in a trance because of its alluring landscapes and breathtaking panoramas. it is 6 km ahead of gulmarg and only a few people dare to visit this place. in summers, the aromatic flowers are the major attraction while skiing in winters lures tourists to this place. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 16 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 13-18, 2022 the list of beautiful places to visit in kashmir is quite long. these places are quite famous and boast nature’s finest beauty. these tourist places that one must visit strengthen and revitalize tourism industry and enlighten and appraised ecotourism. kashmir attracts lots of tourists to visit the religious and historical sites due to great cultural heritage and social cohesion. the annually holy hindu pilgrimage traditionally culminated on the auspicious day of shravan purnima as per hindu calender depicted from 2001-18 chanting of religious hymns and prayers ecotourism resulted into participation of local communities in tourism sector which has improved the socio-economic condition of people in kashmir and helped in reduction of poverty. it can lead to social, educational, economic and technological empowerment in kashmir (malik, i, 2016). ecotourism promotes an enhanced appreciation of natural environments and environmental education by exposing visitors and locals to nature and conservation. it encourages travelers to protect the environment and contribute to local communities. tourism meets the needs local residents while protecting future opportunities. the valley of kashmir is dotted with the places of great tourism potential. however, natural resource depletion and environmental degradation associated with tourism are often serious problems in tourism rich region of table 1.2 pilgrims visited amarnath shrine from 2008 to 2018 (lakhs) year pilgrims visited amarnath shrine 2001 1.91 2002 1.10 2003 1.70 2004 4.00 2005 3.88 2006 3.47 2007 2.96 2008 5.33 2009 3.81 2010 4.55 2011 6.21 2012 6.35 2013 3.54 2014 3.72 2015 3.5 2016 2.2 2017 2.60 2018 2.85 sources: deccan herald (dh) news service, srinagar, july 27, 2019, www.deccanherald.com report: additional chief executive officer (aceo) of shri amarnathji shrine board, 2018 kashmir. there is a greater need to regulate tourism and the environment, not only to preserve environment for future generation but in the interest of tourism business and quality of life of local residents. table 1.3 tourist arrivals to kashmir valley since 1955 year indian foreign total 1955 48190 2830 51020 1965 35700 7430 43130 1975 148320 19300 167620 1985 465600 38020 503620 1995 320 8200 8520 2005 585700 19680 605380 2010 701504 25984 736488 2015 1274276 37666 1311942 source: directorate of tourism kashmir note: 2020 trend not evaluated due to outbreak of covid-19. the current status of ecotourism development in jammu and kashmir is still young and very small. it has gradually grown since eighties. the potential ecotourism activities attractive to different type of visitors/ tourist in jammu and kashmir are: table 1.4 forest based activitiestravelling to natural areas, taking part in treks and long excursions, trekking, jeep safari jungle tours, camping, wildlife viewing, bird watching and visit to wetlands. river bound activities: culture bound activities: viewing of river borders wildlife, rafting, canoeing, fishing, boating. in view of the immense possibilities and spread of cultural riches in the state, we also propose that some cultural visits can be involved within the larger framework of ecotourism activities. these include visitations to temples located within parks and so on. ecotourism is accepted as a means that can satisfy both local people in need of gainful economic activity as well as conservationists. tourism can contribute in other significant ways to poverty reduction. for instance, it can help communities to reclaim their cultural pride, sense of ownership and control over local development, reduce vulnerability through diversification and develop skills and entrepreneurial capacity (wto, 2002). ecotourism to some degree and other forms of tourism have been successful in reducing poverty in the areas where this business is established. with sufficient care and planning ecotourism has great potential for poverty alleviation. it can be a tool not only for the economic improvement of local host economy but also the country as a whole. it can also help address other dimensions of poverty and complement conservation efforts (richard, paul & trent, 2017). https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 17 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 13-18, 2022 ecotourism has become an important strategy for local development in underdeveloped regions. many studies show that tourism development has significant impacts on impoverished rural communities where the option for development is limited. development of ecotourism impact poorer positively and help them to come out of poverty. it is an approach to open opportunities for the poor. there is a need for enhancement of the linkage between ecotourism and poor so that they can reap the benefits of tourism development. evidence shows that sustainable tourism is a great tool for development and poverty alleviation in developing region. forecasts of high tourism growth in developing regions, where widespread poverty exists, has led to considerable interest in tourism as a tool for poverty alleviation (wear & neil, 2009). it is a powerful tool for growth in developing countries. tourism creates important opportunities to diversify the local economy by providing jobs, generating income, diversifying the economy, protecting the environment, and promoting cross-cultural awareness. many international initiatives have revealed that tourism can make a substantial contribution to socioeconomic development and help to improve living conditions for local people in different destinations (wto, 2004). the study reveals that tourism has not only provided a supplementary income and new employment opportunities to the rural community, but also has increased the appreciation of local culture and rural lifestyle. the following ecotourism sites have been explored that act as a catalyst of poverty alleviation. these ecotourism sites has become a major source of income for local people either through direct employment such as managers, guides, housekeepers, and boat drivers, or from sales of foods, handicrafts, transportation or other services. eventually have implications in the livelihoods of local people; particularly of those whose paid work opportunities and income sources are somehow limited. apart from natural beauty, this region is dotted with several religious sites, places and other historical monuments which are important determinants of ecotourism development in the region. there are various determinants of ecotourism potential including physical, cultural, social and historical in this region. table 1.5 hokersar this wetland is located close to srinagar and can be developed as a popular ecotourism site with basic accommodation for overnight guests. this will provide an opportunity for the birdwatcher to make the most of the visit rather than travelling back and forth to srinagar. in conjunction with dachigam, this site holds great potential for further development and transformation into an ideal ecotourism venture. the wetlands of hokersar and shallbaug could be used for bird watching by the bird lovers by travelling through shikaras. watch towers at strategic locations should be planned. dachigam national park dachigam is a beautiful national park with lush forests, fast flowing rivers, stunning landscapes and of courses the dramatic seasonal changes. the park is proximate to the popular tourist destinations of gulmarg and also not very far from srinagar city. the park has tremendous tourism potential considering the diversity in terrain and its proximity to srinagar. with the revival of tourism over the past few years, there has been an unprecedented increase in the flow of tourists to this national park the famous mughal gardens nishat, shalimar and cheshmashahi are located near to the dachigam national park. gulmarg wildlife sanctuary much of the sanctuary is suitable for mountaineering. sites like alphatri, khilanmarg, etc. located in this area have since a long time remained favourite destinations for rock climbers and trekkers. the sanctuary, therefore, can have a vital role in boosting the tourism potential of the area. gulmarg like pahalgam is also a popular tourist destination. however, the gulmarg wildlife sanctuary needs a large-scale infra-structure development for habitat improvement/protection/conservation and management for developing as an ecotourism spot. bangus valley an unexplored region, bangus valley is situated in the northwestern region of tehsil handwara in the kupwara district. 128 kilometres away from srinagar, this pristine site is perched at an altitude of 10,000 ft above the sea level. a unique blend of ecological systems can be found here including grasslands, flora, fauna, coniferous forests etc. sprawling over an area of more than 300 square kilometres, the valley is bifurcated into two: the main valley, known as “bodh bangus”, and the smaller valley or “lokut bangus”. sattbarran kalaroos located in the gorgeous lolab valley in kupwara, sattbarran kalaroos is a unique sight. a beautiful place bathed in the ancient architecture, it is situated in the region of kalaroos on the outskirts of the madmadav village. the ancient caves dating back to the stone-age are located on the backside of sattbarran, where one can witness the hand paintings done on the walls dating back to the period of stone-age. it is believed that these caves hold tunnels which lead till central or north asia, all the way up to russia. wayan wayan is a beautiful place, which is a famous picnic spot for the locals in kupwara. recently kashmir university satellite campus has been established here. source: ecotourism development plan for jammu and kashmir, 2015 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 18 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 13-18, 2022 figure 1: ecotourism’s economic impact and leakage physical determinants valleys kashmir is famous for the elongated valley through which the river jhelum flows, and this main valley is garlanded by various small side valleys. these side valleys are dotted with transparent lakes, gushing streams, green turf, magnificent trees, mountains and cool and pleasant atmosphere (hussain, 1998). lidder valley is a picturesque valley that forms one of the main attractions among the tourism destinations in and around the pleasant hill station of pahalgam. the lidder valley is decorated with beautiful brooks and streams. one remarkable feature of the lidder valley is the presence of pleasing glaciers. sind valley is another beautiful small side valley which lies to the northeast of srinagar and is carved by the river sind. this is an area of massive snow-capped mountains, glacial lakes and fast flowing rivers. the majestic zojila pass marks the boundary from the sind valley to the ladakh region. lolab valley is another beautiful valley which is an untouched and unexplored tourist destination with dense forest ranges. bangus valley is also an upcoming destination which is surrounded all sides by dense forests and snow covered mountains. this valley is most attractive and is famous for adventure tourism. meadows meadows are considered as an important determinant of tourism development and form a very prominent part of tourist attractions in kashmir. the slopes available at sonamarg, yusmarg, pahalgam and gulmarg etc. provide a wide scope for development of summer as well as winter tourism. these meadows attract tourists in large numbers due to its mesmerizing beauty. some of the famous meadows in kashmir are: gulmarg meadowgulmarg is undoubtedly the bestknown meadow of the kashmir and one of the most splendid hill resorts. this green meadow of flowers receives tourists throughout the year. it has an undulating topography which adds to its scenic beauty and majestic charm. the scenery here is comparable with the loveliest regions of switzerland. apart from the beautiful scenery, nature has provided this region with a great variety of flora and fauna. all the basic amenities i.e.; hotels, market, boarding houses and transport etc. are available at gulmarg (hussain, 2005). it also has the highest golf course in the world at an altitude of 2,650 m, which is one of the major attractions of hill stations sonmargthe word sonmarg literally means the meadow of gold. this beautiful tourist resort lies in the sindh valley of kashmir 87 kilometers away from srinagar at an altitude of 3000 meters and is situated on the srinagar-ladakh road. this green meadow is surrounded on all sides by mountains and spread with bright colored flowers. this golden meadow is girdled by dense forests of fir, birch and sycamore with river sind meandering quite slowly and steadily. it provides a base to the snow line and number of glaciers. these mighty glaciers and silent lakes add to the magnificence of this place. yusmarg: yusmarg green meadow plays an important role in attracting tourists to kashmir valley. this green meadow is located 47 km from the srinagar and lies in the budgam district of jammu and kashmir. it is referred to as “mini gulmarg” as its scenic beauty and topography resemble that of gulmarg. daksum: daksum meadow is counted as one of the best meadows of kashmir valley in terms of tourist https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 19 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 13-18, 2022 attraction. it is a natural scenic spot situated at a distance of 40 km from anantnag district and about 85 km from srinagar. it offers trekking to the sinthan top. the landscape of daksum is quite irregular. there are snowcapped mountains in the background that further add to the beauty of this place. lakes kashmir is decorated by a number of big and small lakes found all along the length and breadth of the valley. besides these lakes, which are fed by melting snows from the mountains, there are hosts of mountain tarns formed glared by the glacial action and other phenomenal activities of range nature. some of the beautiful lakes that attract the hearts and minds of the tourists are: dal lake: dal lake is counted among the best and wellknown tourist destinations of kashmir. it is famous all over the world and is described as lake par excellence by sir walter lawrence. dal lake houses the world famous shikaras and houseboats which provides an opportunity for tourists to enjoy the atmosphere of peace and calmness in the lake. it is one of the most beautiful lakes and is second largest in the jammu & kashmir. the lake is 8 km long and 4 km wide and covers an area of 26 sq. kms. it lies in the east of srinagar city, at the foot of zabarwan hills, with shankaracharya hill (takhtisulaiman) in its south and the hariparbat fort on its west (khan, 2007). the fascinating lake is dotted by islands, floating gardens, fields of lotus blossoms and houseboats that add more charm to this picturesque splendour of nature. nageen lake: nageen lake is small and most lovely part of dal lake and is separated from the large dal lake by a small narrow causeway. it is known as the “jewel in the ring”. it has deep blue waters and is encircled by a ring of green trees from which it derives its name. it has also a number of houseboats moored around its parameter. nageen lake is another popular venue for water sports like water skiing, swimming, diving and sailing. this lake is also favorite among tourists who are in search of peaceful houseboat holiday. wullar lake: wullar lake is said to be the largest freshwater lake of asia. it is approximately 60 km from the city of srinagar and falls in under the jurisdiction of district baramulla. the lake is 19 km long and 10 km wide and is spread over an area of 125 km in an elliptical form. the average depth of the lake is about 12 feet. this lake is surrounded by mountains and hills. the sunset is worth seen at wullar lake which creates a magical show by reflecting the magic of surrounding hills. the lake is popular for adventure sports activities like water sports, yachting, and water skiing. the river jhelum enters the lake in the south and leaves it from the west. the streams of madmati, erin and bohnar flow into the lake from the eastern side. manasbal lake: manasbal lake is considered as one of the best lakes of kashmir in terms of tourist attraction. this lake is located in ganderbal district about 30 km north of srinagar city. it is a popular bird-watching area and is ideal water sport resort. it offers one of the best campaign sites in kashmir (khan, 2007). harwan lake: harwan lake is situated at a distance of 21 km from srinagar and is about 278 meters long, 137 meters wide and 18 meters deep. this lake is the main source of water supply to srinagar city. the scenic beauty of this lake attracts visitors in large numbers especially local visitors. hokarsar lake: hokarsar lake is located on the baramulla road about 13 km from srinagar. this lake is surrounded by willow trees grown in abundance on its bank. the willow trees enrich the beauty of this lake in all seasons. it is spreading on about 5 km in length and 1.5 km in width and is worth beautiful. mountain lakes: kousarnag lake is the largest mountain lake in kashmir. this lake is surrounded by some of the most picturesque peaks of pir panjal range and this lake lies at an altitude of 13,000 feet above sea level. this lake is fed by glaciers and is said to be the source of river jhelum. in spring and summer, the water is some 40 feet higher than in winter. in the spring season, the surface is covered with icebergs which are driven about by the wind. sheshnag lake is another mountainous lake lies beyond pahalgam. this three kilometers stretch of water has an exquisite pale-blue colour similar to that of lake lucerne. the apharwat lake or alpather lake is also a mountainous lake that lies near gulmarg. this lake is also called frozen lake because of its freezing cold water. it remains snow-covered for most of the year and is 13,000 feet above sea level. rivers and streams kashmir region is gifted with a large number of rivers and streams. the rivers and streams form a secondary component of the physical landscape and play an important role in attracting tourists. jhelum river which originates in verinag spring has emerged as a major tourism attraction. the mangla dam built on the river is one of the largest earth-fill dams and a great tourist spot. the nine bridges which were built long ago over the river jhelum also provide as hot tourism sites. the river is navigable from khanabal to baramulla and is one of the prime beauties of the valley. dudhganga river is another important river of kashmir which rises in the central part of the pir panjal range round mountain tata kuti. the source of sindh river lies in the sacred gangabal lake on mount haramukh and passes through the famous resort of sonamarg. the river of veshav is an important river flowing through the district of kulgam in south kashmir. aharbal’s waterfall, on this river, is very much famous and attracts a large number of visitors to enjoy the beauty of nature glaciers glaciers of kashmir valley play a prominent role in attracting tourists. the higher reaches of kashmir are spread with small and large glaciers. the most important of all the glaciers in kashmir region is kolahoi glacier which lies in the north western himalayan range at an https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 20 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 13-18, 2022 elevation of 4700 meters. it is situated 26 kilometers north of pahalgam and 16 kilometers south from sonmarg. kolahoi glacier is the source of lidder river. thajiwas is another important glacier from the tourist point of view. this glacier provides trekking source to tourists. apart from these two glaciers, there are many small glaciers of local importance (mir, 2013). ecological determinants biodiversity regions kashmir is rich in forest wealth. it occupies about 8,128 sq km of forest area which is about 50.97 percent of the total forest area of j&k. district kupwara covers largest forest area in kashmir and has about 1703 sq. kms. (71%) of its area under forests followed by baramulla district which has 2690 sq. kms. (59%) of its areas under forests. the forest area of kashmir is covered by a tall and wide variety of trees along with a wide variety of bushes. in different seasons they appear in different colours adding more beauty to the kashmir. with its variety of geographical regions, climate and vegetation has many delights to offer the wildlife enthusiast. the presence of mountains, foothills and plains in the region abode a diverse species of flora and fauna. some of the best-known animals found in the region are snow leopard, common leopard, brown bear, hangul or kashmiri stag, bharal, red fox, musk deer, langur, himalayan black bear etc. some birds which are found in kashmir are black eagle, griffon vultures, black and yellow grosbeak, hobbys, kestrels and monal pheasants. there are several national parks and wildlife sanctuaries that have been established in kashmir for the conservation of rare species of animals. some of them are touristically very much importance such as (mir, 2014). dachigam national park dachigam national park has attained global fame for its rich faunal and floral wealth. this park was constituted into a national park in 1981 with the main purpose of protecting the kashmir stag or hangul. it is located in the zabarwan range of the western himalayas about 18 km northeast of srinagar. dachigam national park comprises an area of 141 sq. km and is approximately 22.5 km long, 8 km wide. the national park is divided into lower and upper dachigam areas on the basis of forest types and altitudinal range. dachigam national park is famous for the kashmir stag or “hangul” endangered red deer species in the country. gulmarg biosphere reserve gulmarg biosphere reserve is one of the most important and beautiful tourist places which capture the hearts and minds of tourists towards this tourist destination. it is located in gulmarg 48 km away from srinagar summer capital of jammu and kashmir. it covers an area of about 180 sq. km and is situated at an altitude of 2400 to 4300 meters above sea level. nature has gifted this biosphere reserve with multiple species of rare, endangered and protected species. the main species found in gulmarg biosphere reserve are hangul, brown bear, musk deer, serow, leopard, red fox, and black bear etc. this biosphere reserve is also dominating in the rich green cover of the area accounting for over ninety percent of vegetation. the principal species are aesculus indica, pinus griffithii, cedrus deodar, abies pindow etc. the major shrubs are sorbaria tomentosa, indigofera heterantha, etc. the ground surface of gulmarg biosphere reserve is also very rich and dicotyledonous herbs dominate the area, comprising of rumex patientia, etc. the gulmarg biosphere reserve also provides a home to a good population of pheasants and upland birds both resident and migratory. overa wildlife sanctuary overa wildlife sanctuary is located at pahalgam in anantnag district of jammu and kashmir about 76 kms away from srinagar. it covers an area of about 32.27 sq. kms. the sanctuary lies in lidder valley forest division surrounded by sindh forest division in the north; lidder forest in the south; pahalgam in the east; and dachigam national park in the west. this wildlife sanctuary is characterized by stunning mountain landscapes, grassclad hills and deep valleys (khan, et.,al, 2012). the sanctuary provides refuge to 13 species of mammals most of which are on the verge of extinction. some of them are musk deer, hangul, serow, langur, leopard, etc. the overa wildlife sanctuary gives the glimpse of the rich variety of kashmir’s floral species. the main species are pinus griffithii, cedrus deodara, morus alba, abies pindrow, juglans regia etc. historical determinants the beautiful valley of kashmir attracted the kings and emperors who constructed numerous temples and palaces, which are still present in elegance and grandeur. this region is dotted with a number of gardens, shrines, monuments and historical sites historical mughal gardens the beautiful valley of kashmir boasts a number of historical gardens which are considered as one of the best determinants of tourism development. these gardens are both visited by both domestic as well as foreign tourist throughout the year. some of the famous historical gardens of kashmir valley are: shalimar garden: shalimar garden is the most beautiful of all the gardens of kashmir. it lies 15 km to the east of srinagar and is situated on the shore of dal lake. this beautiful garden was laid out by jahangir in 1619 a.d. for his wife noor jahan. this garden covers an area of approximately 539 m by 182 m and is arranged into four terraces, rising one above the other. the top and fourth terrace of the garden which is called the “adobe of love” was at one point of time reserved for mughal emperors and ladies of the court. there is also a water canal lined with polished stones running through the center of https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 21 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 13-18, 2022 the shalimar bagh. shalimar garden offers an amazing view over the other gardens, lakes and shallow terraces. other attractions of shalimar garden include a number of fountains and innumerable varieties of flowers that bloom in spring and autumn. nishat garden: nishat garden is one of the largest mughal gardens of kashmir. it is located on the bank of dal lake. the garden was designed by asif khan brother of noor jahan in 1633 a.d. within the garden are ruins of some of the building dating back to the mughal period. nishat garden offers a splendid view of the dal lake as well as the snow capped pir panjal mountain range which stands far away to the west of the valley. the garden is arranged in a number of terraces one above another, each representing a different zodiac sign. the terraces are ornamented with a beautiful flower, the cypresses and the mighty chinars. the other attractions of nishat garden include its blooming flowerbeds, trees, fountains, etc. this famous tourist spot also offers shopping facilities to its visitors. cheshmashahi garden: cheshmashahi garden is architecturally the most charming mughal garden, located about 9 kms from the heart of srinagar city. this garden was set up by shah jahan in 1632 a.d on the foot hills of zabarwan mountains. this garden is quite famous for spring of energizing digestive mineral water inside it. this water is credited with medicinal properties and is highly prized. cheshmashahi garden offers a striking view of the scenic dal lake and jawahar lal nehru botanical garden. the garden has a number of terraces and fountains built right through its center. the variety of fruits, flowers and chinar trees that grow in the garden also adds more beauty and charm to cheshmashahi garden. naseem bagh: naseem bagh of srinagar is the oldest of the kashmiri‟s mughal gardens. this garden was built by akbar in 1586 and is situated on the western side of dal lake and offers a splendid view of the dal lake. it is about one kilometer beyond hazratbal. naseem bagh is one of the favorite destinations in tourism itinerary. this garden is dotted with hundreds of magnificent chinar trees which are very much beautiful and attractive. the breezes of the dal lake make it an abode of calm and peaceful (khan, 2007). harwan garden: harwan garden has very much importance from the tourist point of view. this famous beautiful garden is located in the district of srinagar. it is beautiful tourist spot and is very much popular among excursionists. a beautiful canal, fed from a lake just behind the garden passes through its center. the canal is bordered with blossoming flowerbeds and chinar trees. harwan garden does not have the usual terraces, artificial fountains, etc like other gardens of kashmir. it has been deliberately kept devoid of these man-made things. the main attraction of harwan garden which has made it one of the best tourist spot is its natural beauty that is present in plenty. achabal garden: achabal garden is situated in anantnag district at a distance of 58 km from srinagar. it served as the pleasure retreat of the mughal empress noor jahan. achabal garden is adorned with one of the best mughal gardens in india. the beautifully laid out garden in the mughal (persian) style sparkles with a charm and character, which is quite unique to it. this garden is beautifully decorated with chinar trees. the other attractions of achabal garden that make this garden more attractive are its stepped terraces, conventional elegance, ornamental shrubs, gleaming fountains and flowering water (rehman, 2005) tulip garden: tulip garden is one of the most beautiful flower garden located in the foothills of the zabarwan mountain range with an overview of picturesque world famous dal lake. tulip garden is surrounded on three sides by the nishat bagh and chashma shahi mughal gardens of srinagar. it spreads over an area of about 12 hectares. earlier this garden was known as siraj bagh but later its name was renamed as indira gandi tulip garden (naik, 2008). tulip garden is the asia’s largest garden that has around two million multicolored tulips of more than 70 varieties that ornament and add colour to 12 acres of the kashmiri landscape. this garden resembles beautiful carpets that has hundreds of colours and provide a heavenly view and display their beauty to the thousands of visitors. a tulip festival is held annually in kashmir in the month of april since 2007 to promote tourism of kashmir and has been quite successful in attracting people from all over the globe. thousands of tourists from different places come each year to celebrate tulip festival in kashmir. religious determinants kashmir valley is well-known for its cultural uniqueness right from the olden days. it has from times immemorial been the home of gods and godess, renowned mystics, sadhus, pandiths, rishis, peers and faqirs. the numerous temples, shrines, mosques, which have survived the ravages of time and in clemencies of weather are living testimonials to prove the fact. there has been a very unique tradition among the people of kashmir for preaching and worshipping of each other‟s religious and pilgrimage centers. there are well renowned hindu shrines co-existing with the equal famous muslim pilgrimage centers that are in the highest esteem by the people of every faith. kashmir is the abode of holy shrines; this aspect is responsible for attracting a large number of devotees every year, which has ultimately led to a boom in the tourism industry (bhat, 2013). some of the important sacred places that attract tourist are: masjids and shrines jamia masjid of srinagarjamia masjid is located in the core of the old city of srinagar. this mosque was originally built by sultan sikandar in 1400, and enlarged by his son zain-ulabidin. the principal characteristics of the mosque are the four minars (pillars) and eight wooden columns as support. this mosque is visited by thousands of people for the friday prayers. it has also very much https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 22 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 13-18, 2022 importance from the tourist point of view and it plays an important role in increasing the economy of kashmir (naik, 2008). hazratbal shrinehazratbal shrine is the most sacred muslim shrine located on the western shore of dal lake. the architecture of the shrine is a combination of mughals and traditional kashmiris. this shrine has special sanctity as the prophet mohammad‟s (s.a.w) relic that is the „moi-e-muqqadus‟ is preserved in this shrine. this relic was brought thousands of years ago from medina by sayed abdullah in 111 a.h and is usually displayed to the public on certain sacred and holy days (hussain, et, al., 1985). this shrine provides an opportunity for the people to participate in the colourful and exciting fairs that are being held every year. this shrine attracts thousands of devotees from all over the country who pay homage at the shrine (rehman, 2005). khanqah of shah-e-hamdankhanqah of shah-ehamdan shrine-cum-mosque stands on the right bank of jhelum in srinagar city. this historical shrine was built in 1395 by the renowned iraqui mystic, scholar and poet mir sayed hamdani, popularly known as shah hamdan in the kashmir valley. he came from persia in the 13th century and spread islam in kashmir. at khanqah mohalla a festival is held every year on 6th zilhaj (the 12th lunar month) at the anniversary of the great saint in which thousands of people participate. kheer bhavanikheer bhavani spring is the most sacred place for hindus. it is situated at tulmulla in the srinagar district. hindus must abstain from meat on the days when visiting kheer bhavani or the milk goddess. an annual festival is being held here in may or june when a number of devotees visit this place to offer prayers. the beautiful spring of clear water overshadowed by fabulous shady trees and full of sacred fish adds an ethereal beauty to this place (mir, 2008). charar-e-sharief shrinecharar-e-sharief shrine is located in budgam district about 35 kilometres from srinagar. it is 600 years old muslim shrine. this pilgrimage destination is considered one of the most sacred muslim shrines because it entombs leading rishi (saint) of kashmir, popularly known as hazrat sheikh noor-ud-din wali. on the eve of festival his wooden stick, shoes etc are displayed to pilgrims. this sacred place provides an opportunity for tourists to learn about the history of the sacred place of worship (hussain, 2000). amarnath shrineamarnath cave is one the most sacred pilgrimage destination of hindus. it is located at an altitude of 5000 meters inside the glacial gorge in the himalayas about 141 kms from the srinagar and 45 kms from pahalgam tourist destination. the cave is 9 meters deep and is 14 meters high in the middle (raina, 2002). it is one of oldest and the holiest of all hindu shrines and is said to be over 5000 years old. this sacred shrine has a mythological and historical importance as according to the hindu mythology, lord shiva has explained the secret of creation and immortality to his wife, goddess parvati in this cave. the amarnath cave is visited by millions of hindu pilgrims on the full moon day on the month of sawan (july-august) every year. according to a common faith, the self-formed ice lingam in the cave reaches the maximum height on purnima in the month of sawan (july-august), when shiva is supposed to have divulged to parvati the secret of salvation. on this day millions of pilgrims negotiating the most difficult ridges arrive at the holy cave for worship or dharshan of lord shiva. the holy “amarnath cave”, enclosed by the awe-inspiring himalayas, attracts tourists to experience the beauty, apart from offering worship. (naik, 2008). shrine of khwaja moinuddin naqshbandithe shrine of khanqah of khwaja moinuddin naqshbandi is popularly known as naqshband shrine, which is located in the core of srinagar city. it was built by emperor shah jahan. this shrine has an important religious significance because the sacred hair of prophet muhammad was kept at this mosque before moving it to the hazratbal mosque. this sacred place is visited by thousands of muslim devotees every year. ziarat muqam shah wali sahibthe shrine is of famous saint zaiti shah wali, located in village muqam shah in district kupwara. the shrine of zaiti shah, his sister‟s tomb, his brother’s tomb and a jamia masjid are located in the same premises in the village. the shrine is treated equally sacred by hindus, muslims and sikhs. there are so many spiritual and super natural activities attributed to the saint. the shrine is a hot spot of pilgrimage tourism. a threeday mela (festival) is being held in may every year at the shrine in which people are participating in large numbers (mir and ahmed, 2015). makhdum sahib shrinemakhdum sahib shrine mainly a double story mosque lies the srinagar city. this shrine has been built after the name of sufi saint makhdum sahib or hazrat sultan. it is located below the historical hari parbat fort and has been constructed as per the archaeological values and ancient culture of the mughals. this shrine is open all round the year for the visitors. dastgir sahib shrinedastgir sahib shrine is considered as one of the most sacred places of worship and an important historical religious site in kashmir. for many centuries, this shrine has been well known for its communal harmony and syncretism. there are panels in this shrine are colourful and have been carved for wrenching down the aytal kursi. this shrine is open throughout the year for visitors. pilgrims come to this shrine and tie threads or pieces of clothes to the wooden ledge for fulfilling their needs. shrine of shah zain-ud-din shrine of shah zain-uddin is very much famous shrine located at aishmuqam village of anantnag district of j&k. it is about 74 kms away from the srinagar city. inside the shrine there lies a grave of famous sufi saint sheikh zain-ud-din. his anniversary is celebrated on the 13th of baisakhi. not only muslims but people from every faith and from far and wide in the valley participate (hussain, et., al, 1985). besides these there are many other historical shrines which https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 23 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 13-18, 2022 have very much significance among pilgrims and that plays a key role in boosting the tourism sector, such as baba rishi shrine, mosque of saint madin sahib, temple of sarika devi, pandrethan, shrine of syed janbaz wali, pampur shrine etc. historical heritage sites kashmir has a complex cultural and historical fabric. the many historical monuments and places of worship are long-standing evidence of the historical unity of kashmir. there are several temples that are more than 1000 years old as well as ancient mosques that are landmarks of kashmir. numerous gurudwaras and monasteries can be found in many places of valley which are most significant in the development of tourism of kashmir. monuments shankaracharya templeshankaracharya temple is one of the best historical monuments of kashmir which is situated on the top of takht-e-sulaiman hill, to the south-east of srinagar city. the ancient temple is believed to have been built about 2500 years ago by king gopaditya. dating back to 250 bc, it is believed that it was the place where the great philosopher and saint shankaracharya stayed when he visited kashmir ten centuries ago. it was then this place came to be known by his name instead of its former name gopadri. the temple of shankaracharya commands one of the finest views in the whole kashmir. the view of the city with its green, turfed roofs, covered in the spring with iris, tulip and variety of other flowers is without a doubt unique. pari mahalpari mahal is situated in srinagar and the mahal was initially a buddhist monastery, which was later converted into an observatory and a school of astrology by dara shikoh, the eldest son of mughal emperor shah jahan. he devoted the place to his sufi teacher mulla shah. it is enriched with a number of charming fountains. the five storey building is almost ruined, but the remnants are still maintained by the government. the picture sight of dal lake and illuminative images of pari mahal at night is an important tourist attraction. hari parbat fortthe hari parbat hill crowned by the pathan fort, which is able to be seen from every part of the city, has from time immemorial been a place of great sanctity in kashmir. it is an ancient mughal fort which is situated to the western side of the dal lake. the surrounding walls of the fort were built by mughal emperor akbar in 1590. but the present fort was built in 1808 under the reign of shuja shah durrani and atta muhammad khan, an afghan governor. the presence of the muslim shrine makhdoom sahib, hindu temple, sikh shrine chatti padshahi and the chakreshwari in the vicinity add to the significance of the fort. tomb of zain-ul-abidin’s mothertomb of zainul-abidin‟s mother is located in the area of sri ranbir ganj of old city srinagar. this monument has very much importance because it is that historical monument which is unlike and unparallel from others. however, it is attractive in a couple of ways, the first being in the structural design of the main mausoleum itself, and second in the evidence of it having being built at the site of an earlier hindu temple. this ancient monument was built by zain-ul-abidin (a.d. 1421-1472) in the memory of his beloved mother. the main characteristics of this tomb are the glazed and moulded blue bricks, which are studded at intervals in the exterior walls, the semicircular brick projections, on the drum of the main dome. awantipora templesthe famous awantipora temples are believed to have been built in honour of god mahadev by awanti varma. these temples are located in awantipora twenty-nine kilometers away from srinagar. the temples although in ruins, are of great archaeological importance. king awantivarman founded the city in the 9th century. there are two main temples, one of which is shiva-avantishvara, which is larger and marked by massive walls. the sculptured relief is principally found on the walls of the entrance and the flank walls of the stairs depict men and women in the act of drinking, lovemaking and other such merriments. the base is either a plain square block with the upper edge (rehman, 2005). sri pratap singh museumsri pratap singh museum has a historical well as archaeological importance, as it was the one-time summer place of the past kings of the princely state of kashmir. sri pratap singh museum was established in 1898. the main characteristics of this museum are that it houses some of the exceptional terracotta heads of 3rd century that were collected from the buddhist place in ushkur baramulla of kashmir. it has many moulded terracotta plaques dating back to 4th and 5th century from harwan (mir and ahmed, 2015). tomb of madin sahibtomb of madin sahib is a unique tomb and is has historical importance from the very beginning. this historical monument was built in the memory of saint madin sahib and the inscription on the lintel of the entrance of the tomb records the date of its erection as a.h 1483 in the regin of zain-ul-abidin. this tomb lies towards the north side of madin sahib mosque in zadibal area of srinagar city of kashmir. it has the 15th century kashmiri architectural style with the peripheral walls decorated with tiles (bhat, 2014). the main objective of study is to analyze the correlation between ecotourism and natural conservation based on primary data collected from tourists and conservation agencies. keeping in mind the mentioned objectives, a structured questionnaire was developed and used as an instrument to gauge the factors measuring ecotourism and natural conservation. for this purpose factor analysis was done to extract various constructs. in the present study spearman’s and pearson correlation is used to study the correlation between ecotourism and natural conservation with regard to the perception of tourists and conservation agencies. as shown in the table above, it is observed that the gender composition of the tourists was nearly even, male (52%) and female (48%). the large number of the respondents were tourists (92.6%) https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 24 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 13-18, 2022 table 1.6 demographic profile of respondents demographics category frequency percent gender male 210 52 female 198 48 total 408 100 type tourist 378 92.6 conservation agency 30 7.4 total 408 100 nationality indian 366 89.70 foreigner 42 10.29 total 408 100 age 20 – 39 342 83.8 40-59 62 15.2 60-79 4 1 total 408 100 education primary school 11 2.6 high school 28 6.8 college 72 17.64 university 297 72.8 total 408 100 income below rs. 50000 152 37.25 rs. 50000 – 99999 168 41.17 rs. 100000 -149999 48 11.76 rs. 150000199999 40 9.80 total 408 100 followed by conservation agency (7.4%). more than half of the respondents were indian (89.70%) and the rest (10.29%) were foreigners. majority of the respondents (83.8%) were of the age group of 20-39 years while only 1% of the respondents were above 59 years of age. most of the respondents had an education till university level (72.8%) followed by the college level (17.64%), only a handful had been to primary school (2.6%). the majority of the respondents had an income between rs. 50000 – 99999 below (41.17%). in the current study, factor analysis was carried on two data sets i.e. ecotourism and natural conservation to reduce the variables and to determine the underlying factors of two constructs. moreover, it explained the dimensions associated with data variability. measures of ecotourism 20 items (20 questions in questionnaire) of ecotourism were explored retained by pilot study statistics. all the preliminary number of items (20) was subjected to factor analysis, which later got reduced to 18 items and were retained for attaining reliable results. after initial refinement and purification, 5 factors were produced by pca. comprehensive process of factor analysis on ecotourism the process of factor analysis conducted has been explained below: table 1.7 kmo and bartlett's test (against items that meas-ure ecotourism) kaiser-meyer-olkin measure of sampling adequacy 0.594 bartlett's test of sphericity approx. chi-square 1952.511 df 191 sig. 0 from the above table it can be seen that the dataset understudy is suitable for exploratory factor analysis, as the kmo value is 0.594. the dataset indicates that the sample is adequate and we may proceed with the factor analysis. for factor analysis to be recommended suitable, the bartlett’s test of sphericity must be less than 0.05. bartlett’s test of sphericity in the table above also indicates that our results are statistically significant. bartlett’s test of sphericity relates to the significance of the study and thereby shows the validity and suitability of the responses collected to the problem being addressed through study. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 25 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 13-18, 2022 therefore, factor analysis can be used for the dataset. principal component analysis (pca) has been used as extraction method. pca is an extraction procedure that tries to reduce the number of variables to a smaller set of variables. with the help of this method unique results may be determined. thus, the original data may be reconstructed from the result. as this method takes the total variation among the variables, therefore, the solution generated will include as many factors as there are variables although it is unlikely that they will meet all the criteria for retention. in other words, the variables which have over 30% extracting are included to study further. pca uses an orthogonal transformation to convert a set of observations of possibly correlated variables into a set of values of linearly uncorrelated variables called principal components that are interpreted as dimensions. since there is no single variable in the table above that is less than 30%, all the items will be considered for making the factors. as per the methodology of pca, the total factors that will be made are 5 as there are five eigen values greater than 1 and those 5 factors will comprise of 51.818% of the total information. another important aspect that needs mention is the rotated component matrix. while deciding how many factors one would analyze is whether a variable might relate to more than one factor. rotation maximizes high item loadings and minimizes low item loadings, thereby producing a more interpretable and simplified solution. the rotated component matrix is one which helps to inspect the extracted factors from different table 1.8 communalities (ecotourism) initial extraction ecet4 1 0.554 ecet5 1 0.563 ecet6 1 0.476 ecet7 1 0.411 ecet8 1 0.534 ecet10 1 0.383 ecet11 1 0.675 ecet12 1 0.519 ecet13 1 0.563 ecet14 1 0.694 ecet16 1 0.608 ecet17 1 0.415 ecet18 1 0.531 ecet21 1 0.391 ecet22 1 0.623 ecet23 1 0.489 ecet24 1 0.307 ecet46 1 0.411 ecet48 1 0.552 ecet57 1 0.655 extraction method: principal component analysis table 1.9 total variance explained (ecotourism) component initial eigen values extraction sums of squared loadings rotation sums of squared loadings total % of variance cumulative % total % of vari-ance cumulative % total % of variance cumu-lative % 1 3.757 18.784 18.784 3.757 18.784 18.784 2.297 11.486 11.486 2 1.923 9.614 28.397 1.923 9.614 28.397 2.157 10.787 22.273 3 1.785 8.926 37.323 1.785 8.926 37.323 2.125 10.626 32.899 4 1.546 7.729 45.052 1.546 7.729 45.052 1.916 9.581 42.48 5 1.353 6.766 51.818 1.353 6.766 51.818 1.867 9.337 51.818 6 19 0.29 1.448 98.751 0.29 1.448 98.751 20 0.25 1.249 100 0.25 1.249 100 angle to see if the inference from all of them points to one output. on the basis of this matrix, the factors are constructed; that is, a specific variable gets a place in a particular factor. in the present study pca with varimax rotation is used. varimax is an orthogonal rotation that from the perspective of individual subjects measured on the variables, seeks a basis that most economically represents each individual—that is, each individual can be well described by a linear combination of only a dimensions. varimax is so called because it maximizes the sum of the variances of the squared loadings (squared correlations between variables and dimensions). principal component analysis with varimax rotation was used to factor the belief statements of the respondents. this analysis yielded five factors with eigen values greater than 1. the factors on the basis of rotated component matrix by using varimax with kaiser normalization method are: factor1: ecet5, ecet6, ecet46, ecet57 explained 18.784% of the total variance. factor2: ecet8, ecet17, ecet21, ecet22 explained 9.614 % of the total variance. factor3: ecet10, ecet11, ecet12, ecet23 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 26 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 13-18, 2022 table 1.10 rotated component matrix (ecotourism) components 1 2 3 4 5 ecet5 0.739 ecet57 0.685 0.346 ecet6 0.567 ecet46 0.487 ecet22 0.684 0.336 ecet8 0.666 ecet17 0.607 ecet21 0.488 0.334 ecet48 0.429 0.486 ecet13 0.345 0.409 0.384 -0.335 ecet11 0.795 ecet23 0.627 ecet12 0.555 ecet10 0.489 ecet14 0.817 ecet7 0.472 ecet24 0.447 ecet4 0.729 ecet16 0.413 0.649 ecet18 0.472 0.504 extraction method: principal component analysis. rotation method: varimax with kaiser normalization a. rotation converged in 12 iterations explained 8.926% of the total variance. factor4: ecet7, ecet14, ecet24 explained 7.729% of the total variance. factor5: ecet4, ecet16, ecet18 explained 6.766% of the total variance. measures of natural conservation initially it was performed on all 29 items that were explored and retained by pilot study. but based on the initial exploratory results, preliminary number of items (29) was further reduced to 21 for attaining reliable results. after initial refinement and purification, only 5 factors were produced by principal component analysis. comprehensive process of factor analysis on natural conservation the process of factor analysis conducted by the researcher has been explained below from the above table it can be seen that the dataset understudy is suitable for exploratory factor analysis, as the kmo value is 0.817. the dataset indicates that the sample is adequate and we may proceed with the factor analysis. this also gets satisfied as the bartlett’s test of sphericity in the table above indicates that our results are statistically significant. table 2.1 kmo and bartlett’s test (against items that measure ecotourism) kaiser-meyer-olkin measure of sampling adequacy 0.817 bartlett’s test of sphericity approx. chi-square 5816.666 df 406 sig. 0 in case of factor analysis of natural conservation principal component analysis (pca) has been used as extraction method. with the help of this method unique results were determined. the variables which were extracted over 30% were included to study further. the below table indicates that all the variables may be considered for constructing factors because all extractions are over 30%. table 2.2 communalities (natural conservation) initial extraction ecet15 1 0.514 ecet20 1 0.635 ecet26 1 0.476 ecet27 1 0.673 ecet28 1 0.557 ecet29 1 0.407 ecet30 1 0.593 ecet31 1 0.507 ecet32 1 0.648 ecet33 1 0.678 ecet34 1 0.491 ecet35 1 0.636 ecet36 1 0.66 ecet37 1 0.393 ecet38 1 0.593 ecet39 1 0.654 ecet41 1 0.449 ecet42 1 0.572 ecet43 1 0.637 ecet44 1 0.58 ecet47 1 0.511 ecet50 1 0.484 ecet51 1 0.492 ecet52 1 0.505 ecet53 1 0.613 ecet54 1 0.387 ecet58 1 0.667 ecet59 1 0.639 ecet60 1 0.526 extraction method: principal component analysis https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 27 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 13-18, 2022 total variance explained (natural conservation) since there are five eigen values which are greater than one in table, this indicates that one may construct five factors by using pca approach of extraction. the constructed five factors explained 56.22% of the variations as a total. on the basis of this matrix, the factors were constructed; that is, a specific variable was placed in a particular factor. in the present study pca with varimax rotation was used. table 2.3 total variance explained (ecotourism) component initial eigen values extraction sums of squared loadings rotation sums of squared loadings total % of variance cumulative % total % of vari-ance cumulative % total % of vari-ance cumulative % 1 9.015 31.086 31.086 9.015 31.086 31.086 5.278 18.199 18.199 2 2.341 8.072 39.157 2.341 8.072 39.157 3.231 11.142 29.341 3 1.843 6.356 45.514 1.843 6.356 45.514 2.931 10.106 39.447 4 1.642 5.663 51.177 1.642 5.663 51.177 2.684 9.255 48.703 5 1.327 4.576 55.753 1.327 4.576 55.753 2.045 7.05 55.753 -20 table 2.4 rotated component matrix (natural conservation) components 1 2 3 4 5 ecet32 0.723 ecet27 0.698 0.301 ecet15 0.682 ecet33 0.673 0.301 0.364 ecet20 0.662 -0.404 ecet28 0.651 ecet39 0.639 0.305 0.37 ecet26 0.609 ecet44 0.547 0.373 0.303 ecet42 0.541 0.34 ecet29 0.522 ecet53 0.709 ecet41 0.614 ecet36 0.6 0.53 ecet52 0.596 ecet51 0.533 0.3 ecet38 0.706 ecet30 0.652 ecet31 0.645 ecet60 0.506 0.396 ecet59 0.501 0.464 -0.341 ecet47 0.434 0.445 ecet58 0.79 ecet50 0.322 0.522 ecet43 0.378 0.493 0.497 ecet37 0.452 ecet54 0.327 0.348 ecet35 0.302 0.665 ecet34 0.349 0.561 extraction method: principal component analysis. rotation method: varimax with kaiser normalization a. rotation converged in 10 iterations the rotated component matrix helps us to construct factors as given bellow. factor1: ecet15, ecet20, ecet26, ecet27, ecet28, ecet29, ecet32, ecet33, ecet39 factor2: ecet41, ecet51, ecet52, ecet53 factor3: ecet37, ecet50, ecet58 factor4: ecet30, ecet31, ecet38 factor5: ecet34, ecet35 reliability analysis the purpose of a reliability analysis is to determine how well a set of items, i.e., observed variables, go together into a single scale. reliability analysis also reveals how strongly each item in the scale is associated with the overall scale. this is called item-total correlations. reliability analysis is usually based on reliability coefficient which is named as cronbach’s alpha. this coefficient has a maximum value of 1.0. generally speaking, when a collection of items (i.e., a scale) has a cronbach’s alpha of .70 or larger; the scale is considered to be reliable. the value of this measure shows the percentage of reliability of the data. it has been proposed that cronbach’s measure α can be viewed as the expected correlation of several tests that measure the same construct. by using this definition, it is implicitly assumed that the average correlation of a set of items is an accurate estimate of the average correlation of all items that pertain to one construct. in the current study, the researcher has run a separate reliability analysis for the items related to ecotourism and a separate reliability analysis for the items measuring natural conservation. reliability analysis (for items that measure ecotourism) https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 28 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 13-18, 2022 the dataset under study comprises of the reliability analysis of the items that measure “ecotourism” and the same have been shown below. throughout the analysis the researcher bears in mind that for a scale to be considered sufficiently reliable, the cronbach’s measure α must be greater than 0.70. scale and reliability statistics (against items that measure ecotourism) table 2.5 no. of items mean variance std. deviation 20 38.64 45.393 6.737 the mean value of 20 items is 38.64 with 6.737 average distances from mean. reliability coefficient (against items that measure ecotourism) table 2.6 total cas-es no. of valid cases no. of exclude cases no. of items cronbach’s alpha (α) 408 364 44 20 0.749 (100%) -89.20% -10.80% as α = 74.9 %, one may conclude that the study (data set) is reliable. itemtotal statistics (ecotourism) table 2.7 scale mean if item deleted scale variance if item deleted corrected item total correlation cronbach's alpha if item deleted ecet4 36.51 42.627 0.167 0.751 ecet5 36.85 42.054 0.325 0.738 ecet6 36.92 41.954 0.33 0.738 ecet7 36.59 42.884 0.20 0.747 ecet8 36.2 41.077 0.244 0.747 ecet10 36.83 41.899 0.348 0.737 ecet11 36.99 41.911 0.301 0.74 ecet12 36.87 41.459 0.366 0.735 ecet13 36.67 41.161 0.342 0.737 ecet14 37.09 42.737 0.221 0.745 ecet16 36.44 39.96 0.356 0.735 ecet17 36.61 42.173 0.354 0.737 ecet18 36.68 42.143 0.308 0.739 ecet21 36.42 41.008 0.307 0.74 ecet22 36.26 38.129 0.497 0.721 ecet23 37.02 41.917 0.374 0.736 ecet24 36.37 41.075 0.231 0.748 ecet46 36.77 41.391 0.339 0.737 ecet48 36.87 40.027 0.416 0.73 ecet57 37.15 42.58 0.306 0.74 (ecet... is the item code of the statements used in questionnaire. please refer to annexure.) table shows the correlation between each item and a scale score that excludes that item (uses all the other items, but not that one). the maximum itemtotal correlation is of ecet22 which is 0.497 and minimum item-total correlation is of ecet4 which is 0.167. one may look for items that, if deleted, will lead to substantial increase in the scale of α. reliability analysis (for items that measure natural conservation) the dataset under study comprises of the reliability analysis of the items that measure “natural conservation” and the same have been shown below. throughout the analysis the researcher bears in mind that for a scale to be considered sufficiently reliable, the cronbach’s measure α must be greater than 0.70. scale statistics (against that measure natural conservation) https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 29 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 13-18, 2022 table 2.8 no. of items mean variance std. deviation 29 47.81 137.121 11.71 the mean value of 29 items is 47.81 with of 11.710 average distances from mean. reliability coefficient (against that measure natural conservation) table 2.9 total cases no. of valid cases no. of exclude cases no. of items cronbach’s alpha (α) 408 386 22 29 0.92 (-100%) -94.60% -5.40% as α = 92 %, one may conclude that the under study data set is reliable. item-total statistics (natural conservation) table 2.10 scale mean if item deleted scale variance if item deleted corrected item total correlation cronbach's alpha if item deleted ecet15 46.17 127.889 0.511 0.918 ecet20 46.41 131.587 0.378 0.919 ecet26 46.12 126.97 0.472 0.918 ecet27 46.34 128.568 0.588 0.917 ecet28 46.21 128.238 0.604 0.916 ecet29 46.48 130.782 0.496 0.918 ecet30 46.16 126.965 0.517 0.918 ecet31 46.19 128.267 0.49 0.918 ecet32 46.33 127.577 0.672 0.916 ecet33 46.24 127.287 0.602 0.916 ecet34 46.16 129.653 0.445 0.918 ecet35 46.08 128.301 0.503 0.918 ecet36 46.02 129.916 0.389 0.919 ecet37 46.31 130.611 0.467 0.918 ecet38 46.08 125.739 0.495 0.918 ecet39 46.39 126.853 0.663 0.916 ecet41 45.84 128.997 0.329 0.922 ecet42 46.1 124.954 0.709 0.915 ecet43 46.1 126.416 0.622 0.916 ecet44 46.28 125.819 0.666 0.915 ecet47 46.01 129.333 0.468 0.918 ecet50 46.07 127.453 0.606 0.916 (ecet... is the item code of the statements used in questionnaire. please refer to annexure) table shows the correlation between each item and a scale score that excludes that item (uses all the other items, but not that one). the maximum item-total correlation is of ecet42 which is 0.709 and minimum item-total correlation is of ecet41 which is 0.329. all other items also have positively correlation. one may look for items that, if deleted, will lead to a substantial increase in the scale a. respondents: tourist only the below dataset has been achieved after taking into consideration the responses of the tourists group only. the rotated component matrix, helped in constructing new factors as given below: table 2.11 ecotourism new variables (respondents: tourist only) factor-1: creating awareness and local involvement. the variable ―creating awareness and local involvement is the mean of the items ecet5, ecet6, ecet46 and ecet57 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 30 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 13-18, 2022 factor-2: minimizing negative impact on environment factor -2: the variable ―minimizing negative impact on environment is the mean of the items ecet8, ecet17, ecet21 and ecet22 factor-3: mix of tourism and natural conservation factor -3: the variable ― mix of tourism and natural conservation is the mean of the items ecet10, ecet11, ecet12 and ecet23 factor-4: upliftment of local communities factor – 4: the variable ―upliftment of local communities is the mean of the items ecet7, ecet14 and ecet24 factor-5: responsible travel to natural areas factor – 5: the variable ―responsible travel to natural areas is the mean of the items ecet4, ecet16 and ecet18 major factor: ecotourism (tourist) the variable ―ecotourism (tourist) is the mean of all the above new variables of ecotourism. (i.e. mean of factor 1, 2 3, 4 & 5) natural conservation new variables (respondents: tourist only) factor-1: efficient planning and proper waste disposal the variable ―efficient planning and proper waste disposal is mean of ecet15, ecet20,ecet26, ecet27, ecet28, ecet29, ecet32, ecet33 and ecet39 factor-2: green building standards and efficient use of resources the variable ―green building standards and efficient use of resources is mean of ecet41, ecet51, ecet52 and ecet53 factor-3: creating awareness and proper site inspection the variable ―creating awareness and proper site inspection is mean of ecet37, ecet50 and ecet58 factor-4: ambient air quality water quality and noise quality the variable ―ambient air quality water quality and noise quality is mean of ecet30, ecet31 and ecet38 factor-5: recycling the variable ―recycling is mean of ecet34 and ecet35 major factor: natural conservation (tourist) the variable ― conservation (tourist) is the mean of all new variables of natural conservation. (i.e. mean of factor 1, 2 3, 4 & 5) respondents: conservation agency only the below dataset has been achieved after taking into consideration the responses of the tourists group only. the rotated component matrix, helped in constructing new factors as given below: table 3.1 ecotourism new variables (respondents: conservation agencies only) factor-1: creating awareness and local involvement the variable ―creating awareness and local involvement is the mean of the items ecet5, ecet6, ecet46 and ecet57 factor-2: minimizing negative impact on environment factor-2: the variable ―minimizing negative impact on environment is the mean of the items ecet8, ecet17, ecet21 and ecet22 factor-3: mix of tourism and natural conservation factor -3: the variable ―mix of tourism and natural conservation is the mean of the items ecet10, ecet11, ecet12 and ecet23 factor-4: upliftment of local communities factor – 4: the variable ―upliftment of local communities is the mean of the items ecet7, ecet14 and ecet24 factor-5:responsible travel to natural areas factor – 5: the variable ―responsible travel to natural areas is the mean of the items ecet4, ecet16 and ecet18 major factor: ecotourism (conservation agencies) the variable ―ecotourism (conservation agencies) is the mean of all the above new variables of ecotourism. (i.e. mean of factor 1, 2 3, 4 & 5) natural conservation new variables (respondents: conservative agencies only) factor-1: efficient planning and proper waste disposal the variable ―efficient planning and proper waste disposal is mean of ecet15, ecet20, ecet26, ecet27, ecet28, ecet29, ecet32, ecet33 and ecet39 factor-2: green building standards and efficient use of resources the variable ―green building standards and efficient use of resources is mean of ecet41, ecet51, ecet52 and ecet53 factor-3: creating awareness and proper site inspection the variable ―creating awareness and proper site inspection is mean of ecet37, ecet50 and ecet58 factor-4: ambient air quality water quality and noise quality the variable ―ambient air quality water quality and noise quality is mean of ecet30, ecet31 and ecet38 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 31 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 13-18, 2022 factor-5: recycling the variable ―recycling is mean of ecet34 and ecet35 major factor: natural conservation (conservation agencies) the variable ―natural conservation (c. agencies) is mean of all new variables of natural conservation. (i.e. mean of factor 1, 2 3, 4 & 5) normality distribution assessing normality of the data is paramount for the reason that it would determine the application of various statistical measures. in order to assess normality of variables the shapiro-wilk and kolmogorov-smirnov tests are applied. both these tests are suitable for numerical continuous or quasi-continuous variables. significance level is set at α=5%. table 3.2 h0: data is normally distributed h1: data is not normally distributed tests of normality (for tourists) table 3.3 total variance explained (ecotourism) kolmogorov – smirnovaa shapiro-wilk statistic df sig. statistic df sig. ecotourism 0.061 378 0.002 0.985 378 0.001 natural conservation 0.08 378 0 0.932 378 0 a. lilliefors significance correction as the test statistics of both variables assessed by both tests drive p-value below the significance level, it can be concluded that data are not normally distributed. h0 is rejected for both variables. perception of conservation agencies tests of normality (for tourists table 3.4 total variance explained (ecotourism) kolmogorov – smirnovaa shapiro-wilk statistic df sig. statistic df sig. ecotourism 0.15 30 0.083 0.958 30 0.274 natural conservation 0.142 30 0.127 0.936 30 0.072 a. lilliefors significance correction as the test statistics of both variables assessed by both tests drive p-value above the significance level, it can be concluded that data is normally distributed. h0 is retained for both variables. thus, it may conclude that there is a positive relationship between ecotourism and natural conservation with regard to the perception of tourists arriving in kashmir. there is also a positive relationship between ecotourism and natural conservation with regard to the perception of conservation agencies operating in kashmir. the ecotourism in kashmir, where nature and culture is plentiful and to gain a greater understanding of the relationship between conservation and ecotourism, while at the same time adding to existing research and helping develop ecotourism in kashmir. the study is conducted to determine the relationship of ecotourism and natural conservation with regards to the perceptions of tourists and conservation agencies. a total of 408 respondents were selected for the study, out of which 30 were local conservation agencies composed of government officials, ngos and travel firms and 370 were tourists. a questionnaire is distributed measuring eco-tourism and natural conservation and the level of perception of the respondents to each, then; responses were tabulated, tested for normality and analyzed for significant results. the correlation between ecotourism and natural conservation is examined with regards to the perceptions of tourists and conservation agencies alike. data shows that there is a significant and positive relationship between eco-tourism and natural conservation as perceived both by tourists and conservation agencies. also it was found that there is no significant difference between the perception of tourists and conservation agencies with regard to the relationship between ecotourism and natural conservation. this indicates a high level of awareness of the link between these two concepts as inextricable and necessary in any touristic activity. implications for on the conduction of tourism in kashmir highlights a stronger local tourism policy and framework that is responsive to environmental concerns as well as strengthening awareness of both locals and tourists. lastly, doing so has allowed us to suggest ways to strengthen the development of ecotourism in kashmir. conclusion various tendencies also occur in the understanding of ecotourism upon changing living conditions. unless, attention is paid now for developing tourism in ecologically sustainable manner and maintaining environmental integrity, it may cause irreparable damage. to encourage https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 32 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 13-18, 2022 community support for conservation and the consequent protection of natural resources, a direct connection needs to be ascertained between conservation, ecotourism and the benefits that accrue to the community from it, whether collective or individual. the study work starts with the evolution of ecotourism that provides the background information and definition of ecotourism. the main body of the study is an attempt to identify the unexplored tourist spots. it describes in detail the important unexplored ecotourism spots. references annual report: ministry of tourism, goi, 2017-18 ahmad, ii (2014), kashmir heritage tourism, gulshan books, srinagar kashmir bhat, b. a (2014). exploring the socio-economic coordinates of tourism: a case of kashmir. journal of business & economic policy, 1(1), 10-13. bhat, g. r; and khan, b.a (2014). impact of militancy on tourism of kashmir, indian stream research journal, 4(2), 4. bhat, r. a. (2014). impact of tourism on the socioeconomic development in kashmir. an unpublished m.a, dissertation, department of geography, a.m.u, aligarh, 26-34. bhat, z. a. (2013). tourism indusrty and pilgrimage tourism in j&k, prospects and challenges, international monthly refereed journal of research in management and technology, 2, 105-106 bakshi, s. r. (1997). kashmir: tourism, monuments and folklore. sarup and sons, new delhi, 120. bjork, p. (2000), ―ecotourism from a conceptual perspective, an extended definition of a unique tourism form, international journal of tourism research, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 189-202 ceballos-lascurain, h. (1993). ecotourism as a worldwide phenomenon. in: k. lindberg, & d. hawkins (eds.), ecotourism: a guide for planners and managers (pp. 12—14). north bennington: the ecotourism society. dar, h (2014). the potential of tourism in border destinations: a study of jammu and kashmir. african journal of hospitality, tourism and leisure, 4(2), 1-2. economic survey-, directorate of economics & statistics, j&k. 2014-15 final report of 20 years perspective plan for sustainable development of tourism for j & k. (2005). final report prepared by government of jammu and kashmir, ecotourism development plan for j&k, department of wildlife preservation, 2010 gauthier, d. (1993), sustainable development, tourism and wildlife, journal of tourism and sustainable development, pp. 97-109 hussain, m. (2005). geography of jammu and kashmir. new delhi: rajesh publications incredible india. ecotourism. retrieved from http://www. incredibleindia.org/ travel/eco-tourism. hussain, m (2000). systematic geography of jammu and kashmir, rawat publications jaipur and new delhi, 224 john r. watkin (2002), the evolution of ecotourism in east africa: from an idea to an industry summary of the proceedings of the east african regional conference on ecotourism organized by the african conservation centre, published by the international institute for environment and development (iied). khaki, a., and nengroo, a. h. (2016). economic impact of tourism in jammu and kashmir. indian journal of economics and development, 4(3), 2. khan bilal (2012), jammu and kashmir economy, axis books ltd, new delhi khan, b. a. (2013). tourism in kashmir: problems and prospects. international journal of innovative research and development, 2(4), 558-559. khan, r. (2007). travels to paradise on earth: kashmir. star publications, srinagar, kashmir, 58-59. malik, m. (2016). effects of social and cultural values in hospitality and tourism industry. international journal of all research education and scientific methods, 4(9), 6870. malik, m. i and bhat m. s. (2013). identification of tourist potential regions for balanced tourism development in pahalgam tourist destination of kashmir valley, international journal of scientific research, 2(4), 189. mir, a. h and ahmed, a (2015). prospects of ecotourism in bangus valley, international journal of scientific research and development, 3(1), 776-777 mir, h. a. (2014). impact of tourism industry on economic development of jammu and kashmir. international journal of scientific & engineering research, 5(6), 1-5. mir, m. s (2013). geographical analysis of tourism in kashmir region, an unpublished p.hd thesis, department of geography, university of delhi, 55-126. naik, a. b (2008). tourism potential in ecological zones and future prospects of tourism in kashmir. an unpublished p.hd thesis, department of geography, aligarh muslim university, 101-120. newspaper: the hindustan times, march 23, 2009 nengroo and bhat g. h, (2015). economic impact of tourism in jammu and kashmir, european journal of hospitality and tourism research, 4(1), 21. parvaiz, a. (2013), kashmir’s green shoots of ecotourism. retrieved from https://www.thethirdpole. net/2013/07/05/kashmirs-g reen-shoots-ofecotourism/ raina, a. n. (2002). geography of j&k. radha krishan anand & company, pacca danga, jammu, 16-37. raina, a. n. (2002). geography of jammu & kashmir state. radha krishan anand & co., pacca danga, jammu, 9. rehman, s. a. (2005). the beautiful india: jammu and kashmir. reference press, new delhi, 472. richard obour, paul ankomah and trent larson (2017), ecotourism potential in alleviating rural poverty: the case of kakum national park in ghana, athens journal of tourism volume 4, issue 4 – pages 263-282 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 33 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 1(1) 13-18, 2022 report: world tourism organization, 2002 report: ecotourism development plan for jammu and kashmir, 2015 report: directorate of tourism kashmir, govt. of j&k report: additional chief executive officer (aceo) of shri amarnathji shrine board, 2018 tsaur, s. h., lin, y. c., & lin, j. h. (2006). evaluating ecotourism sustainability from the integrated perspective of resource, community and tourism. tourism management, 27(4), 640-653 tiper t. (2013), role of ecotourism in sustainable development, www.doi.org wearing, s., & neil, j. (2009). ecotourism: impacts and potentials. oxford: butterworth-heinemann, p 5-6. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee pa ge 1 pa ge 79 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) achieving carbon-neutral construction: global trends and bangladesh’s sustainable future kalyan kumar mallick1, jumman sani1*, prodip krishna sadhukhan2, most. arzu banu3, ramani ranjan shikder4 tapan kumar biswas1 volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v4i1.4167 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: december 03, 2024 accepted: january 07, 2025 published: april 22, 2025 the construction industry is a major contributor to climate change, with buildings accounting for over 40% of worldwide co2 emissions. in rising countries like bangladesh, achieving carbon-neutral buildings has emerged as a crucial goal in global sustainability initiatives. bangladesh has particular difficulties in striking a balance between the requirement for environmental sustainability and its fast urbanization and economic growth. although there are green building technologies and practices available, high costs, restricted access to green financing, a lack of local knowledge, and a lack of government support are preventing carbon-neutral construction from being widely adopted. these obstacles hamper the shift to more energy-efficient and sustainable building techniques.. this paper examines worldwide developments in carbon-neutral building techniques as well as the unique obstacles bangladesh must overcome to use them. it looks at the particular challenges faced by bangladesh, such as budgetary limitations, technology deficiencies, and ineffective policies. the study provides strategic recommendations, including more funding for green infrastructure, easier access to green financing, and greater public-private cooperation, by examining successful green building projects in other nations. it highlights how crucial government incentives and policy changes are to promoting environmentally friendly building methods. in the end, this study offers a solution for bangladesh to create a carbon-neutral building industry, supporting international sustainability objectives and meeting the country’s housing demands and fast urbanization. keywords bangladesh, carbon-neutral, fast urbanization, green building, green financing, green financing 1 faculty of business administration, university of development alternative (uoda), bangladesh 2 department of pharmacy, university of development alternative (uoda), bangladesh 3 department of biotechnology, university of development alternative (uoda), bangladesh 4 department of mathematics, university of development alternative (uoda), bangladesh * corresponding author’s e-mail: jumman.sani@gmail.com introduction buildings are responsible for around 40% of global co₂ emissions, making the construction industry a major contributor to carbon emissions (unep, 2022). with an emphasis on sustainable practices including energy-efficient materials, renewable energy, and carboncapturing technologies, achieving carbon-neutral building has emerged as a crucial objective in the fight against climate change. however, obstacles include financial, technological, and policy-related difficulties plague emerging countries. bangladesh faces particular difficulties in striking a balance between environmental sustainability and economic growth because of its fast urbanization and susceptibility to climate change. the broad adoption of carbon-neutral construction is hindered by high costs, insufficient green funding, and a lack of qualified labor, despite advancements in the adoption of green building standards such as leed certification and energy-efficient norms. this paper explores at global trends in carbonneutral building as well as the unique opportunities and constraints faced by bangladesh. it provides a path for a sustainable and carbon-neutral building sector in bangladesh by highlighting approaches and solutions to overcome obstacles and referencing both domestic and successful global examples. literature review the united nations environment programme (unep, 2022) reports that 39% of global co₂ emissions in 2022 came from the building sector which makes it one of the biggest contributors to carbon emissions worldwide. this has sparked a boom in studies on carbon-neutral and sustainable building, especially in developing nations where implementing green building techniques is frequently more difficult. numerous scholarly works highlight the technological, cultural, policy, and economic obstacles that hinder the shift to low-carbon building. the high initial cost of implementing sustainable materials and technology is one of the major issues that has been identified globally. for developers in lowincome countries, green materials like cross-laminated lumber, low-carbon cement, and energy-efficient windows are economically unaffordable because they are frequently 30–40% more expensive than conventional materials (hossain & ahmed, 2022). another significant limitation is the absence of reasonably priced financing options. a significant financial burden for developing nations like bangladesh, the building industry is expected to need $5 trillion a year by 2030 to achieve carbonneutral targets, according to the world economic forum (2022). according to studies by strøm (2021) and goh pa ge 80 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 79-85, 2025 and shafique (2022), only 15% of necessary investments in nations like bangladesh come from green finance sources, such as green bonds and concessional loans (bangladesh climate resilience plan, 2023). in nations with tight budgets, the adoption of sustainable building methods is slowed down by the restricted availability of green funding, which further exacerbates economic obstacles. an additional significant barrier, particularly in lowand middle-income nations, is technological. even though wealthy nations like the us and singapore have made great strides in carbon-neutral technology, such as energy-efficient machinery and carbon capture systems, developing countries frequently find it difficult to obtain and afford these innovations (chassagnon, 2023). bangladesh, for example, uses a lot of old building materials and techniques, like portland cement and burnt clay bricks, which are high in carbon and do not meet current sustainable building requirements (ipcc, 2023). furthermore, a major portion of sophisticated construction technologies, including energy-efficient hvac systems, modular construction, and sustainable building materials, are imported, which raises project costs because of tariffs, logistical difficulties, and maintenance requirements (xie & tan, 2022). only a small percentage of experts in bangladesh are trained in sustainable building technology, indicating a serious lack of local competence. the broad use of carbonneutral building practices is hampered by a shortage of trained workers in fields like advanced material science and renewable energy integration (hossain & sultana, 2022; uddin & alam, 2023). underdeveloped supply chains for sustainable materials, which are still scarce and frequently not produced locally, worsen this technical divide and cause additional expenses and delays for building projects (rahman & sayeed, 2022). green building policies are sometimes disjointed and uneven, especially in developing nations. many countries, including bangladesh, lack a comprehensive, legally binding framework for encouraging sustainable building practices, even though some have adopted green building codes and certification programs like leed (leadership in energy and environmental design) (chattopadhyay & rahman, 2022). bangladesh has environmental laws in effect, but there are no particular rules for carbon-neutral building, as kazi and sattar (2022) point out, which causes uneven implementation throughout the industry. furthermore, developers are deterred from pursuing sustainable construction by the lack of incentives, such as tax exemptions or subsidies for green projects (hashem & hossain, 2023). developers are frequently motivated to reduce upfront expenses, which take precedence over long-term financial and environmental gains. long approval procedures and bureaucratic inefficiencies for green projects further discourage stakeholders from implementing creative, sustainable practices (hossain & sultana, 2022). the adoption of carbon-neutral buildings is severely hampered by these legal gaps, which also make it challenging for construction companies to adopt more environmentally friendly procedures. a further major hurdle that affects how quickly green building techniques are implemented is cultural opposition. according to malik and mollah (2023), traditional building methods predominate in bangladesh, where developers and construction workers frequently have doubts about novel, untested materials and techniques. despite having a large carbon footprint, these conventional materials— such as cement and clay bricks—are favoured because they are regarded as dependable, affordable, and longlasting (chattopadhyay & rahman, 2022). additionally, many professionals in the building industry are unaware of the long-term economic and environmental advantages of implementing carbon-neutral technologies (zhang & jin, 2021). according to malik and mollah (2023), there is a notable knowledge gap in bangladesh, especially among the workforce, which is frequently undereducated and resistant to change. because clients seek instant affordability over long-term investment in green technologies, developers, particularly in the cheap housing sector, frequently put short-term cost savings ahead of sustainability (nahar, 2021). according to peters and fridley (2023), the lack of appropriate training programs exacerbates the cultural inertia towards adopting sustainable practices by impeding the mass transmission of knowledge about new construction techniques and technology. building climate-resilient, carbon-neutral infrastructure is made more difficult by bangladesh’s extreme susceptibility to natural catastrophes including floods and cyclones (usaid, 2024). infrastructure is severely damaged by these regular disasters, increasing the cost and complexity of retrofitting and reconstruction projects. the issue is further exacerbated by the nation’s fast urbanisation, especially in places like dhaka. the construction industry is under tremendous pressure to strike a compromise between the need for inexpensive housing and the necessity of applying sustainable building techniques due to the city’s population expansion, which requires 300,000 additional housing units annually (hossain & ahmed, 2022). when combined with the lack of green funding and technical know-how, this urban growth creates a special obstacle to incorporating green building techniques into the nation’s development (poudel & gautam, 2021). despite these many obstacles, other nations dealing with comparable problems have offered some encouraging answers. bangladesh can learn from the philippines’ successful use of recycled materials in post-disaster housing, which provides a paradigm for incorporating sustainable materials into catastrophe rehabilitation (ghosh & chowdhury, 2021). in order to encourage investment in low-carbon building technology, bangladesh should follow the example of china, which has instituted government-led programs to offer financial incentives for green construction (zhang & jin, 2021). materials and methods this study uses a qualitative methodology and secondary data to investigate the opportunities and problems pa ge 81 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 79-85, 2025 associated with carbon-neutral buildings in bangladesh. the study is based on a thorough analysis of the body of literature, which includes scholarly works, government documents, reports from international organizations, and case studies of international green building projects. with an emphasis on the particular challenges encountered by bangladesh, the secondary data was examined to find important themes and trends in carbon-neutral buildings. in order to evaluate the data, make links between local context and global practices, and offer suggestions for ways to get beyond obstacles to sustainable building, qualitative analysis was used. this approach enables a thorough comprehension of the problems and makes it easier to create useful suggestions for encouraging carbon-neutral buildings in bangladesh. analysis the building industry, which accounts for 39% of worldwide carbon emissions, confronts significant financial obstacles when it comes to adopting sustainable practices. globally, this shift will be extremely expensive; by 2030, it will cost almost $5 trillion a year to implement cutting-edge technologies and environmentally friendly materials. the high cost of sustainable materials and the upfront expenditures needed for green technologies are the causes of these expenses. for example, many developers, especially in lowand middle-income nations, cannot afford materials like cross-laminated lumber and low-carbon cement since they are 30–40% more expensive than conventional alternatives. these worldwide issues are exacerbated in bangladesh by financial limitations. only 2-3% of gdp is devoted to climate-related projects, such as sustainable infrastructure, indicating the nation’s limited financial capacity to finance green construction. particularly in a developing country with rapid urbanization and strong housing demand, this amount of investment is not enough to meet the growing need for carbonneutral development. furthermore, the financial strain is made worse by the dearth of green financing options like green bonds and concessional loans. there is a huge funding gap in the building industry since green financing only accounts for 15% of the necessary investments. adoption of sustainable materials and methods is further discouraged by developers’ and investors’ frequent lack of access to customized finance solutions. bangladesh finds it challenging to reach its carbon-neutral building targets due to high costs, a lack of government support, and limited access to green financing, highlighting the need for strategic initiatives and outside assistance. following graphs and charts can show it better: gdp allocation for climate projects figure 1: gdp allocation for climate projects figure 2: cost comparison of building materials the graph contrasts bangladesh’s (about 2.5%) gdp share allotted to climate-related initiatives with the global average (5%). the data reveals a notable discrepancy, highlighting bangladesh’s insufficient financial capacity to adequately address climate concerns, especially in sustainable practices and green construction. the country’s capacity to move towards carbon-neutral infrastructure is hampered by this insufficient funding, particularly in light of its strong housing demand and fast urbanization. cost comparison of building materials pa ge 82 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 79-85, 2025 the graph illustrates the price of ordinary cement with lowcarbon cement, which is a sustainable material. one major financial obstacle to the adoption of low-carbon cement is its about 40% higher cost. this price difference deters developers from utilizing sustainable building materials, especially in lowand middle-income nations like bangladesh. green financing contribution figure 3: green financing contribution the contribution of green financing to the overall investments required for sustainable construction is depicted in the pie chart. only 15% of funding comes from green sources; the remaining 85% comes from other sources. this notable disparity draws attention to the dearth of easily available and focused funding sources for sustainable construction methods. this small contribution makes it more difficult for nations like bangladesh to embrace eco-friendly products and technologies. accelerating sustainable development and closing this gap could be accomplished by expanding green financing through tools like concessional loans or green bonds. budget allocation: sustainable vs. conventional materials figure 4: budget allocation: sustainable vs. conventional materials a notable difference is shown in the budget allocation between conventional and sustainable materials in the bar chart. a green bar indicates that about 30% of the money goes to sustainable resources, while a red bar indicates that conventional materials account for the majority at about 70%. this graphic comparison highlights a clear preference for traditional materials, indicating that resources are allotted to sustainability projects at a lower rate. the graph emphasizes the necessity of a more wellrounded strategy to promote increased spending on sustainable materials. public-private partnership collaboration index the bar chart compares the public-private partnership (ppp) collaboration index of bangladesh with the global average, highlighting a notable gap. bangladesh’s index, represented by an orange bar, stands at approximately 3, while the global average, shown by a purple bar, is significantly higher at around 7. this disparity indicates that bangladesh’s public-private collaboration is less developed compared to the global benchmark, suggesting room for improvement in fostering stronger partnerships between public and private sectors. pa ge 83 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 79-85, 2025 findings inadequate gdp allocation bangladesh currently devotes 2-3% of its gdp to climate-related projects, which is not enough to satisfy the nation’s growing need for carbon-neutral and sustainable infrastructure. high cost of materials since sustainable building materials, such low-carbon cement and cross-laminated lumber are 30–40% more expensive than conventional materials, most developers and contractors cannot afford them. restricted green financing option the construction industry’s capacity to adopt environmentally friendly methods is hampered by a large financial deficit, as only 15% of the necessary investments come from green financing programs. preference for budget efficiency short-term cost reductions are frequently the top priority for developers and contractors, who opt for less expensive conventional, non-sustainable materials, which raise carbon emissions and worsens the environment. absence of financial mechanisms investment in environmentally friendly building projects is further hampered by bangladesh’s restricted access to specialized financial instruments such as green bonds or concessional loans. insufficient government promotions bangladesh’s lack of tax breaks or subsidies for green building initiatives deters developers from implementing sustainable building techniques, which restricts the broad use of environmentally friendly technologies. restricted public-private partnerships the government and private sector do not work together to promote the development of green infrastructure, which leads to dispersed attempts to scale sustainable building. insufficient long-term investment the shift to carbon-neutral practices is delayed because developers and stakeholders frequently prioritize cutting project costs up front while ignoring the long-term financial and environmental advantages of sustainable building techniques. recommendations boost climate-related budget to ensure there is enough money to assist the shift to sustainable building methods and tackle the escalating environmental issues, the government should raise its gdp allotment for green infrastructure projects. subsidize sustainable materials to make sustainable building materials like crosslaminated timber and low-carbon cement more affordable for developers, the government should implement tax breaks and subsidies. extend green financing mechanisms to encourage private sector investment and offer financial incentives for the adoption of sustainable building methods, the government should establish and support carbon credit programs, green bonds, and concessional loans. international cooperation to obtain funds, technical support, and information exchange for international projects, bangladesh should look to form alliances with institutions such as the asian development bank (adb) and the green climate fund. campaigns and training start extensive public awareness campaigns and training initiatives that highlight the long-term financial and ecological advantages of implementing sustainable construction technology for developers, contractors, and the general public. administrative reforms put laws into place requiring public infrastructure projects figure 5: public-private partnership collaboration index pa ge 84 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 79-85, 2025 to employ eco-friendly materials and technologies. to guarantee commitment to sustainable practices, establish sanctions for environmental standard noncompliance. assistance for green innovation promote innovation in the building industry by offering financial aid or other incentives for the study and advancement of sustainable building technologies, such as waste minimization strategies, eco-friendly materials, and energy-efficient systems. simplify green certification procedures to incentivize builders and developers to embrace green construction techniques, streamline and expedite the process of getting green certifications, such as leed or comparable national standards. establish local green construction expertise make educational and training investments to create a workforce with the know-how to plan, build, and maintain environmentally friendly structures, therefore lowering dependency on imported materials and technologies. encourage eco-friendly building practices create model buildings and pilot projects to show the viability and benefits of sustainable building, acting as models for upcoming initiatives and promoting a broader adoption of green practices. incorporate green infrastructure into urban design to lower cities’ overall carbon footprint and increase their climate change resilience, make sure that urban design incorporates green infrastructure, such as permeable pavements, urban forests, and green roofs. collaboration with the private sector to build a more resilient and sustainable construction ecosystem, encourage cooperation between the public and private sectors as well as financial institutions. publicprivate partnerships, collaborative ventures, and jointly funded green infrastructure initiatives are a few examples of this. conclusion bangladesh faces many obstacles on its route to carbon-neutral building, such as inadequate funding, restricted access to sustainable materials, a lack of green finance, and a lack of local knowledge of cutting-edge construction technology. however, by taking calculated steps like boosting government funding for climaterelated initiatives, encouraging the use of sustainable materials, and developing green finance channels, these challenges can be addressed. the shift to green building methods will also be accelerated by raising public awareness, creating clear legislative frameworks, and encouraging public-private collaborations. bangladesh can create a strong, sustainable construction industry that not only reduces environmental effect but also meets the nation’s rapidly increasing urbanization and housing needs by taking inspiration from successful international models. bangladesh’s building sector can transition to a more sustainable, carbon-neutral future with the help of its foreign 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(2021). green finance policies and their impact on the adoption of sustainable construction technologies in china. construction management and economics, 39(4), 237-251. https://doi. org/10.1080/01446193.2021.1869485 pa ge 1 pa ge 13 7 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) natural resource endowment, human capital development, and economic growth in selected african countries kehinde john akomolafe1* volume 3 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v3i1.3966 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: october 13, 2024 accepted: november 22, 2024 published: december 07, 2024 policymakers, particularly in africa, have continued to be preoccupied with the issue of the resource curse and how to address it. this study was conducted to investigate the moderating effect of human capital development in the resource-growth relationship in six chosen african countries from 1992 to 2019. panels corrected standard errors was used as the main estimator. the results confirm the dutch disease by showing that natural resources had a negative impact on economic growth,while human capital had a beneficial influence. it was also shown that the development of human capital could not mitigate the detrimental impact of natural resources on economic growth. hence, african countries should make efforts to reduce their dependence on natural resources and focus on the development of other sectors of the economy as a way to solve the problem of the resource curse. keywords africa, economic growth, human capital, pcse, resource curse 1 department of economics, afe babaola university, ado ekiti, nigeria * corresponding author’s e-mail: akjohn@abuad.edu.ng introduction an essential component of a nation’s wealth is its natural resources. many nations possess abundant natural resources that might lead to economic growth. the problem, however, is how to turn these resources into sustainable development and economic growth (zallé, 2019). discussions concerning the role of natural resources in economic growth have occupied the literature since the ground-breaking work of auty (1997) on the curse of natural resources. the study argued that when compared to nations without such resources, nations with abundant resources experienced slower rates of economic growth. the resource curse states that there is an adverse relationship between economic growth and natural resources (dou et al., 2022). the rate of economic growth decreases as the quantity of natural resources rises. this pattern defies logic as economic theory states that natural resources increase an economy’s capacity for production and, hence, its potential for economic expansion. however, economic stagnation does not result from the simple existence of natural resources. instead, the availability of natural resources creates economic distortions that act as transmission channels and subsequently impact economic growth negatively. various factors have been investigated in the literature to explain this phenomenon. these include factors such as political factors, institutional, and even environmental factors (destek et al., 2023; leonard, et al., 2022; mlambo, 2022). in recent times, the discussion has focused on the role of human capital in explaining the resource curse (ozcan et al., 2023; tian et al., 2024). zafar et al. (2019) contends that without knowledgeable and competent human capital, sustainable utilization of natural resources is impossible. societies’ willingness to adopt environmentally friendly and energy-efficient technologies is stimulated by human capital. effective extraction, processing, and management of natural resources depend on knowledgeable and skilled workers. the potential economic gains are hampered by the likelihood of resource waste or mismanagement in the absence of human capital. africa is a country blessed with abundant natural resources, ranging from oil, gas, solid minerals, fertile land, and water resources. according to african development bank (afdb, 2016), the proven oil reserves on the continent make up 8% of global reserves, while natural gas reserves make up to 7%. additionally, according to afdb (2016) estimates, over usd 30 billion in government revenue might come from africa’s extractive resources annually over the next 20 years. the continent has failed to convert its resource abundance into long-term economic growth and development in spite of these advantages. 32 of the world’s 46 least developed nations are in africa, and the majority of them are endowed with natural resources (united nations, 2022). according to ahmed et al. (2020), this has been ascribed to problem of human capital development. education, health care, and skill development are not adequately funded in many african countries. as a result, there is a shortage of knowledgeable and experienced workforce required for the efficient management and use of natural resources (chikoko & mthembu, 2020). if human capital holds the secret to the relationship between natural resources and economic growth, investing in human capital would be the right path for african countries. hence, this study examines the role of human capital in resource-growth nexus in selected african countries. literature review various attempts have been made to examine the pa ge 13 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 137-142, 2024 relationship between natural resource and economic growth in the literature. for instance studies such as asiedu et al., 2021; atil et al., 2020; epo & nochi faha, 2020; khan et al., 2022; kwakwa et al., 2022; inuwa et al., 2022; jie & lan, 2024; hayat & tahir, 2021; lee & he, 2022; nawaz et al., 2022; shabbir et al., 2020; tabash et al., 2022; wang et al., 2023) have examined the relationship between natural resources and economic growth. asiedu et al. (2021) investigate how institutional quality mediates the link between economic growth and the endowment of natural resources. the study discover that only when institutional frameworks guarantee openness and effectiveness in resource management do resource-rich nations see growth. also, atil et al. (2020) look into how the extraction of natural resources affects environmental deterioration and how it affects economic growth. the results show that by making the environment more vulnerable, unsustainable resource exploitation might impede long-term growth. similarly, epo and nochi faha (2020) focus on how resource richness and human capital development interact in african economies. the study comes to the conclusion that resource riches frequently does not transfer into sustainable growth in the absence of large investments in human capital.furthermore, khan et al. (2022) examine resource-dependent economies’ macroeconomic stability. the findings draw attention to resource revenue volatility and its detrimental impacts on inflation, exchange rates, and fiscal stability—all of which have a deleterious influence on economic growth. kwakwa et al. (2022) stress the value of economic diversification in nations with abundant natural resources. the study concludes that nations that rely primarily on natural resources experience growth stagnation, but diversification reduces risks and boosts resilience. inuwa et al. (2022) investigate the connection between growth, economic inequality, and natural resources. according to the findings, an unequal allocation of resource earnings can worsen societal tensions and might impede growth. additionally, jie and lan (2024) evaluate how green technology is being adopted in economies that rely on natural resources. the study concludes that in order to achieve sustainable growth, environmental policy and human capital development are essential. according to hayat and tahir (2021), nations that prioritize r&d get greater returns from their resource riches than those that do not. according to lee and he (2022), manufacturing sectors are adversely affected by resource dependency, which frequently results in a “dutch disease” effect. the relationship between governance and corruption and resource growth is examined by nawaz et al. (2022). the study concludes that the benefits of resource riches on economic growth are greatly reduced by corruption. shabbir et al. (2020) look into the connection between poverty alleviation and resource exports. although resource exports boost gdp, the results show that their ability to reduce poverty is restricted because of inadequate income transfer mechanisms. in the same vein, tabash et al. (2022) examine how fdi affects the link between growth and resources. according to their findings, when there is a supportive policy environment, fdi increases the benefits of resource riches. environmental sustainability is the main emphasis of wang et al. (2023) as a mediator in the resource-growth relationship. according to the findings, countries that prioritize sustainability see long-term growth, while those that disregard environmental issues see diminishing gains. the empirical research shows how intricate the connection is between economic growth and natural resources. by analyzing the moderating role of human capital in the resource-growth nexus, this study contributes to the existing studies. materials and methods two models were used for the analysis. the first was used to examine the effect of natural resource and human capital on economic growth, while the second model was used to examine the moderating effect of human capital in the resource-growth relationship in selected african countries. model one e c o g d p i t = γ 1 + δ 1 h u m a n d e x i t + δ 2 n a t u r e e n d i t + δ 3 g l o b a l i z a i t + δ 4 f i n d e x o n e i t + δ 5 e x c h a n g e i t + δ 6 opennessit+∈it (3.1) model two ecogdpit=γ1+δ1humanatuit+δ2globalizait + δ 4 f i n d e x o n e i t + δ 5 e x c h a n g e i t + δ 6 opennessit+∈it (3.9) where ecogdp is the log of gross domestic products, natureend is the log of natural resources rent, globaliza is the log of globalization index, and findexone is the log of financial development, humandex is the log of human capital, openness is the log of trade openness, humanatu is the moderating variable (humandex*natureend) between natural resources and human capital. economic growth was measured using gdp per capital in dollar, human capital index was measured using years of schooling education, globalization was measured using globalization index, natural resources endowment was measured using natural resources rent as %of gdp, trade openness was measured as the ratio of total trade to gdp. the countries selected for the study are algeria, gabon, mauritius, egypt, south africa, tunisia. they were selected because they were the countries with highest human capital development in africa (world bank, 2020). the time series version of the data is from 1992 to 2019. they were sourced from world bank, (2022) and feenstra et al. (2022). variance inflation factor was used to check for multicollinearity in the models. the test for heteroskdesticity was followed using modified wald test. the pesaran cross-sectional dependence test was used to test for cross-sectional dependence. the panel unit root pa ge 13 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 137-142, 2024 tested using breitung and dias panel unit root test. the panel co-integration test was done using the pedroni cointegration test, while panels corrected standard errors was used as the primary estimator. results and discussions testing for multicollinearity the test for multicollinearity was examined using the variance inflation factor (vif) and tolerance factor, the vif should be less than 10 as a general guideline (thompson et al., 2017). table 1 outcome reveals that none of the variables has vif that is up to 8, while the tolerance factor is above 0.1. this suggests that there is no multicolinearity in the models. table 1: the results of the multicollinearity test variable model one model two variance inflation tolerance factor variance inflation tolerance factor findexone 7.24 0.138048 4.88 0.204864 exchange 5.10 0.196068 2.57 0.389130 humandex 3.09 0.324032 natureend 2.86 0.349573 humanatu 2.28 0.438871 globaliza 2.69 0.371270 1.95 0.512788 opennness 1.72 0.582524 1.65 0.607811 source: computed by the author table 2: the results of the multicollinearity test model one model two f(1, 5) 147.340 f(1, 5) 75.515 prob 0.0001 prob 0.0003 n.b: ***,**,*, indicates significance at 1%, 5%, and 10% respectively source: computed by the author table 3: results of modified wald test for groupwise heteroskedasticity model one model two chi2 (6) 173.16*** chi2 (6) 200.07*** prob 0.0000 prob 0.0000 n.b: ***,**,*, indicates significance at 1%, 5%, and 10% respectively source: computed by the author testing for auto-correlation the wooldridge test for auto-correlation was used to test the auto-correlation in the models. the probability values in table 2 are less than 5% in the two models, indicating that they are significant at that level.this suggests that the models have serial correlation. testing for heteroskedasticity modified wald test for groupwise heteroskedasticity was used to examine heteroskedasticity in the models. the result shows that the probability values in table 3 are less than 0.05. the implication is that heteroskedasticity issue exists in the model. testing for slope heterogeneity pesaran and yamagata (2008) was used to test for the slope heterogeneity in the model. the probability value of the test in models is less than 0.05, which means that the null hypothesis that slope coefficients are homogeneous is rejected, as shown in table 4. the implication is that the model is heterogeneous. table 4: results of pesaran and yamagata test variables model one model two delta p-value delta p-value 9.884*** 0.000 12.067*** 0.000 adj. 11.695*** 0.000 13.934*** 0.000 n.b: ***,**,*, indicates significance at 1%, 5%, and 10% respectively source: computed by the author table 5: the results of the cross-section dependence test variable model one model two cd-test p value cd-test p value ecogdp +7.443 0.000 +7.443 0.000 exchange +14.851 0.000 +14.851 0.000 humandex + 20.3 0.000 natureend +10.781 0.000 humanatu +10.912 0.000 globaliza +17.595 0.000 +17.595 0.000 findexone +7.048 0.000 +7.048 0.000 opennness +-2.233 0.026 +-2.233 0.026 n.b: ***,**,*, indicates significance at 1%, 5%, and 10% respectively source: computed by the author testing for cross-section dependence the cross-sectional dependence test in this study was conducted using pesaran’s (2004) cd test. as shown in table 5, all the variables in the two models have probability values that are less than 0.05 which indicate that cross-sectional dependence is present in the models. pa ge 14 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 137-142, 2024 testing for the unit roots in the panel due to the model’s cross-sectional dependence, which was demonstrated in the preceding section, breitung and dias panel unit root test. the test was initially run using the variables at level form. the p-value of the lambda statistics for each variable indicates that it is higher than 5%. this suggests that the unit root null hypothesis about the series is not rejected. the p-values are all below 5% when the first difference was taken for each variable. thus, it is said that all of the variables are first-order integrated. table 6: breitung and dias panel unit root test results variable at level first difference lambda p-value lambda p-value ecogdp 1.1396 0.8728 -3.4873 0.0002 exchange 0.2156 0.5853 -2.4334 0.0075 humandex -0.4863 0.3134 -1.7191 0.0428 natureend -0.2854 0.3877 -5.3850 0.0000 globaliza 1.3119 0.9052 -5.9925 0.0000 findexone -1.0392 0.1494 -7.0062 0.0000 opennness 0.4316 0.6670 -6.4102 0.0000 humanatu -0.0227 0.4909 -7.4031 0.0000 n.b: ***,**,*, indicates significance at 1%, 5%, and 10% respectively source: computed by the author table 7: the results of pedroni panel co-integration test variable model one model two statistics p-value statistics p-value modified phillips-perron 3.3050 0.0005 2.7898 0.0026 phillips-perron t 2.3445 0.0095 1.9817 0.0238 augmented dickey-fuller 2.8575 0.0021 2.3220 0.0101 n.b: ***,**,*, indicates significance at 1%, 5%, and 10% respectively source: computed by the author testing for panel co-integration using the pedroni panel co-integration test, the panel cointegration test was carried out. the test provides three statistics for analysis. all the three statistics reported significant results at 1% level of significance as shown in table 7. as a result, the null hypothesis of no cointegration among the variables is rejected. the result of the panel-corrected standard errors (pcse) given the results of the preliminary tests, pcse was used for the analysis. table 8 shows that in the first model, there is a positive relationship between human capital index and economic growth. the result shows that a 1% increase in the human capital index is associated with 0.7% increase in the log of gdp which is the proxy for economic growth. however, the result of natural resource endowment shows a negative relationship with the log of gdp.this implies that an increase in natural resource endowment by 1% is associated with 0.1% decrease in the log of gdp, and consequently, economic growth. the result confirms a case of dutch disease. in term of the moderating effects of human capital, the result of the second model shows that there is a negative relationship between moderated human capital index and the log of gdp. by implication, the moderated human capital index exerts a negative influence on economic growth. the implication is that the interaction between human capital development with natural resources does not make the countries avoid the dutch disease. this shows that the solution to the problem of dutch disease goes beyond having more human capital development. the results of the control variables show that there is a positive relationship between exchange rate depreciation and economic growth. also, a positive relationship was found between financial development and economic growth. similarly, trade openness was also found to have a positive effect on economic growth, while globalization was found to be insignificant. table 8: effects of human capital and natural resources endowment on economic growth coef. p>z coef. p>z exchange .1119741*** 0.000 .1464998*** 0.000 pa ge 14 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 137-142, 2024 conclusion the study was done to examine the moderating role of human capital development in the resource-growth nexus in selected countries in africa. the findings show that the individual effect of human capital on economic growth is positive but that of natural resource was found to be negative, confirming the 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(2019). natural resources and economic growth in africa: the role of institutional quality and human capital. resources policy, 62, 616-624. pa ge 1 pa ge 57 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) determinants of climate change risk management strategies among the poultry farmers in ekiti state, nigeria r. s. owoeye1*, olusola bunmi adegbuyiro2 volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v4i1.4445 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: january 31, 2025 accepted: march 03, 2025 published: march 20, 2025 this study investigates the determinants of climate change and risk management strategies among poultry farmers in ekiti state, nigeria. a survey of 90 poultry farmers revealed that the majority perceived climate change impacts, with high humidity, drought, and solar radiation being the most reported factors. the most commonly adopted risk management strategies included vaccination, disease control measures, and improved bird breeds. probit regression analysis showed that educational level, farming experience, and access to credit significantly influenced the adoption of risk management strategies. the study highlights the importance of education, experience, and financial access in shaping risk management decisions and recommends expanding credit access, strengthening extension services, and promoting climate adaptation programs to enhance poultry farmers’ resilience and sustainability in ekiti state. keywords climate change, poultry farming, risk management strategies 1 department of agricultural economics and extension services, ekiti state university, ado ekiti, nigeria 2 department of agricultural and resource economics, university of tennessee, knoxville, usa * corresponding author’s e-mail: rufus.owoeye@eksu.edu.ng introduction the agricultural sector faces numerous risks that significantly impact production and rural welfare, making risk management a national and global priority (singh & hlophe, 2017). poultry production, a crucial sub-sector in nigeria, is vulnerable to production risks such as climate variations, predators, theft, pests, and diseases (dil et al., 2022). these risks threaten the growth and development of the poultry industry, which provides significant employment opportunities and animal protein for the population. local communities possess valuable knowledge and experience in managing climate variability, which is essential for developing effective adaptation strategies (calviosa et al., 2009). climate risks vary across geographic locations, and their impacts on agriculture are regionally distinct (rowlinson, 2008). as a result, adaptation responses differ across locations and are influenced by individual risk perceptions, socio-economic status, environmental conditions, and available resources. as a matter of fact, poultry farmers adopt various risk management strategies, including disease prevention, financial management, and production planning (obike et al., 2017). however, these strategies are influenced by factors such as age, household size, stock size, capital input, farming experience, location, cost of medication, and cost of labor (obayelu et al., 2017). moreover, research has shown that risk aversion, risk neutrality, and risk preference are significant factors in poultry farmers’ decision-making processes (mbah, 2018). the poultry industry is vulnerable to extreme weather events, which compromise farm infrastructure and lead to reduced productivity and increased mortality. climate risks pose significant challenges to the industry’s contributions to addressing poverty and achieving national development goals, such as the agricultural transformation agenda (ata). the poultry industry faces numerous challenges, including technical, labor, and input-related constraints (malkeke & okwen, 2017). to mitigate these risks, farmers employ diversification, marketing, and production strategies (obike et al., 2017). furthermore, research has highlighted the importance of risk management in poultry production, with factors such as age, household size, and farming experience influencing disease prevention and financial management strategies (adeyonu et al., 2021). thornton et al. (2008) highlight the knowledge gaps regarding climate change impacts on livestock systems and livelihoods. they emphasize the need for detailed assessments of localized impacts and identification of adaptation options. however, limited access to reliable information on climate risks and management hinders small-scale poultry farmers’ ability to adapt. to address these challenges, small-scale poultry farmers must consider management options to mitigate climate-related risks. it is essential to examine the nature and extent of their adaptation to climate-related risks, considering factors such as risk perceptions, socio-economic status, and environmental conditions. this study aims to contribute to the literature on risk management in poultry production by assessing the level of risk management and analyzing its determinants among poultry farmers in ekiti state, nigeria. by understanding the factors that influence risk management practices, policymakers and stakeholders can develop effective strategies to support the sustainability and profitability of the poultry industry (victor & derlin, 2021). pa ge 58 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 43-46, 2025 materials and methods the study area this research was carried out in ekiti state, which is situated in the southwestern region of nigeria. ekiti state, positioned in the tropical zone, was established on the 1st of october, 1996, and comprises 16 local government areas (lgas). it covers an approximate land area of 6,602.8 square kilometers and had a population of 2,432,321 according to the national population census of 2006. ekiti state is primarily an agricultural region, with key cash crops including cocoa, timber, oil-palm, and kolanuts. food crops like cassava, yam, cocoyam, as well as grain crops such as maize and rice are also cultivated. likewise, animal production enterprises, such as poultry, are predominant in ekiti state. in this area, men are predominantly engaged in farming, while women are primarily involved in trading activities. even among the educated local residents employed in the formal sector, farming serves as a secondary occupation (owoeye et al., 2023). the state experiences two distinct seasons: the rainy season and the dry season. as of the 2006 national population census, ekiti state had a population of 3,423,535. sampling technique and sampling size a multi-stage sampling technique was used. in first stage, six (6) local government areas (lgas) were selected purposively based on the intensity of poultry production (i.e., ado, ikere, ikole, ijero, irepodun/ifelodun and idoosi). in the second stage, three (3) communities were chosen from each lga. lastly, five (5) poultry farmers were chosen, making the sample size to be ninety (90) respondents. data collection primary data was collected with the aid of a well-structured questionnaire which was used to collect quantitative data from the selected respondents to generate information on the set objectives of the study. data analysis both descriptive and inferential statistics were employed to analyze the collected data for the study. descriptive statistics this was used to analyze the data collected on the perceived climate change and climate adaptation strategies in the study area inferential statistics probit regression analysis was used to examine the factors influencing the adoption of risk management strategies among poultry farmers. the model is specified below y = xβ+ε where: y = adoption of risk management strategies (yes = 1, otherwise = 0) • x represents the vector of independent variables. • β represents the vector of coefficients. • ε represents the error term, which is normally distributed with mean 0 and variance σ2 (x1) = age of the farmer (in years) (x2) = gender (1 = male, 0 = female) (x3) = education level (0 = no formal education, 1 = primary, 2 = secondary, 3 = tertiary) (x4) = flock size (number of birds or hectares) (x5) = income from poultry farming (naira) (x6) = farming experience (years) (x7) = access to finance/credit (1 = yes, 0 = no) (x8) = membership in cooperative society (1 = yes, 0 = no) (x9) = access to extension services (1=yes, 0=no) (x10) = access to climate information (1=yes, 0=no) (x11) = perception of climate change as a risk (1=yes, 0=no) (x12) = type of poultry farming (broilers, layers, or mixed) results and discussion perception of climate change the results of a study on the perception of climate change in poultry farming show that various factors contribute to the perceived change. the majority of respondents (57.8%) perceive high humidity as a significant factor in climate change, as it can lead to heat stress in poultry, resulting in reduced productivity and increased mortality. drought is also perceived as a significant factor in climate change, with 54.4% of respondents citing it as a major concern. drought can lead to water scarcity, reduced feed availability, and increased feed costs, all of which can have a significant impact on poultry farming. other factors, such as high temperature and heat (40.0%), irregular rainfall (43.3%), extreme weather events (45.6%), diseases and pests (40.0%), poor air quality (44.4%), and solar radiation (46.7%), are also perceived as significant contributors to climate change. these factors can all have a range of impacts on poultry farming, including reduced productivity, increased mortality, and reduced feed availability. the results of this study highlight the need for farmers to adapt to climate change in order to maintain productivity and profitability. adapting to climate change can involve a range of strategies, including the use of climate-resilient breeds, improved farm management practices, and the adoption of new technologies. table 1: distribution of the respondent by the perception of climate change perception of climate change frequency percentage high temperature and heat 36 40.0 long period of drought 49 54.4 high humidity 52 57.8 irregular rainfall 39 43.3 extreme weather events 41 45.6 diseases and pests 36 40.0 poor air quality 40 44.4 solar radiation 42 46.7 source: computed data survey, 2024 pa ge 59 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 43-46, 2025 factors responsible for the adoption of risk management strategies the likelihood ratio (lr) chi-square test with a value of 60.56 indicates a moderately good fit of the model. the pseudo r² value of 0.586 suggests that the independent variables explain 58.6% of the variation in the adoption of risk management strategies. the overall p-value indicates that the model is statistically significant at conventional levels, validating its ability to identify key factors influencing adoption. educational level, farming experience, and access to credit are the three most significant variables influencing the adoption of risk management strategies in ekiti state, nigeria. the educational level of farmers significantly impacts their ability to adopt risk management strategies, with higher-educated farmers being better informed and more likely to adopt innovative practices. farming experience also plays a crucial role, as experienced farmers are more aware of potential risks and the importance of mitigation strategies. this is in agreement with didunyemi and owoeye, 2022 on comparative profitability analysis of broiler production systems in ekiti state, nigeria who concluded that poultry farmers in the ekiti state were well experienced, thereby making them to be efficient. access to credit is also a significant factor, with farmers having greater access to credit being more likely to implement risk management measures. financial resources enable farmers to invest in preventive strategies such as high-quality feed, improved housing, vaccination programs, and disease control measures. demographic factors such as sex, age, and flock size also influence the adoption of risk management strategies. young farmers, larger flock sizes, and higherincome farmers are more likely to adopt risk mitigation measures. additionally, farmers who perceive the impact of climate change are more likely to adopt risk management measures. however, surprisingly, increased access to extension services reduces the likelihood of farmers adopting risk management strategies. this may be due to inadequate or outdated information provided by extension officers, leading farmers to seek alternative sources of knowledge. table 2: probit regression analysis of factors responsible for the adoption of risk management strategies independent variables coefficient standard error p-value sex .5690701 .4466915 0.203 age .0270027 .0311551 0.386 educational level .2179103** 0.0087 0.04 farming experience .0387157** 0.0019 0.05 flock size .0004495 .001948 0.817 types of poultry farming .1763163 .2251536 0.434 income 2.72e-06 2.64e-06 0.304 access to credit .7078422* .4231387 0.094 members in cooperatives .1717256 .427664 0.688 extension services -.0568243 .435656 0.896 climate change .2416548 .4305206 0.575 constant -2.033838 1.360993 0.135 lr chi2 (11) = 60.56 prob > chi2 = 0.2106 log likelihood = -33.340254 pseudo r2 = 0.586 source: computed data survey, 2024 adopted risk management strategies poultry farmers in ekiti state, nigeria are adopting various strategies to improve their productivity and profitability. a significant 66% of farmers are utilizing improved bird breeds, which offer higher productivity, better feed efficiency, and resistance to diseases. this approach reduces production costs, minimizes mortality, and ensures better financial returns in the long term. another crucial strategy is the use of weather forecasts, adopted by 54.4% of farmers. weather forecasts enable farmers to plan ahead, reducing losses caused by extreme weather events. vaccination is also widely adopted, with 76.7% of farmers recognizing its importance in preventing disease outbreaks and ensuring flock health. enhanced housing is another key strategy, with 67.8% of farmers utilizing this approach to protect birds from adverse weather, predators, and disease exposure. disease control measures are also critical, with 75.6% of farmers prioritizing this approach. controlling diseases minimizes flock losses, reduces treatment costs, and ensures consistent production levels. efficient water conservation strategies are also important, with 74.4% of farmers adopting this approach to ensure a steady supply of clean water for bird health and optimal growth. training on risk management is essential, with 73.3% of farmers adopting this approach to improve their pa ge 60 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 43-46, 2025 farm management and reduce risks. by adopting these strategies, poultry farmers can improve their productivity, profitability, and overall sustainability. references adeyonu, a. g., otunaiya, a. o., oyawoye, e. o., & okeniyi, f. a. (2021). risk perceptions and risk management strategies among poultry farmers in south-west nigeria. cogent social sciences, 7(1), 1891719. calviosa, c. d., chuluunbaatar, & katiuscia, f. (2009). tools for project design: livestock thematic paper. international fund for agricultural development. https:// www.ifad.org/irkm/index.htm didunyemi, a. j., & owoeye, r. s. (2022). comparative profitability analysis of broiler production systems in ekiti state, nigeria. international journal of research in agricultural sciences, 9(5), 132–144. dili, r. m., kalaw, r. m. b., miguel, a. d. l., & ting, g. m. (2022). analysis of environmental impact and waste management of the egg poultry industry in the philippines: a case of san jose, batangas. journal of sustainability and environmental management, 1(2), 188–196. maluleke, w., & mokwena, r. j. (2017). the effect of climate change on rural livestock farming: case study of giyani policing area, republic of south africa. south african journal of agricultural extension, 45(1), 26–40. mbah, e. (2018). investigating constraints to poultry management practices among smallholder farmers in benue state, nigeria. international journal of sustainable agricultural research, 5(2), 27–37. obayelu, o. a., olowe, a. a., & faleye, t. g. (2017). do social networks have effects on the risk attitude of commercial poultry farmers? evidence from southwest nigeria. rural sustainability research, 38(333), 1–13. obike, k. c., amusa, t. a., & olowolafe, h. b. (2017). risk management and determinants of farm output among small-scale poultry farmers in ekiti state, nigeria. agro-science, 16(2), 9–16. owoeye, r. s., oluwatosin, o. o., & ijigbade, j. o. (2023). resource utilization efficiency among poultry farmers in ekiti state, nigeria. international journal of advanced economics, 5(9), 314–322. https://doi.org/10.51594/ ijae.v5i9.678 rowlinson, p. (2008). adapting livestock production systems to climate change–temperate zones. proceedings of the livestock and global change conference, tunisia. thornton, p., & herrero, m. (2008). climate change, vulnerability, and livestock keepers: challenges for poverty alleviation. proceedings of the livestock and global climate change conference, tunisia. victor, v. b., & merlin, m. (2021). effect of the management of mortality (chicken death) risk on the production of commercial broiler farms in the city of douala, cameroon. journal of entrepreneurship and organization management, 10(5), 1–5. table 3: distribution of the respondents by the adopted risk management strategies adopted risk management strategies frequency percentage improved birds breed 60 66.7 weather forecast 49 54.4 vaccination 69 76.7 enhanced housing 61 67.8 diseases control measures 68 75.6 water conservation 67 74.4 training on risk management 66 73.3 source: computed data survey, 2024 conclusion • long period of drought, solar radiation and high temperature and heat were the noticeable perceived climate changes in the study area. • educational level, farming experience and access to credit were the factors responsible for the adoption of risk management strategies. • vaccination, disease control measures, water conservation and enhanced housing were the noticeable risk management strategies adopted by the respondents in the study area. recommendations 1. targeted incentives, such as subsidized credit and skill-based training, should be introduced to encourage male participation in poultry farming. 2. married farmers should be incentivized to participate in poultry farming through family-friendly agribusiness programs, cooperative financing, and flexible loan structures. 3. mentorship programs and financial support should be extended to older farmers to enhance their participation and adoption of risk management strategies in poultry farming. 4. policies should be developed to increase access to affordable credit facilities for poultry farmers to invest in improved housing, disease control, and climate adaptation techniques. 5. structured training and extension services should be provided to improve poultry farmers' knowledge of climate adaptation strategies, disease prevention, and financial planning. 6. agricultural extension services should be restructured to deliver timely, actionable, and localized information that addresses poultry farmers' real challenges. pa ge 1 pa ge 73 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) analysis of financial policy of china’s economy based on artificial intelligence and innovation yuan mengying1, zhao yuhan1* volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v4i1.3911 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: october 19, 2024 accepted: november 22, 2024 published: april 22, 2025 in the context of the rapid development of globalization and digitalization, china’s economy faces complex and changeable challenges and opportunities. artificial intelligence (ai), an important technology in the modern economy, has shown great potential in many fields, especially in formulating and implementing economic and financial policies. this paper explores how artificial intelligence and innovation can reshape china’s economic and financial policies. through reviewing relevant academic journals, books, policy reports, etc., to sort out existing research results and identify key topics and theoretical frameworks in the research. to systematically review and analyze existing theoretical and empirical studies on ai, innovation and their impact on economic and financial policies. utilize ai techniques to extract valuable information from large amounts of data to support policy analysis. analyze specific cases and explore practical experiences of successful application of ai and innovation to economic and financial policies. keywords artificial intelligence, economy and finance, policy analysis 1 belarusian state university, minsk, belarus * corresponding author’s e-mail: yuhanzhao375@gmail.com introduction since the reform and opening up, china’s economy has experienced rapid and profound development and has become the second largest economy in the world. however, with the change in the global economic environment, the traditional economic growth model has gradually exposed many problems, especially in the face of financial risks, inefficient allocation of resources, and insufficient innovation ability. therefore, promoting innovation and the transformation of economic and financial policies has become an urgent problem that needs to be solved. the rise of artificial intelligence (ai) technology provides new ideas and methods for this transformation. artificial intelligence technology, covering machine learning, data mining, natural language processing and other fields, its application in information processing, decision support and intelligent forecasting, etc., is changing the way the economic and financial fields operate. through in-depth analysis of large amounts of data, ai can not only improve the efficiency of policy making, but also enhance the scientific and targeted nature of policies. in addition, the application of artificial intelligence in financial services, risk management and market regulation is leading new economic and financial changes. literature review in recent years, the chinese government has attached great importance to the development of financial technology and introduced a series of policy measures to promote scientific and technological innovation. the core intention of the policy is to use modern science and technology to promote high-quality economic development and realize the transformation and upgrading of the economic structure. however, there are still a series of problems in the implementation of the policy. how to effectively embed artificial intelligence technology to support scientific and intelligent economic and financial policies has become the focus of research. with the rapid penetration of artificial intelligence technology into various fields of society, the research of artificial intelligence on employment, industrial integration, economic growth and other aspects is increasing day by day. for example, autor et al. (2001) conducted an empirical study based on the combination of robot data and macro data and found that the use of robots promoted economic growth (longpeng & shuangzhi, 2020). when studying the impact of artificial intelligence on total employment, acemogl et al. found that substitution effect and creation effect played an important role (li et al., 2024; o’leary, 1991). zhang longpeng et al. found that the integration of artificial intelligence and manufacturing industry is constantly improving (qin & li, 2023). although there are many kinds of studies, there is no consensus on the impact of artificial intelligence on economic development (such as aghion & howitt, 1994; xianpeng & haoxuan, 2024; autor et al., 2001). artificial intelligence also has a significant impact on the employment structure, which is mainly reflected in the job polarization effect, that is, technological progress mainly replaces the middle-skilled labor force, which tends to decrease the proportion of middle-skilled workers while the proportion of highskilled workers increases (e.g. lijun ли & жудро, 2023). as for the cause of employment polarization, some scholars believe that high-skilled workers are engaged in complex and irregular labor, and low-skilled workers are engaged in simple and irregular labor. compared with medium-skilled workers, the two are more difficult to be pa ge 74 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 73-78, 2025 replaced by machines, and they are distributed at both ends of the job skills, resulting in employment polarization. empirically, many scholars have verified the phenomenon of employment polarization by studying the employment situation of different countries. the research shows that the phenomenon of employment polarization already exists in the united states, western europe, and other countries and regions. yongqin et al. (2024) found that industrial robots have a significant substitution effect on the middle-skilled labor force in china’s manufacturing industry. the purpose of this study is to systematically review the literature related to artificial intelligence and economic development and to review the application of artificial intelligence to employment, economic growth, industrial integration, and other aspects in order to form a more comprehensive overall view of this field. figure 1: the co-occurrence knowledge graph of foreign research keywords on artificial intelligence and economic development from 2003 to 2024 in addition, based on wos journal analysis, it can be found that foreign scholars have rich and closely related keywords involved in research in this field, among which the keywords that pay more attention are “artificial,” “model,” “technology,” and “intelligence.” the main focus of foreign scholars on learning “big data” and “impact” can be divided into two categories: one is the technology field related to artificial intelligence; another type is the impact of artificial intelligence on employment, which is similar to the focus of chinese scholars. in addition, foreign scholars are particularly interested in the predictive capabilities of artificial intelligence and its relationship with innovation. this also reflects from the side that the theme of domestic research on the impact of ai on the economy is relatively centralized, while foreign research shows a diversified trend, so it is necessary to encourage the diversified development of china’s ai from other perspectives such as technology manufacturing integration application, innovation prediction, etc. the development of artificial intelligence starting from the dartmouth conference in 1956, artificial intelligence has a research and application development history of over 60 years. during this process, we experienced three waves of development. the first rise of computers originated from their ability to solve complex tasks that were originally only achievable by humans, such as algebraic application problems, proving geometric theorems, learning and using english, and so on. however, due to the incomplete algorithms and insufficient computer hardware capabilities at that time, artificial intelligence did not achieve the expected results and fell into a low point. the second rise of artificial intelligence came into people’s sight with the concept of “expert systems”. the irreconcilable contradiction between the limitations of algorithm architecture and the high complexity of actual production business seriously reduces the practical value that artificial intelligence can bring, causing it to once again enter a state of silence. since the second half of the 1990s until now, artificial intelligence has experienced its third rise. at this stage, the rapid development of the internet and computer hardware industry has made great progress in the three core elements of algorithm, data and hardware that support the development of ai. at the algorithmic level, deep learning technology has developed rapidly in recent years, promoting the multi domain landing of artificial intelligence applications; at the data level, the massive data accumulation brought about by the development of the internet provides a good data basis for the practice of artificial intelligence algorithms; at the hardware level, new generation chips such as gpu (graphics processing unit) and tpu (tensor processor), as well as new hardware facilities such as fpga (field programmable gate array) heterogeneous computing servers, are also being widely used for specialized artificial intelligence computing. pa ge 75 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 73-78, 2025 at present, artificial intelligence technologies and algorithms represented by deep learning, computer vision, natural language processing, and reinforcement learning are accelerating innovation and breakthroughs. various artificial intelligence technologies have established a phased research and application foundation, promoting many business and life scenarios to become smarter and more efficient, especially in the fields of finance, retail, manufacturing, healthcare, security, transportation, etc., giving rise to many new formats and business models, which are having a profound impact and transformation on the digital transformation of these industries. overall, from algorithms to hardware, artificial intelligence technology still has broader development prospects. in the process of accelerating the implementation of various technological applications, the development of artificial intelligence technology in the future will be promoted by both scientific research and commercial applications. figure 2: distribution of unicorn numbers in china in 2024 note: in the fields of business and finance, “unicorn” specifically refers to non publicly listed companies that grow rapidly in their early stages and have a market value exceeding $1 billion concept of china’s economic and financial policies china’s economic and financial policies refer to a series of measures and policies taken by the chinese government to promote economic development and maintain financial stability. these policies aim to regulate economic operations, promote economic growth, maintain healthy development of financial markets, and address domestic and international economic and financial risks. macro control is an important component of china’s economic and financial policies. the chinese government adjusts its monetary policy, fiscal policy, and industrial policy to influence the overall size and structure of the economy, in order to achieve economic growth and stability. monetary policy mainly controls the money supply and liquidity by adjusting interest rates, reserve requirement ratios, and credit policies to achieve the goals of stabilizing prices and promoting economic growth. fiscal policy regulates economic operation and promotes economic development by adjusting taxes and expenditures. industrial policy refers to the government’s support and guidance for different industries to promote industrial upgrading and structural optimization. financial reform is an important component of china’s economic and financial policies. through financial system reform, the chinese government has promoted the opening and development of financial markets, and improved the competitiveness and service level of financial institutions. financial reform includes promoting interest rate liberalization, advancing exchange rate liberalization, deepening financial market reform, and strengthening financial supervision. the chinese government hopes to improve the efficiency and risk management capabilities of financial institutions through financial reform, promote the healthy development of the financial market, and provide better financial services and support for the real economy. the current situation of china’s economic and financial policies against the backdrop of continuous changes and development in the global economy, china’s economic and financial policies have undergone continuous adjustments and optimizations to cope with the complex internal and external environment. in recent years, china’s economic development has faced multiple challenges, including a global economic slowdown, weak domestic demand, and increased financial risks. therefore, the country has carried out a series of reforms and innovations in economic and financial policies to achieve high-quality development. adaptive adjustment of monetary policy as the central bank, the people’s bank of china is responsible for formulating and implementing monetary policies to maintain the moderate growth of the money supply, stabilize prices, and promote employment. in recent years, facing the pressure of slowing economic growth, the people’s bank of china has adopted a flexible and moderate monetary policy. pa ge 76 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 73-78, 2025 positive expansion of fiscal policy in terms of fiscal policy, the chinese government actively takes measures to promote economic development in the context of “stable growth”. the government has increased fiscal expenditure by increasing infrastructure investment, promoting new urbanization, and upgrading industrial structure. standardization and opening up of financial markets china’s financial market has gradually formed a relatively complete system in the process of continuous development. the securities, bond, insurance, and foreign exchange markets are gradually moving towards standardization, marketization, and transparency. in order to improve the openness of the financial market, the country actively promotes the reform of the capital market and encourages foreign investment to enter. risk prevention and control measures with the rapid development of the economy, the importance of financial risk management is increasingly prominent. in recent years, the chinese government has focused on strengthening financial regulation, especially in areas such as shadow banking and the real estate market. by refining regulatory policies, strengthening stress testing and liquidity management for financial institutions, china has to some extent curbed the trend of rising corporate leverage ratios. motivate innovation and promote transformation to promote high-quality economic development and industrial transformation, the chinese government has formulated a development strategy driven by innovation. various financial policies have been tilted towards supporting key areas such as technological innovation and green finance. for example, in terms of venture capital and private equity, the government has introduced corresponding tax incentives to encourage funds to invest in high-tech enterprises. policy interaction from a global perspective faced with the complex international economic situation, china actively participates in global economic governance and engages in mutually beneficial cooperation with other countries. by enhancing cooperation with international financial organizations, china actively participates in the formulation and improvement of global financial rules. the application of artificial intelligence in financial policy analysis with the rapid development of artificial intelligence (ai) technology, the ways and means of financial policy analysis are undergoing profound changes. ai not only improves the efficiency of data processing, but also provides more accurate prediction and decision support capabilities, making the formulation and implementation of financial policies more scientific and reasonable. the core advantage of artificial intelligence lies in its powerful data processing capabilities. financial policy analysis relies on massive amounts of data for decisionmaking, and ai technology can quickly extract and analyze big data to identify potential economic trends and risk points. for example, by applying machine learning algorithms, analysts can monitor in real-time the impact of economic indicators, financial market dynamics, and policy changes on the market in a rapidly changing market environment. this ability significantly improves the timeliness and accuracy of policy analysis. by building complex models, ai can identify and predict potential risks in financial markets, such as credit risk, market risk, and liquidity risk. this predictive ability enables policy makers to prepare contingency measures in advance. taking credit risk as an example, ai can analyze borrowers’ historical data to evaluate their credit worthiness, help financial institutions optimize credit policies, and reduce default risk. by utilizing deep learning techniques, researchers can establish multidimensional models covering macroeconomic indicators, industry data, and market sentiment, and simulate economic trends under different policy scenarios through simulation. this model not only improves the accuracy of predictions, but also makes policy-making more comprehensive and rational. the widespread application of artificial intelligence in the field of financial technology has further promoted the development of financial policy analysis. many financial figure 3: annual trend of artificial intelligence patent applications in china from 2000 to 2023 pa ge 77 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 73-78, 2025 institutions are beginning to utilize ai technologies such as chatbots and intelligent customer service systems to provide personalized services and advice. by analyzing customer needs and behaviors, financial institutions can develop targeted financial policies for different types of customers, which not only improves customer satisfaction but also provides practical reference for policy adjustments. in the modern financial field, the rapid development of artificial intelligence (ai) and machine learning (ml) technologies has provided new perspectives and tools for financial policy analysis. ai can process large amounts of financial data, conduct in-depth analysis, and provide decision support, helping decision-makers make accurate decisions in complex economic environments. the powerful computing power of artificial intelligence makes it an ideal tool for processing and analyzing massive amounts of financial data. traditional methods often struggle to effectively handle data diversity and complexity, while ai algorithms can quickly analyze historical data, identify patterns, and provide meaningful insights for policy makers. actual case: federal reserve system (fed) of the united states the federal reserve system (fed) uses ai technology for economic data analysis to guide its monetary policy decisions. for example, the fed has developed an ai tool called “point of view” that uses big data analysis technology to monitor and analyze multiple dimensions of indicators such as economic trends, labor markets, and consumer confidence in real time, helping decisionmakers adjust interest rates and monetary policy more accurately. this data-driven decision-making process enhances the speed and effectiveness of policy responses. actual case: j.p. morgan jpmorgan chase has introduced ai algorithms in risk management, particularly in credit risk assessment. the bank uses machine learning technology to analyze borrowers’ credit records, transaction behavior, and social media data to predict their default risk. ai models can identify risk factors that traditional credit scoring models cannot capture, thereby helping jpmorgan chase better manage its credit portfolio. in addition, they also introduced ai algorithms to analyze risks during market turbulence, in order to adjust investment strategies in a timely manner. actual case: goldman sachs goldman sachs uses machine learning technology to conduct market forecasting, in order to better understand market changes and future trends. they use ai to analyze social media, news reports, and research reports to obtain market sentiment and influencing factors. ai algorithms can not only quickly aggregate and analyze large amounts of unstructured data, but also provide forward-looking insights into upcoming market changes. especially during periods of economic volatility and market turbulence, goldman sachs’ ai tools can quickly capture changes in market sentiment and provide support for trading strategies. results and discussion the integration prospects of artificial intelligence and financial policies in this study, the analysis is carried out with the help of secondary data, including statistics from major organizations, academic articles, industry reports and government releases. these data are mainly related to the following aspects: artificial intelligence patent application data: contains patent applications for various types of ai technologies in china during the period 2000-2023, reflecting technology innovation trends. financial market data: covering key economic indicators such as interest rate changes, consumer confidence index, market demand and economic growth rate. international case data: including the practical experience and effectiveness of ai applications in the u.s. and u.s.based banks (such as jpmorgan chase and goldman sachs). we used a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods to analyze the collected data, applying statistical methods to regression analysis of annual trends in patent applications and other economic indicators to identify correlations and trends. through case studies, we analyze the specifics and effects of ai applications by different financial institutions, and distill the elements of success and innovation. with the continuous advancement and widespread application of artificial intelligence (ai) technology, the formulation and implementation of financial policies face new opportunities and challenges. the introduction of ai not only provides more efficient data analysis and decision support for financial markets but also powerful tools for policy makers to predict and monitor in the economic and financial fields. especially in a rapidly developing economy like china, the integration of ai and financial policies will have a profound impact on economic and financial development. by analyzing internet data, the government can grasp consumer confidence, market demand and other information in real time, so as to formulate more intelligent and timely economic and financial policies. china’s financial regulators can use ai tools to monitor market fluctuations in real time, adjust regulatory policies in time, and prevent financial foam and system risks. through intelligent risk assessment and credit approval, more small and micro enterprises and individuals will be able to obtain financing support, thereby promoting comprehensive economic development. in addition, ai technology will also drive the development of digital currencies and blockchain technology, bringing new opportunities to china’s financial system. pa ge 78 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 73-78, 2025 in order to fully utilize the positive role of ai in financial policies, the chinese government and financial regulatory agencies can consider the following suggestions and implementation directions: improve laws and regulations the primary task is to establish and improve relevant laws and regulations in response to the characteristics of introducing ai technology into financial policies. the government should establish corresponding regulatory frameworks to ensure data security and privacy protection in the application process of ai. this will help enhance public trust in the application of ai in financial policies, while also protecting the healthy development of financial markets. strengthen talent cultivation with the increasing popularity of ai technology, the demand for versatile talents in the financial field is gradually increasing. the government should increase its efforts to cultivate financial technology talents, strengthen cooperation between universities and financial institutions, and cultivate financial professionals with ai technology backgrounds. the cultivation of talents will provide stronger support for policy implementation and technological application. encourage innovation and pilot projects the government can establish pilot projects to encourage financial institutions to actively explore the application of ai technology in financial policies. through smallscale pilot projects, financial institutions can accumulate experience, find ai application scenarios that are suitable for their own and market needs, and provide reference for subsequent large-scale promotion. promote cross departmental cooperation the integration of ai and financial policies not only involves the tasks of the financial sector, but also requires cooperation from other relevant departments such as technology, education, and social security. cross departmental collaborative policy-making will help establish a more comprehensive financial ecosystem, thereby improving the efficiency and response speed of financial policies. conclusion the integration of artificial intelligence and financial policies provides enormous potential and opportunities for the development of china’s economy and finance. by fully leveraging the advantages of ai, governments can formulate financial policies more accurately, manage financial risks more efficiently, and promote innovation and sustainable development. however, this process is also accompanied by challenges, which require efforts in legislation, talent cultivation, innovation pilot projects, and cross departmental cooperation to promote the effective application of ai in financial policies. only in this way can we ensure china’s steady progress in the transformation of the global economic environment and the achievement of high-quality development goals. from data analysis and decision support, risk management to market forecasting and trend analysis, ai technology helps financial institutions make more scientific decisions in complex and changing environments. with the continuous advancement of ai technology, we have reason to believe that it will play a more important role in financial policy analysis in the future, helping to stabilize and promote the healthy development of financial markets. in the future, the effective application of ai technology has brought significant results, but the complexity of financial policy analysis still requires effective collaboration between human experts and ai to achieve optimal decision-making outcomes. innovation driven economic and financial policies. references aghion, p., & howitt, p. 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(2020). technological empowerment: the technological innovation effect of the integration of artificial intelligence and industry development. financial science, 6, 74-88. pa ge 1 pa ge 21 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) access to carbon credits in the waste sector: what opportunity for municipalities in cameroon? moye eric kongnso1*, tiomo dongfack emmanuel1, sagne joël moumbe2, djoukeng fortune blanche1 volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v4i1.3820 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: september 18, 2024 accepted: october 25, 2024 published: february 13, 2025 household solid waste management is a major concern for cities in developing countries. in cameroon, an increase in the quantity of waste produced is associated with increased urban population. within the context of decentralization, municipalities have been given the competence to manage waste, but challenges abound. this work seeks to demonstrate that municipal solid waste management via composting provides financial gains from the carbon credit. a mixed methods approach was used to collect secondary and primary data, and a participatory observation was used to evaluate the quantity of methane sequestrated during composting. results show that with an estimated population of about 132916 inhabitants in 2023, dschang produces 27514.9 tons of waste annually. however, only 32% of this waste is collected and 55.21% of the waste collected is valorized through composting. between 2017 and 2023, the project activities produced 2472 tons of co2 equivalence and prevented the emission of 17,989 tons of co2, as the baseline scenario for the same period had predicted emissions of 20461 tons of methane. with this, dschang municipality benefited from carbon credits amounting to 150,000 euros between 2019 and 2023. however, numerous material, organizational and regulatory constraints hinder the smooth running of the activity and threaten its sustainability. resolving these difficulties is essential and requires the reorganization of the waste management system, more flexible and less rigorous policies in the carbon market. keywords cameroon, carbon evaluation, carbon credits, composting, household solid waste, municipalities 1 department of geography, environment and planning, university of dschang, cameroon 2 institute of fine arts in nkongsamba of the university of douala, cameroon * corresponding author’s e-mail: moyeeric@yahoo.com introduction waste production is increasing rapidly in urban areas and management challenges remain a major concern. according to the world bank, (2018), the annual production of municipal waste already exceeds 2 billion tons per year. several studies (sharholy et al., 2007; ahmed & ali, 2006; diabagate, 2009) are unanimous on the fact that rapid urbanization, the increase in living standards and population growth are closely linked to waste production. this has led to an explosive increase in the amount of waste and accelerated global warming through methane emissions. the recent world bank report (2018) shows that the increase in the quantity of waste produced in the world is increasing rapidly and it is estimated at more than 70% by 2050 and will be multiplied by three in sub-saharan africa with more than 516 million tons compared to 174tons today. greenhouse gas emission from waste significantly contributes to climate change. with 1.6 billion tons of carbon equivalent produced per year (5% of greenhouse gas emissions), the collection and treatment of waste is becoming an important factor in the fight against global warming. if mitigation measures are not put in place, this figure could reach 2.6 billion tons in 2050, further aggravating the current situation. these emissions largely come from methane (ch4) released by the decomposition of garbage in landfills. in sub-saharan africa, landfills only receive on average 30 to 40% of waste (ngangué, 2012; koledzi, 2011). this situation is caused by inadequate material, technological, legal and political framework that governs the waste management sector. the fraction of waste which dominates, however, consists of fermentable waste which can be recovered by composting (topanou, 2012). in the cities of central africa, more particularly in cameroon, the fermentable fraction contained in waste varies between 50 and 65% (ngnikam et al., 2017; sagne, 2021). this is a great potential as compositing provides opportunities to gain access to carbon credits and boast the effectiveness of municipal solid waste management systems. through a public-private partnership set up to alleviate the financial difficulties faced by municipalities in developing countries, carbon reduction or sequestration projects can have access to carbon credits (benrabia, 2003; gbinlo, 2010). carbon financing becomes an economic tool in the fight against climate change (albérola, 2011; boutti, 2013) as the carbon market encourages different agents to set up emissions reduction activities, especially in developing countries (han, 2024). the carbon market or greenhouse gas emissions trading system is a public policy tool for reducing gas emissions into the atmosphere (mainly carbon dioxide) responsible for climate change. it began from the rio earth summit in 1992, which led to the adoption by 196 countries of the united nations framework convention on climate change (unfccc), then to the establishment of the protocol of kyoto. this protocol is an international agreement signed on december 11, 1997 during cop 3 in kyoto as an additional protocol and binding application to the 1992 climate convention. it came into force in 2005 with the objective of reducing responsible ghg pa ge 22 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 21-31, 2025 emissions. this led to the putting in place of the largest emissions trading market though it only concerned industrialized countries. in 2005, the states began negotiations for a new agreement which would also take into account developing countries in preparation for the expiry of the kyoto protocol. this project culminated in cop 15 in copenhagen in 2009, which set a temperature stabilization objective of 2% by 2050. the kyoto protocol expires in 2012 and its objectives seem generally achieved (despite the fact that the united states did not ratify it and canada had withdrawn), but in the absence of an international agreement on climate, the industrialized countries decided to extend it beyond 2012. this is how in 2012, in doha, a new conference of the parties (cop18) was held during which the rules for the second commitment period of the kyoto protocol (2013-2020) were defined. it is in this context that cop 21 was held in paris, from november 30 to december 11, 2015, which resulted in the adoption of a global agreement to combat climate change on december 12, 2015. with this new agreement, emitting ghgs above a certain threshold is now penalized and has a cost. conversely, emitters capable of remaining below this threshold hold a differential value and have access to financial benefits. with this, the good news was the putting in place of benefits from emissions reductions. this was the origin of the carbon credits. carbon is used because carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse and since then, it could be traded in the carbon market. besides making money from composted waste, the idea of repurposing garbage as a resource has drawn much attention in light of growing concerns about sustainable development and environmental management. saifullah et al., (2024) explore the intriguing idea of using waste materials as a practical and ecological replacement for construction materials and also carefully evaluate the technical, environmental and financial viability of incorporating various waste products, like household waste paper and waste glass into different construction application. this economic value of waste has made scavenging a livelihood activity in some towns of developing countries though environmental and health concerns are on the rise. reducing greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere is important in mitigating global warming (fapong, 2017). in the agricultural sector, carbon assessment represents 14% of greenhouse gas emissions (foucherot et al., 2011). the ecological footprint, the carbon balance sheet or even the life cycle analysis (lca) is the tools par excellence for carbon assessment (marchand, 2013; aissani et al., 2012; sagne, 2021). in gambia, life cycle analysis has made it possible to reduce 20% and 22% of the country’s total municipal solid waste footprint (jassey et al., 2023). unfortunately, climate policies are perceived by developing countries as an additional constraint on their development process (mathy, 2004) with participation only taking place through the clean development mechanism (kleiche, 2006). in relation this perception, mahamane et al., (2023) established a direct correlation between carbondioxide emission reduction and poverty in developing countries. their work revealed that poor countries can not develop their economies if developed countries limit their industrial development with concepts such as the clean mechanism that limits energy consumption and development initiatives. developing countries contribute very little in global green house gas emission and sarker et al., (2021) revealed the progress of developing countries away from poverty require investing in industries that will emit gases and pollute the environment. this work has a different perspective and shades light on existing opportunities for municipalities in cameroon as potential beneficiaries from the carbon credits. as part of the national waste management strategy implemented in cameroon and compliance with sustainable development goals, the dschang municipality has established since the mid-2000s, with the help of national and international partners, a waste management and recovery system with access to carbon finance and which integrates the participation of all local stakeholders. since then, composting took a central stage in the waste management with construction and operationalization of two composting platforms. nonthe -less, there has been a number of drawbacks. for instance, waste is not sorted at source and in most cases; it arrives the composting platforms at an advanced state of degradation thus reducing the compost quality and credit potential (moye et al., 2024). as such, this work aims to show how carbon sequestrated during the composting process can fetch money from the carbon market. it has policy implications as it is imperative to take stock of the difficulties that hamper composting activity and impact carbon financing in developing countries. it has an introduction, presentation of the study area and the methodology for data collection and processing. results demonstrate the contribution of composting in the management of household solid waste, the carbon evaluation process and carbon credits obtained and finally the difficulties that hinder the composting activity and by extension access to the carbon market. materials and methods presentation of the study area located between latitudes 5° 25’ and 5° 30’ north and between longitudes 10°30’ and 10° 50’ east of the green wich meridian, dschang is the headquarter of the menoua division. geographcally, it falls within the western highlands of cameroon, precisely on the southeastern slope of the bamboutos mountains. dschang is located 46 km from the regional capital bafoussam (figure 1). with an average altitude of 1400m above the sea level, the dominant climate is the high altitude tropical type, characterized by a rainy season which extends from mid-march to mid-november and a dry season extending from midnovember to mid-march. precipitation is decreasing with an annual average of 1872.3 mm in pa ge 23 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 21-31, 2025 1997 compared to 1654.2 mm in 2005. altitudinal variations have put in place three agro-ecological zones (low, medium and high altitude) with strong agricultural potential (dschang council, 2019). according to data from the general population and housing census (rgph) of 2005, the municipality has a total of 120,207 inhabitants. that is, 63,838 inhabitants in the urban area and 56,369 inhabitants in the rural area. figure 1: localization of the study zone figure 1 shows two systems of waste management which do not follow the same circuit. pre-collection is carried out by private organizations in partnership with the municipality, especially in the inaccessible neighborhoods with the use of tricycles. collection takes place along the main streets of the town by compaction trucks. there are authorized dumpsites, but the population has created unauthorized garbage dumping sites throughout the city. waste collected is transported to the composting sites for the production of compost. the siteu composting platform located at a high altitude is only accessible by compaction trucks and dump trucks while tricycles transport fresh waste to the ngui composting platform. data collection and analysis secondary and primary sources were used to collect data for this work. secondary data was obtained from reports, archives and online articles. primary data collection was done through a participatory observation during internships carried out at the municipality composting platforms and at era cameroon, an ngo works with the municipality in the composting project. structured questionnaires were administered to 41 purposively selected actors within the waste management chain and four(4) interviews carried out with major stakeholders such as the head of the municipal waste management agency and agents of era cameroon in charge of the valorization of the carbon credits produced during the composting process. data collected was treated quantitatively and qualitatively. questionnaires were coded and treated in spss while interviews were transcribed, coded and analyzed according to contents and themes using the atlas.ti software. for carbon evaluation, parameters for calculating emission reductions during the composting process were employed, permitting the estimation of avoided emissions to be sold in the carbon market. the formula for calculating avoided emissions is that of ams-iii.f “avoidance of methane emissions through controlled biological treatment of biomass” of the united nations framework convention on climate change which stipulates that, to obtain avoided emissions, we proceed by calculating the difference between emissions of the project and those of the reference scenario. the reference scenario is that which prevails in a situation where there is no waste treatment and the project emissions represent those which take place during the project activity. the ams-iii.f methodology is the most suitable for calculating reduced emissions with regard to projects for the valorization of solid waste into compost on a small scale (-60,000 tco2eq / year), on a medium scale and on a large scale. it incorporates measures to avoid emitting methane into the atmosphere, whether from biomass or organic matter found in anaerobic conditions. pa ge 24 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 21-31, 2025 to calculate the emissions of the situation without the composting operation, the formula is as follows: bey=bech4swdsy+bewwy+bech4manurey-mdy*gwpch4 (1) where: bey= baseline emissions for year y; bech4swdsy= yearly methane emissions from solid waste; bewwy= be from waste water co-composted (be from composted waste water); bech4manurey=be from manure composted (be from composted manure); mdy= methane that would have to be composted and combusted to comply with regulation. gwpch4 is the global warming potential for ch4 = 23 (the global warming potential of ch4 is 23) during the composting process, there are very small amounts of greenhouse gas emissions. these emissions are monitored and their values used to calculate project emissions. the formula for calculating project emissions is: pey=pey,power+pey,comp+pey,runoff+pey,res waste (2) where: pey = project emissions year y; pey, power = emissions due to electricity; pey,comp= emissions linked to the composting process; pey, runoff = emissions due to leachate; pey, reswaste= emissions linked to anaerobic storage of compost. waste treatment through composting in dschang focuses on the fraction of ch4 emissions avoided, so the formula becomes; bey= bech4swdsy (3) where, bech4wdsy=φ × (1-f) × gwpch4 × (1-ox) × (16/12) × f × docf × mcf × ∑y x=1∑jwj.k × docj × e-kj(y-x) × (1-e-kj) (4) from this formula, we understand that the reductions in ch4 for waste composted in year x do not only apply in year x, but also in future years. more explicitly, it must be understood that the emission reductions in later years are the results of the waste treatment carried out in the beginning. for this reason and for a better understanding of the immediate benefits of composting activity on ghg emissions in dschang, we adopted this formula while reducing all year round emissions for landfilling. wjx = wx × pjx (5) wj= quantity of treated waste “j” monitored, docf = degradable organic carbon: default value; kj= waste degradation rate j by default; wjx= quantity of waste “j” treated in year x; wx: total quantity of waste treated; pjx= average fraction of waste “j” in waste of year x; docj: fraction of degradable organic carbon (weight), in waste type per day and kj is the waste degradation rate. regarding the calculation of project emissions during the composting process, reference is made to greenhouse gas emissions (in very small quantities) but whose values are monitored and used to calculate project emissions. they include; emissions due to electricity consumption pey,power = ∑jec × ef × (1+tdl) (6) where; ec=quantity of electricity used in the year; ef=default emissions factor of 1.3; (1 + tdl)= network loss by default which is 20% emissions linked to the composting process pey,comp = qy × efcomp × gpwch4 (7) given that the methodology is conservative, it is estimated that there are few emissions where: qy=quantity of waste treated; efcomp = default emissions factor which is 4% and=gwpch4, which is 23. in the case where the oxygen is monitored and is greater than 8% with 90% confidence and 10% error, then pey,comp = 0 emissions linked to leaching (pey, runoff) pey,runoff = qy,www,runoff × cody,www,runoff × bo,ww × mcfww,treat × ufb × gwpch4pey,runoff=0 (8) these emissions were not considered because composting on both sites is done in a shed and therefore the leachate effect is null. emissions linked to anaerobic storage of compost pey, reswaste pey = pey,power + pey,comp (9) in the case of dschang, compost is stored aerobically so pey, reswaste = 0 results and discussion the contribution of composting in the municipal solid waste management system the population of dschang municipality has evolved over time, increasing from 30,000 inhabitants in 1952 to about 132,916 inhabitants in 2023. it is important to note that the waste production capacity of a city depends on its population and as such, quantities of waste produced by the city’s populations have evolved in line with its population growth. with the establishment of a composting activity in the mid-2000s, a municipal waste management agency was created in 2015. within this agency is the service responsible for pre-collection and collection of waste. in the year 2023, the population was estimated at 27,514 tons with an average per capita waste production capacity of 0.65kg/day. however, the waste management service collected only 32% of the waste produced by the city’s population. a comparison between the quantities of waste collected and those treated (table 1) gives us the contribution of composting in waste management. table 1 shows that quantities of waste collected in dschang have increased significant since the inception of the composting project in 2015. the change from about 4000 tons in 2015 to 14000 in 2022 is remarkable but there was drop to about 9000tons in 2023. interviews revealed that the drop was caused by technical challenges that made waste collection ineffective. this implied a corresponding increase in waste treated from 500tons in 2015 to about 5000tons in 2023. despite the steady increase in quantities treated, there are fluctuations in the rate of treatment. it varies in relation to the waste collection rate. this treatment rate is highest in 2018, where it represents 66.55% of the quantity of waste collected but trends have been falling with 2022 representing only 28.64% but in 2023 it went up to 55.21%. these fluctuations in quantities treated have implications on the carbon credit potential of the municipality. pa ge 25 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 21-31, 2025 table 1: quantity of waste collected and treated on the platforms between 2015 and 2023 years total quantities of waste collected (tons) total quantities of waste composted rate of treatment by composting (%) 2015 3909,04 1130 28,91 2016 4 996,90 1695,1 33,92 2017 5800,53 3487,57 60,13 2018 5633,35 3411,11 60,55 2019 5342,10 2187,31 40,94 2020 11282,67 3012,48 26,70 2021 13267,19 4 450,05 33,54 2022 13817,14 3 956,90 28,64 2023 8939,5 4 935,21 55,21 composting as an alternative method for municipal solid waste treatment composting is a method of stabilizing and treating biodegradable organic waste using the natural process of decomposition of organic matter in the presence of oxygen. an increase in temperature for several weeks, reflecting the activity of a large number of microorganisms, produces a stable final product called compost (figure 2). figure 2: organic waste composting system figure 2 shows the inputs, processes and output from the composting process. the process begins when waste reaches the composting platforms at ngui and siteu. it involves a number of activities (figure 3). the first stage is the sorting of non-biodegradable components of the waste using the handpicking method on sorting tables (photo a). the compostable waste is the place in heaps and fermentation begins (photo b). the fermentation is done under aerobic conditions to avoid the production of methane. after a month of fermentation, there is sharp rise in temperatures due to action of micro-organisms. temperature remains generally high during the first month and decrease gradually. during this phase, the humidity level of the heap is checked and if it is too dry, it is watered (photo d). the heap must not be too dry or too wet. a dry heap may stop the activity of the microorganisms while too much water produces a blackish liquid called leachate which is toxic. watering is therefore monitored carefully. as decomposition is going on, heaps are constantly turned (photo c). during this phase, the waste that makes up the heap is unidentifiable and a reduction in temperature is observed (below 40 °c). this is the second month of fermentation and it lasts for a month and a half. throughout this phase, the decomposition of the waste continues and the organic materials undergo biological and chemical stabilization. after 3 and a half to 4 months, waste is completely decomposed. a final turning is carried out to dry it completely and larger particles are removed through sieving (photo e). the dry compost is then packaged into bags and sold to local farmers (photo f). during these processes, data is collected for calculation of project emission reductions. carbon evaluation during composting processes this process begins with a project design document. when drafting this document, estimates are made of the emissions that would normally take place in a situation without a composting project. these emissions are still called baseline emissions and are different from project pa ge 26 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 21-31, 2025 figure 3: composting processes at the municipal composting platforms emissions. during the composting activities, a carbon monitoring of certain key parameters on the different composting platforms was carried out. in dschang, these parameters are used in the calculation of project emissions by era cameroun and the verification of reduced emissions ensured by a designated operational entity. after calculating project emissions, they are compared to those of the baseline to obtain the reduced emissions (figure 4). during the year 2023, 2873 tons of emissions were avoided from baseline emissions estimated at 3334 tons. this shows a reduction of 86%. figure 4: emissions calculated during the composting processes figure 4 shows the baseline emissions and emissions reduced by the dschang city composting project. it is clear that the project avoided each year more than 90% of ch4 emissions that would have occurred in the absence of a composting project. the city’s waste would have produced 20461 tons of carbon equivalence between 2017 and 2023. thanks to the composting of its waste, 17989 tons of co2 eq were avoided. this corresponds to 87% of the emissions that would have occurred without the project. it is important to note that during the composting process, small quantities of other ghgs are emitted especially co2. between 2017 and 2023, 2472 tons of co2 were emitted from composting activities such as electricity consumption and storage of compost. pa ge 27 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 21-31, 2025 accessing carbon credits from certified reduced emission to access the carbon market, developing countries must not only set up a project to sequester or avoid greenhouse gas emissions but they are conditioned to draft a carbon file to be submitted to gold standard, an institution that regulates the voluntary market resulting from the clean development mechanism (cdm) to which the project is registered. this is the first condition to obtain certification for emission reduction and possibility of selling them. the procedure begins with the elaboration of a project design document that is submitted to a designated operational entity for validation after monitoring project activities in the field. registration is then done and it corresponds to the formal acceptance of the carbon project by the cdm executive board. this is a prerequisite for the verification, certification and marketing processes of credits relating to the project activities. it is important to note that carbon financing is additional financing allocated to decentralized local communities in developing countries to enable them to cover part of the costs related to the management of their waste. in dschang, the ngo era cameroon is the local structure that handles the sale of certified emissions and the main buyer is the french foundation good planet. the dschang municipality began receiving carbon credits in 2019 although the evaluation of emissions avoided by the composting project started in 2017. delays observed in the reception of credits between 2017 and 2019 were attributed to administrative bottlenecks encountered during the drafting and validation of the project design document as revealed in the following excerpts captured during an interview with an agent of era cameroon; “……drafting the project design documents and getting validation and certification of reduced emissions is a long and challenging task. that is why it took us more than two years to start benefiting from carbon credits… ”(interview, 2023). however, the dschang project unit benefited from remote support from the gevalor team (sustainable management and recovery of waste and mineral raw materials), which gave them the opportunity to finalize the document by 2019. thanks to their interventions, credits for the years 2017 and 2018 were then considered as a balance that was later paid to era cameroon by good planet. from 2019 to 2023, there has been a steady increase in the amounts benefited by the project although with marked differences between the received and the expected amounts (figure 5). figure 5: difference between the amount of carbon credits received and the expected amounts figure 5 shows that carbon credits obtained have evolved from 10,000 euros in 2019 to 50,000euros in 2023 but were below the expected credits except for 2022. however, in 2022 and 2023, the amounts received were more than the expected amounts. this is explained by the fact that even though emission reductions are only calculated for specific years, the carbon credits are paid throughout the entire period of the project’s activities. therefore, the greater the quantity of waste processed at the start of the project, the greater the carbon credits obtained over time. between 2019 and 2023, the project has benefitted from credits amounting to 150,000 euros. however, before the implementation of a carbon monitoring system, the project already had other financial sources. these are the revenues from participatory precollection and from the sale of compost. between 2016 and 2020, the total amount of money made by the precollection and collection service was 43,510,750 fcfa, while from 2015 to 2023, the revenue from compost sales amounted to 50,981,128 fcfa. despite these financial gains, the project still encounters a number of challenges that limits its ability to make more money. challenges in accessing carbon credits by from composting activities waste collection and composting barriers in dschang municipality, only 32% of waste produced reaches the composting sites. this implies that 68% of pa ge 28 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 21-31, 2025 waste produced is dumped illegally. from questionnaire survey, 67% of the population revealed that pre-collection and waste collection activities are not at its peak. the primary causes are mainly insufficient technological (23%), financial, material (41.2%) and human resources (7.8%). the poor state of roads (5%) was equally identified as a limited factor as it delayed waste supplies to the composting platforms. interviews with head of waste collection unit revealed that the pre-collection and waste collection circuit does not cover the entire town due to limited materials and poor state of roads. he added “…. there is only one compaction truck that plies only the main streets whereas dense residential quarters where waste is produced in large quantities are inaccessible. it is difficult and these people are forced to dump waste illegally…(interview, 2023). at the level of the composting platforms, challenges arise from the quality of waste treated. as revealed by the head of the composting unit; “…due to delays in waste collection and transportation, waste sometimes arrive the composting platforms at a degrading state…waste that is produced after three days is not compostable because it will produce poor quality compost..” (interview, 2023) it should be noted that the greater the quantity of waste collected, the greater the quantity treated, as well as the quantity of emissions reduced and consequently the carbon credits. the sale of certified reduced emissions through an intermediary for projects developed in cameroon as part of the clean development mechanism to have access to the voluntary carbon market, they must go through an intermediary for the sale of their certified reduced emissions. there are in fact two sizes of project: small-scale projects that avoid less than 60,000 tons of carbon per year and large-scale projects that avoid more than 60,000 tons of carbon per year. to sell directly to the label that regulates the voluntary carbon market, it is indeed necessary to reduce a large amount of carbon per year. each standard at the international level gives conditions to be met to deal directly with them. the dschang project is a smallscale and must go through an intermediary to sell get access to the carbon market. the intermediary must be a project promoter, registered with the desired standard. with reduced emissions of 3334 tons of co2 equivalent, emissions are sold via good planet, a french association which helps small project leaders to sell their credits on the voluntary offset market. the latter buys the credits at a fixed price and later resells them to one of the labels which regulate the carbon market. it is important to note that the label with which the city’s project is registered is the gold standard. good planet buys carbon credits from era at a fixed price of 15 euros per ton of co2eq and resells them on the market. during an interview to this effect, the representative of the ngo era cameroon declared; “…gold standard does not know era but good planet who has an account with him and is a promote…”. (interview, 2023) this shows that if era had the possibility of dealing directly with the gold standard, era could sell its credits at a higher price and thus increase the revenue from the sale of carbon credits. more than 10% of carbon credits go to the intermediary organization. access to the carbon market conditioned by a certified of a project to have access to the carbon market, it is necessary to set up a project whose aim is either to avoid emissions or to sequester emissions that have already occurred. cameroon joined the unfccc in 1994 and is required to comply with decisions that were taken by the decisionmakers at the 1992 summit. the condition of setting up a project before having access to the carbon market is already in itself a hindrance for developing countries. these countries that do not contribute up to 4% of global emissions responsible for global warming have unstable financial conditions and limited know-how on the carbon certification projects. as such, there are individuals, companies and non-governmental organizations that carry out activities to reduce emissions and/or sequester gas emissions but cannot have access to carbon credits because they are outside the framework of a project. the processes of setting up a project or even a carbon file remains very little known and challenging as stipulated during an interview with the municipal agent; “…the project existing for two years before we had access to credits due to challenges in mounting the project documents and the complication certification procedures. dschang equally faced language problems as project documents were majorly in english..” (interview, 2023) surveys conducted among workers in the waste sector showed that 92% of workers do not know how to set up a similar project while more than 90% of those surveyed have no knowledge on carbon financing. it therefore becomes crucial to set up initiatives that will provide resource persons in this area in order to address some of these challenges. discussion waste management through composting in developing country can provides direct or indirect access to carbon credits depending on the scale of the project. this study shows that the population of the city of dschang estimated at 123,916 inhabitants in 2023 produced 27,514 tons of waste. the service responsible for pre-collection and collection recovered 32% of this waste and 55% of it was treated through composting. this shows a low collection rate that is similar with that in most towns in sub saharan africa. according to a study conducted by koledzi, (2011), the waste collection rate in lomé, togo is 35%. it is therefore evident that a greater proportion of waste produced is dumped illegally. waste management pa ge 29 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 21-31, 2025 in developing countries needs to be improved upon. to effectively handle solid waste management, it is crucial to adopt a comprehensive approach that combines sustainable practices, community engagement and efficient policy (shahen, 2024). waste is a resource and has been valorized by dschang municipality through it composting project that initiated in 2015. as an income generating activity, it has yielded 50,981,128 fcfa from the sale of compost between 2015 and 2023. through the monitoring of data collected in the field, the carbon footprint of the composting activity was carried out. avoided emissions can be quantified through several different methods, namely life cycle analysis, ecological footprint and carbon footprint or greenhouse gas emission footprint (aissani et al., 2012; sagne, 2021). through the ams-iii.f methodology of the united nations framework convention on climate change, it was determined that in 2023, thanks to the said project, 2,873 tons of co2 equivalent were avoided from the baseline emissions previously estimated at 3,334 tons, given a reduction of 86%. these reduced emissions are then sold on the voluntary offset market to cover part of the costs relating to waste management. according to fapong (2017), access to the carbon market involves setting up a carbon file in 6 stages. this file must be validated by the chosen label. in the case of dschang, the amount of carbon credits received by the composting project for the year 2017 was 10,000 euros and 50,000 euros in 2023.this is an important strategy in climate change mitigation. albérola (2011) talks about the fight against climate change through economic instruments such as carbon finance, carbon taxation and regulation. the carbon credit is a market-based tool that encourages economic agents to implement carbon emission reduction activities as part of the fight against climate change (wang, 2024). total transactions from carbon credits represented 103 billion euros in 2009 and are today a central pillar in the financing of international climate policy (world bank, 2018). never the less, developing countries are not making maximum use of these financial benefits related to the carbon market. this work provides elements for understanding the current development of carbon credits within the waste sector. however, waste management projects in developing countries have not been transformed into economic projects. dschang municipality was pioneer in cameroon to transform its waste management project to an income generating activity through composting. despite the success recorded, composting activities in the city face many difficulties including; insufficient technology (23%), financial and material limitations (41.2%) and inadequate human resources (7.8%) and poor state of roads (5%) which sometimes leads to the collection of waste already in the decomposition phase. these challenges are common in sub saharan african towns have limited municipality’s abilities to expand their waste collection streams (topanou, 2012; ngahane et al, 2021; moye et al., 2024). these challenges go beyond technical and financial limitations to policies. within the context of decentralization, municipalities in cameroon have been given all competences that can permit them manage their waste effectively (moye et al., 2024). at the international level mathy (2004) believes that developing countries see climate policies as a constraint to their developmental projects and therefore pay little attention to emission reduction projects. equally, fujiwara (2012) states that the limited size of future demand for compensations or credits, restrictions on the use of cdm credits in phase iii of the european union emissions trading system are the primary difficulties hindering the access of developing countries to the carbon market. these challenges need to be given particular attention in order to ameliorate access to carbon credits for effective climate change financing. conclusion this work had as objective to assess the opportunities and challenges of municipalities in accessing carbon credits from the waste sector. using the case study of dschang municipality, mixed research methods were employed to collect qualitative and quantitative data. findings revealed that the rate of waste production is 0.65kg/per/day which is slightly above that in other towns of cameroon. to effectively manage this waste, the municipality in collaboration with partners such as era cameroon set up a waste composting project in the mid-2000s that had the objective to transform municipal solid waste into compost. however, in 2023, only 32% of waste produced waste collected and transported to the composting platforms. these platforms have been able to transform 55% of waste collected into compost. in 2017, the municipality started a carbon evaluation project and according to emissions of the reference scenario, the city’s waste would have produced 20461 tons of carbon equivalence between 2017 and 2023. thanks to the composting of its waste, 17989 tons of co2 eq were avoided, representing 87% of the emissions that would have occurred without the project. it is important to note that during the composting process, small quantities of gas are emitted, mainly co2. during this activity, 2472 tons of co2 were emitted between 2017 and 2023. this project began to receive carbon credits in 2019 after validation of the project design document, and between 2019 and 2023, the amount received was 150,000 euros. however, a lot of challenges have reduced the municipality’s potential in reaping greater financial benefits from the waste management project. the inability to treat greater quantities of waste due to financial, technical and material inadequacies, the lengthy and complex certification procedures are some of the short comings identified. as such, it is important to set up an entity that represents cameroon in particular and africa in general on the carbon market to allow the establishment of a more flexible framework and less rigorous regulations regarding access to the carbon market for developing countries. pa ge 30 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 21-31, 2025 references ahmed, s., & ali, m. 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(2012). gestion des déchets solides ménagers dans la ville d’abomey-calavi (bénin): caractérisation et essais de valorisation par compostage (doctoral dissertation, aix-marseille). https://theses. fr/2012qixm480702/05.2024 14h56 world bank (2018). global waste to grow by 70% by 2050 unless urgent action is taken. world bank report. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/pressrelease/2018/09/20/ pa ge 1 pa ge 93 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) exploring diversity of hispanic health outcomes through prism of environmental justice victor vasnetsov1*, catherine vasnetsov1, siona pramoda1, meghna pramoda2 volume 3 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v3i1.2845 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: may 13, 2024 accepted: june 15, 2024 published: september 19, 2024 in environmental economics studies us hispanics are frequently depicted as one large homogeneous group, despite diversity in their countries’ cultural traditions, genetic background and socioeconomic status (ses). this study aimed to compare florida’s very diverse hispanic population of caribbean, mexican, central, and south american ancestry. twelve independent variables were selected from environmental pollution, geospatial challenges, and ses categories. dependent variables included the relative prevalence of three major chronic diseases: asthma, diabetes, and heart disease. analysis of pairs correlations was supplemented by multi-variable linear regression. majority-hispanic areas have higher than average pollution, diabetes, proximity to disadvantaged neighborhoods, and lower ses. despite lower pollution than in urban areas, florida’s inland rural areas had higher rates of all major diseases and lower life expectancies. cuban and puerto rican populations of miami and orlando metro areas, respectively, have less favorable ses outcomes and higher diabetes. columbian and venezuelan communities have significantly higher education levels than other hispanic cohorts, and they have the best relative outcome among us hispanics in ses and health, although still lagging us averages. african-american community in miamidade county was by far the most disadvantaged, with significantly lower ses and health outcomes than any other group in the study, including the nearby cuban-majority community. our results confirmed the view that hispanics are environmentally disadvantaged in florida, with worse outcomes than the us and florida average in health and economic factors. furthermore, the study highlighted significant differentiation of ses and health outcomes among various regional hispanic cohorts. keywords environmental justice, health disparities, hispanic diversity 1 envirojusticepr research center, puerto rico 360 c. ángel buonomo, san juan, 00918, usa 2 harvard university massachusetts hall, cambridge, ma 02138, usa * corresponding author’s e-mail: v.v@cambridge-research.org.uk introduction in demographic surveys, economic and environmental justice literature (rodriguez, 2012; mikati, 2018; casey, 2023; josey, 2023), hispanics are portrayed as a homogeneous ethnic group united by a common language and centuries of spanish colonial experience. this broad unified classification is a significant oversimplification of a complex and nuanced sociocultural reality, as it ignores the rich diversity and multifaceted identities of distinct groups within the hispanic community. filling this gap in the environmental economics literature requires more granular methodological frameworks that recognize and investigate the diversity within hispanic populations. people of different latin american national backgrounds differ significantly within the category in terms of socioeconomic status (ses), cultural traditions, history and future trends. us residents of hispanic descent come from diverse countries, including mexico, central america, south america, and the caribbean. each of these regions has a distinct history, cultural expressions, and social dynamics. mexicans are the largest by far subgroup of us hispanics (55%), with a distinct cultural heritage that combines indigenous traditions with spanish colonial influences. this experience differs significantly from the cultural backgrounds of hispanics from caribbean countries, where african, indigenous caribbean and european heritages got intertwined. the caribbean cohort on its path to the us residency has more differences than similarities. puerto ricans have the advantage of automatic us citizenship, which provides them with complete and reversible flexibility in terms of destination and time of their immigration to the mainland us. cuban immigrants have much more favorable us immigration status than any other hispanic country, ever since the fidel castro regime took over in the 1960s. in contrast, immigrants from the dominican republic and other smaller caribbean nations have a much more difficult path to the us, as they do not have the above-mentioned preferences of cubans and puerto ricans, and yet they do not have a land border as a transit route available for mexicans and central americans. central american countries such as guatemala, el salvador, and nicaragua have a history of extended civil unrest, consistent economic challenges, lower levels of education and cultural traditions that differ significantly from those of south americans in argentina, brazil, and chile. south american countries developed significantly independently over the past century hence their population has a wide range of cultural diversity, from the european-influenced southern cone to the more indigenous andean countries. consequently, educational attainment, income levels, and health outcomes can vary widely among caribbean, mexican, central, and south american cohorts, reflecting the diverse challenges and pa ge 94 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 93-104, 2024 opportunities encountered by these communities over the past century (burchard, 2005). therefore, it is crucial to apply the prism of environmental justice to the hispanic community with emphasis on its largest diverse components from various countries. florida was chosen for the analysis of hispanic diversity for several compelling reasons. it is the third largest us state by population, with a ratio of urban and rural population close to the us national average. florida is the second most popular tourist destination (after california) and a magnet for us retirees (21.6% vs. 17.3% of people >65 years old). however, florida’s population has a 10% lower household income vs. the us national average and a slightly higher percentage of poverty prevalence, 12.7% vs. 11.5% for the us average (shrider, 2023). the number of floridians without health insurance (13.9%) is significantly higher than 9.3% for the us average, in agreement with prior observations (branch, 2022). these factors are very relevant to the health focus of our research. compared to the us average, florida has a higher african-american population (17% vs. 13.6%) and a lower asian population (3.1% vs. 6.0%). the most significant difference is a larger hispanic/latino segment in florida at 25.9% vs. 19.1% in the us. despite being the sixth state in the us in the percentage of the hispanic population, florida has by far the most diverse hispanic community by country of origin, as shown in table 1. the largest hispanic states (california, texas, new mexico, arizona, and nevada) are quite similar to each other in terms of hispanics origin, with mexican descendants being by far the largest contingent of hispanics in those states. notably, us residents of mexican descent represent 55% of the overall us hispanics, 77% of texan, and 82% of californian hispanics. in contrast, mexicans comprise only 9% of hispanics in florida, being the fourth region of hispanic origin after the caribbean (55%), south american (24%), and central american (12%), as shown in table 1. the main goal of this study is to explore the impact of ancestral differences among florida hispanics in several aspects: community geospatial factors, personal socioeconomic status (ses), environmental burden, and ultimately health outcomes. table 1: hispanics by country of origin, % of total population in usa, the states of texas and florida. usa tx fl mexican 55% 77% 9% caribbean 22% 2% 55% puerto rican 9.2% 0.1% 18% cuban 6.6% 1.6% 33% dominican 5.8% 0.3% 4.2% central american 17% 13% 12% salvadoran 6.6% 6.0% 1.2% guatemalan 4.7% 2.0% 2.6% honduran 3.2% 3.5% 3.0% nicaraguan 1.2% 0.4% 2.9% costa rican 0.4% 0.1% 0.3% panamanian 0.4% 0.1% 0.5% south american 13% 5% 24% colombian 4.0% 1.6% 9.2% ecuadorian 2.2% 0.2% 1.4% peruvian 2.2% 0.5% 2.7% venezuelan 2.1% 1.6% 7.2% argentinean 0.9% 0.2% 1.5% spaniard 0.7% 0.3% 0.7% chilean 0.5% 0.1% 0.5% bolivian 0.4% 0.0% 0.2% uruguayan 0.2% 0.0% 0.3% paraguayan 0.1% 0.0% 0.0% hispanic as % of total population of a state 19.1% 39.4% 25.9% source: us census bureau, 2020 census redistricting data pa ge 95 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 93-104, 2024 literature review environmental justice area of economic research focuses on identifying discriminatory disparities in the allocation of environmental hazards across different population groups, particularly for people with lower incomes and less societal voice, such as racial and ethnic minorities. the ecosystem is highly complex, with numerous channels of influence and feedback loops connecting various components. human health has deep genetic roots stemming from those regions’ development history and a diverse ancestor population. in general, the current population of the americas hispanic region includes descendants of three distinct ethnic groups: indigenous indian tribes, spaniards, and africans brought by the slave trade over three centuries starting from the 17th century. the relative mix varies significantly by country, depending on the history of people’s movements over centuries. in the caribbean, the indigenous population mostly vanished, and newcomers absorbed the remaining few natives. a large number of africans were transported to the dominican republic and haiti, but to a lesser extent to cuba and puerto rico, defining their currently different racial mix. in central america and the northern part of south america, indigenous people coexisted and blended with spaniards, while latin africans represented less than 3-5% of the total population. the importance of tracing racial roots stems from the fact that europeans, indigenous indians, and latin africans have quite different disease predispositions based on their genetics and cultural habits such as prevalent diet, as noted by buchard (2005). more granular intra-ethnic research could logically begin with a more detailed understanding of the population’s genetic predisposition to specific types of diseases based on their heritage (comonos, 2015). for example, it is well known that african americans have a much higher prevalence of asthma than other americans, which can be attributed to both genetics and living conditions (pratt, 2015; josey, 2023). meanwhile, even after controlling for age, gender, and income, us hispanics have a significantly higher incidence of diabetes than the us white population (flegal, 1991; schneiderman, 2014; fernandez, 2021). overall, hispanics had the highest diabetes prevalence (22.1%), followed by non-hispanic african americans (20.4%), asians (19.1%), and nonhispanic whites (12.1%). furthermore, cheng (2019) reported heterogeneity in the distribution of diabetes among us hispanic adults of various national origins: mexicans (24.6%) have the highest percentage, followed by puerto ricans (21.7%), cubans/dominicans (20.5%), central americans (19.3%), and south americans (12.3%). body mass index (bmi) is the most commonly used measure of obesity. the diabetes prevalence trend was generally aligned with the bmi trend: the highest for mexicans at 30.5 and the lowest for south americans at 26.5, with other groups’ bmi close to 29 (cdc, 2023). for calibration, bmi ranges from 25 to 30 indicates overweight, and bmi greater than 30 indicates obesity. importantly, us residents of south american origin had a much lower frequency (5.9%) of very high bmi > 35, compared to other us hispanics: mexicans (20%), puerto ricans (15.4%), and cubans (13.8%). higher levels of obesity were found to be positively correlated with diabetes, though specific causality is more difficult to determine (chobot, 2018). the task of identifying, quantifying, regulating and monitoring environmental pollution sources is performed by the us environmental protection agency (epa), with the help of various state and local authorities, setting standards and rules and enforcing compliance. the next step is to quantitatively assess the health of a population with different socioeconomic statuses (ses), both “at a point in time” and longitudinally, when possible. table 2 depicts several major us hispanic groups. hispanics of mexican descent make up the majority of us hispanics (55%). the next largest subgroup is from the caribbean, accounting for 17%, followed by a smaller group from central america (9%), south america (5%), and others (us census, 2020). while the above differences among hispanics were discussed in the medical literature, there is a clear gap in existing economic and environmental literature, that still continues addressing hispanics as one large homogenous category, despite apparent heterogeneity in this diverse ethnic group. our study aims at filling this gap with a more focused emphasis of identifying hispanic subgroups and classifying their ses and health outcomes. table 2: diversity of us hispanics by different origins mexico caribbean central america south america pu er to r ic o c ub a d om in ic an r . sa lv ad or g ua te m al a h on du ra s c ol um bi a ve ne zu el a pe ru sp ai n population in native country, m 127.5 3.2 11.2 11.2 6.3 17.4 10.4 51.9 28.3 34.1 47.4 us residents vs native country, % 29% 181% 21% 21% 39% 10% 10% 3% 2% 2% 2% population in us, million 37.2 5.8 2.4 2.4 2.5 1.8 1.0 1.4 0.6 0.7 1.0 pa ge 96 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 93-104, 2024 the lower section of table 2 compares various socioeconomic factors, highlighting a wide range of outcomes. the median annual household income ranges from $50-52k for caribbean and central american descendants to $69k for hispanics from columbia and peru (compared to the us average of $75k). aside from average income for a given cohort, two other factors are more important in terms of health outcomes: poverty and a lack of health insurance. poverty rates range from 2026% for caribbean and central american descendants, while it is 11-13% for south americans, similar to the us average of 12.4%. health insurance is a major determinant in maintaining good health, and its availability is typically defined by two interrelated factors: level of household income and employment at mid-to-large us companies that typically provide health insurance to their employees. according to the data, central americans have the most challenging socioeconomic status, whereas south americans are relatively well-positioned among us hispanics. as a result, the hispanic community in the united states varies greatly depending on their country of origin, which has an impact on health (rodriguez, 2012; velasco-mondragon, 2016; yanez, 2016; shaw, 2017). this is critical background to understand before analyzing the effects of environmental pollution on health. materials and methods the most recent us decennial census (2020) provided extensive demographic data such as population race/ ethnicity, age, education, income, and poverty. distinct terms are assigned to five racial groups and also two ethnic groups: hispanic or latino (of any race). hispanics are defined as descendants of spanish-speaking countries, whereas latinos include hispanics as well as latin american countries that speak portuguese (brazil) or french (haiti). the american community survey (acs) provides additional us census data on demographics, social, economic, and housing. the acs and us census databases differ in frequency (annual vs. one-in-decade) and data collection (acs’ sample estimates vs. official counts of us census). as a result, acs has a margin of sampling error, which is typically between 0.3% and 0.5% for larger categories such as the hispanic population. table 3 shows that our research approach defined independent and dependent research variables from categories of environmental pollution, personal socioeconomic status, and health outcomes. the collected data was checked for completeness across all variables to assure comprehensive analysis. the size of the entire dataset was very large (>50,000 datapoints) to provide for robust statistical significance in all aspects, including focused analysis of various hispanic regional cohorts. established statistical research methods were utilized across the entire study, including pair-wise correlations and multi-variable liner regression analysis. selection of independent and dependent variables the us environmental protection agency (epa) provided environmental pollution data on diesel particulate matter (dzl), hazardous waste sites (hazw), the proximity of superfund npl slides (npl), and rpm facilities. the personal socio-economic status (ses) dataset was obtained from the us census and included data on linguistic isolation (lingo), unemployment rate (uempl), poverty pvrt (% of tract population below 100% us federal level), and education (whsd, defined as a percentage of adults above the age of 25 without a high school diploma). a variety of potential variables were examined, and four the most relevant were selected in each category. in case of environmental contaminants, concentration of diesel particles in the air is a clear indicator of proximity to high-intensity roads. diesel exhausts by trucks are well known as the worst type of land-based vehicle exhaust pollution, in contrast to passenger cars run on a much cleaner gasoline fuel. in addition to dynamic pollution sources, three dimensions of static pollution sources were selected: proximity to superfund sites, proximity to more general hazardous waste sites and finally, proximity to less impactful but most numerous risk management plant (rpm) facilities. for ses group, the selected factors foreign born 29% 2% 53% 50% 53% 58% 63% 57% 76% 59% 12% u.s. citizens 81% 99% 82% 78% 66% 58% 51% 79% 51% 79% 95% median age in years 27.9 31 40 30.1 30.3 26.6 26.9 36.1 36 38 34.2 bachelor's degree or more 15% 24% 30% 22% 13% 11% 14% 38% 57% 36% 40% english proficient 74% 83% 64% 61% 56% 51% 47% 66% 56% 65% 95% median household income, $k/year $59 $52 $59 $50 $61 $52 $50 $69 $65 $69 $74 homeowners 53% 34% 56% 31% 46% 34% 31% 53% 39% 56% 63% living in poverty 18% 21% 14% 20% 17% 23% 26% 12% 13% 11% 13% without health insurance 20% 8% 12% 10% 24% 34% 40% 13% 15% 12% 7% lower average income, higher poverty higher average income, lower poverty source: pew research center, based on us census data pa ge 97 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 93-104, 2024 are most commonly mentioned in the environmental literature (collins, 2016; mikati, 2018; liu, 2021; josey, 2023): poverty, lack of education, unemployment and linguistic isolation from the prevailing english languagebased us culture. the four dependent variables are recognized by the us health authorities as more common major diseases (rodriguez, 2012; shaw, 2017). as shown on figure 1, florida population has a very uneven distribution of health outcomes, stemming in a large part from the selected chronic diseases. table 3: independent and dependent variables description of independent variables # abbrev. environmental pollution burden # abbrev. socio-economic status (ses) 1 dzl diesel particles matter in the air 5 lingo linguistic isolation 2 hazw proximity of hazardous waste sites 6 uempl unemployment rate 3 npl proximity to superfund npl sites 7 pvrt poverty (%, income < 100% us level) 4 rpm proximity to risk management plan facilities 8 whsd adults without high school diploma description of dependent variables # abbrev. health equity dependent variables 1 astm asthma 2 dbts diabetes 3 hart heart disease 4 shlf shorter life expectancy independent variables are expressed as percentiles (compared to the overall us range), making it much easier to compare very different variables using the same scale from 1 to 100. the proximity of a given population tract to geospatial challenges or pollution sources resulted in a higher value of independent variables (i.e. higher values indicate worse outcome for population). according to the us centers for disease control and prevention (cdc), the prevalence of major chronic diseases such as asthma, diagnosed diabetes, coronary heart disease, and shorter life expectancy was used to calculate the value of health equity-dependent variables. the health equity index (hei) is formulated in the following equation for a given us census tract (i): heii = β0+ β1* dzl + β2* hazw + β3* npl+ β4* rpm + β5* lingo + β6* uempl + β7* pvrt + β8* whsd + εi hei index is the equally weighted average values of asthma, diabetes and heart disease. all data were expressed in values from 1 to 100, as percentiles of outcomes within the us. the lowest value of 1 was ascribed to lowest pollution, unemployment and other factors, while the value of 100 was the highest percentile within us, and value of 50 being the median across the us. florida as research subject prior to investigating the impact of hispanic origin on health outcomes under environmental pressure, it is preferable first to calibrate the urban-rural dimension, as the availability and quality of us healthcare varies significantly depending on population density. figure 1 depicts the relative ranking of all 67 florida counties by health outcomes, defined as the equal weighting of length and quality of life. all counties were ranked from 1 as calculated by the county health ranking (https://www. countyhealthrankings.org/). lighter colors correspond to better health outcomes, while darker colors to relatively worse outcomes. the hispanic population is unevenly distributed across florida, as illustrated in figure 2. cubans primarily live in miami-dade and nearby broward counties in the southeast coastal florida, whereas puerto ricans are concentrated in the greater orlando metro area. the majority of mexicans live in rural areas in the state’s mid-south and northwest. the colored areas represent counties with majority of hispanic population from puerto rico, cuba or mexico. this unequal distribution of hispanics by country of origin appears counterintuitive at first glance, given that the majority of current hispanic immigrants arrived in florida relatively recently, within the last 5070 years, without any regional settlement constraints or preferences imposed by state or federal authorities. the highlighted majority-hispanic counties are not adjacent to their home countries (as is frequently the case in europe), and there were no specific industries designed to attract workers from specific countries. as a result, this map demonstrates the long-term power of social bonds in attracting new immigrants to areas with a large existing population of their compatriots. table 4 shows that four areas of florida were chosen for the current study to represent hispanic majority from a specific country: cuba, puerto rico, mexico, and the northern part of south america (columbia and venezuela). in each case, a specific hispanic group accounted for the majority of the population, ranging pa ge 98 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 93-104, 2024 figure 1: health outcomes for florida counties. florida has a large hispanic population of various origins. figure 2: florida counties of major distinct hispanic origin pa ge 99 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 93-104, 2024 from 51% of mexicans in the rural south-central area to 92% of the cuban community prevalence in parts of the metropolitan miami-dade county. the objective of this focused segmentation was to explore difference in health outcomes based on the hispanic country oforigin, district’s population density and other factors. a fifth racial minority group was added for comparison: african-american residents of miami-dade county who live nearby the cuban community in different densely populated neighborhoods. results for ethnic majorityminority areas were compared to one another, as well as the averages of florida and the us. table 4: description of floridian hispanic groups different by national origin minorities region / county origin urban / rural hisp black h + b asian other white miami-dade cuba highly urban 92% 2% 94% 0% 0% 4% osceola puerto rico suburban 64% 12% 76% 2% 0% 19% broward & orange s. america suburban 57% 12% 69% 3% 0% 24% hardee & hendry mexico rural 51% 5% 56% 0% 0% 37% miami-dade & duval black urban 11% 84% 95% 0% 0% 4% us average mix 28% 12% 40% 6% 1% 50% fl state avg mostly urban 23% 15% 38% 2% 0% 56% source: us census bureau, 2020 census redistricting data results and discussion table 5 displays the median levels of environmental pollution, highlighting a significant difference in the concentration of diesel fumes (dzl) in metropolitan areas versus rural areas: close to the 90th percentage in urban areas vs. 18th percentile in rural areas. the other three independent variables of environmental pollution showed similar contrast in pollution level between cities and rural areas. notably, the black community had the highest exposure to all pollutants in majority-black areas. meanwhile, the average values of environmental pollutants in florida and the usa were closer to the 50th percentile. as shown in table 5, there was a significant divergence of median outcomes in socio-economic status (ses). all hispanic minorities in their majority-population areas naturally had very high linguistic isolation (lingo) – a traditional measure of social disadvantage. however, it may not be a disadvantage in south florida, where the spanish language is so widely spoken that it has become the primary language in many large areas. unemployment (uempl) and poverty (pvrt) rates were higher for all minorities compared to the baseline in florida and the united states, with the black community being the most disadvantaged, with the highest (worst) ses values. all five minority groups had higher medians for adults without a high school diploma (whsd) factor, likely contributing to lower wages and higher unemployment. overall, table 5 values confirm that hispanic and black minorities face disproportionately adverse environmental and socioeconomic conditions, as was noted by grineski (2013) and collins (2016). table 5: differentiation among floridian hispanic groups environmental pollution socio-economic status (ses) region / county o rig in u rb an / r ur al w h it e d z l h a z w n pl r pm li n g o u e m pl pv r t w h sd miami-dade cuba highly urban 4% 92 53 78 42 98 37 65 81 osceola puerto rico suburban 19% 94 19 31 52 89 57 70 68 broward & orange s. america suburban 24% 88 32 65 69 93 64 63 63 hardee & hendry mexico rural 37% 18 10 15 10 87 61 81 91 miami-dade & duval black urban 4% 87 59 94 88 61 87 85 81 us average mix 50% 55 54 55 52 60 52 50 53 fl state avg mostly urban 56% 60 31 51 53 60 51 51 49 pa ge 10 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 93-104, 2024 health outcomes included a higher prevalence of three chronic diseases and a shorter than statistically expected lifetime. the diversity of asthma outcomes was much wider than expected based on environmental or socioeconomic factors: median values ranged from 4 for cubans to 91 for the black population, implying that racial and genetic factors played a disproportionally larger role than the degree of environmental toxins exposure by itself. diabetes prevalence was higher in all minority groups, consistent with previous findings (schneiderman, 2014; tessum, 2019). mexicans and blacks had higher rates of heart disease, and the black community had a significantly lower life expectancy, in agreement with daya (2019) and liu (2021). table 6: mean values of dependable variables for floridian hispanic sub-groups health equity region/country origin urban/rural astm dbts hart shlf miami-dade cuba highly urban 4 89 57 18 osceola puerto rico suburban 29 85 53 43 broward & orange s. america suburban 18 69 37 41 hardee & hendry mexico rural 45 85 81 46 miami-dade & duval black urban 91 96 81 90 us average mix 41 49 45 45 fl state avg mostly urban 29 62 62 49 overall, the observed diversity of health outcomes exceeded the diversity of environmental pollution impacts, confirming the ecosystem’s complexity and the significant disadvantage faced by florida’s majority hispanic and black communities. the analysis of pair correlations among eight independent and four dependent variables revealed several interesting observations, as shown in table 7. there is no correlation between the prevalence of hispanics and unemployment – in contrast with many western countries where recent immigrants have higher unemployment. however, there were positive correlations between hispanic prevalence and lower income, along with lack of high school education. environmental pollution factors correlated amongst themselves, indicating their prevalence in the most heavily industrialized and densely populated regions. furthermore, there was a significant positive correlation between diabetes and heart disease, implying that a portion of the population is in poor health and affected by both diseases. there was a significant positive correlation between diseases and socio-economic status (ses) and a positive correlation between unemployment and low ses. as expected, there was high inter-correlation among ses factors. overall, florida’s ses ranking is very similar to the us national average. because all the data was expressed in percentile ranking within the united states, the results were very easy to interpret, as lower values for all environmental, ses or health variables corresponded to better outcomes for the impacted population group. table 7: summary of factors’ pair correlations among variables for the entire state of florida (%) factor 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 hisp 1 % hispanic * 45 31 28 1 67 -5 20 37 -16 11 -29 -23 dzl 2 diesel particles * 58 61 54 49 2 14 10 2 -5 -30 -12 hazw 3 hazard waste sites * 47 39 30 4 23 15 15 -2 -17 7 npl 4 superfund (npl) * 41 32 7 15 11 11 -5 -28 0 rpm 5 rpm facilities * 20 9 18 11 21 0 -3 12 lingo 6 linguistic isolation * 7 30 39 4 14 -19 -7 uempl 7 unemployment * 43 37 48 31 18 37 pvrt 8 poverty (<100%) * 68 71 50 26 53 whsd 9 without high school * 61 58 26 48 astm 10 asthma * 37 18 66 dbts 11 diabetes * 80 35 hart 12 heart disease * 28 shlf 13 shorter life expectancy * max 100% 97 98 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 min 0 3 1 2 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 pa ge 10 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 93-104, 2024 mean 23 60 31 52 54 60 51 51 49 29 62 62 49 median 14 62 27 54 56 63 52 51 49 20 67 67 50 st. dev 23 24 19 28 27 27 28 26 27 26 26 29 29 st. dev / mean 1.02 0.40 0.62 0.54 0.50 0.45 0.56 0.51 0.56 0.9 0.41 0.47 0.59 following the completion of the analysis of the entire state of florida, it is beneficial to concentrate on areas with predominantly (>70%) hispanic population and investigate pair correlations and median outcomes for that particular segment of the florida population, as demonstrated in table 8. a clear and significant correlation exists between the prevalence of hispanics and higher exposure to sources of environmental pollution, as well as lower levels of education, higher diabetes, and heart disease, in agreement with fernandez (2021) and errisuriz (2024). the lower half of the table 7 contains important statistical data for the entire florida dataset. because all data points have already been normalized on percentiles within the us total population, the expected mean and median points should be around 50 if all distributions were close normal and most us states were reasonably homogenous. instead, in some aspects, florida population is positioned well below (i.e. better) than the us average: 27th percentile in proximity hazardous waste sites, due to relatively low prevalence of industrial manufacturing in tourism-driven florida. in other aspects florida is meaningfully above (worse) than the us averages, in prevalence of diabetes and heart disease (both at 67th percentile). table 8: summary of factors’ pair correlations for florida areas with majority-hispanic populations factor 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 hisp 1 % hispanic * 30 33 37 37 9 7 30 53 17 45 45 8 dzl 2 diesel particles * 51 60 48 47 -1 39 35 7 41 46 16 hazw 3 hazard waste sites * 75 60 28 18 52 41 38 33 46 34 npl 4 superfund (npl) * 81 27 12 47 36 35 26 44 32 rpm 5 rpm facilities * 14 4 41 35 28 28 46 28 lingo 6 linguistic isolation * 22 47 48 32 58 60 23 uempl 7 unemployment * 31 30 40 24 26 23 pvrt 8 poverty (income <100% us threshold) * 57 63 52 65 31 whsd 9 without high school diploma * 55 75 73 24 astm 10 asthma * 40 51 35 dbts 11 diabetes * 88 20 hart 12 heart disease * 25 shlf 13 shorter life expect. * max 100% 97 92 98 99 99 95 96 98 57 99 99 78 min 81 57 22 40 11 12 0 0 0 0 14 1 0 mean 91 88 53 75 48 96 40 62 76 7 83 53 24 median 92 92 53 78 42 98 37 65 81 4 89 57 18 st. dev 5 9 19 17 27 7 24 22 19 9 18 29 20 st. dev / mean 0.06 0.10 0.37 0.23 0.55 0.07 0.61 0.35 0.25 1.27 0.22 0.53 0.84 when comparing the correlation of the two datasets (total florida and majority hispanic areas) in tables 7 and 8, it is notable that the majority-hispanic areas in florida have significantly higher than us average exposure to environmental pollution, diabetes, proximity to disadvantaged neighborhoods, and somewhat lower ses. prior medical research has shown a high prevalence of diabetes in the hispanic community (rodriguez, 2012; shaw, 2017; errisuriz, 2024). a few highlighted datapoints in table 8 show disproportionately high exposure of hispanic-majority areas of florida to diesel particles (92th percentile) and yet very low asthma (4th percentile). this combination is counterintuitive, and could be a subject of further research. by the sample design of selecting majority-hispanics areas, linguistic isolation is very high (98th percentile). however, in many florida areas, spanish has actually become the dominant local language, hence linguistic isolation is more acute for local english-speaking residents, not for spanishspeaking majority in those areas. pa ge 10 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 93-104, 2024 as shown in table 9, linear multi-variable regression analysis was conducted to supplement the pairs’ correlation analysis using all four environmental pollution factors and two socioeconomic factors: absence of high school diploma (whsd) and unemployment (uempl). this approach is conceptually similar to analysis of co2 emissions and economic factors (sabroso, 2023) and in determining the effect of unemployment (nojeem, 2023). the dependent variable is the health equity index (hei), an equally weighted three diseases (asthma, diabetes, and coronary disease). the higher value of hei is detrimental to the population. the hei shows a positive correlation with the lack of high school education (whsd) and unemployment (uempl) with a high level of statistical significance (p<0.01). these results agree with findings by hipp (2010) and grineski (2013). table 9: linear multi-variable regression analysis of environmental hazards and health outcomes independent variables abbrev. coeff. t stat p-value p-signif. intercept 30.9578 diesel particles dzl -0.2146 -14.01 0.0000 * * * hazardous waste hazw 0.0202 1.23 0.2169 not signif. superfund npl -0.0679 -6.03 0.0000 * * * rpm facilities rpm 0.1237 11.01 0.0000 * * * without high school diploma whsd 0.4258 42.85 0.0000 * * * unemployment uempl 0.1587 16.68 0.0000 * * * dependent variable is health equity index = equally weighted 3 diseases (asthma, diabetes and coronary disease). note that p-values are marked as the following: * p < 0.1, ** p < 0.05, and *** p < 0.01. a significant negative correlation between the hei, diesel and superfund factors could indicate that rural areas are less efficient in providing healthcare than urban areas, as suggested by mikati (2018). earlier in this report figure 1 illustrates this phenomenon, which was observed by branch (2022) and liu (2021). it is impossible to know how long people affected by pollution have lived in a particularly polluted area, which is a natural limitation of both our study and the majority of other “point of time” studies. such information is not gathered by the united states census, which is conducted once every ten years across the country. this unidentified longevity of residence factor is of utmost significance because it is obvious that environmental pollution has a cumulative impact, albeit non-linear, on the length of time an individual is exposed to toxic substances (morellofrosch, 2011; tessum, 2019; josey, 2023). conclusion as a country of (relatively) recent immigrants, the united states is a true “melting pot” of various nationalities. as a result, one significant limitation of using this nationalityspecific approach is identifying local areas with a sufficiently high percentage of residents with heritage of a given country or region. it is still possible, but it requires careful consideration of the research topic and robust granular databases. this study discovered that the diversity of hispanic origin leads to very different socioeconomic and health outcomes. a more nuanced understanding of intrahispanic group differences is required to develop more tailored and effective strategies in research methodologies, service allocation, and policymaking in general. the results of pair correlation tests revealed significant relationships among a number of different factors, particularly among socioeconomic and health equity groups. the interdependence of factors that influence health equity in florida was highlighted by the findings of a multivariable regression analysis, which revealed significant associations among groups of factors: environmental pollutants, socioeconomic characteristics, and health outcomes. the results demonstrate that the overall hispanic communities in florida are disproportionately affected by pollution and socioeconomic challenges and that these communities also experience significantly worse health equity outcomes: a higher disease prevalence and a shorter life span. within hispanic communities, south americans and cuban cohorts have better health and ses outcomes despite exposure to higher environmental pollution in their highly urban areas. mexican descendants have cleaner air environments in rural florida areas, but not as favorable health and ses outcomes. a comparison with the african-american majority community in miamidade county (adjacent to cuban-majority communities in the same country) shows that african americans in south florida have the most challenging outcomes across all twelve researched factors. this study may encourage researchers to focus on intra-segmentation within large us ethnic and racial minority groups. this should help in identifying critical aspects of diversity among hispanics and african-american communities 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(2016). cancer outcomes in hispanics/ latinos in the united states: an integrative review and conceptual model of determinants of health. journal of latina/o psychology, 4(2), 114–129. https:// doi.org/10.1037/lat0000055 pa ge 1 pa ge 67 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) low-cost biochar: a sustainable approach to improve soil fertility and crop yield for small-scale farmers md. nahid mahmud1*, nuzhat tabassum muniza2, asif ahmed1 volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v4i1.4613 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: february 20, 2025 accepted: march 28, 2025 published: april 22, 2025 soil degradation and declining fertility are critical challenges for small-scale farmers, leading to reduced agricultural productivity. biochar, a carbon-rich material produced from biomass pyrolysis, has shown potential as a sustainable soil amendment to enhance soil properties and crop yield. this study investigates the impact of low-cost rice husk biochar on soil fertility and crop performance in smallholder farming systems of salna village, gazipur, bangladesh. experimental results indicate that biochar application significantly improved soil characteristics. soil ph increased from 5.2 (control) to 6.5 (biochar-treated), reducing soil acidity and improving nutrient availability. organic matter content doubled, rising from 1.2% (control) to 2.4% (biochar-treated), enhancing microbial activity and soil fertility. moisture retention improved by 37.6%, reducing water stress in crops. crop performance also showed substantial improvement. biochar-treated plots exhibited a 33% increase in grain yield compared to control fields. plant height increased by 14.7%, and the number of tillers per plant rose by 33.3%, indicating better overall plant growth. additionally, farmers observed improved soil texture and reduced dependency on synthetic fertilizers, highlighting biochar’s long-term benefits. the findings suggest that low-cost biochar is an effective and sustainable solution for enhancing soil health and boosting agricultural productivity in resource-limited farming systems. future studies should explore its long-term impact, economic feasibility, and scalability. promoting biochar through policy support and farmer training programs could facilitate widespread adoption, ensuring sustainable and climateresilient agriculture. keywords low cost biochar, small scall farmer, soil fertility enhancement, sustainable agriculture 1 college of agricultural sciences, iubat-international university of business agriculture and technology, dhaka-1230, bangladesh 2 faculty of agriculture, patuakhali science and technology university, dumki, patuakhali-8602, bangladesh * corresponding author’s e-mail: 22309124@iubat.edu introduction agricultural sustainability has emerged as one of the most critical concerns for small-scale farmers, particularly in developing countries where challenges such as soil degradation, nutrient depletion, and declining fertility directly impact food security and livelihoods. over the last few decades, excessive dependence on chemical fertilizers, monocropping, and unsustainable farming practices have contributed to the gradual deterioration of soil health. the consequences of these practices are evident in reduced crop yields, lower organic matter content, and diminished long-term productivity of agricultural lands. as populations continue to grow and arable land becomes scarce, finding effective and sustainable soil management strategies has become imperative. in this context, biochar has emerged as a promising solution with immense potential for improving soil fertility, enhancing nutrient retention, and promoting sustainable agriculture (mashamaite et al., 2024). biochar is a carbon-rich material derived from the thermal decomposition of organic biomass under limited oxygen conditions, a process known as pyrolysis. common feedstocks for biochar production include agricultural residues, wood chips, and animal manure. the material is distinguished by its porous structure, which enhances several soil properties, including aeration, water retention, and microbial habitat. furthermore, biochar has been shown to improve soil ph, making it particularly useful for addressing the challenges of acidic soils that are common in many agricultural regions across the world (das & ghosh, 2020). beyond its direct effects on soil health, biochar also has the potential to sequester carbon, contributing to climate change mitigation by locking atmospheric carbon dioxide in a stable form for extended periods. however, despite its numerous benefits, the largescale adoption of biochar in agricultural systems remains limited. high production costs, lack of awareness among farmers, and inadequate access to appropriate production technologies are some of the primary barriers. for smallscale farmers in resource-constrained settings, the cost and complexity of biochar production are significant obstacles (zubairu et al., 2023). therefore, developing lowcost biochar alternatives and promoting their application through education and policy support are critical steps toward integrating biochar into mainstream agricultural practices. in the context of bangladesh, a country heavily dependent on agriculture, the need for sustainable soil management practices is particularly urgent. with over 60% of the population engaged in farming, declining soil fertility poses a direct threat to food security and rural livelihoods (anika et al., 2020). intensive cropping, coupled with the overuse of synthetic fertilizers, has led to soil degradation in many regions, including gazipur district. farmers in these areas face the dual challenge of increasing input costs and diminishing returns, which further exacerbates their economic vulnerabilities. given pa ge 68 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 67-72, 2025 this scenario, introducing low-cost biochar produced from locally available agricultural waste, such as rice husks, presents a viable and sustainable solution for improving soil health and crop productivity. research studies from various parts of the world have demonstrated the positive impacts of biochar on agriculture. for instance, in india, biochar application was found to improve water retention by 30%, leading to significant increases in rice and wheat yields. similarly, trials conducted in sub-saharan africa reported that biochar-enriched soils resulted in maize yield improvements ranging from 15% to 25%. these findings underscore the potential of biochar as a soil amendment that can address both environmental and agricultural challenges. however, the effectiveness of biochar is influenced by multiple factors, including the type of soil, the properties of the biochar used, and the application method (karim, 2020). this necessitates region-specific studies to optimize its use under local conditions. the present study investigates the potential of low-cost biochar as a sustainable soil amendment for small-scale farmers in bangladesh. the research focuses on salna village in gazipur district, where rice husk biochar, produced using locally available biomass, was applied to farmlands (pandit et al., 2018). the objectives of this study are threefold: to evaluate the changes in soil properties resulting from biochar application, to assess its impact on crop yield, and to analyze its feasibility as a costeffective and sustainable alternative to chemical fertilizers. the findings aim to provide actionable insights for policymakers, agricultural scientists, and farmers looking to address soil fertility challenges through sustainable practices (mekuria & noble, 2013). this research also seeks to contribute to the growing body of knowledge on biochar, offering practical recommendations for its implementation in resource-constrained agricultural systems. by exploring the transformative potential of biochar, this study underscores its role in fostering agricultural sustainability and improving rural livelihoods. it advocates for the integration of biochar into smallscale farming systems as a strategic measure to ensure long-term food security and environmental health in bangladesh and beyond (hansson et al., 2021). figure 1: biochar effect on soil fertility materials and methods study area and experimental design the study was conducted in salna village, located in the gazipur district of bangladesh, which is a region known for its agricultural activities. the climate in this area is characterized by a subtropical monsoon climate, with an average annual temperature ranging from 20°c to 35°c and receiving an annual rainfall of approximately 2000 mm. this research was carried out during the 2024 boro rice season, where the selected farmlands exhibited similar soil properties to ensure consistency across treatments. the experiment was designed using a randomized complete block design (rcbd) to minimize variability between treatments. the entire experimental field was divided into six plots, each with an area of 10m × 10m. these plots were subjected to two treatments, the first treatment was the control, where no biochar was applied, and traditional farming practices with chemical fertilizers were followed. the second treatment was the biochar applied group, where 5 tons per hectare of lowcost rice husk biochar was mixed into the soil one week before transplanting. each treatment was repeated in three replications to account for variability. biochar production and application the biochar used in this experiment was produced from locally sourced rice husks, a common agricultural waste product in bangladesh. the rice husks were subjected to a pyrolysis process in a modified drum kiln at temperatures ranging from 400°c to 500°c. this process ensured pa ge 69 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 67-72, 2025 partial combustion and retention of a high carbon content in the biochar. once produced, the biochar was allowed to cool and was ground to small particles with a diameter of less than 5 mm. this fine biochar was then evenly incorporated into the soil using a rotavator. the soil was left undisturbed for a period of one week before rice transplantation, allowing the biochar to stabilize within the soil (wang et al., 2020). soil sampling and analysis soil samples were collected before biochar application and after the rice harvest to evaluate the effects of biochar on soil fertility. soil sampling was carried out at a depth of 0-15 cm using a soil auger. samples were taken from three different locations within each plot to create a composite sample for analysis. once collected, the samples were airdried and passed through a 2 mm mesh sieve to remove larger particles. the following soil parameters were analyzed in the laboratory soil ph was measured using a digital ph meter with a 1:2.5 soil-water suspension method. organic matter content was determined using the walkley-black method, which involves wet oxidation with potassium dichromate. moisture retention capacity was measured gravimetrically by drying soil samples at 105°c for 24 hours to determine the weight loss, representing water content. nutrient availability was assessed using standard methods. nitrogen (n) was determined using the kjeldahl method, phosphorus (p) through the olsen method, and potassium (k) was analyzed using flame photometry. crop growth and yield measurement the crop used in this study was boro rice (oryza sativa, brri dhan28), a variety widely cultivated in bangladesh. the rice was transplanted at a spacing of 20 cm × 20 cm, ensuring uniform growth. growth parameters such as plant height, number of tillers per plant, and leaf chlorophyll content were recorded at 30, 60, and 90 days after transplantation. at the time of harvest, a sample of rice grains was collected from each plot. the yield from a 1m² area within each plot was measured, and the total yield was expressed in kg per hectare (kg/ha). statistical analysis the data collected from the soil and crop yield measurements were subjected to statistical analysis using spss (version 25.0). to determine whether there were significant differences between the control and biochartreated plots, a paired t-test was applied. the level of significance was set at p < 0.05, meaning any difference with a p-value less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. the mean values ± standard deviation (sd) were calculated for soil properties and crop yield to evaluate the consistency and variability of the results. data visualization, such as bar charts and tables, were used to present the findings in a clear and interpretable manner. result and discussion effect of biochar on soil properties the application of low-cost rice husk biochar significantly improved soil properties compared to the control plot. the soil ph increased from 5.2 ± 0.1 in the control to 6.5 ± 0.1 in the biochar-treated plot, with a p-value <0.05, indicating a statistically significant difference. this increase suggests that biochar helps reduce soil acidity, which is beneficial for crop growth in acidic soils common in bangladesh. soil organic matter content also improved notably. in the control plot, it was 1.2 ± 0.08%, whereas in the biochar-treated plot, it increased to 2.4 ± 0.12% (p < 0.05). this enhancement can be attributed to the high carbon content in biochar, which provides a stable form of organic matter, improving soil fertility and microbial activity (jien & wang, 2013). another key factor was soil table 1: effect of biochar on soil fertility and crop growth (see table 1 below for detailed comparisons) soil & crop parameters control (no biochar) (mean ± sd) biochar applied (mean ± sd) p-value soil ph 5.2 ± 0.1 6.5 ± 0.1 <0.05 organic matter (%) 1.2 ± 0.08 2.4 ± 0.12 <0.05 moisture retention (%) 22.3 ± 1.5 30.7 ± 1.8 <0.05 nitrogen (%) 0.08 ± 0.005 0.14 ± 0.006 <0.05 phosphorus (mg/kg) 8.5 ± 0.7 12.6 ± 0.9 <0.05 potassium (mg/kg) 68.3 ± 2.4 92.7 ± 3.1 <0.05 plant height (cm) 85.6 ± 3.2 98.2 ± 3.6 <0.05 tillers per plant 8.4 ± 0.5 11.2 ± 0.6 <0.05 grain yield (tons/ha) 3.6 ± 0.2 4.8 ± 0.3 <0.05 moisture retention capacity, which improved significantly. in the control plot, the moisture retention was 22.3 ± 1.5%, whereas in the biochar-treated soil, it increased to 30.7 ± 1.8% (p < 0.05). the porous nature of biochar helps retain soil moisture, reducing the frequency of irrigation required, which is especially useful for smallscale farmers with limited water resources. these findings are summarized in table 1, which presents the comparative effect of biochar application on soil fertility and crop performance. pa ge 70 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 67-72, 2025 effect of biochar on soil nutrient availability biochar application significantly influenced the availability of essential nutrients such as nitrogen (n), phosphorus (p), and potassium (k). the nitrogen content increased from 0.08 ± 0.005% in the control to 0.14 ± 0.006% (p < 0.05). this could be due to biochar’s ability to reduce nitrogen leaching and improve microbial nitrogen fixation. similarly, available phosphorus improved from 8.5 ± 0.7 mg/kg in the control to 12.6 ± 0.9 mg/kg (p < 0.05). the increase in phosphorus availability is likely due to the liming effect of biochar, which helps release phosphorus from bound forms. potassium content also increased significantly from 68.3 ± 2.4 mg/kg in the control to 92.7 ± 3.1 mg/kg (p < 0.05), improving overall soil fertility. these improvements in soil properties are visually represented in figure 2, which shows the comparative effects of biochar application on various soil fertility parameters. figure 2: effect of biochar on soil ph, organic matter and nutrient availability compared to control. figure 3: comparison of control and biochar-treated soil & crop parameters the graphical representation (figure 1) clearly illustrates the positive impact of biochar on key soil and crop parameters. significant improvements in soil ph, organic matter, and nutrient content were observed, ultimately leading to enhanced plant growth and yield. effect of biochar on crop growth and yield the impact of biochar on boro rice (oryza sativa, brri dhan28) growth parameters was evident. the plant height at harvest was 85.6 ± 3.2 cm in the control, whereas in the biochar-treated plot, it reached 98.2 ± 3.6 cm (p < 0.05), indicating a significant improvement in plant growth. similarly, the number of tillers per plant increased from 8.4 ± 0.5 in the control to 11.2 ± 0.6 (p < 0.05). this improvement is likely due to enhanced soil fertility and moisture retention in biochar-treated soil (hamzah & shuhaimi, 2018). the grain yield was significantly higher in the biochar-treated plot, with an average yield of 4.8 ± 0.3 tons/ha, compared to 3.6 ± 0.2 tons/ha in the control (p < 0.05). this increase of approximately33% demonstrates biochar’s potential in enhancing rice productivity for small-scale farmers. interpretation and practical implications the findings of this study align with previous research indicating that biochar improves soil fertility and crop productivity. the increase in soil ph and organic matter content suggests that biochar is particularly useful in pa ge 71 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 67-72, 2025 acidic soils, where nutrient availability is often limited. additionally, the higher moisture retention can help small-scale farmers in drought-prone regions by reducing irrigation needs. moreover, the improved nutrient availability (n, p, k) confirms that biochar can serve as a soil amendment, reducing dependency on chemical fertilizers. the increase in crop yield further supports its potential as a cost-effective and sustainable solution for improving food security in bangladesh. however, long-term field studies are required to assess the residual effects of biochar and its interaction with different soil types and climatic conditions. future research should also explore the economic feasibility of large-scale biochar production using local agricultural waste. future prospects and steategic applications of biochar biochar has enormous potential to address global agricultural and environmental challenges through its diverse applications. in sustainable agriculture, biochar can significantly enhance soil fertility, increase water retention, and reduce the need for chemical fertilizers. future studies should focus on developing regionspecific biochar formulations optimized for different soil types and climates, ensuring maximum efficiency and productivity. innovative advancements in biochar production technologies, such as improved pyrolysis techniques, can make the process more energy-efficient and cost-effective. the utilization of alternative feedstocks, including agricultural residues and urban organic waste, will ensure sustainable production while promoting a circular economy. moreover, scaling up production facilities and ensuring accessibility for smallholder farmers could make biochar a mainstream agricultural input. biochar also holds great promise as a carbon sequestration tool. it can play a pivotal role in mitigating climate change by capturing and storing carbon in soil for extended periods. incorporating biochar into large-scale reforestation and soil restoration initiatives may significantly contribute to achieving global climate targets and reversing land degradation. policy support and market development will be essential for the wider adoption of biochar. governments should introduce subsidies, incentives, and carbon credit systems to encourage biochar use. awareness campaigns and training programs aimed at farmers can promote its adoption at the grassroots level. additionally, biochar research should explore its application in advanced fields such as wastewater treatment, renewable energy, and industrial processes. with continuous innovation, biochar has the potential to revolutionize sustainable agriculture, environmental management, and climate resilience, ultimately contributing to global food security and ecological balance (chen et al., 2019). feedback 1 the study effectively demonstrates the potential of lowcost biochar in enhancing soil fertility and crop yield. however, additional focus on the economic viability of biochar production would strengthen its practical relevance. a cost-benefit analysis detailing production expenses, market availability, and long-term profitability for small-scale farmers would provide deeper insights. moreover, studying biochar’s interaction with different soil types and climatic conditions would ensure broader applicability. future research should also explore the role of biochar in improving soil microbial diversity, as microbial activity plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling. furthermore, a comparative analysis between biochar and other organic soil amendments such as compost or vermicompost could offer a more comprehensive evaluation of its effectiveness. addressing these aspects would significantly enhance the study’s impact. feedback 2 this research presents compelling evidence of biochar’s effectiveness in improving soil fertility and increasing crop yield. however, the study would benefit from an exploration of challenges faced by farmers in adopting biochar technology. understanding farmers’ awareness levels, accessibility issues, and willingness to adopt biochar-based farming methods would provide critical insights. moreover, discussing policy recommendations that could facilitate biochar adoption such as government subsidies, training programs, and community-based biochar initiatives would add valuable perspectives. additionally, field trials over multiple growing seasons would help assess the long-term sustainability of biochar application. incorporating real-world farmer testimonials and case studies would make the findings more relatable. a more in-depth exploration of biochar’s potential role in climate-resilient agriculture could further emphasize its environmental benefits. expanding the discussion in these areas would enhance the study’s relevance and impact. conclusion this study demonstrates that low-cost biochar can be an effective and sustainable soil amendment for enhancing soil fertility and crop productivity, particularly for small-scale farmers in bangladesh. the results indicate a significant improvement in soil properties, including increased ph, organic matter content, and moisture retention, which collectively contribute to better plant growth. the application of biochar led to a notable increase in crop yield, with a 33% improvement in grain production compared to control plots. additionally, farmers reported enhanced soil texture and reduced dependency on chemical fertilizers, highlighting biochar’s potential to promote environmentally sustainable farming practices. the affordability and availability of biochar derived from agricultural residues make it a viable alternative for resource-limited farmers. however, further research is needed to assess its long-term effects on soil health, economic feasibility, and large-scale implementation. policy interventions and extension programs should be developed to raise awareness and encourage biochar pa ge 72 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 67-72, 2025 adoption among farmers. beyond yield improvements, biochar contributes to carbon sequestration, mitigating greenhouse gas emissions and promoting climate-resilient agriculture. scaling up biochar production through community-based initiatives and government incentives can further enhance its impact. future studies should focus on optimizing biochar application rates, integrating it with other sustainable agricultural practices, and evaluating its economic benefits over multiple growing seasons. by integrating biochar into traditional farming systems, agricultural sustainability can be improved, ensuring food security and economic benefits for rural communities. references anika, n., mahardika, m., ronggur, j., & panjaitan, h. (2020). design and construction of mobile biochar kiln for small farmers. iop conference series: materials science and engineering, 788(1), 012075. https://doi. org/10.1088/1757-899x/788/1/012075 chen, w., meng, j., han, x., lan, y., & zhang, w. (2019). past, present, and future of biochar. biochar 2019, 1(1), 75–87. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42773-01900008-3 das, s. k., & ghosh, g. k. (2020). soil health management through low cost biochar technology. biochar applications in agriculture and environment management, 193–206. https://doi.org/10.1007/9783-030-40997-5_9 hamzah, z., & shuhaimi, s. n. a. (2018). biochar: effects on crop growth. iop conference series: earth and environmental science, 215(1), 012011. https://doi. org/10.1088/1755-1315/215/1/012011 hansson, a., haikola, s., fridahl, m., yanda, p., mabhuye, e., & pauline, n. (2021). biochar as multi-purpose sustainable technology: experiences from projects in tanzania. environment, development and sustainability, 23(4), 5182–5214. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668020-00809-8/tables/2 jien, s. h., & wang, c. s. (2013). effects of biochar on soil properties and erosion potential in a highly weathered soil. catena, 110, 225–233. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2013.06.021 karim, m. r. (2020). biochar for promoting sustainable agriculture. 123–130. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3319-95675-6_113 mashamaite, c. v., motsi, h., manyevere, a., & poswa, s. b. (2024). assessing the potential of biochar as a viable alternative to synthetic fertilizers in subsaharan africa smallholder farming: a review. agronomy, 14(6), 1215. https://doi.org/10.3390/ agronomy14061215 mekuria, w., & noble, a. (2013). the role of biochar in ameliorating disturbed soils and sequestering soil carbon in tropical agricultural production systems. applied and environmental soil science, 2013(1), 354965. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/354965 pandit, n. r., mulder, j., hale, s. e., zimmerman, a. r., pandit, b. h., & cornelissen, g. (2018). multi-year double cropping biochar field trials in nepal: finding the optimal biochar dose through agronomic trials and cost-benefit analysis. science of the total environment, 637–638, 1333–1341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. scitotenv.2018.05.107 wang, d., jiang, p., zhang, h., & yuan, w. (2020). biochar production and applications in agro and forestry systems: a review. science of the total environment, 723, 137775. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. scitotenv.2020.137775 zubairu, a. m., michéli, e., ocansey, c. m., boros, n., rétháti, g., lehoczky, é., & gulyás, m. (2023). biochar improves soil fertility and crop performance: a case study of nigeria. soil systems, 7(4), 105. https:// doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems7040105 article 2592.indd pa ge 1 pa ge 59 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) effects of ceo tenure and education on corporate social and environmental performance: evidence from listed firms on namibia stock exchange maria magano nashilyo1*, timothy masuni nagriwum1, anita nti-kwakye2 volume 3 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v3i1.2592 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: july 03, 2024 accepted: august 06, 2024 published: august 10, 2024 given the increasing focus on sustainability and corporate responsibility, it is essential to comprehend the infl uence of ceo characteristics on the accomplishment of a company. the main objective of this research is to investigate the correlation between the length of time a ceo serves in their position, their level of education, company corporate social performance, and environmental performance. the study utilized a descriptive research design, employing a quantitative method by conducting a cross-sectional survey. the study sample comprised chief executive offi cers (ceos) from 52 publicly traded businesses, and the analysis was based on 39 collected responses. with the help of spss, a multiple regression analysis was performed to evaluate the infl uence of ceo term of offi ce and education on business social performance and environmental performance. the results indicate that ceo tenure has a favorable and substantial infl uence on environmental performance, whereas ceo education substantially infl uences corporate social performance. the results offer useful insights into the complex correlation between ceo characteristics and sustainability success. we propose policymakers to implement restrictions or recommendations for the length of time a ceo can hold their position and their educational qualifi cations. this will help ensure the effi cient management of social and environmental responsibilities. moreover, providing incentives for ceos and high-level executives to participate in continuous education and training programs could boost their comprehension of social and environmental matters, ultimately leading to the implementation of enhanced sustainability practices within organizations. keywords corporate social performance, environmental performance, chief executive offi cer (ceo) 1 school of finance and economics, jiangsu university, jiangsu, china 2 faculty of sociology, anthropology and folkloristics, university of iceland, reykjavik, iceland * corresponding author’s e-mail: mnashilyo@gmail.com introduction over the past ten years, investors have used corporate social and environmental performance as a key criterion for determining a company’s worth and whether or not to invest (hsu et al., 2015). businesses are under enormous and unprecedented pressure due to the covid-19 pandemic, with many facing possible closure. a company’s csr commitment will be tested in these circumstances, and depending on how the company responds, employees’ perceptions of csr are likely to be sharpened either positively or negatively. the covid-19 pandemic triggered momentous distractions to the world economy, affecting profi ts and profi tability at a level not often observed outside of a substantial global economic meltdown. industries committed to moral behavior and corporate social responsibility (csr) have been tested during this incredibly challenging period (he and harris, 2020). as a result, fi rms face diffi culties balancing stakeholders’ and their interests (asante antwi et al., 2021). in light of the growing number of social and environmental scandals, companies must adopt strategies that go beyond the fi nancial aspects of their operations to attract investors. these strategies must also take the environmental and social infl uence of their activities or operations into consideration. to improve their social and environmental performance, many businesses have changed their policies, increased their involvement in csr initiatives, and generally engaged in csr practices. businesses are expected more and more to contribute to long-term development to positively impact society. organizations in namibia have been compelled to reorient their traditional economic goals and take on social and environmental responsibilities alongside their economic activities due to growing demands from investors and other stakeholders (aldrugi, 2013). corporate managers, especially ceos, now prioritize social responsibility due to the growing signifi cance of social and environmental performance, which has sparked a discussion about the variables that can affect social and environmental performance (khoo, 2022). according to this logic, it makes sense to assume that ceos would be more inclined to start social projects that improve company performance. as a result, during their fi rst terms in offi ce, ceos are more concerned with structuring company profi ts while boards of directors are more interested in assessing their competence in terms of company performance (ali and zhang, 2015). furthermore, executives are inclined to prioritize social events to enhance their performance assessments because social activities are becoming increasingly recognized at the fi rm level (callan and thomas 2011). according to ason et al., (2021), investigating how a ceo’s term of offi ce affects corporate social performance and environmental performance (csp&ep) in a unique manner and therefore vital. it is assumed that a company would need qualifi ed, well-trained, educated, and knowledgeable personalities to handle, manage, and superintend over those investments to make good social pa ge 60 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 59-69, 2024 and environmental investment decisions according to linck, netter, and yang (2008), the chief executive offi cer (ceo) holds the most power within a management team. a ceo chooses the company’s strategy, assigns funds based on the goals of the organization, and manages the senior leadership group. the decision-making power of chief executive offi cers (ceos), who hold high positions in organizational structures, is a signifi cant factor in determining a company’s inclination towards corporate social responsibility (csr). this propensity can be infl uenced by the preferences and priorities of ceos, which are shaped by their personalities and values (chatterjee and hambrick 2011). basically, a company’s main goal is to make as much money as possible. consequently, the company needs a ceo who can oversee the company’s operations. the ceo role truly dictates the company’s performance and has the power to steer it in the direction of success or failure. the growth and success of the company are signifi cantly infl uenced by the professional and demographic traits of the ceo. however, according to some researchers, a ceo’s education alone does not always translate into a company’s performance improvement (bhagat et al., 2010). according to peni and vähämaa (2012), there is evidence in the relevant literature linking the ceo’s experience and the executions of the company, but there are also indications pointing to the adverse effects of experience on performance (hamori and koyuncu, 2015). similarly, different conclusions have been made regarding the relationship between ceo tenure and a company’s performance, comprising both negative and positive associations (luo et al., 2014). a solid basis for connecting ceo practice to social and environmental performance is laid out by this argument. one key element in determining a fi rm’s success is its performance. head of the one of the elements infl uencing a fi rm’s performance is power. a ceo is in charge of the company’s daily operations, including taking necessary business-related actions. the ceo serves a critical role in a business, as noted in tien et al., (2013) because he is a leader who will determine the success or failure of the company. environmental sustainability and corporate social responsibility (csr) have become essential components of organizational strategy and performance in the modern business world. beyond just fi nancial performance, companies are increasingly being examined for their contributions to social and environmental welfare. the chief executive offi cer (ceo) of a company plays a crucial role in directing organizational policies, culture, and strategies, which include csr and environmental sustainability. with their unique qualities including leadership style, experience, education, and values ceos have a big impact on a company’s social and environmental performance and initiatives. in the context of namibian listed companies, the link between ceo term of offi ce, education, corporate social performance, and environmental performance has drawn additional attention. businesses in namibia are under pressure to strike a balance between generating profi ts and meeting social and environmental obligations, so it is critical to look into how ceo personality traits and leadership philosophies impact their companies’ sustainability efforts. but despite the increasing emphasis on environmental sustainability and corporate social responsibility (csr) worldwide, there is a shortage of research on namibianlisted companies in particular. by addressing the question, “to what extent does ceo tenure and educational background impact the corporate social and environmental performance of the namibian listed companies?” this study seeks to close a research gap and demonstrate how certain attained and measurable attributes (tenure and education) of ceos can impact on the corporate social and environmental performance. literature review theoretical review stakeholder theory and agency theory serve as the primary theoretical axes within the context of this paper. these were chosen for the study due to their applicability in the area of environmental and social performance in corporations. stakeholder theory businesses want to maximize their profi t margin, which is their ultimate objective (najmuddin et al., 2018). corporations must satisfy stakeholder needs and enhance their brand and image to attain the best revenues (najmuddin et al., 2018). the stakeholder theory is where the fi rms get these benefi ts. according to this view (laplume et al., 2008), fi rms ought to be accountable to a range of stakeholders. according to bhattacharyya and verma (2020), in addition to making an effort to meet the needs of the environment and local communities, ceos of organizations should assume appropriate responsibility and meet the needs of stakeholders on a large scale. this is in line with the stakeholder theory perspective. this theory’s newfound reasoning is predicated on a conditional relationship between satisfying stakeholders’ needs and attaining the large profi t margin that shareholders desire. according to freeman (1984), the attempt to create value for stakeholders is the fundamental component of this theory because it is the key to enhancing and developing the performance of businesses. based on the notion of stakeholders, freeman highlights that a company’s commitment to sustainable responsibilities may enhance the management-stakeholder relationship, which will ultimately result in enhanced fi nancial performance. overall, to achieve strong fi nancial performance, ceos of companies are advised by the stakeholder theory to consider their obligations to address the needs of a wider stakeholder (zhou et al., 2021). agency theory the friction and differences between shareholders and fi rm owners are refl ected in agency theory. the pa ge 61 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 59-69, 2024 contradictory interests of principals and agents are the focus of agency theory. the agency costs and ownership structure model developed by jensen and meckling (2019) is a key work in the fi eld of corporate governance. still, the theory makes a strong case for the basic confl ict of interest that exists between managers and owners. that relationship regularly occurs between managers of a fi rm acting as agents and shareholders serving as principals. every big decision in certain companies is decided by the ceo. decisions made in other companies are more obviously the result of executive consensus. the allocation of decision-making authority within organizations may have an impact on the decisions that are made if different people have divergent viewpoints. although managerial choices may or may not have an impact on the success of the company, executive traits, and organizational factors may have an impact (li & tan, 2013). ceo’s tenure this research uses the duration of the ceo’s contractual agreement with the company to calculate the ceo’s term of offi ce on a year-by-year basis. chief executive offi cers with longer tenure should be more knowledgeable about the organization’s resources and how they relate to their environment. through increased operational effi ciency and consequently faster growth, will help the organization. conversely, ceos with longer tenures tend to become complacent and adhere to outdated paradigms (khan et al., 2020). given their greater receptivity to novel concepts, ceos with shorter tenures stand to gain in this situation. longer-serving ceos have strong social networking connections with a variety of fi nancial sources due to their knowledge power; these connections are likely to deepen over time and have a decreasingly marginally positive effect on the performance of the company (luo et al. 2014). there are clear benefi ts to having a thorough understanding of how the business operates and the ability to identify areas for improvement. ceo’s education one of the key characteristics of a ceo that infl uences the fi rm’s value and overall decisions is their educational background. a ceo with more education is capable of making appropriate and wise decisions in any challenging circumstance. the value of the company is increased when top management has a higher level of education because it facilitates managerial effectiveness, optimal decisionmaking, and stakeholder motivation (martínez-sola et al., 2014). technically and business-savvy executives are more adaptable and make wise decisions that will benefi t the fi rm’s long-term results. this research also focused on the ceo’s educational background to investigate how the ceo’s demographic characteristics affected fi nancing choices and company performance. an executive’s ability to make wise fi nancial and investment choices is greatly impacted by their educational background. a fruitful career in any fi eld requires relevant education. financial education is benefi cial to ceos because it enables them to comprehend fi nancial concerns and respond appropriately to ensure solid business performance. institutions with ceos who possesses distinct background in businessrelated education perform fi nancially well (arano et al. 2010, kokeno and muturi 2016). ceos’ investing behavior and the fi nancial health of their companies are infl uenced by their formal education. to maintain a strong fi nancial position in the market, ceos with formal education are more inclined to embrace additional creative and innovative business practices. corporate social performance and environmental performance a company’s efforts to conduct business in a way that is both environmentally sustainable and socially responsible are measured by corporate social and environmental performance (csep). corporate social responsibility (csep) refers to the actions that businesses take to make sure they are fulfi lling their responsibilities to their stakeholders, which include their workers, clients, shareholders, and the larger community in which they operate (kubareva et al., 2018). the management of a company’s social, environmental, and economic impacts is referred to as corporate social and environmental performance. it includes a variety of initiatives, such as lowering greenhouse gas emissions, guaranteeing workers’ safety at work, aiding neighbourhood communities, and advancing diversity and inclusivity. businesses can measure and report on their social performance and environmental performance using a variety of frameworks. by utilizing sustainable reporting frameworks such as the global reporting initiative (gri) or the sustainable accounting standards board (sasb) is one way businesses can evaluate and measure their csep (joshi & kansil, 2023). these frameworks offer standards and recommendations for businesses reporting on their governance, social, and environmental (esg) performance. the global reporting initiative (gri), which provides standards for companies to disclose their sustainability performance is one well-known framework. when making decisions, investors and customers are becoming more conscious of a company’s social and environmental performance. strong social performance and environmental performance are often associated with a company’s perceived responsibility and reliability, which can boost brand value and customer loyalty (ağan et al., 2016). implementing sustainable practices across their entire business is another way for organizations to show their dedication to csep. this can involve putting energyeffi cient technology into practice, cutting emissions and waste, locating sustainable resources, and assisting with community development projects. the triple bottom line, which evaluates an institution’s social, environmental, and fi nancial performance, is another popular framework. the concept of the “triple bottom line” emphasizes the need for entities to consider their environmental and social infl uence in addition to fi nancial gains. in summary, pa ge 62 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 59-69, 2024 csep is an essential idea for businesses in the current business climate. a growing number of stakeholders who are worried about the wider effects of corporate actions beyond just fi nancial performance are becoming aware of this broad range of issues regarding social responsibility, sustainability, and environmental stewardship (mason and simmons, 2014). ultimately, the idea behind csep highlights how crucial it is for businesses to approach operations holistically, taking into account the social and environmental effects of their work and aiming to generate long-term value for all parties involved. by doing this, businesses can contribute to ensuring a more sustainable and equitable future for society as a whole. corporate social and environmental practices of organizations organizations are realizing the importance of corporate social responsibility and environmental practices as they work to fulfi ll their obligations. organizations can signifi cantly increase their ability to accomplish their business objectives and their positive effect on society and the environment by implementing corporate social and environmental practices. these are a few examples of companies’ environmental and social policies. environmental stewardship: acknowledging the infl uence an organization has on the environment is part of environmental stewardship. utilizing sustainable materials, reducing waste, and lowering energy usage are some examples of how to accomplish this. organizations can lessen their impact on the environment and enhance their standing as socially conscious companies by implementing environmentally friendly practices. corporate philanthropy: corporate philanthropy, or giving back to the community via charitable contributions or volunteer work, is another signifi cant practice. helm, (2011), employers, clients, and other stakeholders may develop a feeling of purpose and a positive reputation as a result of this. charities can receive donations from organizations, and local events can be sponsored or grants given to community organizations. ethical business practices: prioritizing ethical business practices entails ensuring that operations are carried out in a way that is just, truthful, and transparent. organizations must uphold moral principles in interactions with vendors, clients, and other stakeholders and abstain from immoral acts like bribery and corruption. integrity in operations helps fi rms gain the trust of stakeholders and improve their standing. empirical review ceo’s tenure, corporate social performance and environmental performance the ceo’s tenure is determined by the duration of the ceo’s contractual agreement with the entity. ceos with extended tenure are expected to be more knowledgeable about the resources available to the organization and how they interact with their environment. as a result, the company will grow more quickly and achieve more operational effi ciency. conversely, longer-serving ceos tend to get complacent and adhere to outdated concepts (saridakis et al., 2023). in this case, ceos with shorter tenures stand to gain more, as they are more receptive to new ideas. however, with a slowly expanding company, expansion is more likely to hurt rivals, hence effi ciency is essential to the company’s success. longer-tenured ceos have strong social networking connections with a variety of fi nancial sources due to their knowledge power; these connections are expected to deepen over time and have a decreasingly marginally positive effect on the performance of the company (luo et al., 2014). there are clear benefi ts to having a thorough awareness of how the business operates and the ability to identify areas for development. hartnell et al., (2016) assert that a ceo becomes more adept at communicating and sharing information about the company as their tenure increases. longer-serving ceos have substantial social network connections with different money sources, which affects their choice of capital structure because of their informational dominance. per naseem et al., (2020), longer tenure enables ceos to maintain the fi nancial structure of the company and show off their macroeconomic understanding amid downturns. ndalu et al., (2021) examined the effect of ceo traits on environmental performance in nigeria’s oil and gas business. the study employed a sample of 25 nigerian oil and gas businesses to gather information on their waste management and emissions policies as well as ceo attributes like tenure, age, gender, and education. the study indicated that the length of time a ceo had held their position had no bearing on their commitment to environmental sustainability and that there was no signifi cant connection between ceo tenure and environmental performance. the research by apreku-djana et al., (2023) sought to investigate the infl uence of ceo qualities on corporate social responsibility (csr) in ghana. the fi ndings indicated that there was a positive relationship between ceo term of offi ce and csr performance. the length of a ceo’s tenure may infl uence shareholder wealth through decision-making. ceos who are nearing retirement, for instance, could be assessed according to existing performance metrics because shareholders have historically favored this indicator (hou, priem, & goranova, 2017). in contrast, ceos who were in the early years of their contractual arrangements may be evaluated using performance metrics derived from market data and their effect on the company’s prospects. in light of the conversation above, we formulate the following hypotheses: h1a: ceo tenure positively affects corporate social performance. h1b: ceo tenure positively affects environmental performance. ceo’s education, corporate social performance, and environmental performance one of the key characteristics of a ceo that infl uences the fi rm’s value and decision-making process is their pa ge 63 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 59-69, 2024 educational background. a ceo with more education is capable of making appropriate and wise decisions in any challenging circumstance (chen, 2011). the value of the company is increased when senior management has a higher level of education since it facilitates managerial effectiveness, optimal decision-making, and stakeholder motivation (martínez-sola et al., 2014). technically and business-savvy executives are more adaptable and make wise decisions that will benefi t the entity’s longterm results. this research also looked at the ceo’s educational background to investigate how the ceo’s demographic characteristics affected fi nancing choices and company performance. as stated by custódio & metzger, (2014) a ceo’s educational background has a signifi cant impact on their ability to make wise fi nancial and investment choices. having the right education is crucial for success in any industry. ceos gain from fi nancial education because it makes it easier for them to comprehend fi nancial concerns and take appropriate action to ensure solid business performance also, a meta-analysis of 66 empirical study on the connection among ceo traits and corporate social responsibility (csr) performance was carried out by (pérez and rodríguez del bosque 2013). the analysis encompassed research that was published between 1992 and 2016, encompassing various industries and geographical areas. according to the meta-analysis, csr performance was signifi cantly infl uenced by the qualities of the ceo. the study revealed that organizations with stronger csr performance were typically led by ceos with greater educational backgrounds. the study also found several plausible explanations for the association between csr performance and ceo traits. higher educated ceos, for instance, can be better equipped to comprehend the value of csr and create plans for implementing it inside their organizations. corresponding to this, ceos with longer tenures might be more knowledgeable about how their business is run and more qualifi ed to create and carry out csr programs. apreku-djana et al., (2023) indicated that ceo tenure was positively correlated with csr performance in their study on the impact of ceo qualities on corporate social responsibility (csr) in ghana. the research by ndalu et al., (2021) states that, ceos who possess better educational qualifi cations are also more inclined to adopt environmentally friendly technologies and develop environmental management systems. organizations led by ceos with a specialization in business education show strong fi nancial performance (arano et al., 2010, kokeno and muturi, 2016). ceos’ formal education affects both the fi nancial health of their companies and how they invest. to maintain a robust fi nancial position in the market, ceos with formal education are more prone to employ additional inventive and creative commercial techniques. in light of the discussion above, we formulate the following hypotheses: h2a: the educational background of ceos positively affects corporate social performance. h2b: the educational background of ceos positively affects environmental performance ceo’s characteristics (tenure and education), corporate social performance and environmental performance the relationship between environmental performance and ceo traits is mediated in large part by corporate performance. guo and zheng (2021) assert that the principles, views, and leadership style of a chief executive offi cer have a substantial impact on the strategic choices that are made inside a fi rm, particularly those that pertain to environmental sustainability. according to the study, ceos who have a strong commitment to sustainability and ethical leadership through education also tend to support corporate policies that improve environmental performance. however, a corporation’s overall performance acts as a powerful mediating factor in this relationship. a company is more likely to invest in sustainable practices and technology and improve its environmental performance if its fi nances are sound and its operations are effi cient. further analysis by berrone et al., (2017) reinforces the idea that corporate performance performs a substantial mediating role in the relationship between ceo characteristics and environmental performance. the study shows that companies with ceos who prioritize sustainability have better environmental performance records, but the implementation of these strategies and practices is highly dependent on the overall performance and competitive positioning of the company. essentially, a competitively positioned company is more likely to be able to implement and maintain sustainable practices. h3a: the ceo’s characteristics (tenure and education) positively affect corporate social performance. h3b: the ceo’s characteristics (tenure and education) positively affect environmental performance. conceptual framework in the context of the infl uence of ceo term in offi ce and education on company social performance and environmental performance, the conceptual framework illustrates the relationship between independent, dependent elements and control variables. the fi nal step in creating a conceptual framework that connects the study’s key topic is the literature review. the conceptual model represents the link between ceo attributes (tenure and education) and corporate social performance and environmental performance. as illustrated in figure 1, the independent factors that comprise of ceo characteristics are ceo tenure and education. the dependent variables are corporate performance and environmental performance, while the control variables are fi rm size and reporting period. materials and methods research design and data this study used a descriptive research design because a research framework that makes the study’s execution easier is required to meet the project’s objectives. the pa ge 64 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 59-69, 2024 figure 1: conceptual framework source: author’s construction (2023) descriptive research methodology based on the case study reveals the accurate events and profi les of situations (saunders et al., 2009). this study was carried out using the survey method, a very helpful tool for learning people’s opinions and tendencies. there are three primary methodologies to think about when addressing research topics: mixed methods, which incorporate aspects of both qualitative and quantitative methods. depending on which methodology is most suited for the particular problem at hand, researchers can use quantitative, qualitative, or hybrid approaches (bell, et al., 2022). the research utilized a quantitative analysis approach, focusing on a cross-sectional survey approach. to gain a comprehensive understanding and establish a statistical evaluation of the phenomena, this research relied on the questionnaire as a research tool for data collection with a critical consideration for the analytical mission. the study’s population consists of 52 reputable companies that were listed as of december 2022 on the namibian stock exchange (nsx). thus, 52 ceos of the listed businesses made up the sampling frame for this research. primary data was used in the study and in gathering the data for the study based on the research questions, a structured questionnaire was developed. using google forms, the questionnaires were emailed to each ceo of the fi rms and of the 52, 39 responded and were used for this study. with the aid of microsoft excel and google statistical form, the data was edited, coded, and categorized, the responses were examined to make sure they consistently addressed the research questions. the data was then analyzed using the statistical package for social sciences (spss) program and the results were presented in tables. measurement of variables the measuring of the selected key csr and environmental activities of listed corporations was reviewed based on the following criteria: environmental stewardship, community involvement, workplace safety and employee welfare, ethical business practices, diversity and inclusion, and corporate governance. the ceo’s tenure is determined by the mean duration of years that fi rm directors have served on the board. this measurement technique is in line with (deschênes et al., 2015) and (de villiers et al., 2011). they maintained that one way to examine the correlation between board tenure and social and environmental performance is to look at the mean duration of years that directors have served on the board. according to darmadi, (2013) and ujunwa, (2012), the ceo’s education was evaluated in relation to whether or not they held a postgraduate degree and a professional qualifi cation (acca, icma, cpa, or ca). if not, it was rated as zero. the criteria for measuring gender is based on male or female. age is measured based on the length of time that a ceo has lived and fi rm size is also measured using the natural logarithm of the company’s total assets at the end of a specifi ed period. model specifi cation to estimate the correlation between ceo term of offi ce and education on corporate social performance and environmental performance, the study proposed the following two models: lncsp = β0 + β1ten + β2edu +β3gdr + β4age + β4fis + εt ..................... model 1 lnep = β0 + β1ten + β2edu +β3gdr + β4age + β4fis + εt..................... model 2 where: lncsp= corporate social performance lnep= environmental performance ten= tenure edu= education gdr= gender age= age fis= firm size β1β4= co-effi cient of the explanatory variables β0= constant εt= error term results and discussion descriptive statistics table 1 displays the study’s descriptive statistics for the variables. the study found that the majority of the respondents are male (64.1%). also, most of the pa ge 65 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 59-69, 2024 table 1: demographic characteristics particular frequency percent respondents gender male 25 64.1% female 14 35.9% total 39 100.0% educational background hnd/degree 8 20.5% msc/mba/mphil 17 43.6% professional/technical 9 23.1% prof/dr. 3 7.7% other 2 5.1% total 39 100.0% respondents age 21-30 years 4 10.3% 31-40 years 9 23.1% 41-50 years 17 43.6% 51-60 years 9 23.1% total 39 100.0% respondents tenure less than 1 year 4 10.3% 1-2years 6 15.4% 3-5 years 9 23.1% 6-10 years 6 15.4% more than 10 years 14 35.9% total 39 100.0% source: self-constructed based on the responses. respondents, 43.6%, have either an msc, mba, or mphil. it was established that most of the respondents are between the ages of 41 and 50 (43.6%) and have more than ten years of tenure. correlation analysis table 2 provides the study’s correlation analysis. the correlation value for each variable in the correlation. this study uses pearson’s correlation coeffi cient to consider table 2: correlation analysis 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 1. gender 1 2. level of education 0.017 1 0.817 3. age 0.025 -0.02 1 0.737 0.784 4. tenure -0.039 0.001 -0.073 1 0.592 0.99 0.318 5. firm size -0.129 .169 0.085 -.250 1 0.079 0.02 0.246 0.001 6. environmental performance .183 -0.044 -0.032 -0.041 0.127 1 0.012 0.552 0.661 0.581 0.082 7. corporate social performance .200 0.081 0.019 -0.023 .152 .729 1 0.006 0.268 0.791 0.755 0.038 0.000 source: self-constructed based on the responses. pa ge 66 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 59-69, 2024 the strength and direction of linear relationships between variables. the correlation coeffi cient ranges from -1 to +1. the magnitude of the coeffi cient directly correlates with the strength of the link between the variables. as shown in table 2, there is no problem with multicollinearity, indicated if the value is more than 0.8. regression analysis multiple regression analysis was done to meet the goals of this study. it also covered the connections between ceo table 3: multiple regression analysis variables corporate social performance (model 1) environmental performance (model 2) coef. ( st.err.) t-value coef. ( st.err.) t-value gender -0.016 -0.46 0.206 5.00*** (0.034) (0.041) age -0.034 -0.72 0.069 1.18 (0.047) (0.058) education level 0.092 3.33*** -0.092 -2.7*** (0.028) (0.034) tenure 0.008 0.41 0.045 1.92** (0.019) (0.023) firm size 0.839 26.86*** -0.015 -0.40 (0.031) (0.038) constant 2.062 20.49*** 2.945 23.84*** (0.101) (0.124) mean dependent var. 3.60 3.357 r-squared 0.70 0.209 f-test 170.34 9.13 akaike crit. (aic) 447.32 603.295 sd dependent var. 0.78 0.559 number of obs. 380.00 380 prob > f 0.00 0.000 bayesian crit. (bic) 470.97 626.936 source: self-constructed based on the responses. tenure and education on corporate social performance and environmental performance as well as the control variables. table 3 presents the fi ndings. two models were utilized in this investigation, as shown in table 3; both model 1 and 2 used corporate social performance and environmental performance respectively as the dependent variables. the table lists four values: the coeffi cient value, standard error (in brackets), t-value, and p-value (using stars to indicate). according to model 1, the r-square value is 0.70 and the r-square value of model 2 is 0.209, the control variables (gender, firm size, and age) and independent variables (level of education and tenure) account for 70% of corporate social performance while only 40.9% accounts for environmental performance. with a signifi cance level of p (0.05), table 3 displays signifi cant values for the two models (model 1: f-test =170.34, p=0.00; model 2: f-test =9.13, p=0.000). the two models’ representations of the correlations are suggested to be signifi cant by the anova’s signifi cance. according to table 3, among the three control variables used in model 1, firm size (β =0.839, t=26.86, p=0.01) was discovered to signifi cantly affect corporate social performance. additionally, it was discovered that the independent variable, education level (β=0.092, t=3.33, p=0.01) had a positive and substantial impact on corporate social performance. gender (β=0.206, t=5.00, p=0.01) was found to have a signifi cant impact on environmental performance in the case of three of the control factors. it was also discovered that education level (β=-0.092, t=-2.7, p=0.01), and tenure (β=0.045, t=1.92, p=0.05) signifi cantly affect environmental performance. discussion of result first, the study examines the link between a ceo’s tenure and environmental performance. the study revealed that a ceo’s tenure has a positive and substantial infl uence on environmental performance, indicating that the tenure of that ceo contributes to the environmental performance of the fi rm. secondly, the study established the association between a ceo’s term of offi ce and corporate social performance. the study revealed that a ceo’s tenure has an insignifi cant infl uence on corporate social performance, indicating that the tenure pa ge 67 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 59-69, 2024 of that ceo contributes little or nothing to the social performance of the fi rm. thirdly, the study examined the connection between education level and environmental performance. the research found that educational background has a negative and substantial infl uence on the environmental performance of fi rms. this indicates that the level of education attained by the ceo contributes negatively to the environmental performance of fi rms. finally, the study sought to examine the relationship between education level and social performance. it is also revealed that education level has a positive and signifi cant infl uence on social performance indicating that the level of education attained by the ceo contributes positively to corporate social performance. the results of the study confi rm the fi ndings of saridakis et al., (2023), kanuri et al., (2014), hartnell et al., (2016), and ndalu et al., (2021). for instance, the study by ndalu et al., (2021) employed a sample of 25 nigerian oil and gas businesses to gather information on their waste management and emissions policies, as well as ceo attributes like tenure, age, gender, and education. the study indicated that the length of time a ceo had held their position had no bearing on their commitment to environmental sustainability and that there was no signifi cant relationship between ceo tenure and environmental performance. conclusions the study’s fi ndings defi nitively establish that the duration of a ceo’s term of offi ce has a positive and substantial infl uence on environmental performance. in contrast, its impact on corporate social performance is negligible. moreover, the educational attainment of ceos has a detrimental and substantial effect on environmental performance, whereas it has a benefi cial and substantial impact on social performance. the results demonstrate the intricate interaction between ceo attributes and their infl uence company. organizations must take into account the length of time and educational background of their ceos when evaluating and executing environmental and social performance plans. according to the research by khan et al., (2020), ceos’ environmental performance improves considerably during their fi rst few years of employment compared to later years. their research confi rms the current research’s fi ndings by offering proof of the benefi cial infl uence of a ceo’s term of offi ce on environmental performance. although the ceo’s term of offi ce had little bearing on the company’s social performance but according to the empirical fi ndings of malik et al., (2020) it was revealed that the ceo’s term of offi ce positively impacted csr disclosure. their research supports the current study’s fi ndings that there is a considerable impact of educational level on corporate social performance. through this research, policymakers may consider imposing regulations or guidelines on ceo tenure and educational qualifi cations to ensure that company leaders have the requisite expertise to effectively manage social and environmental responsibilities. government entities and business organizations can promote and offer incentives for ongoing education and training programs targeted at ceos and high-level executives. these programs would seek to enhance their understanding of environmental and social issues and their infl uence on the overall performance of companies. policy measures can be implemented to strengthen transparency and accountability requirements for social and environmental performance. implementing this measure would encourage fi rms to disclose relevant information and metrics about the ceo’s length of service and educational background. stakeholders and policymakers can consider implementing incentive schemes that align ceo compensation with social and environmental performance metrics, which can help motivate ceos to prioritize these aspects of corporate responsibility. in order to conduct a further study analysis, we suggest an examination of the potential mediating factors that could clarify the varying infl uence of a ceo’s length of service and educational background on environmental and social performance. for instance, examine how corporate governance procedures, organizational culture, or stakeholder engagement initiatives infl uence the connection between ceo qualities and business sustainability outcomes. we strongly advise an industryspecifi c study to determine if previously observed connexion between ceo traits and 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(2021). the interplay among green brand knowledge, expected eudaimonic well-being and environmental consciousness on green brand purchase intention. corporate social responsibility and environmental management, 28(2), 630-639. pa ge 1 pa ge 11 6 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) investigation the use of waste glass and waste paper as an alternative construction binding material: an approach towards sustainable environment mohammad saifullah1, mehedi hasan1, tarun debnath1, m. a. rob1, azizul hakim tusar1, md. liton rabbani1* volume 3 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v3i1.3266 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: september 01, 2024 accepted: september 29, 2024 published: october 02, 2024 the idea of repurposing garbage as a resource within the building industry has drawn much attention in light of growing worldwide concerns about sustainable development and waste management. this thesis explores the intriguing idea of using waste materials as a practical and ecological replacement for construction materials and also carefully evaluates the technical, environmental and financial viability of incorporating various waste products, like household waste paper and waste glass into different construction applications. the results of this research project are incredibly insightful. regarding waste paper as a cement replacement, the experiment demonstrated that substituting 10%, 20% or 30% of cement with waste paper is not a recommended practice. in all instances, the resulting concrete blocks exhibited a significant reduction in strength when compared to traditional concrete formulations. this outcome underscores the limitations of waste paper as a viable substitute for maintaining concrete strength. conversely, findings regarding glass waste replacement in cement are particularly exciting. at just 7 days of curing, concrete blocks incorporating 10% and 20% glass waste replacements displayed higher strength than their conventional counterparts, showcasing an early strength advantage. by the 14-day mark, the strength of these glass waste-reinforced blocks closely approached that of standard concrete, highlighting their potential for use in sustainable construction practices. even more impressively, at 21 days of curing, when conventional concrete reached its peak strength at 28.33 kn per square meter, the blocks with 10%, 20% and 30% glass waste replacement-maintained robustness, with strengths of 26.4, 25.26 and 19.44 kn per square meter respectively. this prolonged strength retention suggests that glass waste-reinforced concrete can serve as a sustainable alternative without compromising structural integrity, even in the long term. keywords cement, environment, household wastes, mechanical strength, sustainability, waste glass, waste paper 1 barishal engineering college, bangladesh * corresponding author’s e-mail: liton.kce@bec.ac.bd introduction waste management has become a crucial issue for society due to the increasing amount of waste produced every day. with growing environmental concerns and the need for sustainable development, there is a greater need for waste reduction and recycling. the construction industry is one of the major contributors to waste generation, accounting for about 40% of the global waste produced. however, advances in technology and increasing environmental awareness have created new opportunities to address this problem. one such opportunity is the use of waste products as an alternative to traditional construction materials. the concept of using waste products as construction materials is not new. for centuries, builders have used locally available materials, including waste products, to construct buildings. however, with the advent of modern construction techniques and materials, the use of waste products declined, and the focus shifted to using virgin materials. but with the growing need for sustainable construction, waste products are once again gaining attention as a valuable resource. the benefits of using waste products as an alternative to traditional construction materials are numerous. by repurposing waste, we can reduce the amount of waste that ends up in landfills and incinerators. this, in turn, reduces the environmental impact of waste disposal and conserves resources. additionally, using waste products as construction materials can reduce the demand for virgin materials, thereby reducing the need for resource extraction and processing. this reduces the carbon footprint of construction and contributes to climate change mitigation. furthermore, using waste products in construction can create economic benefits, as waste products are often cheaper than virgin materials. there are several types of waste products that can be used as an alternative to traditional construction materials. these include: industrial by-products many industrial processes generate waste materials that can be used as construction materials. for example, coal fly ash, a by-product of coal-fired power plants, can be used as a substitute for portland cement in concrete. this not only reduces the amount of waste sent to landfills but also reduces the carbon footprint of construction. municipal solid waste municipal solid waste, also known as household waste, is another potential source of construction materials. for example, crushed glass can be used as a substitute for aggregate in concrete, while plastic waste can be used as insulation material. pa ge 11 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 116-129, 2024 construction and demolition waste construction and demolition waste, which includes concrete, bricks, and other construction materials, can be recycled and used as construction materials. this reduces the need for virgin materials and reduces the environmental impact of waste disposal. agricultural waste agricultural waste, such as rice husks, straw, and coconut fibers, can be used as insulation materials or as a substitute for wood in construction. benefits of using waste products as construction materials the use of waste products as an alternative to traditional construction materials offers numerous benefits. literature review this chapter includes a survey of the academic works that provided the theoretical foundation for the study and supported its need. the glass waste, on the other hand, are the subject of the second part which covers their principles, technical aspects of their manufacturing process, historical usage of solid wastes in their creation, etc. finally, a comprehensive overview of the literature review’s two sections, the found research gaps, and the necessity of the current study served to wrap up this chapter. according to hoornweg and bhada-tata 2012 (hoornweg & bhada-tata, 2012), recycling is the third most preferred method of trash disposal in the world. addressing the world’s rising rate of garbage creation is a crucial part of the 3rs, which are advised for all nations to follow. contrary to claims made by detractors about the environmental benefits of recycling, a review and analysis of several life cycle assessments (lca) of recyclable wastes, including paper, cardboard, glass, plastics, aluminum, steel, wood, and aggregate, have revealed and confirmed that recycling is the most practical method of waste disposal (or waste management) that can provide environmental benefits and minimize environmental impacts when compared to other methods. in light of the many aforementioned advantages of recycling, its use in construction appears to be an ineffective way to solve the issues of concerns related to the activities of the building sector. the forecasted enormous increase in construction activity in the near future (global construction perspectives and oxford economics (gcpoe) forecasts, 2015) and the anticipated rise in urban population growth, which may increase housing demand in the future, are other indirect factors that necessitate the urgent need to implement the recycled use of waste in construction. according to a united nations assessment, 2.5 billion more people will live in cities throughout the world by the year 2050, with asia and africa anticipated to contribute 90% of that growth (united nations, 2015). the problems of sustainable development are also anticipated to be on the high side as a result of the ongoing urbanization of the world, particularly in cities found in lower middle-income nations (united nations, 2015). according to the unep gwmo report 2015, (wilson, et al., 2015) speaking of waste generation, the increasing standard of living and growth of civilization have prompted remarkable growth in the rate of waste generation over the past years. the world bank’s review of global solid waste generation and also showed that the amount of waste produced per capita worldwide was increasing excessively quickly, outpacing both urban population growth and projections for the year 2025 (hoornweg et al., 2012). the amount of building is predicted to increase dramatically in the near future on a worldwide scale. a new estimate titled “global construction 2030” projects that the global construction production would increase by 85% to $15.5 trillion by 2030 (asadi & satish, 2021). the worldwide construction volume was expected to expand by over 70% by 2025, which is a 15% increase from the prior prediction (asadi & satish, 2021). the forecast also predicts that developed nations, which are recovering from economic instability, and emerging nations, which are currently industrializing, will make significant contributions to the global construction volume, leading to a projected 3.9% growth in construction volume on an annual basis up to 2030. there are, however, just a few significant negative aspects of sustainability. according to the (european commission, 2013), two of these effects are high resource consumption and high waste output. other negative effects include resource depletion, greenhouse gas emissions, and energy use. (hawken et al., 2002) environmental deterioration could result from the foregoing consequences occurring repeatedly. the repercussions of the building industry are known to pose an immediate threat to the environment, including global warming, pollution, and the depletion or collapse of natural resources (giljum, 2009), for instance, according to (united nations environment programme, 2009), buildings are responsible for about 40% of the world’s energy consumption and are thought to contribute to around one third of the entire amount of greenhouse gas emissions. this is mostly due to the usage of fossil fuels throughout the construction process. (mehta , 2002)recommended using less energy, less natural resources, and reducing carbon dioxide emissions to create concrete that is ecologically friendly. the european union commission’s eco innovative program promotes the design of novel products using recycled materials, the use of novel environmentally friendly building materials, and novel manufacturing techniques, as well as the use of construction products and related techniques that reduce resource consumption, embodied carbon, and by-product waste production (european commission, 2013). (mccaffrey, 2002) recommended utilizing less calcined material in cement, using less cement in concrete, and reducing the number of cementconsuming buildings. the use of alternate cement types in concrete has the potential to reduce the environmental effect of concrete production by up to 39%, according pa ge 11 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 116-129, 2024 to research done on the lca of concrete and asphalt (blankendaal, 2014). the implementation of environmentally friendly construction processes (which include reduced resource consumption, embodied carbon emissions, and waste production from by-products) and environmentally friendly construction materials (which include less/noncement inclusion and recycled waste use) will significantly contribute to the much-anticipated sustainability in the construction industry. due to population growth, an increase in living standards, and urbanization, a significant amount of solid waste (including plastic, metal, textile, wood, glass, paper, and concrete) is being produced globally from various human activities in both developed and developing countries (oriyomi et al., 2015). in the majority of industrialized and developing nations, paper and paper products make up a sizeable portion of the municipal solid waste stream. wastepaper is the secondlargest component of solid waste globally, and according to projections of future paper consumption, both developed and developing nations will continue to produce large amounts of wastepaper (fallah, joseph, isaac, ademola, & james). this might be explained by the rising demand for paper and paperboard that often coincides with increases in a nation’s gdp (elizabeth , 2007). in the united states and europe, municipal solid trash has remained to consist mostly of waste paper for a number of years. according to the (epa’s office of resource conservation and recovery (orcr), 2023), between 1960 and 2013, the percentage of paper and paperboard creation in the usa fluctuated between 30% and over 20% of the total amount of solid waste created. waste paper and paperboard were the secondlargest component of municipal solid waste (msw) in the uk in 2001, accounting for 21% of all msw, the largest component of commercial waste, at 41.2%, and the largest component of liter and street sweeping wastes, at 31% of all msw (burnley et al., 2007). paper and cardboard trash creation has been on the rise in europe from 2005 through 2013. paper and cardboard trash make up the majority of the packaging waste produced in europe over the same time period, according to eurostat data for the 28 member states of the european union (eurostat statistics explained, 2016). as of 2012, there were 400 million tons of paper produced annually on a worldwide scale (pulp and paper capacities annual survey, 2021-2026), and per-capita paper consumption is increasing every year, with industrialized economies consuming more paper than emerging economies (mukete et al., 2016). according to estimates from 2004, the per-capita paper usage in the usa was over 317 kg/ person/year, compared to less than 50 kg/person/year in china and asia. the yearly per capita use of paper was also estimated by a recent (global waste management outlook, 2015)article to be 240 kg/capital/year for north america, 140 kg/capital/year for europe, 40 kg/ capital/year for asia, and 4 kg/capital/year for africa (united nations environment programme, 2009)). as a result, taking into account the apparent rising rate of per capital wastepaper consumption various forecasts indicating a potential increase in global paper production from the current 450 million tons per year to 500 million tons by 2020 (source: estimated by the author, using paper consumption and population information from; (the statistics portal, 2014) and (hoornweg and bhadatata, 2012) respectively.), and the predicted 60% increase in global demand for paper and paperboard from the 368 million tons recorded in 2005 to 579 million tons by the year 2021 (paper consumption worldwide from 2021 to 2032 in million metric tons, n.d.). for instance, despite a 2012 recycling rate of 71.7% in europe (confederation of european paper industries (cepi), 2014) and a disposal rate of 48 million tonnes in the united states ((nepal & aggarwal, 2014; zavala, 2013; yun et al., 2007; fuller et al., 2006; decard et al., 2001)), an estimated 10 million tonnes of paper and board that could have been recycled still end up in landfills and incineration. additionally, contrary to popular belief, the use of paper has increased globally at a rate that is higher than the rate of population growth, as evidenced by literature. this is in contrast to the common belief that the introduction of electronics will cause a decline in paper consumption. this is supported by estimates of a 5.5% rise in worldwide per-capital paper consumption and a matching 0.0037% growth in global population (hoornweg et al., 2012). an upward trend between 1995 and 2015 was also predicted by earlier forecasts of paper production, consumption, and usage in europe. a prediction of worldwide paper consumption over the next 15 years, broken out by grade (mukete et al., 2016), also points to a continual rise in the use of various types of paper in the future, which is a sign that waste paper will continue to be available for recycling. according to data in the literature, wastepaper has the potential to be used to create a variety of construction materials. wastepaper-based according to reports, a variety of building materials, such as concrete, infill materials, plastering mortar, and green cement, have behaviors and qualities that make them suitable for use in construction ((nepal & aggarwal, 2014; zavala, 2013; yun et al., 2007; fuller et al., 2006; decard et al., 2001)). therefore, given that the less desirable features are improved upon, using wastepaper to create civil engineering building materials and other engineering goods might be seen as a sustainable solution to the everincreasing global wastepaper supply. most people use glass every day; it is essentially a translucent frozen liquid made of silica, soda ash, and calcium carbonate (caco3) that liquefies at very high temperatures. the liquid is allowed to cool quickly to prevent crystallization (bauchy & micoulaut, 2015; butler & hooper, 2019). it is made up. from plentiful basic materials and may be utilized right away as a feedstock for making glass. a glass. endlessly recyclable without pa ge 11 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 116-129, 2024 sacrificing quality or worth (british glass recycling., 2017). the stream of solid garbage includes glass. and it makes up, according to estimates (olutaiwo, akinwale , & ezegbunem, 2018) (omole, isiorho, & ndambuki, 2016), 8.7% of the waste stream in nigeria. within the range between 80% and 85% of the bulk production from the whole glass industry. according to rabbani & sarker (2017) the major sources that cause pollution to turag river water are various consumer goods industries (soap and detergent), garments industries, pharmaceuticals industries, lots of tanneries, dyeing industries, aluminum industries, battery manufacturing, match industries, ink manufacturing industries, textile, paint, iron industries, pulp and paper factories, chemical factories, frozen food factories and steel workshop etc. ashutosh and satish (2015) conducted multiple studies to examine the impact on compressive strength and durability of substituting cement with 5%, 10%, and 15% glass powder. glass powder with a particle size range of 600 to 100 microns was used to assess the impact of particle size. the findings demonstrated that the pozzolanic behavior was attained with a 10% replacement of the glass powder, which resulted in the greatest gain in concrete strength. it combines with the lime at the start of the hydration to create an extra cshgel, which creates a denser cement matrix. (ashutosh & ashutosh, 2015) tamanna et al. (2013) emphasized the current state of affairs and advances in the recycling of glass waste and offered a solution for using glass waste properly in place of cement. the used glass can be successfully utilized in concrete as a filler (fine or coarse aggregate) or as a cement replacement. when the particle size is smaller than 75 microns, the glass is potentially pozzolanic or even cemented due to its amorphous nature and relatively high silicon and calcium content. (tamanna et al., 2013) vijayakumar et al. (2013) used of finely ground restorative glass as a partial replacement for cement in concrete was investigated, and it was compared to regular concrete. 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% of glass powder were substituted, and the concrete’s compression, tensile strength, and bending strength for up to 60 days were measured and compared. the findings indicate that glass powder can be used as a substitute for cement with particles smaller than 75 microns in order to stop the reaction of alkali silica. (vijayakumar et al., 2013) according to malik et al. (2013) the effects of replacing fa to some extent with glass waste at 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% by weight were explored. in order to assess the concrete samples’ low weight for various glass waste percentages, durability (water absorption), and compression, tensile, and compressive strength were all examined. it was discovered that a concrete mixture containing 20% glass waste in the form of fine particles had the highest compressive strength when the findings were compared to those obtained for a typical m-25 concrete mix. (malik et al., 2013) gautam et al. (2012) shown that the resistance to compression during the course of 7 days rises on average by 47.75% when the fine aggregates are replaced with 10% of glass residues. however, it is clear that at the same amount of replacement, the improvement in compressive strength for 28 days is only 3.30%. however, the increase in compressive strength is 2.18% after 28 days. a about 11.32 percent increase in compressive strength is shown over the course of seven days, however a modest decline in compressive strength at replacement levels of 30 and 40 is seen after 28 days. (gautam et al., 2012) materials and methods a methodical trial-and-error technique is used to create the concrete block (cb) technology. the main goal is to develop a block-specific mix proportioning technique that is efficient and aligned with the research goals (identifying of key variables, ideal mix composition, and engineering features). following current production and testing procedures for masonry blocks makes it easier to get acceptance in the building sector after creation. as a key factor in structural design (neville, 2011), compressive strength is chosen as the mixture composition benchmark parameter. materials wastepaper, sand, and water were employed as study materials. waste paper this experimental study not only attempts to generate a useful building material but also adds to the larger discourse on sustainable construction by including postconsumer wastepaper as a crucial aggregate filler. the use of such cutting-edge materials in building might open the way for resource-saving substitutes, resolving issues with waste management and ecological preservation. processing of waste paper into usable form the transformation of waste paper into a functional figure 1: post-consumer wastepaper pa ge 12 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 116-129, 2024 binding agent for the production of concrete blocks is currently taking place. this intricately designed multi-step process is actively being executed, with the objective of empowering the waste paper to play a substantial role in enhancing both the structural integrity and attributes of the resulting concrete blocks. the process involves a typical sequence of steps that includes: collection and preparation of waste paper the gathering and preparation of waste paper play a crucial part in the process’ first stage. this entails collecting post-consumer waste paper from various sources, including newspapers and discarded paper goods. waste paper is being used as a binder within concrete blocks, demonstrating a sustainable building method that turns waste resources into useful assets. this groundbreaking method efficiently fosters the continued development of environmentally friendly building techniques by reducing waste while also introducing a potential replacement for traditional binder ingredients. the building approach corresponds with sustainability goals and lessens the environmental effect of trash disposal by using waste paper as a binder. this strategy encourages resource-efficient use and represents a significant change toward a building industry that is environmentally conscious. repurposed materials provide a substantial contribution to the composition of crucial structural components. this strategy thus reflects a forward-looking viewpoint, establishing a path toward sustainable and ethical building methods. waste glass by utilizing waste glass as a crucial binder element, the present experimental investigation actively adds to the larger conversation on sustainable construction, going beyond the simple development of a useful building material. the possibility for the introduction of resourceefficient alternatives is created by combining such cutting-edge materials into construction techniques. this figure 2: schematic of procedure for making wpb (waste paper binder) innovative strategy might help with waste management issues and promote ecological preservation, adding another dimension to the developing field of sustainable construction techniques. processing of waste glass into usable form waste glass is meticulously and purposefully transformed into a useful binder for the production of concrete blocks in an effort to maximize the use of these materials as binding agents. waste glass is given the opportunity to play a crucial part in strengthening the properties and structural integrity of the final concrete blocks thanks to this transforming process. the process’s sequential steps are as follows: figure 3: post-consumer waste glass collection and sorting glass garbage is gathered and sorted from a variety of sources, including post-consumer glass goods, glass containers, and industrial waste. the collected glass is carefully sorted to get rid of impurities and non-glass materials. pa ge 12 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 116-129, 2024 cleaning and preparation to get rid of impurities, grime, and any residual residues, the collected waste glass goes through a thorough cleaning procedure. the removal of any impurities at this stage guarantees that the glass’s quality and performance are not jeopardized. size reduction the cleaned waste glass is crushed or ground into smaller pieces using specialized machinery. the glass is reduced in size to manageable granules or shards, which makes it ideal for use as a binder. homogenization to attain uniform particle sizes and consistent characteristics, the crushed glass particles go through a homogenization process. this step is essential to ensuring the waste glass binder behaves consistently and predictably while producing concrete blocks. mixture proportioning based on the required properties of the resulting concrete blocks, precise proportions of waste glass binder, aggregates, and other components are painstakingly calculated. at this point, factors including strength, durability, and workability are carefully taken into account. concrete block formation skillfully poured or molded into elaborately crafted block molds is the slurry containing the waste glass binder. the waste glass binder, along with other ingredients, is crucial to bringing the mixture together during the molding process. curing and quality control the freshly created concrete blocks go through a thorough curing regimen that allows the waste glass binder to solidify and create strong linkages between the different parts. the efficacy of the waste glass binder in the concrete blocks is confirmed by stringent quality control tests, which also include assessments of compressive strength and durability. waste glass is being converted into a useful binder for concrete blocks as part of a sustainable strategy to reduce the impact of glass waste on the environment. by introducing a revolutionary binder material endowed with special qualities, this ground-breaking technology not only increases waste reduction but also advances environmentally friendly construction methods. sand this topic was concerned with the incorporation of fine aggregates (sand) as an additional aggregate filler during the creation of cwlb (concrete with lightweight aggregates). these fine aggregates (sand) were actively used to establish a uniform and consistent distribution of electrical conductivity among both the smaller and larger particles within the resulting mixture of concrete. figure 4: schematic of procedure for making wgb (waste glass binder) figure 5: sand utilized as fine aggregate cement during the experiment, the suitability of cement with various waste products was examined to ascertain how well it promoted structural integrity. the purpose of this test was to determine if cement made from domestic garbage could adhere to predetermined requirements for building purposes. the environmental effects of using cement, such as energy use and co2 emissions, were pa ge 12 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 116-129, 2024 probably taken into account when waste materials were being used. brick chips brick chips become an important resource for varying the aggregate composition in the field of concrete block manufacture. by reusing waste materials and adhering to ecologically friendly construction methods, these remnants, retrieved from abandoned or fractured bricks, provide a sustainable option. brick chips can be used figure 6: cement utilized as main binder figure 7: brick chips utilized as main filler in place of standard aggregates like gravel or sand for making concrete blocks, offering a variety of benefits. laboratory experimentation the main laboratory experimentation may be divided into six basic phases, each of which is essential to the development of wpgcb with different percentages of cement replacement: phase of measuring at the start of the procedure, careful measurements of the component materials are made. a preset mixing ratio, such as the ratio of cement to sand to aggregate (1: 1.5: 3), is used to quantify the solid components, including aggregates, cement, and sand. for the appropriate mix uniformity and performance to be maintained, accurate measurement is essential. phase of mixing the phase of mixing follows the measuring phase. to guarantee an even dispersion of particles, the solid ingredients are carefully mixed. the correct amount of each component must be mixed in according to the ratio, in this example, 1: 1.5: 3. effective mixing tools are used to speed up homogenization, resulting in a cohesive combination that serves as the foundation for wpgcb. phase of applying the mold after the mixture has been homogenized, it is carefully applied to the molds. these precisely crafted molds are used to mold the mixture into the desired wpgcb shapes and sizes. in order to prevent air gaps and ensure structural integrity, the mixture is properly distributed figure 8: mixing pa ge 12 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 116-129, 2024 and compressed inside the molds while maintaining the set mixing percentage. phase of compacting and leveling after putting the mixture within the molds, the phase of compacting and leveling begins. to get rid of air pockets and produce a dense, compacted mixture, pressure or mechanical compaction is used. to achieve bonding. the final wpgcb product must be properly cured in order to acquire the appropriate strength and durability while maintaining the right mixing percentage. phases of testing and analysis following the allotted curing time, the cured wpgcb specimens are carefully removed from the molds. these figure 9: molding consistent compaction and level surfaces while keeping the constancy of the 1: 1.5: 3 ratios, tools like tampers or vibrating machinery are used. phase of curing after compacting, the phase of curing is started. the molded specimens are put under strict monitoring during this crucial stage in order to promote hydration and figure 10: curing samples go through a thorough testing and analysis process in order to assess mechanical parameters including compressive strength, density, and other pertinent features. the test findings reveal useful information about how well the combination is proportioned, supporting the significance of the 1: 1.5: 3 ratios in getting desired results. results and discussion the results of the tests that were carried out over a figure 11: testing range of time periods after different percentages (10%, 20%, and 30%) of the total cement content had been substituted by wastepaper and waste glass. these tests used a combination of cement, sand, and brick chips in the proportions of 1:1.5:3. the findings provide important information about the viability and sustainability of using wastepaper and waste glass in construction materials in the same proportion as cement, sand, and brick chips (1:1.5:3). results obtained after 7 days curing period for wastepaper results obtained after 14 days curing period for wastepaper pa ge 12 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 116-129, 2024 figure 12: wastepaper concrete block compressive strength after 7 days of curing figure 13: wastepaper concrete block compressive strength after 14 days of curing figure 14: wastepaper paper concrete block compressive strength after 21 days of curing figure 15: wastepaper glass concrete block compressive strength after 7 days of curing results obtained after 7 days curing period for glass waste results obtained after 14 days curing period for glass waste pa ge 12 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 116-129, 2024 results obtained after 21 days curing period for glass waste figure 16: wastepaper glass concrete block compressive strength after 14 days of curing figure 17: wastepaper glass concrete block compressive strength after 21 days of curing data analysis a comprehensive series of compressive strength tests was conducted on concrete samples with diverse compositions. these tests encompassed varying levels of cement replacement, spanning from 10% to 30%, and the incorporation of waste paper/glass at different percentages: 1.81%, 3.62%, and 5.43%. the experiments were carried out over various curing durations to capture the development of concrete strength over time. the primary objective of this study was to thoroughly investigate how the inclusion of waste paper, at different substitution rates, was affected by the compressive strength of the concrete specimens throughout the curing process. compressive strength, as a fundamental property in construction, was assessed for its ability to withstand loads and pressures without failure. to facilitate a clear and in-depth analysis of the results, a graphical representation was created. this graphic visually contrasted the compressive strengths of three distinct concrete conditions: concrete with 10% cement replacement by waste paper in this condition, concrete had undergone a 10% cement replacement using waste paper. i.e 1.81 percent of the total share, to be exact concrete with 20% cement replacement by waste paper in this scenario, 20% of the cement content had been replaced with waste paper. i.e 3.62 percent of the total share, to be exact concrete with 30% cement replacement by waste paper the highest substitution rate, 30%, was employed in this concrete condition. i.e 5.43 percent of the total share, to be exact. comparative analysis for waste paper replacement the replacement of various amounts of waste paper in a particular setting is the topic of this comparative research. by analyzing the effects of various degrees of trash replacement on factors including performance, sustainability, and efficiency, it seeks to give educated insights into the best usage of waste. the main finding of the study is that the strength of the product reduces as the amount of paper substitution rises. the visual representation of this inverse link between paper replacement and strength emphasizes how stronger structures result from greater paper replacement levels. this result highlights the compromise between employing waste materials for sustainability and preserving the necessary degree of functionality or strength in the setting under study. a comparative diagram of obtained strengths is presented below pa ge 12 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 116-129, 2024 comparative analysis for waste glass replacement this comparative study examines the replacement of various quantities of waste glass in a particular setting while taking varied curing durations of 7, 14, and 21 days figure 18: comparative graphical representation for different percentage waste paper replacement into consideration. by analyzing the impacts of various levels of glass replacement on crucial elements including performance, sustainability, and efficiency at various curing intervals, it seeks to offer educated insights into the best usage of waste glass. taking into account the curing period, the main conclusion of this study is that the product’s strength decreases as the degree of glass replacement increases. within the first seven days of cure, this diminution is particularly noticeable. although the strength does improve slightly after 14 and 21 days compared to the baseline without glass replacement, it still falls short of the baseline. the curing period has a moderating influence on this connection, which is seen visually by the inverse relationship between strength and glass replacement. stronger constructions may be constructed with lower amounts of glass replacement. this result emphasizes the trade-off between using recycled glass for sustainability and maintaining the required level of usefulness or strength in the study area; while also taking into account the amount of time the material has to cure to attain the needed strength. however, the trade-off continues to be a crucial factor in construction and engineering applications. it shows that longer curing durations may somewhat reduce the initial strength drop associated with greater levels of glass replacement. a comparative diagram of obtained strengths is presented below. results discussion different percentages of waste paper and waste glass (10%, 20%, and 30%) were used as replacements in a concrete block mixture with a ratio of 1:1.5:3. the study figure 19: comparative graphical representation for different percentage waste glass replacement aimed to investigate how these replacements affected the block’s strength at varying curing times (7, 14, and 21 days). for waste paper replacement, the results exhibited an irregular rate of strength reduction as the percentage of waste paper increased: • at 7 days of curing: (figure 12) • 10% waste paper replacement led to a strength decrease from the normal concrete strength of 15.54 to 9.42 kn/cm2. • 20% waste paper replacement resulted in a strength pa ge 12 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 116-129, 2024 of 7.93 kn/cm2. • 30% waste paper replacement had a strength of 6.46 kn/cm2. • at 14 days of curing: (figure 13) • 10% waste paper replacement decreased the strength from 24.46 to 14.5 kn/cm2. • 20% waste paper replacement led to a strength of 9.97 kn/cm2. • 30% waste paper replacement resulted in a strength of 6.42 kn/cm2. • at 21 days of curing: (figure 14) • 10% waste paper replacement decreased the strength 28.33to 17.14 kn/cm2. • 20% waste paper replacement had a strength of 11.22 kn/cm2. • 30% waste paper replacement resulted in a strength of 7.7 kn/cm2. on the other hand, for glass waste replacement: • at 7 days of curing: (figure 15) • 10% glass waste replacement increased the strength from the normal concrete strength of 15.54 to 23.16 kn/cm2. • 20% glass waste replacement had a strength of 20.29 kn/cm2. • 30% glass waste replacement resulted in a strength of 13.25 kn/cm2. • at 14 days of curing: (figure 16) • 10% glass waste replacement decreased the strength to 22.75 kn/cm2. • 20% glass waste replacement had a strength of 22.3 kn/cm2. • 30% glass waste replacement resulted in a strength of 15.12 kn/cm2 • at 21 days of curing: (figure 17) • 10% glass waste replacement increased the strength to 26.4 kn/cm2. • 20% glass waste replacement had a strength of 25.26 kn/cm2. • 30% glass waste replacement resulted in a strength of 19.44 kn/cm2. these findings highlight the varying impact of waste paper and waste glass replacements on concrete strength over different curing periods and replacement percentages, demonstrating the complex relationship between material composition and strength. more can be seen from the combined graph (figure 18) made for replacement of cement by waste glass are • after 7 days of curing with 10%, 20%, and 30% waste glass replacement of the total cement content, the strength of the normal concrete increased from 15.54 to 23.16, 20.29, and 13.25 kn/cm2 respectively. this indicates that 10% and 20% replacement improved the strength compared to standard concrete, while 30% replacement led to a decrease in strength. • moving to 14 days of curing, the standard strength of the concrete block was 24.46 kn/cm2. with 10% and 20% replacement, the strength slightly decreased to 22.75 and 22.53 kn/cm2, which is still very close to the standard value. however, for 30% replacement, the strength decreased further to 19.44 kn/cm². • as we progress to 21 days of curing, the standard strength of the concrete block increased to 28.33 kn/ cm². with 10% and 20% replacement, the strength slightly decreased to 26.4 and 25.26 kn/cm², remaining very close to the standard value. however, for 30% replacement, the strength decreased further to 19.44 kn/cm². these findings suggest that at 7 days of curing, lower percentages of waste glass replacement can enhance the strength of the concrete block, while at 14 days of curing, the strength remains close to the standard value for 10% and 20% replacement but decreases significantly at 30% replacement. conclusion in conclusion, our in-depth exploration of waste paper and glass waste replacements in concrete has unveiled figure 20: combined graphical representation for different percentage of waste glass as a replacement of cement pa ge 12 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 116-129, 2024 critical insights into sustainable construction practices. regarding waste paper as a cement replacement, the experiment demonstrated that substituting 10%, 20%, or 30% of cement with waste paper is not a recommended practice. in all instances, the resulting concrete blocks exhibited a significant reduction in strength when compared to traditional concrete formulations. this outcome underscores the limitations of waste paper as a viable substitute for maintaining concrete strength. conversely, our findings regarding glass waste replacement in cement are particularly exciting. at just 7 days of curing, concrete blocks incorporating 10% and 20% glass waste replacements displayed higher strength than their conventional counterparts, showcasing an early strength advantage. by the 14-day mark, the strength of these glass waste-reinforced blocks closely approached that of standard concrete, highlighting their potential for use in sustainable construction practices. even more impressively, at 21 days of curing, when conventional concrete reached its peak strength at 28.33 kilonewtons per square meter, the blocks with 10%, 20%, and 30% glass waste replacement-maintained robustness, with strengths of 26.4, 25.26, and 19.44 kilonewtons per square meter, respectively. this prolonged strength retention suggests that glass waste-reinforced concrete can serve as a sustainable alternative without compromising structural integrity, even in the long term. perhaps the most significant revelation from our research is the innovative role of glass waste powder. in cases of 10-20% cement replacement, this material can effectively act as a supplementary binder alongside cement. this discovery has the potential to revolutionize sustainable construction practices, offering a path to greener, more resilient structures that meet both environmental and structural demands. refference asadi, s., & satish, a. 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(2015). global waste management outlook. report. unep isbn 978-92-807-3479-9. pa ge 1 pa ge 94 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) promoting community gardening among small-scale ethnic minority producers: a case of maryland dipendra gurung1*, lila b. karki1, prem b. bhandari1, sahil ojha1 volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v4i1.4232 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: december 14, 2024 accepted: january 18, 2025 published: may 07, 2025 food insecurity disproportionately affects minority populations, and addressing it has become a daunting challenge amidst a rapidly growing population and changing climate. community gardening has emerged as an effective tool to combat food insecurity and ensure a sustainable agrifood system. however, the participation of ethnic minority populations in community gardening is low due to several factors, including lack of knowledge, skills, awareness, technical support, and motivation. this study evaluated the impact of an extension project on the knowledge, skills, perception, and practices of 36 small-scale ethnic minority producers involved in community gardening in maryland. the results showed improvements in gardening knowledge and skills and increased awareness of the benefits of community gardening. most participants expressed willingness to continue gardening, participate in community-building activities, and share their knowledge among friends and relatives, indicating an increased awareness of the need to adopt the need for the adoption of sustainable food production strategies. these findings underscore the importance of tailoring extension programs to meet the participant’s specific needs, enhance knowledge, and promote the broader adoption of community gardening. keywords adoption, capacity-building, extension program, food security, knowledge gain 1 university of maryland eastern shore, princess anne, md 21853, usa * corresponding author’s e-mail: dgurung@umes.edu introduction community gardens are open spaces managed and operated by local community members who cultivate food or flowers for their use or donation (holland, 2004). community gardens provide an opportunity for individuals and families living in urban and semi-urban areas with limited access to land to grow their food. community gardens in the modern united states (u.s.) date back to world war i, when citizens were often required to grow their food. the purpose of a community garden often varies depending on its location and size. for example, in low-income communities, a community garden may serve primarily to improve food security for the residents. conversely, in higher-income communities, it might be designed specifically as a green space and a place for physical activity. several studies report the benefits of community gardening, such as – good health, better access to healthy food, and enhanced nutrition (malberg dyg et al., 2020; twiss et al., 2003; wakefield et al., 2007). other benefits include increased physical exercise (armstrong, 2000; wakefield et al., 2007), sound mental health (armstrong, 2000), increased social interactions and social capital (doyle & krasny, 2003), as well as income generation, employment opportunities (reuther & dewar, 2006), and environmental benefits (okvat & zautra, 2011). according to the united nations department of economic and social affairs [un desa] (2024), the world population is expected to reach 10.3 billion in the mid-2080s. given the limited resources, there will be significant pressure to feed the growing population (mc carthy et al., 2018). furthermore, the reduction of arable land around the globe due to rapid urbanization makes the issue of food security more pressing than ever (guitart et al., 2012). at the same time, the rapidly changing climate negatively affects agriculture, further worsening food security issues (mahato, 2014). in 2021, 10.2% (13.5 million) of u.s. households were food insecure and had difficulty providing enough food for all their family members (coleman-jensen et al., 2022), meaning that one in every ten americans did not have enough food at some point during that year. of all the populations that lack access to healthy food, poor and racial minorities are most affected. lowincome households spend a significant portion of their income on nutritious food (golan et al., 2008). amidst the daunting challenge of food insecurity due to rapid population growth, urbanization, and climate change, it is urgent that we adopt alternative and sustainable strategies to increase food production, such as community or home gardens (evers & hodgson, 2011; gregory et al., 2016). community gardens provide poor and vulnerable populations access to inexpensive fresh fruits and vegetables (gottlieb & fisher, 1996). lee (2001) mentioned that community gardens allow immigrant populations to grow traditional and ethnic crops, fostering a connection to their homeland. community gardening provides a place for social gatherings where disadvantaged communities can empower themselves through democratic participation (armstrong, 2000) and build community capacity by increasing their knowledge and skills (holland, 2004). despite several benefits of community gardening, smallscale ethnic minority producers face many barriers, including lack of knowledge and skills, insufficient financial support, rigid regulations, time constraints, pa ge 95 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 94-103, 2025 family obligations, and cultural discrepancies, all of which hinder their participation in community gardening (karki & bhandari, 2023; schrup, 2018). these challenges highlight the need to address these barriers and actively promote the adoption of community gardening among small-scale and minority producers. although community gardening has a long history, it is surprising that relatively few studies focus on farmers’ experiences, knowledge, skills, and perceptions of community gardening, most studies being based on anecdotal evidence. marshall (2012) highlighted the importance of identifying farmers’ specific needs and evaluating how well they utilize extension services to ensure that the programs are tailored and delivered effectively, particularly to support minority farmers. however, there is a dearth of research examining the role of institutional and financial support in the adoption of community gardening among small-scale and minority producers in the u.s. thus, to address these gaps in research, this study examined observations from two community gardens in baltimore county, and baltimore city, maryland, established with the technical and managerial support of the university of maryland eastern shore extension. objectives the general objective of the study was to engage smallscale ethnic minority producers in community gardening to produce fresh food for their households. the specific objectives of the study were to (i) assess changes in knowledge and skills after project interventions, (ii) evaluate participants’ perceptions regarding the benefits of community gardening, and (iii) raise awareness of the importance of community gardening in household food security and greenhouse gas emissions. literature review present trends, food security issues, and community gardening the global population is rising at an alarming rate. the world’s population reached 8 billion on november 15, 2022, and is projected to reach 9.7 billion in 2050 and 10.4 billion in 2100 (un desa, 2022). similarly, as the world economy progresses, the world is seeing an unprecedented trend in urbanization. in 2018, 55% (4.2 billion people) of the world’s population lived in cities, with north america being the most urbanized region (82.3%) (un desa, 2019). urbanization significantly reduces arable land for agriculture in cities and often accelerates environmental and ecological degradation (gregory et al., 2016). the food demand has increased with a growing population. a large migration to urban environments from rural areas and a rapid increase in world population has led to growing concerns about food quality, price, and food security. between 8.9% and 10.5% of the world population—between 702 and 828 million people—faced hunger in 2021, with the highest prevalence in africa (20.2%), followed by asia (9.1%) (fao, ifad, unicef, wfp & who, 2022). the report shows that an estimated 2.3 billion people (29.3% of the world population) were moderately or severely food insecure in 2021. tilman et al. (2011) predicted that global crop production should double by 2050 to meet the increasing food demands and avoid world hunger. however, a significant gap in current crop yield trends makes it challenging to meet this target (ray et al., 2013). the present agriculture and food market is heavily dominated by conventional or corporate food systems, characterized by highly specialized and standardized commodity-growing practices that prioritize market dominance and profit maximization. these systems have resulted in global food monopolies in seeds, crop commodities, and retail foods while relying heavily on imports and exports, which results in food traveling long distances to reach consumers (campbell, 2004). the conventional food system addresses short-term hunger relief but is unable to address broader issues such as household income, nutritional quality, and food access (joseph, 1999). additionally, the reliance of this system on chemicals has proven to negatively impact the health of farm workers and pose environmental hazards (greider, 2000). the ipcc 2019 report indicates that up to 37% of greenhouse gas emissions, which contribute to changing climate, originate from total food systems. these challenges necessitate identifying alternative and sustainable agri-food production systems, such as urban and community gardening. according to algert et al. (2014), gardening is a promising and effective tool to combat the issues of food security and increase access to locally produced nutritious foods. community and home gardening can help gardeners and local residents meet their daily fresh vegetable and fruit needs, significantly contributing to improved nutrition and health (malberg dyg et al., 2020). urban agriculture can contribute to food security in several ways. at the household level, urban and community gardening can serve as a source of regular income and healthy food, which can maintain stability in food access and affordability, even against seasonality and other temporary shortages (maxwell, 2002). on a broader level, urban and community gardening can contribute to a significant share of healthy and locally produced foods (especially vegetables and fruits) for the community (nugent, 2000). some studies have illustrated the role of the community gardening in food security through donations of surplus produce to people experiencing homelessness, elderly adults, and low-income families (poulsen et al., 2014; saldivar-tanaka & krasny, 2004). thus, community gardening can play a substantial role in the food security of households of all income levels by improving access to fresh and nutritious produce (flanigan & varma, 2006; mccullum et al., 2005). benefits of community gardening community gardening has several benefits in addition to its role in food security. inadequate access to nutritious food is often linked to increased risks of heart disease, pa ge 96 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 94-103, 2025 diabetes, obesity, and chronic health conditions. however, improved access to fresh and high-quality foods and exercise opportunities through community gardening has been shown to improve individual health (aubry et al., 2012; poulsen et al., 2014). studies have shown that individuals who participated in community gardening consumed more fresh fruits and vegetables than those who did not (alaimo et al., 2008; zhang et al., 2021). promoting community gardening through the women, infants, and children program has been shown to improve nutrition among participants from low-income urban households, as these gardeners consumed more fresh vegetables (flanigan & varma, 2006). poulsen et al. (2014) likewise stated that community gardening contributes to an individual’s psychological well-being through the pleasure of sharing food and their increased connections to nature. community gardens are found to preserve open green spaces, especially in the urban setting (drake & lawson, 2015). some studies also associate gardens with a climate change mitigation approach, as the gardens remove carbon from the atmosphere (carbon sequestration) and promote locally produced food (meadows, 2000; okvat & zautra, 2011). locally grown food also minimizes the energy demand and carbon emissions during packaging, refrigeration, and transportation (okvat & zautra, 2011). community gardens also contribute to economic benefits, including income and job opportunities (okvat & zautra, 2011). according to a study in san jose, ca, community gardeners saved $435 per plot during a season (algert et al., 2014). wakefield et al. (2007) found that low-income communities involved in community gardening increased their fresh consumption and saved money on groceries. community gardens also attract a range of economic benefits to the community, including the transformation of vacant lots and improved property values (guitart et al., 2012; okvat & zautra, 2011; santo et al., 2016). other literature also discusses the role of community gardening in building human capital. community gardens enhance knowledge and skills in gardening as well as facilitate entrepreneurship, especially among youth and individuals belonging to disadvantaged communities (armstrong, 2000; blair, 2009). blair (2009) also expressed that community gardens contribute to community resilience by providing a space for communication, sharing information, and co-learning. community gardens bring together individuals from different social and cultural backgrounds, nurturing interactions and friendships and offering a broader approach to community involvement and development, social skill development, and hands-on learning (doyle & krasny, 2003; mccormack et al., 2010; saldivar-tanaka & krasny, 2004). amidst the challenges of land shortage, food insecurity, and degrading environment, community gardening emerges as a viable solution to ensure food security and promote a sustainable environment. by emphasizing local production, it addresses the shortcomings of the mainstream agricultural and food systems, providing fresh, high-quality foods while mitigating the threats posed to food security and the environment by conventional practices. in summary, community gardens promote the well-being and resilience of individuals, communities, and the environment (okvat & zautra, 2011). community gardening, ethnic minority producers, and the role of extension community gardening offers opportunities for individuals, especially youth and disadvantaged communities, to gain hands-on knowledge and skills in food production, nutrition, environment, and entrepreneurship (armstrong, 2000; blair, 2009; draper & freedman, 2010; krasny & tidball, 2009; santo et al., 2016). a study of community gardeners from a high-poverty area in toronto revealed that they increased their fresh vegetable intake while saving money on groceries (wakefield et al., 2007). these gardeners also reported that they were able to grow ethnic crops that were otherwise expensive or hard to find in stores. additionally, community gardening promotes empowerment, builds social connections, and enhances the overall well-being of disadvantaged communities by providing access to land and resources (okvat & zautra, 2011). however, while urban and community gardening initiatives are associated with food security and justice, they are often dominated by white, well-off, and educated individuals who disproportionately benefit (okvat & zautra, 2011). several barriers to community gardening for minority and low-income individuals, such as community garden policies related to membership fees, fencing, and the use of digital communication methods, often discourage them from participating (glover et al., 2005; meenar & hoover, 2012). additionally, people of color, particularly african americans, demonstrated a lack of interest, accounting for their low participation. this lack of interest among minority communities stems from a lack of gardening knowledge, experience, and awareness of the benefits of community gardening (haynes-maslow et al., 2015; jettner, 2017; loopstra & tarasuk, 2013). moreover, lower-income and ethnic minority gardeners often have less access to support and facilities and lack connections with those in power compared to white and well-educated gardeners (cohen et al., 2012). extension services could create an outreach initiative to bridge these gaps and make a real difference for disadvantaged communities. marshall (2012) pointed out the necessity of understanding farmers’ specific needs and their accessibility to extension services to tailor support services for low-income and minority producers. a study by hargrove & jones (2004) also indicated that extension programs should be personalized and farmerspecific to ensure sustainability. these personalized programs can minimize gaps in knowledge and provide minority producers with easy access to extension services. marshall (2012) further emphasized the need to regularly evaluate the program results and collect feedback from clientele farmers to further improve extension services. pa ge 97 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 94-103, 2025 materials and methods logical framework figure 1 illustrates the program’s logical framework based on the cited literature discussed previously in this paper. the project took the initiative to establish community gardens and provided gardeners with essential inputs for gardening. the program also offered tailored support programs through education, training, workshops, and one-on-one consultation based on the specific needs of the participants. these interventions aimed to achieve three key learning outcomes: enhanced awareness, increased knowledge, and improved skills and techniques. the gardeners were expected to apply their improved knowledge and skills in gardening to achieve immediate and long-term outcomes. the expected immediate outcomes included access to fresh and healthy food, improved nutrition, reduction in grocery expenses, and opportunities to sell surplus produce. in the long term, the gardeners were expected to improve their health through the consumption of fresh and healthy food, enhance household food security from increased vegetable production, and increase household income from the sale of surplus produce. additionally, sustainable gardening practices were expected to bring long-term environmental benefits. figure 1: logical framework of the community gardening program: adapted from tembo & louw (2013) implementation the university of maryland eastern shore extension, with the financial support of the national institute of food and agriculture (nifa)/1890 extension funding, successfully established two community gardens in glen arm and rosedale, maryland. the program’s primary purpose was to promote community gardening among small-scale and minority producers in maryland. to achieve this objective and encourage them to start and/ or continue gardening, the program provided participants with technical and token material support. the project initially recruited 20 small-scale ethnic minority producers. with time, through the snowball effect, the number of project participants grew to 36, including producers from baltimore county and baltimore city. an initial baseline survey was administered at the beginning of the project to assess participants’ needs. intervention and support activities were subsequently tailored based on the survey findings. first, the project provided participants with some production inputs to incentivize active participation and address the financial barriers experienced by many participants who could not independently afford resources such as farmyard manure, garden soil, fertilizers, seeds, seedlings, weed-suppressing ground fabrics, and garden tools. second, through needs-based training, workshops, mentor/specialist consultation, peer-to-peer interaction, and interactive meetings, the program facilitated capacitybuilding programs on vegetable production, disease and pest management, compost making, farm production planning and budgeting, risk management, data recording, and produce marketing. furthermore, the project assisted participants in identifying local vendors, farmers’ markets, restaurants, and other potential outlets to explore marketing opportunities to sell surplus produce. the community gardening program was initiated in february 2023. two community garden locations were selected based on land availability and proximity to participants. once the locations and participants were finalized between february and march, a community garden was established in glen arm, baltimore county, and another in goodnow, baltimore city, from april 2023 through september 2023. input support distribution and capacity-building programs were conducted several times between february and september. data collection and analysis a semi-structured survey was administered to 36 project participants in september 2023 to assess the outcomes of the project interventions. the survey included the demography of the participating farmers, socioeconomic benefits, perceived health benefits, and capacity pa ge 98 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 94-103, 2025 improvements as experienced by the participants. the survey was conducted through in-person interviews, phone calls, and focus group discussions. the information produced was triangulated through field visits, phone calls, and group meetings. given that the case study was exploratory in nature, the results primarily focused on descriptive statistics. the project’s usefulness in fostering capacity building among its participants was measured on a 5-point likert scale (extremely useful with a weight of 5 and least useful with a weight of 1), and the mean score was classified following pimentel (2010). excel and spss were used to analyze the data obtained from the survey. results and discussions demographic characteristics among the total respondents who participated in the study (n = 36), 52.8% were female. all respondents resided in baltimore county and baltimore city and belonged to ethnic minority disadvantaged populations: bhutanese american (38.9%) and nepalese american (61.1%). knowledge and skills about gardening out of all survey participants (n = 36), 41.7% reported that they did not have knowledge about community gardening prior to joining the project (figure 2). when asked if their overall knowledge about community gardening and its benefits increased after the project intervention, a large majority (91.7%) of the respondents agreed, with 63.9% in strong agreement and 27.8% agreeing. figure 2: increase in overall knowledge after participating in the project table 1 displays the frequency of the respondents who reported an increase in knowledge and skills in specific areas of community gardening due to participation in the project. the findings indicate that most project participants enhanced their understanding of vegetables and fruit production. specifically, 100% of the respondents reported an increase in knowledge about different vegetable types, the importance of healthy soil, and water requirements for gardening following their engagement in the project. more than 91% of the respondents realized an increase in knowledge about fertilizer requirements and raised bed gardening techniques. other areas the respondents reported notable improvements in their understanding were organic production (88.9%), garden establishment (88.9%), bed preparation (86.1%), seedling production (77.8%), soil health enhancement (75%), and the importance of weeding (75%). increased knowledge and skills were also reported for growth nutrient application (63.9%), plant disease identification and control (61.1%), insect and pest control (58.3%), application of mulching (58.3%), and marketing of fresh produce (30.6%). these results highlight the project’s effectiveness in educating the participants about various gardening practices. table 1: increase in knowledge and skills in various aspects of gardening knowledge/skill number of responses percent(%) different vegetable types 36 100.0 soil health for healthy production 36 100.0 fertilizer requirement for plant growth 33 91.7 watering requirements 36 100.0 raised bed vegetable gardening 33 91.7 importance of weeding 27 75.0 application of mulching 21 58.3 application of growth nutrients 23 63.9 garden insect and pest management 21 58.3 plant disease identification and control 22 61.1 bed preparation for gardening 31 86.1 organic production 32 88.9 enhancing soil health 27 75.0 establishing a garden 32 88.9 seedling production 28 77.8 marketing of fresh produce 11 30.6 source: field survey (2023) perceived benefits of community gardening respondents were asked about the benefits of community gardening that were realized after engaging in the project and receiving educational and technical assistance from the university of maryland eastern shore extension. these benefits included the socio-economic, environmental, and health benefits of community gardening. all respondents (100%) agreed that they realized its vital role in producing fresh produce for maintaining good health (table 2). equally, respondents realized the benefits of community gardening as a means of engaging in physical activity. based on their experience in the project, 97.2% pa ge 99 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 94-103, 2025 of respondents perceived that community gardening minimizes grocery expenses due to the production of vegetables and fruits. similarly, 97.2% of respondents agreed that community gardening can contribute to their table 2: benefits of community gardening perceived benefits number of responses percent(%) access to fresh produce for good health 36 100.0 good means of physical activity 36 100.0 reduces grocery expenses 35 97.2 household food security 35 97.2 reduces greenhouse gas emission 22 61.1 source: field survey (2023) table 4: motivation to continue community gardening motivation to continue number of responses percent(%) learn more about community gardening 35 97.2 share knowledge/skills 35 97.2 establish a kitchen garden at home 32 88.9 participate in future capacity-building activities 28 77.8 source: field survey (2023) table 3: usefulness of the community gardening program in fostering capacity-building indicators level of usefulness (%) mean score description least useful slightly useful moderately useful very useful extremely useful cost reduction 13.9 5.6 13.9 36.1 30.6 3.64 very useful farm planning and budgeting 25.0 8.3 13.9 33.3 19.4 3.14 moderately useful income/production maximization 13.9 5.6 19.4 52.8 8.3 3.36 moderately useful production risk management 30.6 5.6 27.8 30.6 5.6 2.75 moderately useful entrepreneurship development 25.0 13.9 22.2 30.6 8.3 2.83 moderately useful record keeping 27.8 8.3 25.0 30.6 8.3 2.83 moderately useful resource management 16.7 2.8 16.7 47.2 16.7 3.44 very useful peer-to-peer networking 13.9 2.8 5.6 33.3 44.4 3.92 very useful note: according to pimentel (2010), least useful (1.00 – 1.79), slightly useful (1.80 – 2.59), moderately useful (2.60 – 3.39), very useful (3.40 – 4.19), extremely useful (4.20 – 5.00) source: field survey (2023) household food security. among the 36 respondents, 61.1% reported that they realized that gardening reduces greenhouse gas emissions by producing food locally, thereby decreasing food miles. program’s usefulness in fostering capacitybuilding the mean scores, ranging from 1 (least useful) to 5 (extremely useful), presented in table 3, determined the project’s usefulness in fostering gardeners’ capacity building. the responses revealed that the project was very useful in enhancing peer-to-peer networking, reducing the cost of production, and managing locally available resources, such as composting, with the highest mean score for peer-to-peer networking (3.92). the other areas in which the respondents found the project moderately useful were income/production maximization (3.36), farm planning and budgeting (3.14), entrepreneurship development (2.83), record keeping (2.83), and production risk management (2.75). motivation to continue community gardening a large majority (97.2%) of respondents indicated they were willing to continue gardening and share the acquired knowledge and skills with family, friends, relatives, and neighbors (table 4). similarly, realizing the benefits of community gardening, 88.9% of the survey participants reported that they wanted to set up their own kitchen garden at home. to further strengthen their capacity, 77.8% of respondents stated a willingness to participate in future capacity-building activities conducted by the university of maryland eastern shore extension. pa ge 10 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 94-103, 2025 discussion this study assessed various outcomes of promoting community gardening among small-scale ethnic minority producers through the extension approach. a brief discussion is presented below based on the findings. in the logical framework, we expected that the introduction of community gardening to the participants would result in positive learning outcomes, such as improved awareness, increased knowledge, and enhanced skills. furthermore, the participants were expected to utilize their newly acquired knowledge and skills to achieve both immediate and long-term benefits from community gardening. the findings indicated a slightly higher proportion of female participants (52.8%) in the project. nearly fortytwo percent of the participants did not have knowledge of community gardening prior to joining the project, indicating that many were unaware of the functions and benefits of participating in a community gardening program. following their participation, the majority of participants reported an overall increase in knowledge about community gardening and its benefits, indicating that promotion efforts, supported by technical and material support, can effectively encourage participation and enhance participants’ knowledge and understanding of community gardening. the increase in knowledge among participants is consistent with the findings of previous studies (armstrong, 2000; blair, 2009; draper & freedman, 2010; krasny & tidball, 2009; santo et al., 2016). the program’s hands-on approach proved very effective, as many participants reported enhancement in knowledge, skills, and awareness related to gardening practices. this included increased knowledge about different vegetable types, water, fertilizer, growth nutrient needs, and soil health requirements for a healthy garden. improvements in skills were reported in specific areas, such as fertilizer and water use, insect/pest and disease management, raised bed preparation, seedling production, and marketing of produce. the increased understanding and improved skills allowed participants to experience firsthand the benefits of community gardening, such as increased consumption of fresh produce leading to good health, improved household food security, reduced grocery expenses, increased physical activity leading to a healthy lifestyle, and a healthier environment due to reduced greenhouse gas emission activities. these benefits of community gardening are also reported in many prior studies (flanigan & varma, 2006; okvat & zautra, 2011; poulsen et al., 2014; wakefield et al., 2007). the participants’ responses highlighted the extension program’s usefulness in contributing to individual capacity-building by fostering peer-to-peer networking, cost minimization, and resource management. however, some areas, including farm planning and budgeting, income maximization, risk management, record keeping, and entrepreneurship development, were deemed only moderately useful. this indicates a need for future interventions by extension to focus on these aspects in order to promote participants’ capacity building. the primary impact of the program is reflected positively, as most participants expressed a willingness to continue gardening, establish a home garden, participate in capacity-building activities, and share their acquired knowledge and skills with family, friends, relatives, and neighbors. overall, the study achieved the desired outcomes in promoting community gardening among small-scale ethnic minority producers. the results demonstrated the potential for the long-term impact of community gardening on increasing household food security. however, the study has some limitations. first, the sample size was small, and all ethnic participants were of asian origin, limiting the study’s broader generalization. second, the benefits of community gardening were qualitatively assessed based on self-reporting by the producers, which may introduce bias. thus, these limitations should be considered in future studies to support and generate more robust and conclusive evidence. conclusion the study highlights the perceived benefits of community gardening reported by the participants, including access to fresh food, increased physical activity, reduced grocery expenses, improved household food security, and reduced greenhouse gas emissions. these results demonstrate the benefits community gardening offers to an individual, community, and environment. the findings reveal that extension programs combined with adequate support can promote the adoption of community 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(2021). home garden with eco-healing functions benefiting mental health and biodiversity during and after the covid-19 pandemic: a scoping review. frontiers in public health, 9, 740187. https://doi.org/10.3389/ fpubh.2021.740187 pa ge 1 pa ge 82 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) impact of environmental degradation on economic growth: testing the environmental kuznets curve in nigeria aiyedogbon john o.1*, ogwuche david dauda1, nanbal joel zuhumben1 volume 3 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v3i1.3243 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: august 14, 2024 accepted: september 15, 2024 published: september 19, 2024 looking at the contribution of economic activity in the country, it is seen to add robustness to growth and development, but in contrast give birth to greenhouse gases (ghgs), such as co2 co2 which is also called carbon dioxid, ch4 which is also called methane, and n2o represent nitrous oxide. the factors influencing greenhouse gas emissions include rising of population, upward movement of per capita output and consumption, infrastructural development made about infrastructures, human character, and innovation. however, if mitigation efforts are not enough, climate change would most likely lead to a slowdown the upward movement. thus, the study examined the relationship between economic growth and environmental degradation using the autoregressive distributed lag model and examined the impact of environmental degradation on economic growth in nigeria from 1990 to 2022 using that lens. based on the estimated ardl regression result, environmental degradation as determined by carbon dioxide emissions (kt) and economic growth are negatively correlated. the negative indication indicated that economic growth will decline by roughly -0.455% and -0.893% over the medium and long terms, respectively, as carbon emissions rise. the findings indicated that there is validity to nigeria’s environmental kuznets curve, which demonstrates how environmental deterioration impedes economic progress. similarly, a positive indication indicating a one-period lag in carbon emissions showed that, in the short term, economic growth increases by around 0.948% in tandem with rising carbon emissions. thus, the paper illustrated an inverse u-shaped interaction between environmental degradation and economic growth, with healthy economy initially related with increased emissions. however, the majority of the control variable estimates deviate from theoretical expectations. on the other hand, a positive and statistically significant one-period lagged coefficient of trade openness suggests that trade openness looks to support and encourage economic growth in the short run. similarly, during the period under consideration in nigeria, the short-run economic growth is positively and strongly correlated with the one-period lagged coefficient of gross fixed capital formation. the report suggested boosting energy efficiency in the world’s energy mix in order to lower greenhouse gas emissions, which are the main contributors to climate change. therefore, in order to prevent the development of closed-form relationships that could result in a slowdown in economic growth, nigerian government agencies that are responsible for implementing national and international environmental rules should proceed with caution. keywords ardl, carbon emission, climate change, economic growth, nigeria 1 department of economics, faculty of social sciences, bingham university, karu, nigeria * corresponding author’s e-mail: johnaiyedogbon@gmail.com introduction the global economy has risen significantly over the past century due to a number of factors, including globalization, industry booms, innovation, significant technology developments, unfettered international trade at all levels and in all sectors, and the overall state of the economy. but the growth in the economy has come at the expense of the environment, causing pollution to increase and environmental deterioration to worsen (abbasi et al., 2021). in contrast, the globe economic forum (wef) claims that environmental hazards represent the five most likely long-term global risks and that they account for four of the top five challenges facing the globe now (wef, 2021). it’s believed that environmental issues brought on by environmental deterioration pose the greatest danger to the sdgs (sustainable development objectives). this is accurate given that environmental risks affect all businesses, people, and society (sri, 2021). there is no worldwide immunization against this risk, and no one can be immune to it (wef, 2021). these risks have been mostly attributed to carbon dioxide emissions, the main cause of climate change. while looking at the activities in economy plays an important role development and progress, but also brought about a rise in the emissions of greenhouse gases (ghgs), such as methane (ch4), carbon dioxide (co2), and nitrous oxide (n2o). mohammed et al. (2020) and mohammed et al. (2021) claimed that these greenhouse gases have transformed the environment, exacerbated climate change, and reduced the health ecosystems. a few factors that influence greenhouse gas emissions are per capita consumption, population increase and output growth, infrastructure decisions, human behavior, innovation, and advanced technology (bekun et al., 2021; fatai et al., 2021 and cai, et al., 2018). if we don’t take strong enough actions to address climate change, our economy health and opportunities for social and human pa ge 83 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 82-92, 2024 development are likely to suffer. (yusuf et al., 2020). the growing concerns about environmental degradation and climate change have received a lot of attention in the literature and policy debates. the majority of the focus in the economics literature has been on the relationship between environmental degradation and economic health within the procedure of the environmental kuznets curve idea. the ekc hypothesis has dominated the research regarding the relationship between economic growth and environmental degradation since the early 1990s. the relationship between environmental degradation and economic activity is an inverted u, according to the ekc theory. high levels of pollution and environmental degradation are typical of early economic growth; however, this pattern reverses once a certain per capita income is reached, and at high income levels, economic growth is linked to environmental improvements (halkos & managi, 2017; halkos & managi, 2016 and grossman & krueger, 1991). real evidence has contradicted the ekc’s assertion that there is an inverse u-shaped relationship between environmental degradation and economic activity. both inside and outside of nigeria, numerous research has backed the ekc (grossman & krueger, 1995; sisay & balázs, 2019; hammed et al. 2020; maneejuk et al., 2020; abdulkarim, 2023; acheampong & opoku, 2023 and mohammed et al., 2024), but some have not (aye & edoja, 2017; adu & denkyirah, 2018; and raihan et al. (2022). while several research, including yan et al. (2022), cetin (2018), and sica (2014), uncovered contradictory findings about the ekc hypothesis’s underlying assumptions for some nations. thus, the study examines the relationship between environmental degradation and economic growth as well as how environmental deterioration propels economic growth in nigeria. furthermore, because there are so few empirical studies that particularly address the relationships between environmental sustainability and economic growth in nigeria, a detailed research of whether the country falls into the environmental kuznets curve is necessary. there are several ways that environmental degradation can affect economic growth. understanding these connections can help policymakers create comprehensive policies that balance environmental sustainability with economic development. identifying how environmental degradation impacts economic health is essential. this includes recognizing that the effects can be both direct and indirect, allowing for more effective strategies to be developed. trade openness, for instance, can have a significant impact on an economy since it can promote know-how and boost competitiveness in both domestic and international markets due to its productivity and competitive advantage (chang et al., 2009). according to the majority of research that have been published recently, trade openness has a significant role in explaining economic growth (gershon et al., 2024; acheampong & opoku, 2023 and mesagan, 2015). in a similar vein, foreign direct investment is thought to be an important channel via which environmental deterioration may influence economic expansion. according to the pollution haven hypothesis (eskeland & harrison, 2003; javorcik and wei, 2003; levinson, 2020), developing nations are more likely to have polluted or degraded environments because of their open economies. according to this theory, polluting companies in advanced nations with tight environmental rules will transfer to developing countries through foreign direct investment because of the lax environmental restrictions in developing countries. thus, developing nations turn into pollution havens. as a result, developing nations will import pollution from developed nations. empirically, opoku et al. (2022) demonstrated that environmental deterioration is a major factor in deciding foreign direct investment entry into emerging nations. environmental impacts can also result from capital investment through foreign direct investment in nations with lax regulatory frameworks. consequently, it is sometimes recommended that developing nations use gross fixed capital formation as a stand-in for capital investment in order to boost their long-term development rates. accordingly, capital investment through inflows of foreign direct investment is a major factor driving economic growth (gershon et al., 2024; acheampong & opoku, 2023 and mesagan, 2015). according to the ways that environmental deterioration can impact economic growth, the following questions are attempted to be addressed in this paper: research questions the following research questions guided the paper: i. how does carbon dioxide emissions impact on economic growth? ii. what impact does trade openness have on economic growth in nigeria? iii. to what extent does foreign direct investment affect economic growth in nigeria? iv. what is the impact of gross fixed capital formation on economic growth in nigeria? the rest of this paper is divided into five sections. the next section provides a summary of the literature, which is divided into theoretical interpretations, empirical reviews, and the concepts of economic health or growth and carbon emissions. the economic framework and the empirical discoveries upon which data are presented in sections three and four while in addition to section five, conclusions and recommendations was concluded. materials and methods conceptual review in the words of palmer (2012) who is a researcher expanded on the concept of economic growth as the broadening of a nation’s production capacity in all areas, which extend to economic production of more goods and services for the nation and beyound. an increase in real gross domestic product (rgdp) signifies a rise in national production, income, and expenditure, indicating economic growth. this upward movement reflects an pa ge 84 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 82-92, 2024 expansion in the economy. the gross domestic product (gdp) serves as a measure of this economic expansion, while the gdp growth rate illustrates the pace at which the economy is developing. (picardo, 2020). employment growth, lower taxes for public spending, debt reduction, longer life expectancies, higher investment, and advancements in r&d are all advantages of economic growth. slow economic growth, on the other hand, has negative effects on public services. these effects include inadequate health and educational facilities, low rates of savings and investment, high rates of poverty and unemployment, a rise in the national debt, and lower tax revenue than anticipated (picardo, 2020). environmental degradation occurs when human activities result in harmful or unhealthy conditions for the environment. this can lead to the destruction of ecosystems, depletion of natural resources, contamination of the air and water, degradation of soil, and the extinction of plant and animal species. this process diminishes the quality and integrity of essential resources like soil, water, and air, ultimately impacting the overall health of biological ecosystems. air, water, and soil are especially vulnerable to damage from excessive use and harmful human actions. in this context, carbon dioxide (co2) emissions serve as a metric for environmental degradation, helping to assess whether economic growth can mitigate environmental decline under the environmental kuznets curve (ekc) hypothesis in nigeria. greenhouse gas emissions, particularly co2, are considered major contributors to global warming and environmental degradation, primarily resulting from the burning of fossil fuels and cement production. among them are carbon dioxide emissions from gas flaring and the consumption of solid, liquid, and gas fuels (climate watch historical ghg emissions, 2023). emissions of carbon dioxide, which are mostly leftovers from the production and use of energy, make up the majority of greenhouse gases linked to global warming. emissions of anthropogenic carbon dioxide are mostly caused by burning fossil fuels and producing cement. when fossil fuels are burned, they produce varying amounts of carbon dioxide at the same energy level. for example, coal releases almost twice as much carbon dioxide as natural gas, while oil releases roughly 50% more. for every metric ton of cement produced, the cement manufacturing process emits almost half a metric ton of carbon dioxide. emissions from land use, such as deforestation, are not included in the data on carbon dioxide emissions, which include gasses from the burning of fossil fuels and the manufacturing of cement. the kt (kiloton) unit of measurement is used. elemental carbon is a common unit of measurement and reporting for carbon dioxide emissions. they were multiplied by 3.667, which is the ratio of carbon mass to carbon dioxide mass, to get the actual mass of carbon dioxide. empirical review gershon et al. (2024) while studying the interactive effect of energy consumption and economic growth on carbon emissions for seventeen selected african countries using static panel estimation techniques using annual data from 2000 to 2017 found that while upward movement of energy consumption has an inverse or negative impact on carbon emissions, it has a beneficial impact on economic growth. in contrast energy used has a greater effect on economic broadening than it does on the environment. the report made the case for giving economic broadening and energy efficiency as the most important in order to significantly lessen the damaging impact of energy use on the environment. using the environmental kuznets curve (ekc), mohammed et al. (2024) evaluated the effects of policies, gdp, population structure, energy consumption, and carbon dioxide (co2) emissions on the environment within the eu. the discovery demonstrated from 1990 to 2019, the european union-27’s energy consumption went up by þ1.18 million tonnes of oil equivalent (mtoe) annually (p < 0.05), but co2 emissions decreased by twenty-four point two, five million tonnes (mt) annually. latvia had the lowest yearly co2 emissions (0.087 mt co2), whereas germany had the biggest decrease (7.52 mt co2). the empirical environmental kuznets curve study showed an inverted u-shaped relationship between gross domestic product and co2 emissions in the european union -27. most importantly, a 1% rise in gross domestic product leads to a 0.705% rise in carbon emissions, but with time, a 1% rise in gdp2 results in a 0.062% reduction in environmental pollution (p < 0.01). these findings suggested that economic development in the eu has progressed to the point where economic growth directly affects environmental benefits which further provided insight into how well environmental policies in the twenty-seven member states of the eu prevent degradation and encourage green growth overall. the question of whether environmental degradation is linked to economic growth is investigated by acheampong and opoku (2023). in a global study involving 140 countries from 1980 to 2021, researchers used the two-step dynamic system generalized method of moments to control for endogeneity. the results showed that environmental degradation negatively impacts economic growth. additionally, the research uncovered an inverse u-shaped relationship between emissions and economic growth, indicating that initially, as the economy grows, emissions increase, but after a certain point, further growth leads to a decrease in emissions. conversely, when looking at ecological footprint measures of environmental deterioration, the relationship with economic growth followed a u-shaped pattern, suggesting that after reaching a certain level of economic growth, environmental impact increases again. the research recommended reducing greenhouse gas emissions by boosting energy efficiency in the world’s energy mix. abubakar and abdullahi (2022) explored the impact of carbon dioxide emissions on economic growth and examined whether the relationship between co2 emissions and economic health is influenced by pa ge 85 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 82-92, 2024 financial development in nigeria, the most populous country in africa, from 1980 to 2020. they employed the autoregressive distributed lag (ardl) estimation method to conduct their analysis. the results of the cointegration boundary test revealed a long-term relationship among co2 emissions, financial institutions, economic health, and energy consumption. their empirical findings indicated that co2 emissions do not have a direct long-term effect on economic growth. however, there was clear evidence that co2 emissions and financial development together contribute to economic growth over the long term. this suggests that co2 emissions impact economic health significantly when financial development is present. to moderate co2 emissions from productive activities while maintaining efficient productivity across major sectors, the study recommended that the government adopt clean modern technologies for production and phase out the use of fossil fuels such as oil and gas. using the environmental kuznets curve (ekc) theory as a foundation, maneejuk et al. (2020) investigated the connection between economic progress and environmental degradation. the environmental kuznets curve (ekc) hypothesis utilizes co2 emissions as a measure of environmental degradation to explore whether economic growth can potentially reduce environmental harm. eight major global economic groups, comprising fortyfour countries globally, were studied. the relationship between environmental conditions and economic growth was analyzed using the kink regression model, which helps identify the turning point in this correlation. the findings validated the ekc hypothesis within three major international economic communities: the european union (eu), the organization for economic cooperation and development (oecd), and the group of seven (g7). the study recommended that in addition to enhancing environmental quality, authorities should carefully design and implement specific measures to support economic growth in order to achieve sustainable development. to evaluate the usability of the environmental kuznets curve (ekc) theory in nigeria, hammed et al. (2020) examined the relationship between environmental deterioration, energy use, and economic growth. the non-linear autoregressive distributed lag (ardl) method is employed. the findings validated the ekc theory’s application in nigeria, where gdp growth first deteriorates environmental quality before subsequently improving it. moreover, it is found that energy usage deteriorates environmental quality since, in nigeria, every 1% increase in energy use results in a 0.002% rise in co2. the report recommended using newer, lower-emission technologies since meeting the country’s energy demands is necessary for sustainable growth. using the pooled mean group (pmg) method, sisay and balázs (2019) examined the ekc hypothesis for 12 east african nations from 1990 to 2013. the results showed that the relationship between per capita income and co2 emissions, a proxy for environmental degradation, expands the basic inverted u-shaped curve association between economic activity and environmental degradation in a bell-shaped manner. as a result, one may argue that economic activity in east african countries does not produce greenhouse gas emissions. thus, contemporary industrial methods, technical improvement, and environmental conservation legislation are required to make east african countries’ economic expansion efficient in minimizing co2 emissions. cetin (2018) examined the effectiveness of renewable energy sources in lowering co2 emissions for both developed and developing nations between 1990 and 2011 using a pooled mean group (pmg) estimator. the empirical findings of the study show that while emerging markets do not support the ekc hypothesis, established markets do. the long-run elasticity results of the per capita statistics may also indicate that developed and emerging markets have different co2 emissions. the study’s findings did, however, indicate that using renewable energy sources will eventually be essential to reducing co2 emissions for both panel groups. mesagan (2015) focused on the interaction of nigeria’s economic health increase and carbon emissions from 1970 to 2013. the study used an error correction model, and the discovering unambiguously illustrated that economic health increase has a progressive impact on carbon emissions during the initial period and an inverse impact during the lagged term. it also revealed that capital investment and trade openness have a progressive effect on nigeria’s carbon emissions. the study further advised that while reducing gross domestic product (in an effort to reduce carbon emissions) may prevent the nation’s economic wellbeing, it is more workable to look for strategies to motivate green growth in the state. theoretical framework this paper’s theoretical framework is based on ekc which means environmental kuznets curve, which connect co2 emissions to economic health. simon kuznets (1955) researched on the relationship between economic health and earnings inequality and first agreed on the ekc hypothesis. kuznets (1955) came to the finalization that early economic health is connected to an increase in income disparity up to a certain point, above which inequality is reduced by ongoing economic health (saba, 2023). growth in the early part is linked to increasing emissions. however, increased productivity becomes environmentally maintenance when economies of scale, money, and innovation increase. as a result, an inverse or negative u-shaped relationship was seen between economic health and environmental deterioration. the environmental kuznets curve (ekc) hypothesis has gained worldwide recognition based on these findings. on a general note, there is a direct correlation between pollution and economic health. the connections between these 2 (two), however, can be reduced by a number pa ge 86 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 82-92, 2024 of measures, such as switching to ecologically friendly technology and improving technological advancements that ensure overall gains in economic production and, more especially, in the reduction of environmental hazard. notwithstanding the fear surrounding the possibility of limitless substitution or technological advancement, there might be hindrances on the degree to which these linkages can be further loosened in the future. as employed by david stern in 2003, the functional relationship can be expressed as: (e/p)t= f (gdp/p)t (1) equation (1) written as thus explicitly below: (2) abubakar and abdullahi (2022), who examined how carbon dioxide emissions affected economic growth and whether or not that relationship depended on nigeria’s financial development between 1980 and 2020. abubakar and abdullahi (2022) model is of the form: gdp= f (em, fd, ec + μ) (5) where, gdp represents economic growth, em is co2 emissions, fd represents financial development, ec represents energy consumption, and μ is the error term. for the purposes of this work, equation 5 is expanded and adjusted to take into account three indices of economic growth: capital investment, which is measured by gross fixed capital formation, trade openness, and foreign direct investment. for the purposes of this work, equation 5 is expanded and adjusted to take into account three indices of economic growth: capital investment, which is measured by gross fixed capital formation, trade openness, and foreign direct investment. the changes or modifications and extensions are written below: gdppct= β0+β1co2t+β2topt+β3fdi+β4gfcf+εt (6) we take the log of the dependent and explanatory variables to guarantee consistency across all the variables. lngdppct= β0 + β1lnco2t + β2lntopt + β3lnfdi + β4lngfcf + εt (7) where, in: natural logarithm, β0 is the intercept, β1 to β2 are slope parameters. economic growth is represented using gdp per capita (constant 2015 us$). environmental degradation is measured with carbon dioxide emissions (kt), which serves as the main indicator of environmental degradation in the literature (opoku et al., 2022; pal and mitra, 2017; sadorsky, 2009; zheng et al., 2019). top represents trade openness, fdi is foreign direct investment, gross capital formation as proxy for capital investment (gfcf), and εt is the error term. trade openness, foreign direct investment, and gross fixed capital formation served as control variables in this analysis. these control variables were employed with the support of research by mesagan (2015), acheampong and opoku (2023), and gershon et al. (2024). moreover, it is expected that all of the control variables will have positive coefficients. however, it is anticipated that either a positive or negative effect on economic growth will result from environmental degradation as measured by carbon dioxide emissions. however, equation (7) was converted into an ardl model result as follows in order to investigate the impact of environmental degradation on economic growth in nigeria using the autoregressive distributed lag technique (ardl): where ln stands for natural logarithms, p is the population, and e is the amount of carbon emissions. the number of years is indicated by the subscript “t” on the rhs, while the first two terms are intercept parameters. it is assumed that, while emissions per capita may vary throughout nations at a given income level, income elasticity is constant across nations at a given income level. however, in order to facilitate empirical modeling in this research, gdp per capita will be used to represent the dependent variable, output growth (gdp), and carbon emissions (co2) will be used to represent environmental degradation. this will make it possible for the study to demonstrate how environmental degradation affects nigeria’s economic growth. equation (2) functional form is written below as: gdppc= f (co2) (3) where gdppc stands for gross domestic product per capita as a measure of economic growth and co2 stands for carbon emissions as a proxy for environmental degradation. explicitly, equation (3) can be written as: gdppc= α + β (co2) + ε (4) methodology the ex-post facto design is the chosen research design for this work. an empirically based study design that establishes the cause-and-effect link between the independent and dependent variables is called the ex-post facto design. the incapacity of the researcher to alter the data being studied is what distinguishes this method. model specification the model used in this paper is based on the environmental kuznets curve (ekc) theoretical framework and a modified version of the model of the bounds test is conducted by testing the null hypothesis (h0) against the alternative hypothesis (h1) using the following equations: h0: β0 = β1 = β2 = β3 = β4 = β5 and h1: β0 ≠ β1 ≠ β2 ≠ β3 ≠ β4 ≠ β5 the bounds test results based on the computed f-statistic are similar to those of pesaran et al. (2001), who rejected the null hypothesis of no cointegration and concluded that cointegration between the series is present if the pa ge 87 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 82-92, 2024 f-statistic is greater than the upper bound i (1) in each case. furthermore, after a long-run linear relationship (cointegration) between the variables has been confirmed, the short-run coefficients are computed using the short run / error correction model provided in equation 9. ectt-1 = lagged error correction term. the ect records the output evolution process that agents employ in response to the previous period of prediction errors. the variables utilized in the paper are listed in table 1. because of its many advantages, the autoregressive distributed lag technique (ardl) is chosen above other methods for predicting long-term linkages between variables. one advantage is that it can be applied whether or not the underlying independent variables are i(0), i(1), or mutually co-integrated (pesaran et al. 2001). its superiority over the engle and granger co-integration tests in small sample sizes is its second advantage (allege & ogundipe, 2013; johansen, 1991; philips & hansen, 1990). the third advantage of employing the ardl approach is the capacity to estimate an unconstrained conditional error-correction model (uecm) by treating each variable as a dependent variable in turn. table 1: description of variables variable description sources environmental degradation the degradation of the environment is gauged by terrestrial co2 emissions, which come from burning fossil fuels as a result of both industrial processes and human activities. in the analysis, the variable "metric tons per capita" is considered independent. wdi, 2023 economic growth in this study, economic growth is measured using real gdp per capita (constant 2015 us$), which is the total value of goods and services produced by a country divided by its population. this variable is considered a dependent variable in the study. wdi, 2023 trade openness trade openness measured with trade (% of gdp). this served as control variable wdi, 2023 foreign direct investment an investment made by a business or individual from one country into business ventures located in another. the measurement unit is net inflows (% of gdp). wdi, 2023 gross fixed capital formation this is a proxy for capital investment and served as control variable. wdi, 2023 source: researchers’ compilation, 2024 results and discussions descriptive statistics table 2 presents the descriptive statistics for the paper. the summary data in table 2 demonstrate that all the variables have positive mean values, with gdppc and c02 having the highest and lowest mean values, respectively. also, each variable’s standard deviation offers a more accurate and comprehensive representation of dispersion than an outlier, which has the potential to greatly exaggerate the range of data. co2 exhibits the least departure from the mean, while gdppc exhibits the largest. the probability values of the jarque–bera statistics, with the exception of fdi, suggest that the residual is normal and that the null hypothesis is not rejected. table 2: descriptive statistics gdppc co2 top fdi gfcf mean 1632.967 0.678296 35.71788 1.578278 28.46303 std. dev. 812.5669 0.122238 9.550595 1.211996 11.24335 skewness -0.015194 0.364401 -0.096016 1.798286 0.360175 kurtosis 1.833415 1.840752 2.333943 6.754132 2.069240 jarque-bera 1.872535 2.578137 0.660700 37.16465 1.904676 probability 0.392088 0.275527 0.718672 0.000000 0.385838 observations 33 33 33 33 33 source: authors computation, 2024 (eviews-12) pa ge 88 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 82-92, 2024 unit root test time series data often show tendencies that can be handled with differencing, mostly for the purpose of figuring out how stationar the data is. an important stage in time series analysis is the augmented dickeyfuller (adf) unit root test, the results of which are displayed in table 3 and which determines if the series is stationary table 3: unit root test result variable adf test statistics adf critical value order of integration gdppc -4.583012 -4.284580* i(1) c02 -5.714705 -4.284580* i(1) top -5.593623 -4.296729* i(1) fdi -3.930156 -3.562882** i(0) gfcf -4.835999 -4.284580* i(1) note: *,**,*** significant at 1%, 5% and 10% source: authors computation, 2024 (eviews-12) table 4: result of ardl bounds test for cointegration null hypothesis: no long-run relationships exist test statistic value k f-statistic 4.899666 4 critical value bounds significance lower bound upper bound 5% 2.56 3.49 source: researcher’s computations based on e-views 12 the result of the augmented dickey-fuller (adf) unit root test indicate that the variables are integrated in a mixed-order fashion, with fdi being integrated at the level and the other variables being integrated at first order. i (0) and i (1) are hence the integration order. cointegration test table 4 presents the analysis of cointegration, using the ardl bounds technique. the table unequivocally demonstrates that the null hypothesis (h0: no cointegration) is rejected at 5%, where the f-statistic is greater than the critical values at both the top and lower bounds. this indicates that the variables have a lasting relationship. as a result, it can convincingly support the notion that the analysis’s variables are related over the long term. autoregressive distributed lag estimates given the cointregration of the dependent variable with the regressors and the mixed-order of integration obtained from the unit root analysis, table 5 presents the results of the linear ardl estimate. table 5: ardl regression results co-integrating estimates (ecm estimates) variable coefficient std. error t-statistic prob. dlog(co2) -0.455485 0.506049 -0.900081 0.3944 dlog(co2(-1)) 0.947917 0.510096 1.858313 0.1002 dlog(top) -0.017559 0.176442 -0.099518 0.9232 dlog(top(-1)) 0.525079 0.164458 3.192786 0.0127 dlog(fdi) -0.195061 0.054162 -3.601467 0.0070 dlog(fdi(-1)) -0.845424 0.167632 -5.043343 0.0010 dlog(gfcf) -0.237726 0.383215 -0.620348 0.5523 dlog(gfcf(-1)) 1.121922 0.402690 2.786070 0.0237 cointeq(-1)* -0.951930 0.137727 -6.911710 0.0001 r-squared 0.869433 adjusted r-squared 0.718779 durbin-watson stat 1.917854 pa ge 89 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 82-92, 2024 in accordance with the estimated ardl regression result, environmental degradation in nigeria, as determined by carbon dioxide emissions (kt), has a negative relationship with economic growth. the negative sign indicates that, both in the short and long terms, respectively, economic growth declines by about -0.455% and -0.893% ceteris paribus as the level of carbon emissions rises. the ekc hypothesis—which holds that degradation of the environment impedes economic progress in nigeria—is impliedly confirmed by these findings. previous studies (grossman & krueger, 1995; sisay & balázs, 2019; hammed et al. 2020; maneejuk et al. 2020; acheampong & opoku, 2023 and mohammed et al. 2024) have demonstrated that environmental degradation, as measured by carbon dioxide emissions, has a negative impact on economic growth. most estimates of the control variables, however, differ from the literature. in contrast to previous studies, trade openness and foreign direct investment are expected to favorably influence economic growth, as found by mesagan (2015) and acheampong and opoku (2023). in contrast, trade openness appears to have a positive and statistically significant one-period lagged coefficient in the short term, indicating that trade openness influences economic growth. this result is in line with the research conducted by mesagan (2015) and acheampong and opoku (2023). in contrast, there was a positive and significant correlation between economic growth and the short-run, one-period delayed coefficient of gross fixed capital production in nigeria during the study period. more precisely, in the medium and long terms, respectively, a percentage increase in carbon emissions will result in a decrease in economic growth of roughly -0.455% and -0.893%. these results suggest that the ekc theory—which holds that environmental deterioration impedes economic progress in nigeria—is validated there. previous studies have shown that environmental degradation, as assessed by carbon dioxide emissions, has a negative effect on economic growth (acheampong & opoku, 2023; mohammed et al., 2024, among others). it has been discovered that trade openness and economic growth in nigeria are negatively correlated, both in the short and long terms. this is contrary to theoretical assumptions, since one would expect trade openness to positively affect economic growth. economic growth will contract by -0.018% in the near term for every percentage point increase in trade openness. on the other hand, trade openness hinders economic growth in the long run. most of these findings go counter to the findings of mesagan (2015) and acheampong and opoku (2023), who discovered a positive relationship between trade openness and economic growth. conversely, a positive, statistically significant, and short-run period-lag coefficient of trade openness suggests that, over the studied time, trade openness expansion promotes economic growth. this result is in line with the research conducted by mesagan (2015) and acheampong and opoku (2023). additionally, table 5’s findings showed that foreign direct investment considerably impedes economic growth in the near run. therefore, there will be a short-term decline in economic growth of -0.195% for every percentage point rise in foreign direct investment. nevertheless, there is a robust and favorable relationship between foreign direct investment and economic growth. this is in line with theoretical expectations. likewise, gross fixed capital creation, which is a proxy for capital investment, is expected to have adverse effects on nigeria’s economic growth both in the short and long run. specifically, nigeria’s economic growth will fall by -0.2375% and -0.706% in the short and long terms, respectively, for every 1% rise in gross fixed capital creation. capital investment is not a substantial contributing factor to nigeria’s economic growth, according to the statistically insignificant influence of gross fixed capital formation on economic growth. this conclusion might have something to do with nigeria’s extremely low level of capital investment. post-estimation test results to evaluate the validity of the findings and the model’s stability and applicability, the study ran a few diagnostic tests. the results shown in table 6 indicates that the model did not exhibit serial correlation or heteroskedasticity during the research period. the residuals are homoscedastic, according to the heteroscedasticity tests. according to the findings of the diagnostic tests for heteroscedasticity and serial correlation, the data appears to be quite well-behaved. additionally, the residues’ normal distribution is indicated by the fact that the p-value for the normality test for the research period is greater than 0.05. as a result, the residuals have a uniform distribution. consequently, the null hypothesis regarding the normal distribution was not rejected. long run variable coefficient std. error t-statistic prob. log(co2) -0.893197 1.103891 -0.809135 0.4418 log(top) -0.722653 0.511378 -1.413149 0.1953 log(fdi) 0.758438 0.277434 2.733764 0.0257 log(gfcf) -0.706332 0.536579 -1.316362 0.2245 c 11.66561 2.825789 4.128267 0.0033 source: researcher’s computation using eviews-12 (2024) pa ge 90 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 82-92, 2024 table 6: diagnostic test results test null hypothesis t-statistic prob jarque-bera there is a normal distribution 0.614 0.74 breusch-godfrey lm no serial correlation 0.151 0.86 heteroskedasticity: breusch-pagan-godfrey no conditional heteroscedasticity 2.381 0.10 source: researcher’s computations based on e-views 12 stability test result the stability test in figure 1 demonstrated the stability of the economic growth model during the inquiry period because the chart plots at the 5% significant level fall within the crucial constraints. figure 1: stability tests result source: researcher’s plot using e-views 12 conclusion the study examined the connection between environmental deterioration and economic growth, and using the autoregressive distributed lag (ardl) technique, it evaluated the impact of environmental degradation on economic growth in nigeria from 1990 to 2022. the regression analysis showed a negative correlation between economic growth and environmental degradation. these results suggest that the ekc theory—which holds that environmental degradation impedes economic progress in nigeria—is validated here. furthermore, a one-period lag in positive sign for carbon emissions indicated that, in the short run, economic growth increases by roughly 0.948% ceteris paribus as carbon emissions rise. this outcome is also in line with theoretical hypotheses that growth is initially associated with increasing emissions. however, when economies of scale, money, and innovation improve, increased productivity turns into environmentally sustainable progress. as a result, the study showed that there is an inverse u-shaped association between economic expansion and environmental degradation. many people agree that this result represents the kuznets inverted u-shaped curve. this article has shown that carbon emissions and economic growth in nigeria are negatively correlated. therefore, in order to lower greenhouse gases—the main contributors to climate change—it is imperative to increase energy efficiency in the world’s energy mix. thus, it is important to exercise caution while implementing both national and 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(2019). regional development and carbon emissions in china. energy economics, 81, 25–36. pa ge 1 pa ge 86 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) entrepreneurs’ perception on the benefits of organic vegetable farming in bangladesh md akter faruk fuad1*, kenichi matsui1 volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v4i1.3867 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: october 10, 2024 accepted: november 07, 2024 published: april 23, 2025 bangladesh’s farmers use unnecessary chemical inputs, including fertilizers, with the aim of producing more. over-reliance on chemicals poses challenges to maintaining socially, economically, and environmentally sustaina-ble agriculture. farm entrepreneurs are more interested in environmentally friendly agriculture than farmers in general. in addition, a growing number of consumers are interested in purchasing safe and reliable crops. or-ganic farming is one of the promising options because certification allows consumers to choose environmentally friendly products. in promoting organic farming, government policies focus on vegetables. with this back-ground, this study aims to better understand the entrepreneurs’ perception on organic vegetable farming benefits in bangladesh. also, this study attempted to investigate the challenges and suggestions in the organic vegetable marketing. next, a face-toface interview survey through prescribed questionnaires was conducted among 129 organic farm entrepreneurs in muradnagar. we examined the results of the questionnaire survey and found that the respondents’ organic farming experience is positively and significantly correlated with the benefits of organic farming. they (more than 90%) found that organic vegetable farming is an eco-friendly farming method, where-as the demand for organic vegetables is increasing, and customers pay more for organic products. easy docu-mentation and supervised policy enforcement can guide organic product certification in bangladesh. keywords bangladesh, entrepreneur, organic agriculture 1 faculty of life and environmental sciences, university of tsukuba, ibaraki 305-8577, japan * corresponding author’s e-mail: fuad.ag2306@gmail.com introduction since the 1980s, eco-friendly farming practices have gained attention as an effective method to curb rural poverty and pollution (patil, et al., 2010). as early as 1981, for example, the fao began promoting integrated pest man-agement practices for rice production among developing countries like bangladesh through its intercountry program (fao, 2011). it introduced a similar integrated pest management program for vegetables in 1995 (ah-med, et al., 2009). the bangladesh government began implementing the national integrated pest management policy in 2002 to promote eco-friendly agriculture. by the end of 2006, nearly 117,000 rice and 78,000 vegetable farmers had re-ceived training (fao, 2011). several studies afterward showed an increase in organic crop production and consumer demand for organic produce partly because of growing concerns over health and environmental damage caused by agriculture (rakib, et al., 2020; mukul, et al., 2013; kumar, 2019; karim, 2018; parvez, et al., 2018). iqbal (2015) found that dhaka consumers were willing to buy organic products, mostly fruits and vegetables, with up to 20% of higher premiums. despite this positive picture, dasgupta et al. (2005) found that more than 47% of bangladeshi farmers overused pesticides. the misconception that organic farming is ineffective in terms of pest and disease control still influ-ences farmers in bangladesh (hossain, 2011; musa et al., 2015). other critics pointed out about a shortage of organic inputs, little promotional coverage, and consumers’ limited awareness (hossain, 2011; islam, et al., 2019; sarker & itohara, 2008). musa, et al. (2015) found prevalent misconceptions among farmers, who mixed up conventional and organic practices as a notable constraint. despite an increasing number of studies on organic farming in bangladesh, we still do not know how organic vegetable production is perceived by farm entrepreneurs. what could be the actual impeding factors for farmers to expand organic crop production in bangladesh? therefore, this paper seeks to better understand farm entre-preneurs’ perceptions about the benefits of organic vegetable farming and its challenges. in the following discus-sion, we first ex-plain the methodology we used in this study, followed by our investigation results and discussion, and conclusion materials and methods study area bangladesh’s economy is predominantly dependent on agriculture. agriculture contributes to about 14% of the gdp. it hires 40.6% of the total workforce (bbs, 2021). bangladesh has nearly 8.7 million hectares of cropped area with 197% cropping intensity. the cropping intensity has increased in the last two decades as the policy emphasized more on producing high value horticultural crops, mostly vegetables and fruits. about 90 types of vegetables are grown. about 30.33 million metric tons of vegetables were produced in the 2020-2021 fiscal year (moa, 2021). vegetable exports increased from 23,198 metric tons in 2008-2009 to 93,353 metric tons in 2017-2018 (hf, 2019). for the study area, we selected muradnagar town in cumilla district, one of bangladesh’s largest sub-districts. the town is located 84 kilometers from dhaka (the pa ge 87 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 86-93, 2025 capital city) (figure 1). its land area of 340.73 km2 with 101,809 households, including 79,357 farm households (bbs, 2019a). in total 42 cropping patterns were observed here with 217% cropping intensity. out of total cultivable lands (24,293 ha), vegetables were grown in about 1,177 ha of land in 2021. the total volume of vegetable farmers in this town produced in 2020-2021 was 33,575 metric tons. nearly 9,859 metric tons of chemical fertilizers were used for agricultural production in 2010-2011 (uao, 2022). the bangladesh agricultural research institute (bari), a prominent research institution, launched a campaign in 2006 to promote organic farming in several districts, including cumilla. that effort sought to enhance soil health, agricultural yield, and minimize local farmers’ reliance on chemical pesticides and fertilizers. government organ-izations (gos) and non-governmental organizations (ngos) conducted workshops, seminars, and field demon-strations to disseminate information about the benefits and procedures of organic farming and integrated pest management. over time, participating farmers experienced positive outcomes, inspiring others to adopt sustain-able agriculture practices (uao, 2021). figure 1: location map of the study area. encircled area indicates muradnagar sub-district data collection and analysis in collecting data for this paper, we conducted a structured questionnaire survey from march to april 2022 among 129 organic farm entrepreneurs. there are three crop seasons in bangladesh and the department of ag-ricultural extension (dae) provides seasonal training for farmers. generally, one farmer can participate in one training session per season. a total of 195 farmers were trained on organic farming in 2020-2021 fiscal year by the muradnagar agriculture office. out of these trained entrepreneurs, i received feedback from 129 organic farmers. before the questionnaire survey, we conducted a literature review to help design the questionnaire. our literature review included peer-review journals, research reports, and published government documents. in selecting peer-review journal papers, we used database searches, including jstor, google scholar, and the tulips search engine of the university of tsukuba library system. in extracting information from published government documents, we first examined relevant legal/policy frameworks, such as the national agriculture extension pol-icy, 2020 and national organic agricultural policy, 2016. these documents instructed how local agriculture offi-cials dealt with organic farming extension. in addition, the first author worked as an agriculture cadre officer under the bangladesh civil service for seven years and conducted field surveys in service areas. pa ge 88 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 86-93, 2025 the questionnaire survey was divided into three sections: (1) respondents’ socio-demographic information such as age, gender, education, experience, participation in training, and business engagement, (2) respondents’ or-ganic farming adoption, and their economic and environmental benefits from it, (3) the target market of organic farm produce and its marketing challenges. the responses to our questionnaire were coded and analyzed by using microsoft excel (version 16.46), and the results are described in tables and figures in the following discussion. we categorized respondent’s age into three groups. those who belonged to 18-35 age group was “young,” those in 36-50 age group was “middle-aged,” and those in 51 years and above were the “older.” to quantitatively ana-lyze socio-demographic variables, we assigned score 1 for up to two years of respondent’s conventional farming experience, score 2 for six to 10 years, score 3 for 11 to 20 years, and score 4 for more than 20 years. for quanti-fying educational qualification, score 1 was assigned to no formal education, 2 for primary education, 3 for sec-ondary education, and 4 for graduate degrees. similarly, we assigned score 1 for up to two years of respondent’s organic farming business experience, score 2 for 3 to 5 years, and score 3 for more than 5 years. to understand perceptual variation among the respondents on the economic and environmental benefits of or-ganic vegetable farming, we compared the average rating of each variable on a 5-point likert-scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). similar formulas were also used for understanding the challenges and required suggestions in the marketing of organic vegetables. a correlation analysis was then performed between sociodemographic variables and organic vegetable farming benefits. results and discussion socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents the first section of the questionnaire attempted to identify respondents’ socio-demographic characteristics (ta-ble 1). we found that about 74% of the respondents were either young or middle-aged. in comparison, the na-tional statistics show that those between 18 and 50 years old comprised about 54% of the population (bbs, 2019b). those who were 51 years or older consisted of about 26%. we also found that the male respondents constituted about 89%. in terms of education, about 4% completed an undergraduate degree or above whereas about 31% had secondary education (classes 9 to 12). those who completed primary education (classes 1 to 8) consisted of 55%. except for about 10% without formal education, the overall literacy rate was about 90% that exceeded the national average of 72.3% (bbs, 2019b). table 1: socio-demographic information of the respondents variable category frequency percentage (%) age group (years) 18 to 35 31 24.03 36 to 50 65 50.39 51 and above 33 25.58 gender male 115 89.15 female 14 10.85 education no formal education 13 10.08 primary (class 1 to 8) 71 55.04 secondary (class 9 to 12) 40 31.01 graduate and above 5 3.88 conventional farming experience (years) up to 5 24 18.60 6 to 10 33 25.58 11 to 20 45 34.89 21 and above 27 20.93 training on conventional farming once a year 102 79.07 twice a year 27 20.93 more than twice a year 0 0 organic farming business experience (years) up to 2 50 38.76 3 to 5 47 36.43 6 and above 32 24.81 note: sample size=129 regarding conventional farming experience, we found that about 25% had six to ten years, about 35% had 11 to 20 years of experiences, and about 21% had more than 21 years. it means that about 81% had more than six years of conventional farming experience. with regards to dae’s training on conventional agriculture, about 79% participated once a year and about 21% participated twice a year. regarding organic business experience, we found pa ge 89 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 86-93, 2025 that about 36% had three to five years of experiences, about 25% had more than six years of experiences. it means about 61% had a minimum of at least three years of organic business experience. only 39% had been engaged in organic farming businesses for two years. benefits of organic vegetable farming in the second section of the questionnaire survey, we attempted to understand how the respondents perceived environmental and economic benefits from adopting organic vegetable farming. before asking about benefits, we first attempted to identify their regular farming practices. with multiple choice, the respondents were asked to choose the following options: (1) crop rotation, (2) reduced tillage, (3) crop resi-due use, (4) quality seed use, (5) organic manure use, (6) bio-pesticide use, (7) integrated pest management, (8) integrated disease management, and (9) post-harvest management. in response, we found that the respondents regularly practiced crop rotation (25%), tillage reduction (10%), crop residue use (12%), quality seed use (15%), organic manure application (6%), bio-pesticide use (9%), integrated pest management (8%), integrated disease management (9%), and post-harvest management (7%) (figure 2). figure 2: adoption of organic practices by the respondents figure 3: opinions on the environmental benefits of organic vegetable farming note: ovf=organic vegetable farming in the next question, the respondents were asked about environmental concerns in connection to practicing organic vegetable farming. we offered a set of statements on a five-point likert scale to the respondents in order for them to understand the level of environmental consciousness among organic vegetable entrepreneurs and to gain insights into their motivations and activities aimed at promoting sustainable agriculture methods. in re-sponse, nearly 67% of the respondents strongly agreed that organic vegetable farming is an eco-friendly farming method, and about 55% strongly agreed that ovf is one of the best ways of getting safe foods. the respondents agreed that ovf uses appropriate levels of tillage, ovf increases soil fertility and water holding capacity, ovf conserves biodiversity, and ovf minimizes chemical runoff into water bodies in about 51, 50, 64, and 63% re-spectively (figure 3). pa ge 90 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 86-93, 2025 we asked the respondents with another set of likert-scale statements to understand their opinion about eco-nomic benefits that may be expected to obtain from practicing organic farming. farmers usually work hard in the fields to produce, and effective marketing aids them be able to support themselves financially. therefore, one of the key considerations for selecting profitable crops for oneself is the economic advantage. we found that about 54% of the respondents strongly agreed that demand for organic vegetables is increasing. in addition, about 60% agreed that organic vegetable farming can minimize disease and pest attacks, and about 57% agreed that intercropping and mixed cropping can minimize space and time. about 55% of the respondents agreed that ovf increases better quality products with good size and shape of produce, and more than 49% agreed that ovf could create employment opportunities (figure 4). figure 4: opinions on the economic benefits of organic vegetable farming note: ovf=organic vegetable farming according the respondents’ opinions. the correlation analyses intended to understand the relationship between the benefits of organic vegetable farming and respondents’ socio-demographic characteristics such as age, gen-der, education, conventional farming experience, participation in conventional farming training, and experience in the farming business. we found that respondents’ longer experience in the organic farming business was strongly correlated with their positive response to the benefits of organic vegetable farming. therefore, it can be said that the respondents benefited more from organic farming through longer organic farm business experience. however, age, gender, education, conventional farming experience, and participation in conventional farming training were not significant to understand respondents’ perceptions of organic vegetable farming benefits (table 2). table 2: factors affecting the respondents’ perception on organic vegetable farming benefits socio-demographic variables the respondents’ perception on organic vegetable farming benefits pearson coefficient of correlation significant (2-tailed) age .085 .336 gender -.023 .796 education -.119 .179 conventional farming experience .023 .792 participation in conventional farming training -.022 .800 the organic business experience .250* .004 total number of respondents=129 * correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (1-tailed) challenges and suggestions in organic vegetables marketing to pinpoint the areas where they want assistance or resources to enhance their marketing strategy, it is crucial to comprehend the difficulties that organic vegetable farmers encounter in promoting their produce. additionally, it can inform policymakers about the issues that organic farmers encounter in the marketplace, which pa ge 91 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 86-93, 2025 could lead to policy changes that could be advantageous for organic agriculture. it also helps consumers about the ad-vantages and significance of organic agriculture, which can lead to increased demand for organic produce. therefore, finding areas for development and growth in the organic agriculture sector requires asking questions about the difficulties that organic vegetable farmers experience in marketing their produce. we presented the respondents with a series of likert-scale statements to better grasp their perspectives on these difficulties. in response, about 68% of the respondents thought that the local certification of organic products is time-consuming. according to their strong agreement and agreement, about 65% respondents felt that organic products are not sufficiently known among customers. approximately 79% agreed with the statement that the poor transport facilities to reach large markets. a syndicate system of middlemen can mislead the market by giv-ing wrong price in-formation, as supported by 85% of respondents as strong agreement and agreement. furthermore, about 90% of the respondents strongly agreed and agreed that post-harvest management facilities are limited in rural areas (figure 5). figure 5: opinions on the challenges in organic vegetable marketing figure 5: opinions on the suggestions to meet the challenges in organic vegetable marketing the respondents were asked with a series of likertscale statements to give suggestions for overcoming the above opined challenges. in response, about 83% of the respondents thought that digitalization of the certification process may minimize the hassles. about 85% respondents felt that building an effective link between farmers and private food processing companies may minimize post-harvest losses. approximately 90% agreed with the statement that supermarkets need to know more about organic products at my farm and others nearby. they are willing to increase production with easier and quicker access to city markets, as supported by 86% of respondents as strong agreement and agreement. as their strong agreement and agreement, over 84% of the respondents indicated that product pricing should be designed to meet the needs of the target groups as their strong agree-ment and agreement. furthermore, about 92% of the respondents strongly agreed and agreed that mass media coverage of organic products may attract more consumers (figure 6). pa ge 92 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 86-93, 2025 conclusions this paper has discussed the perception on benefits of organic vegetable farming and summarizes the findings and provides recommendations for promoting organic vegetable farming in bangladesh. examining the sociodemographic data from the respondents, we found majority of the respondents were young or middle-aged man who had primary education. on the conventional farming experience, most of the respondents had at least an absolute experience of six years, and were trained by dae annually in conventional agriculture practicing. regarding the organic business experience, majority of the respondents had a minimum of three years of experience. we observed that the most of the farm entrepreneurs prefer organic vegetable production since these do not have a negative effect on the surrounding environment. additionally, there was a specialized market for the quality organic produces, and consumers were always ready to spend on it. the organic vegetable producers found insufficient market information as a major difficulty, when the information transfer could expand market. the results of this study also established that a positive correlation between respondents’ responses to the advantages of organic vegetable farming and their longer experience in the organic agriculture. this finding might prompt the relevant authorities to provide an appropriate capacity building program to enhance the commercialization of organic product marketing. increased coordination between farmers and extension workers is re-quired for the rapid dissemination of organic vegetable farming skills. for the new entrepreneurs, agricultural training is one of the important contributors to this effort. the department of agricultural extension, bangla-desh can facilities here through provides better training for newer with logistic supports. this study was carried out in one sub-district only with selected 129 respondents. a large-scale study area and a greater sample size would help to reveal more persuasive results. therefore, further investigation might be pursued in other districts to assure farmer-friendly organic agricultural promotion. funding this study was supported by a fellowship from the project for human resource development schol-arship (jds) by japanese grant aid, japan international cooperation center (jice), nishi-shinjuku, tokyo, japan. acknowledgments we acknowledge the support from the local subdistrict agriculture officer, sub assistant of-ficers of the study area during survey. we also acknowledge the department of agricultural extension officials for their cooperation with necessary 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(2020). the world of organic agriculture: statistics and emerging trends 2020. fibl publication, frick, switzerland. pa ge 1 pa ge 13 0 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) foreign direct investment, institutional quality, and environmental pollution in selected african countries kehinde john akomolafe1* volume 3 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v3i1.3939 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: october 20, 2024 accepted: november 27, 2024 published: december 07, 2024 african countries increasingly attract foreign direct investment as they strive for economic growth and development. however, there have been concerns over the rising effects of fdi on pollution. these concerns are rooted in the potential for industrial activities associated with fdi to have adverse environmental impacts. hence, the needs to tackle the problem of pollution cannot be overemphasized. one way to do this is by strengthening the quality of african institutions. this study was conducted to examine the effects of institutional quality and fdi on environmental pollution in selected african countries. environmental pollution was measured using co2 emission.the result of the pcse estimator showed that institutional quality had negative effects on environmental pollution, but the effect of fdi was positive and insignificant. also, the effect of moderating effect showed that institutional quality has the potential to reduce the positive effect of fdi on environmental pollution. it was recommended that african governments should strengthen the quality of their institutions by strengthening environmental governance frameworks. keywords africa, environment, fdi, pcse, phh, pollution 1 department of economics, afe babaola university, ado ekiti, nigeria * corresponding author’s e-mail: akjohn@abuad.edu.ng introduction foreign direct investment (fdi) is vital to a country’s economic growth. this is especially true in less developed countries. it is an important tool for employment creation, poverty reduction and economic growth (crescenzi et al., 2022). however, while fdi can provide significant benefits to an economy, it is not without possible drawbacks. one of these is environmental pollution. fdi can sometimes result in environmental harm, especially if the host country’s environmental rules are weak.this may allow multinational corporations (mncs) to engage in environmentally detrimental practices than they might have done in countries with stronger environmental laws (chirilus & costea, 2023). this is referred to as the pollution haven hypothesis (raihan, 2023). it implies that multinational corporations, particularly those in pollution-intensive industries, may invest in or relocate production to nations with less stringent environmental regulations to avoid the higher costs of compliance in their home countries. this frequently results in developing countries with weak environmental enforcement attracting global corporations eager to cut regulatory costs, potentially leading to increasing pollution and environmental deterioration in such areas (bashir, 2022; raihan, 2023). in recent times, foreign direct investment is becoming more and more popular in african nations as they work to build their economies (adegboye & okorie, 2023). from $2,845 million in 1990, fdi inflows to africa increased to $82,196 million in 2021 (united nations conference on trade and development (unctad), 2023). however, the growing impact of foreign direct investment on pollution has raised worries. these worries stem from the possibility that industrial operations linked to foreign direct investment could negatively affect the environment. many african countries have less stringent or poorly enforced environmental regulations (baajike et al., 2022). this creates a situation where foreign investors are not held to high environmental standards, leading to pollution concerns. also, there are concerns that fdi are attracted into resource extraction industries, such as mining and oil exploration, and these pose environmental challenges (kimiagari et al., 2023). according to adegboye and okorie (2023), the african region had the highest return on investment, at almost 11%, compared to asia’s 9.1%, latin america and the caribbean’s 8.9%, and the global average of 7.1%. one of the reasons for this is because most of the fdi flows to africa are attracted to the resource sector with the intention of exploiting africa’s resources to their advantage (geda & yimer, 2023). this is more so because of the weak regulation and compliance in african countries. ironically, as fdi inflows in africa continue to rise, co2 emissions are also on the increase. for instance, carbon dioxide (co2) emissions from industrial processes in subsaharan africa increased from 23.6232 metric tons (mt) in 71.6857 metric tons (mt) in 2022. similarly, carbon dioxide (co2) emissions from industrial combustion in sub-saharan africa increased from 58.9712 metric tons (mt) in 91.7708 metric tons (mt) in 2022 (world bank, 2023). air pollution is one of today’s most serious environmental issues, posing a risk to human health. every year, air pollution claims the lives of approximately 1.1 million people throughout africa (capitanio et al., 2024). similarly, many african countries have annual mean pollution concentrations exceeding the world health organization guideline (fisher et al., 2021). fisher et al. (2021) also argued that in 2019, air pollutionrelated illness and mortality cost ethiopia $3.02 billion, pa ge 13 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 130-136, 2024 on the other hands, there have been several studies that found a negative effect of fdi on environmental pollution. studies such as (balsalobre-lorente et al., 2019; demena & afesorgbor, 2020; hao et al., 2020; jiang et al., 2018; kisswani & zaitouni, 2023; mert & caglar, 2020; nejati & taleghani, 2022; nguyen-thanh et al., 2022; tayyar, 2022) found evidence that fdi reduces pollution. the studies discovered that foreign direct investment can help to reduce pollution by encouraging the use of cleaner technologies and sustainable practices. they argue that fdi encourages host countries to raise their standards in response to pressures from multinational corporations, which frequently bring advanced, environmentally friendly technologies. they conclude that fdi reduces pollution through technology diffusion,especially in highregulation economies where environmental norms are actively enforced. tayyar (2022), for instance, found that foreign direct investment (fdi) reduces pollution by promoting technology transfer and raising environmental awareness in host nations, and that this effect is stronger in countries with strict environmental rules. nguyen-thanh et al. (2022) concluded that fdi helped to reduce pollution by boosting industrial modernization and bringing better environmental standards and cleaner manufacturing processes. according to nejati and taleghani (2022), fdi is related with a decrease in air pollutants in developing nations due to the adoption of cleaner technology and practices, which is especially beneficial in industries with historically high emissions. while numerous studies imply that fdi alone leads to increased pollution, the interplay of fdi and environmental control can mitigate this effect. for instance, fahad et al. (2022) investigated the conditional impacts of fdi on environmental quality and found that stricter environmental regulations in host nations increase fdi’s positive influence on pollution reduction. it suggested that when laws are strong, fdi firms are more inclined to use cleaner technology to meet local norms. according to fu et al. (2024), the environmental impact of fdi varies with regulatory strictness. fdi in countries with strong environmental policies leads to fewer emissions and improved sustainability practices. in contrast, in less-regulated countries, fdi may contribute to higher levels of pollution, implying that regulatory quality is an important driver. qian-qian et al. (2019) concluded that fdi firms alter their practices in response to the host country’s regulatory framework. the study argued that in areas with strict environmental legislation, fdi promotes eco-friendly behaviors, whereas in less-regulated environments, investment can occasionally result in “pollution havens.” also, xie and zhang (2024) revealed that the environmental impact of fdi depends on regulatory enforcement. in countries with strict environmental legislation, fdi brings in ecofriendly technology and practices, but in countries with laxer restrictions, it may contribute to increased pollution due to inadequate control. according to yang et al. (2021), ghana $1.63 billion,and rwanda $349 million. hence, the needs to tackle the problem of pollution cannot be overemphasized. one way to do this is by strengthening the quality of african institutions. stronger institutions may create, implement, and enforce more stringent environmental legislation to reduce emissions and pollutants. they can move the focus from pollutionintensive sectors to those that support long-term growth by actively pushing fdi in renewable energy and environmentally friendly industries. this study therefore examines the moderating roles of institutional quality in the relationship between fdi and environmental pollution in selected african countries. literature review pollution haven hypothesis and pollution halo hypothesis pollution haven hypothesis and pollution halo hypothesis are two important theories that have been used to explain fdi-pollution relationships in the literature. the pollution haven hypothesis argues that foreign direct investment may increase pollution in the host nations, particularly in countries with inadequate environmental standards (akbulut & yereli, 2023). this implies that multinational corporations from nations with stronger environmental rules transfer their polluting activities to countries with looser regulations, resulting in “pollution havens” (uche et al., 2024). this move enables major companies to reduce their manufacturing costs while increasing pollution levels in the host countries. the pollution halo hypothesis, on the other hand, contends that fdi can improve environmental quality in host countries.according to xu et al., (2021), multinational firms bring cleaner technology, sophisticated managerial methods, and higher environmental standards from their home countries to the host country. this transfer can have a “halo” effect, in which local businesses and industries adopt more sustainable practices, boosting overall environmental outcomes (duan & jiang, 2021; padhan & bhat, 2024). review of past studies over the years, the relationship between fdi and pollution has been widely examined. for instance, studies such as (abbas et al., 2023; abdo et al., 2020; adeelfarooq et al., 2021; achuo & ojong, 2024; assamoi et al., 2020; boamah et al., 2023; gharnit et al., 2019; khan & ozturk, 2020; nadeem et al., 2020; ren et al., 2014; shao et al., 2019; quang, 2023; wang et al., 2024; zheng et al., 2024 ) found evidence that fdi increases environmental pollution. they noted that greater fdi inflow is frequently associated with higher levels of industrial emissions and air pollution. they ascribe this to weaker environmental rules in these countries, which make them appealing destinations for corporations looking for cheaper compliance costs. they confirmed that lax environmental regulations allow for polluting industry expansion via foreign investment. pa ge 13 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 130-136, 2024 the impact of foreign direct investment on environmental results is mediated by local regulatory norms. the study highlighted that in countries with strict environmental regulations, fdi has a positive impact on environmental quality, whereas in less-regulated environment, fdi may exploit low standards, causing environmental harm. this study contributes to the debate by building on these findings, notably by investigating the impact of institutional quality in the fdi-pollution link. by adding institutional elements, the study gives a more in-depth knowledge of how governance systems, regulatory efficacy, and institutional strength in host nations may influence fdi environmental consequences. materials and methods two models were used for the analysis. the first was used to examine the effects of fdi and institutional quality on environmental pollution, while the second model was used to investigate how institutional quality moderate the effect of fdi on environmental pollution in the selected african countries. model one log_co2it= δ0+δ1 logfdiit+ δ2 iqstqualit+ δ3 log_creditit+ δ4log_cpiit+ δ_5 logexchait+ ϵit ………..(3.1) model two log_co2it= δ0 + δ1 logfdiit+ δ2 iqstqualit+ δ3 instfdiit + δ4log_creditit + δ5log_cpiit + δ6 logexcha_it + ϵit ………..(3.2) where log_co2 is the log of co2 emission, logfdi is the log of fdi inflows, iqstqual is institutional quality index, log_credit is the log of credit to the private sector which was used as the proxy for financial development, log_cpi is the log of consumer price index, and logexcha is the log of exchange rate, and instfdi is moderating variable. instfdi = logfdi * iqstqual institutional quality was measured as the composite index from six governance indicators which are voice and accountability, political stability and absence of violence/terrorism, government effectiveness, regulatory quality, and rule of law. environmental pollution was measured as co2 emissions (metric tons per capita), fdi inflows:was measured using fdi inflows as percentage of gdp, domestic credit was measured as the domestic credit to the private sector, consumer price index: was used to measure inflation, exchange rate was measured as the official exchange rate (lcu per us$, period average). this study was based on panel data consisting of time series data from 2002 and 2022. for the cross-sectional data, three countries were chosen from each region in africa. hence, the countries that were considered are tunisia, egypt, and morocco, from north africa, benin, nigeria, and senegal from western africa, cameroon, chad, and gabon, from central africa, kenya, rwanda and mauritania from eastern africa, and botswana, namibia, namibia, and south africa. using the variance inflation factor, the study begins by checking for multicollinearity. the test for heteroskdesticity was followed using modified wald test the pesaran cross-sectional dependence test was used to test for cross-sectional dependence. the panel unit root tested using cross-sectional augmented adf (cadf) test. the panel co-integration test was done using the pedroni co-integration test, while panels corrected standard errors was used as the primary estimator. results and discussion testing for the multicollinearity the variance inflation factor (vif) and tolerance factor (tf) are measures used to assess multicollinearity among the predictor variables in models. table 1 shows that the variance inflation factor is low with the highest value of 2.21 while the tolerance factor has the lowest value of 0.45 in the first model. the second model has the highest value of 2.29 and lowest tolerance factor value of 0.43. given that the vif values are below 5, there is no significant multicollinearity issue among the predictor variables in the two models (shrestha, 2020). table 1: results of the vif test of multicollinearity model one model two variable vif tf vif tf log_credit 2.21 0.451662 2.29 0.437020 lo_gexcha 1.83 0.545362 1.84 0.542995 iqstqual 1.76 0.569608 2.56 0.391313 log_cpi 1.18 0.844904 1.18 0.844742 log_fdi 1.03 0.974278 1.12 0.890316 instfdi 2.16 0.462577 source: computed by the author testing for serial correlation in the models table 2 shows that the woodrige test of serial correlation has probability values that is less than 5% in both models, implying that there is evidence of serial correlation in the residuals. because the probability value is less than 5%, the null hypothesis of no serial correlation is rejected in the two models. pa ge 13 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 130-136, 2024 table 2 : woodrige test of serial correlation model one model two f(,20) 346.156 355.181 prob > f 0.0000 0.0000 source: computed by the author table 3: result of the modified wald test for groupwise heteroskedasticity model one model two f(,20) 346.156 355.181 prob > f 0.0000 0.0000 source: computed by the author table 4: result of the pesaran and yamagata.test model one model two delta 13.983 16.934 12.376 15.514 prob value 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 source: computed by the author table 5: results of the cross-sectional dependence model one model two variable cd-test p-value cd-test p-value log_co2 + 47.372 0.000 47.372 0.000 iqstqual + 3.096 0.002 3.096 0.002 logfdi + 4.014 0.000 4.014 0.000 table 6: the result of the cadf unit root without difference with difference variable t-bar p-value t-bar p-value log_co2 -2.595 0.080 -2.735 0.018 iqstqual -2.510 0.162 -3.422 0.000 logfdi -2.334 0.453 -3.588 0.000 l o g _ credit -2.585 0.088 -3.780 0.000 log_cpi -2.070 0.067 -2.780 0.000 logexcha -2.489 0.189 -2.764 0.013 instfdi -2.618 0.064 -3.508 0.000 source: computed by the author table 7: the result of pedroni co-integration test model one model two statistics statistic p-value statistic p-value modified phillips -perr -on 4.9890 0.0000 6.0836 0.0000 phillipsperron -3.0077 0.0013 -2.0945 0.0181 augmented dickey-fuller -2.4268 0.0076 -1.2297 0.1094 source: computed by the author testing for heteroskedasticity in the models table 3 reveals that the modified wald test for groupwise heteroskedasticity for the two models yields probability value of less than 1%. it provides significant evidence for rejecting the null hypothesis of no groupwise heteroskedasticity. it implies that the error variances in regression models are not uniform across groups or clusters. this breach of the homoscedasticity assumption may result in biased coefficient estimations and wasteful standard errors. as a result, our work solved this issue by determining the optimal estimator that is robust to heteroskedasticity. slope homogeneity test table 4 shows that the probability value for this test is less than 1% for the two models. it suggests strong evidence against the null hypothesis of slope homogeneity, indicating that the coefficients vary significantly across different units. testing for cross-sectional dependence the pesaran cross-sectional dependence test findings demonstrate that most of the variables in the two models have probability values less than 1%, indicating strong evidence against the null hypothesis of no cross-sectional dependence. cross-sectional dependence can cause coefficient estimates to be biased and standard errors to be erroneous in panel data models. this study addressed this challenge by considering the estimator that is robust to cross-sectional dependence. instfdi -.175 0.861 l o g _ credit + 35.397 0.000 35.397 0.000 log_cpi + 65.949 0.000 65.949 0.000 logexcha + 31.22 0.000 31.22 0.000 source: computed by the author panel unit root test the cadf test results provide insight into the stationarity of the variables in the panel data model. the results demonstrate that the cadf probability values were greater than 5% when the variables were not diferrenced. when they were differenced ones, the probabilities were less than 5%. this means that when the variables were not diferrenced, they were non-stationary, i.e. they showed trends or had unit roots. after differencing, the variables became stationary, which means they no longer showed trends or unit roots. testing for the co-integration in the models table 7 displays the pedroni co-integration test results for the models. the test provides three statistics: modified phillips-perron, phillips-perron, and augmented dickeyfuller. all the three statistics have probability values that are less than 1%. this provides extremely strong evidence against the null hypothesis of no co-integration in the two models. this implies a long-run relationship between the variables in the model. pa ge 13 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 130-136, 2024 results of the panels corrected standard errors table 8 shows that in model one, there is a negative relationship between institutional quality and co2 emissions. this shows that higher institutional quality leads to lower co2 emissions. this implies that improving institutional quality, such as upgrading governance structures, strengthening regulatory frameworks, and fostering openness and accountability, may contribute to minimizing environmental deterioration. similarly, there was a positive relationship between fdi and co2 emissions, but it is not statistically significant at the 5% level. this shows that an increase in foreign direct investment is connected with higher levels of co2 emissions. the lack of significance suggests that although fdi has the potential to increase pollution in africa, the effect is relatively weak. this may imply that fdi has not grown enough to significantly contributes to pollution in africa. in model two, there is also a negative relationship between institutional quality and co2 emission. this suggests table 8: results of the panels corrected standard errors coef. p>z. coef. p>z. iqstqual -.0897178 0.000 -.1774559 0.000 logfdi .0024163 0.655 .0021982 0.816 instfdi -.0012278 0.755 log_credit .181255 0.001 .2327117 0.004 log_cpi .3883593 0.000 .50382 0.000 logexcha -.4233512 0.000 -.5277795 0.000 _cons 8.53751 0.000 220.69 0.0000 wald chi2(5) 128.64 220.69 prob > chi2 0.0000 0.0000 source: computed by the author that higher institutional quality is associated with lower levels of co2 emissions. similarly, a positive relationship between foreign direct investment (fdi) and co2 emissions was found, but the effect was not statistically significant at the 5% level. the moderating effect of institutional quality with fdi on co2 is negative, but it is not statistically significant. the negative coefficient suggests that improved institutional quality may dampen the effect of fdi on co2 emissions.stronger institutional quality, as evidenced by good governance and regulatory frameworks, may reduce the environmental effect of fdi by encouraging cleaner technologies, sustainable behaviours, and compliance with environmental standards. however, the lack of significance in the moderating effect of fdi on the relationship between fdi and co2 emissions may indicate that fdi levels are too low to have a noticeable effect on co2 emissions.it may also imply that institutional quality must improve to a certain level for it to be able to have a significant effect on the way fdi affects pollution in africa. summary and conclusion this study was conducted to examine the effects of fdi and institutional quality on environmental pollution in selected african countries. the findings showed that institutional quality had negative effects on environmental pollution, while the effect of fdi was positive but insignificant. also, the effect of moderating effect showed that moderating fdi with institutional quality reduced pollution, but the effect was insignificant. the study concludes that fdi has the potential to increase pollution in africa. also, institutional quality has the potential to mitigate the potential effects of fdi on environmental pollution in africa. this implies that higher levels of institutional quality may mitigate the co2 emissions associated 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(2024). foreign direct investment and carbon emissions in china:“pollution haven” or “pollution halo”? evidence from the nardl model. journal of environmental planning and management, 67(3), 662-687. pa ge 1 pa ge 39 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) evaluating environmental health and safety practices among fuel station operators in ghana’s petroleum (downstream) sector sarah asiedua asare1, patrick akwasi anamuah mensah2, collins nana andoh3* volume 3 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v3i1.2939 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: may 30, 2024 accepted: june 29, 2024 published: july 01, 2024 the study assesses service operators’ role and awareness level in environmental health and safety practices in the petroleum (downstream) sector / fuel service station (fss) in adentan municipality in ghana. a total of 50 managers and workers were used as the sample size for the study, of which 18 were female and 32 were male. the study was a descriptive survey, with a questionnaire as the instrument for data gathering. the final data were analyzed using descriptive statistics like percentages and frequencies through spss ibm 27. the two main objectives of the study were to examine the role of operators in participating in environmental health and safety in fuel service stations and to establish the level of awareness of the operators about environmental health and safety. the study revealed that operators of fss within the petroleum downstream sector have major roles to play in environmental health and safety by enforcing health and safety policies established by law and regulations for health, safety, and environment (hse). the findings again showed that the level of awareness of the operators on environmental health and safety is very high and paramount in the fss, as they showed positive concern about worker personal protective equipment (ppe) provision and standardized procedures for investigating and reporting accidents. keywords environmental health, safety, downstream sector, petroleum industry, operators, fuel service stations 1 national petroleum authority, accra, ghana 2 st. ambrose college of education, dorma akwamu, ghana 3 university of energy and natural resources, sunyani, ghana * corresponding author’s e-mail: collins.andoh.stu@uenr.edu.gh introduction petroleum products play a significant role in the socioeconomic, socio-political, and environmental sectors of every nation (asare et al., 2021). they are crucial for the economic development of all countries, regardless of whether they are oil producers or not. in countries where oil is not drilled or mined, other sectors of the petroleum industry are present, with the downstream sector being almost ubiquitous. in ghana, the discovery of oil has led to a significant reliance on oil revenue from all sectors of the petroleum industry. while the downstream sector in the country is growing rapidly, the operators in the fuel filling station, in particular, have a poor level of awareness regarding safety and the environment. in 2015, barclays defined oil and gas as natural resources that are obtained through the degradation of organic matter found in geological deposits on the earth’s surface. these resources are composed of thousands of organic materials that can be processed into a variety of petrochemical products (barclays, 2015). figure 1: sectors in the oil and gas industry retrived from chauman (2013) in the diagram presented in figure 1 above, the downstream sector of the petroleum industry is focused on the production, distribution, and sale of refined hydrocarbon products. according to a report (barclays, 2015), the refining process, which can be complicated at times, requires a safe and hazard-free environment to operate effectively. retail and distribution activities include handling fuel oil, petroleum, liquefied natural gas (lng) and liquefied petroleum gas (lpg), chemicals, lubricants, and other related products. given the large pa ge 40 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 39-49, 2024 volume and variety of distribution networks, it is necessary to manage these petroleum products with care and caution to avoid any potential environmental hazards. therefore, it is crucial to implement careful management practices to minimize environmental impacts. in 2010, the ministry of energy estimated that ghana’s petroleum products account for about 20% of the total energy consumption and that about 70% of ghana’s commercial energy needs this product (amponsah & opei, 2014). as the demand for the product keeps increasing, the risks it poses to human safety and the natural environment could also be high through its operations and its usage in the country. the concept of implementing a health and safety philosophy is not a new idea in the oil and gas industry. in 2012, the organization of the petroleum exporting countries (opec) divided the downstream sector into several sub-sectors, which include refining, product storage, transportation, distribution, and retailing organisation of the petroleum exporting countries (opec) (2012). these sub-sectors present significant health, safety, and environmental risks (haque et al., 2021). the idea of establishing a downstream sector that prioritizes an effective and dependable health and safety culture has been a topic of discussion for several decades and has progressed steadily over the last few years. according to a study conducted by ahmed (2016), oil companies in major countries still face significant challenges in dealing with workplace accidents that employees are exposed to. it is difficult to measure and control health and safety performance in these situations. however, health and safety has become an important topic of discussion in recent times. this is due to the increase in the workload for supervisors, the need to empower employees, and the importance of businesses avoiding actions that can lead to legal consequences (lowe, 2008). furthermore, a study conducted by baffour et al. (2014) indicated that there has been a significant increase in the number of downstream distribution points across the country. however, the filling stations segment is the most dominant and rapidly growing in this sector. unfortunately, the country seems to prioritize economic outcomes and returns over health and safety management, despite the increasing growth of these stations (chauhan, 2013). also, according to act 651 of the ghana labour act, 2003, there are significant health and safety issues in ghana that affect both citizens and workers. however, the act does not provide adequate measures to ensure the safety and health of workers. in particular, workers in the oil and gas industry are exposed to serious safety and health threats. therefore, it is essential to conduct research to address these issues. furthermore, a performance review of hse conducted by ahmed (2016) revealed that health, safety, and environmental concerns are given importance in the industry’s leadership commitment, management, and technical concepts. however, the national petroleum authority (npa) and environmental protection agency (epa) mandated to regulate and maintain safety and health standards are failing to ensure compliance in the country (yirenkyi, 2016). for regulations and best practices in the oil and gas industry, barclays in their 2015 brief reports pointed out clearly with this assertion, “permits, consents and licenses are likely to be required for oil and gas operations” and for that, it must meet the best industrial practices of international environmental and social standards (barclays, 2015). for ghana, the npa and epa do this through the issuance of licenses and permits respectively. operators of fss are given guidelines and regulations which are meant to ensure that their operations are carried out in a safe and healthy environment. however, there have been several incidences of workplace disasters in the form of fire outbreaks in the country, despite these guidelines and regulations. in june 2015, there was a disaster at the then kwame nkrumah circle, which claimed over 190 lives and also destroyed many properties. a report by gagugah (2016) indicated that the june 3rd disaster occurred as a result of fuel leakage from the tanks of the filling station which came in contact with a naked fire from a lit cigarette. in 2016 a fuel tanker exploded near the trade-fair centre in the greater accra region of ghana claiming 9 lives and injuring 12 others. yet in another incident in october 2017, an explosion occurred at atomic junction, with the explosion of an lpg tanker while discharging lpg into a stationary vessel. it is not immediately clear what the causes of these accidents are since the fuel-filling stations are expected to operate with workplace safety guidelines. it is against this background that the researchers intended to delve into the operations of fuel service operators regarding their roles and awareness of safety precautions in ghana. the study assesses the roles and awareness levels of fuel service operators in the environment in which they operate. the main purpose of the study is intended to evaluate the role and the awareness level of fuel service operators in the environmental health and safety practices in the downstream sector in ghana. the general objective of the study is to assess the role and the awareness level of fuel service operators in the environmental health and safety practices in the downstream sector. the following are the two main objectives of the study: examine the role of operators in environmental health and safety in fuel service stations and establish the level of awareness of the operators on environmental health and safety. the following are the research questions: what is the role of operators in environmental health and safety in fuel service stations? is there any level of awareness of the operators on environmental health and safety? literature review oil exploration in ghana the oil sector is made up of three sectors; the upstream sector, the midstream sector, and the downstream sector (amponsah & opei, 2014). however, from boateng & buahing (2014) the upstream and the downstream constitute ghana’s petroleum sectors. pa ge 41 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 39-49, 2024 the upstream petroleum sectors in ghana the operations of the upstream sector are being done throughout the world. the gulf of mexico, the north sea, the south china sea, and the caspian sea are regarded as the highest-level areas where the activity of the upstream was mainly started historically (niven & mcleod, 2009). the downstream petroleum sector in ghana the downstream sector in ghana, responsible for refining, transportation, retail, and distribution of petroleum products, is functioning effectively. however, authorities and regulators have not shown much interest in assessing the potential health, safety, and environmental risks associated with this sector (boateng & buahing, 2014). although the number of fuel stations is increasing, compliance with environmental and safety regulations has been lacking. the sector is also facing a challenge with the influx of untrained individuals with no industry expertise, who are handling petroleum products without proper checks. this has led to an increase in health, environmental, and safety risks in the country. for safety at the workplace and ensuring accident free downstream, the following will be carefully assessed: ➢ health and safety at workplace ➢ workplace accidents and emergencies in the petroleum downstream ➢ review of environmental health and safety guidelines of the petroleum industry health and safety at the workplace effective management plays a crucial role in ensuring health and safety in the workplace. according to stranks (2006) and oluwagbemi (2011), better management practices can lead to lower costs, higher productivity, and improved employee morale. according to kwadwo and morkla (2024), workplace dangers to employees’ health and safety may cause them to be less productive. regardless of the size of the worksite, systematic methods can be implemented to protect workers from hazards. to achieve this, the worksite manager needs to conduct regular surveys to identify and update safety and health hazards (zafar, 2014). this includes examining new facilities, processes, materials, and equipment, as well as analyzing jobs and work processes for potential hazards (wbg, 2016). by continuously monitoring performance using indicators, management systems can effectively mitigate health and safety risks and reduce the number of incidents in the workplace. 1. worksite analysis 2. hazard prevention and control 3. safety and health training worksite analysis according to the occupational safety and health administration (osha) (2016), worksite analysis comprises a mutual step-to-step assessment of the workplace to find existing or potential hazards that may lead to incidents of workplace violence. hazard prevention and control it has been stated by scott & kimmel (n.d.) that control in the workplace refers to the procedures that are put in place to reduce injury, minimize adverse health effects, and prevent damage to equipment, the environment, and the worker. this statement reinforces the idea that the best way to control hazards in the workplace is by implementing appropriate procedures, safety and health rules, inspection, training, and conducting follow-up studies to ensure that the hazard controls are sufficient. the guidelines for the petroleum downstream, which includes refineries and distribution centers, recommend that a worksite policy on safe and healthy work and working conditions should be established. this policy should be communicated to all personnel with responsibility at the site and personnel at other locations with responsibility for the site. this ensures that safety and health protection is given priority over other organizational values (høivik et al., 2009). furthermore, all individuals in the downstream sector should have some responsibility for safety and health. to avoid any confusion in getting the required activities done, a clear assignment of responsibilities is needed. in particular, the manager should ensure that the safety and health “expert” at the worksite is not assigned line responsibility that belongs to line managers and supervisors. line managers and supervisors should be responsible for supervising and evaluating workers’ performance in areas of safety and health, providing on-the-job training in safe work practices and personal protective equipment, and encouraging workers’ participation in safety and health activities (walker, 2007). safety and health training workplace safety and health training is an important component of preventing workplace violence through education and training. well-trained staff members are aware of potential hazards and follow established policies and procedures to protect themselves and their colleagues (osha, 2016) according to cohen & colligan (1998), controlling workplace hazards is a fundamental aspect of occupational safety and health (os & h) training. workers should be trained not only to perform their jobs effectively but also to protect themselves and their coworkers from potential hazards (ali, 2008). additionally, developing a clear statement of management policy helps ensure that everyone in the workplace understands the importance of safety and health protection and how it aligns with other organizational values (ilo, 2005) . workplace accidents and emergencies in the petroleum downstream in the downstream sector of the petroleum industry, there have been numerous cases of accidents that have claimed lives and properties. this section talks about workplace accidents and emergencies in the downstream sector. pa ge 42 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 39-49, 2024 workplace accidents accident is defined by zakaria et al. (2012) as an unpleasant and undesired event that leads to death, personal injuries, damage or loss of property, materials, or the environment, and loss of business opportunity. moreover, ambisisi (2016) pointed out that downstream transportation and distribution of petroleum products are mainly done using truck tanker and pipeline transport systems which also constitutes too many accidents on human safety and the environment. causes and preventions of the workplace accidents workplace accidents can be caused by several factors including human error, high stress, low level of education, lack of training, absence of safety leadership, poor design of the workplace, lack of top management, and ineffective machinery and complicated technology. however, human error remains the primary cause of all workplace accidents (alkahaldi et. al., 2017). socially responsible companies must take workplace accidents seriously, regardless of their occurrence. occupational accidents are acute and visible in the workplace, which can be perceived as more dramatic than occupational disease (høivik et al., 2009). the workers are major stakeholders in the international labour standards of the international labour organization (ilo), and extensive worker participation is essential for an effective management system (ilo 2015) . natural risks and hazards are inevitable in the handling and bulk storage of petrol stations, which can lead to accidental spills, tank leakage, and ground/water contamination (haque et al., 2021). therefore, there must be emergency preparedness for spill prevention plans that regulate equipment, maintenance, integrity testing, and implementation of tank management plans, as stated in the barclays 2015 brief report (barclays, 2015). emergency at workplace an emergency in the workplace (downstream sector) might be considered as a spillage of flammable fuel, explosion, fire or ignitions, injury to a client or worker on site, etc. that requires urgent attention to prevent escalation, loss or injury to individuals or the environment and damage to plant and equipment (h & sa, n.d.) . according to occupational health and safety management (2001), there must be adequate readiness and preparedness of companies to handle a variety of emergencies about health and safety at the workplace (oh & sm, 2001). this then suggests that emergency services must be part of management’s plans to take care of health, safety, and environmental issues in the downstream sector. emergency procedures in preventing workplace incidents and emergencies, oh & s management documented in their work that; there must be emergency procedures to help equip employees in emergency-related cases (oh & sm, 2001). therefore, the following programs must be known to the worker; 1. policy on the importance of emergency 2. emergency outlet procedures and routes 3. emergency training programs to equip/enhance workers 4. constants review of emergency plans review and audit of environmental health and safety guidelines of the petroleum industry review and audit are two important tools used in the petroleum industry for management purposes (unep, 1997). guidelines for the petroleum industry are crucial for industrializing countries. the world bank group documented in 2016 that “the environmental, health, and safety (ehs) guidelines are technical reference documents with general and industry-specific examples of good international industry practices (giip)” (wbg, 2016). health, safety, and environment are three separate concepts that are often combined in the same functional groups within oil companies (hse, 2018). therefore, there is a need for hse guidelines for operators worldwide. in addition, a strong company commitment to environmental protection can help minimize the negative environmental impact of oil and gas development activities. these guidelines are expected to meet the demands of countries in the oil and gas business. as such, it is best to display company policy and strategic objectives prominently at all operating sites and, if necessary, adapt them to include site-specific requirements (unep, 1997). therefore, the country needs to have guidelines in the downstream sector, which depends on regulation involving the establishment of laws by a public agency (jilcha & kitaw, 2016). it has been pointed out that the best way to reduce and minimize negative consequences with regard to safety, health, and the environment is to enact a guideline policy through regulation by establishing laws. ghana has experienced several oil and gas disasters in the past ten years, despite having guidelines and regulations in place in the sector. the june 3rd twin disaster shown in figure 1 below cannot be ignored, as its consequences were too significant. a report by joy news revealed that the committee recommended that the government certify and license filling station attendants (gadugah, 2016). the hse guidelines provide a stakeholder program to recognize and understand all the hazards and potential hazards of the workplace. it also ensures the prevention or control of those hazards and provides training to employees at all levels to understand the potential hazards they may face and how to protect themselves and others (ilo, 2005) . according to united nations environment programme (unep) technical publication (1997), an environmental audit in the petroleum sector is defined as a management tool that evaluates environmental organization, management, and equipment performance systematically, periodically, and objectively. the purpose of this audit pa ge 43 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 39-49, 2024 is to help safeguard the environment by facilitating management control of environmental practices and assessing compliance with company policies, including meeting regulatory requirements (unep, 1997). an audit in the petroleum industry can check environmental health and safety guidelines by ensuring monitoring, compliance, procedures, and sector-required standards are in place and effective (unep, 1997). methodology this chapter is mainly about the methods used for the study. it is made of various sections as outlined and discussed below: study area adenta municipal area in the greater accra region of ghana was where the study was conducted. according to ghana statistical service 2014, it is situated along the accra – aburi highway after medina with a total area size of 35.85 sq mi and an inhabitant of 78, 215. there are 53 retail outlets in adentan municipality but the total number of registered oil marketing companies is 19 under these outlets, with some having more than one branch within the municipal. research design the study design is a case study purposely designed to find answers and solutions to the research questions and the objective of the study through the views of respondents. in the gathering of the information for the study, the researcher used a questionnaire approach or method. this approach was employed due to preferences, opinions, attitudes, and dispositions as non – observable events. sources of data the main source of the secondary data was reports, documents, and works done by institutions, researchers, and academicians in the study area. the primary source was the administration of a questionnaire population and sample figure 2: goil filling station burnt by fire on june 3, 2015 source: (adapted from joy news online) table 1: population and sample size of fss fss locations population of workers numbers sampled allied oil – adenta 13 4 benab – housing down 7 2 compass oleum – frafraha 9 3 gaso petroleum – amanfrom 10 3 naagamni – amrahia 9 3 superior oil – ashieyie 12 4 vivo energy (shell) – adenta aburi road 12 4 glory oil – ritz junction 9 3 goodness energy – amanfrom 10 3 frimps oil – adenta 10 3 infin – ashieyie 10 3 puma – amrahia 9 3 goil – ashieyie 12 4 engen – frafraha 10 3 infin – adenta 9 3 galaxy oil – frafraha 7 2 goil – adenta 10 3 engen – adenta aburi road 8 2 puma – adenta aburi road 7 2 vivo energy shell – adenta 9 3 total 20 192 60 source: field work, 2023 pa ge 44 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 39-49, 2024 the total population of workers and managers of all the registered oil marketing companies in ghana is considered for the study, but those in the adentan municipal area were the target population. as in table 1, for an effective and precise outcome, a sample size of 60 was used for the study. data collection procedure there are two significant modes of data collection; the quantitative data collection and the qualitative data collection and under these two are many methods of data gathering. there are five ways of gathering or collecting data; paper and pencil questionnaires, interviews, direct observations, document analysis, and your own experience, see block (1981) and lana (2000). the researcher used the quantitative data collection and the questionnaire method because of their easiness to summarize, compare, and generalize. the researcher in using the 20 ffs gave many copies of the questionnaire to each of the various ffs as shown in table 3.1 to be attended by respondents of which 1 was a manager. in all 55 of the 60 copies were received but 50 were well filled and attended by respondents. the copies that were not filled well or correctly were as result of illiteracy. instrument in the process of gathering the primary data for the study, the instrument the researcher used was the questionnaire. the purpose was to measure the research questions and the main objectives of the study. to ensure the validity of the instruments the questionnaire was presented to experts in the field of study for consideration. the section had questions with each having 2 options or scale points respectively and some had a follow-up question to either explain or give a reason for their preferred option. data analysis procedures the final data obtained from the respondents were analyzed using percentages and frequencies for the findings and discussion of the study. this was done using statistical package for the social sciences (spss) version 27. ethical issues as documented by acquah (2017) in his work; the ethical consideration in research and how the researcher goes about the research is an important issue of concern and according to crandall & diener (1978), the ethical issues that are considered as the standards and principles can be placed under four areas; harm to participants, invasion of privacy, informed consent and deception. on the issue of harm to participants, since this is basically about confidentiality, the research questionnaire was designed in a way where the respondent’s identity was not revealed. as bryman (2012) pointed out harm to participants in research is mainly about how to maintain confidentiality records and this practice was adhered to. the research was much concerned about the privacy issue of the respondent; hence the respondent had the right and liberty to take part in the study or withdraw. however, before the questionnaire was given out to the individual respondent, permission was sought and the objective of the study was explained to each respondent by taking into account the ethical issue of informed consent. on the deception principle, the researcher made extensive explanations to the respondents by assuring them its confidentiality, the objective of the study, and also been done to add to the knowledge base (academic purpose) but not for monetary benefits. results this section presents the findings and the analyses of the data collected according to the research questions. what is the role of operators in participating in environmental health and safety in fuel service stations? the study aims to find out the role of operators in participating in environmental health and safety in the fss. under this research question, respondents were given ten (10) statements for them to state yes or no. the result is shown in table 2. table 2: the role of operators in participating in environmental health and safety in fuel service stations yes no yes. % no. % 1 does the company enforce a health and safety policy? 50 100% 0 0.0% 2 would the company apply disciplinary measures to correct wrong behaviours? 46 92% 4 8.0% 3 is there a first aid kit at the outlet? 47 94% 3 6.0% 4 is there a health and safety performance target and reward scheme to motivate employees who meet targets? 28 56% 21 42% 5 can you confirm if there is a regular inspection by the company to ensure compliance with regulations? 43 86% 7 14% 6 does the use of health and safety posters encourage compliance with regulations? 49 98% 1 2% pa ge 45 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 39-49, 2024 the total number of respondents representing one hundred percent (100%) said yes to the question ‘does the company enforce health and safety policy? some respondents explained by backing their responses with the provision of safety wear and periodic internal inspection. this finding from the study shows that the omcs are very sensitive to the welfare of the worker and the environment and that enforcing health and safety policies at the workplace will minimize environmental hazards and workplace incidents. this is why jilcha & kitaw (2016) pointed out that the only way to reduce and minimize safety, health, and environmental negative consequences is to enact a guideline policy through regulation that is effective and up to details backed by law. out of the total fifty (50) respondents surveyed 46 of them representing ninetytwo percent 92% believed the company would apply disciplinary measures to correct wrong behaviors, and the remaining 4(8%) responded no to the question. the overwhelming outcome by the respondents indicates companies in the downstream sector have the willingness to take action by correcting the behaviors of odd workers when they are out of order. it goes to show that disciplinary measures to correct wrong behaviors in the fss must not be underestimated but must be overemphasized to caution the worker. respondents explained that companies do that to deter wrongdoers from repeating wrong behaviors. in response to health and safety performance targets and rewarding schemes to motivate employees who meet targets, fifty-six (56%) of the respondents said yes with forty-two (42%) responding no and one person representing two (2%) percent did not attend to the question. the study outcome shows that management is of the view that when employees are motivated about performance targets when a reward scheme is in place there is work efficiency and health and safety become the utmost priority. respondents’ responses to confirm if there is a regular inspection by the company to ensure compliance with regulations were positive, eighty-six percent (86%) of them stated yes meaning regular inspection is conducted and the remaining fourteen (14%) responded no. about the use of health and safety posters encouraging compliance with regulations, almost the entire respondents that is ninety-eight percent (98%) agreed to yes, which is an encouraging and positive assertion while the two percent (2%) that is an individual responded no. concerning respondents’ awareness of the environmental health and safety issues related to the recent fire incidents in the country, eighty-two (82%) percent said yes to this and eighteen percent (18%) responded no. the 82% yes shows that respondents are aware of the june 3rd twin, a disaster that occurred at the circle and that any negligence on the path of them may cause unwanted incidents. according to respondents, to prevent such future occurrences of fire incidents in the country, there is a frequent check of leakages. about the company check for leakages in the underground storage tanks, nine-six (96%) percent of the respondents gave fair responses by affirming yes and four percent (4%) of the remaining responded no. findings as shown from the high percentage indicate that companies are very much concerned with leakages of storage as a victim may cause environmental hazards or incidents to the health and safety of workers. level of awareness of the operators on environmental health and safety the study sought to find out the level of awareness of the operators on environmental health and safety in the fss. under this research question, respondents were given ten (10) statements for them to state yes or no. this is shown in table 3. 7 has the company designated competent safety persons responsible for safety within the premises? 37 74 13 26% 8 are you aware of environmental health and safety issues related to the recent fire incidents in the country? 41 82% 9 18% 9 does the company check for leakages in the underground storage tanks? 48 96% 2 4% 10 is there an oil interceptor at your facility? 39 78% 11 22% source: fieldwork, 2023 table 3: level of awareness of the operators on environmental health and safety yes no yes. % no. % 1 does the company have a standardized procedure for investigating accidents? 40 80% 10 20% 2 does the company have a standardized procedure for reporting accidents? 44 88% 6 12% 3 does the company have personal protective equipment, ppe for staff? 42 84% 8 16% 4 do workers participate in hazard identification at the outlet? 46 92% 4 8% 5 does the company have a reward system from top management for workers who demonstrate exemplary safe behavior at the outlet? 32 64% 18 36% pa ge 46 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 39-49, 2024 according to the data obtained, eighty percent (80%) of the respondents said yes, that for investigating accidents the companies have a standardized procedure while the remaining twenty percent (20%) responded no, which indicates the absence of a standardized procedure for looking into accidents. the findings indicate that the procedure available is of high standard hence even if fear exists the probability is very small as workers are of the view that the standard way as accepted everywhere is used in accident cases. now for the company having ppe for staff, it was only sixteen percent (16%) of the total respondents who responded no but the remaining eighty-four percent (84%) said yes, their companies have ppe for staff. this affirms the notion of walker (2007) and kelloway & day (2005) that hazard prevention control can be a program designed through safe work practices with enforcement and the provision of ppe. an overwhelming percentage (92%) of the respondents affirmed that workers participating in hazard identification at the outlet while the remaining eight percent (8%) responded no. the outcome of this rating suggests that workers are allowed to take part in hazard identification. therefore, as pointed out by mishra & sahoo (2012), there is a better understanding, improvement, and organizational performance at the workplace and minimization of incidents if employees are engaged and involved in the organizations. eighty-two percent (82%) of respondents from the survey said yes their company has periodic training on health and safety for workers and the remaining eighteen (18%) said no. the finding supports the views of osha (2016) that one key element of workplace violence prevention is safety and health training, and this implies when members are well trained there is a high level of awareness of potential haza regarding workers demonstrating knowledge of environmental health and safety, a higher number of respondents (88%) believe that they have the requisite knowledge in dealing with and handling environmental health and safety in the fss, and (12%) twelve percent responded no. the outcome of the findings is clearly in line with ilo (2005) , that when workers in the fss are knowledgeable in the hse per the guidelines, they demonstrate an understanding of hazards and potential hazards in the workplace and the ability to prevent and control those hazards and how to protects themselves and others and workplace protection. 6 does the company have periodic training on health and safety for workers? 41 82% 9 18% 7 does management conduct periodic health and safety inspections? 44 88% 6 12% 8 do the workers demonstrate knowledge of environmental health and safety? 44 88% 6 12% 9 does the company have an efficient health and safety communication channel? 43 86% 7 14% source: fieldwork, 2023 figure 3: the last time periodic training was done at the fss this particular question ‘the last time this was done’, was a follow-up to a previous question, fifty-two percent (52%) of the respondents said they had done it more than two months but less than six months, thirty-six percent (36%) said less than a month, eight percent (8%) responded for more than a month and finally four percent (4%) said more than six months but less than a year as shown in figure 3 above. this reveals how often periodic trainings are done in these institutions. although a higher percentage said they had done training more than two pa ge 47 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 39-49, 2024 months but less than six months, there is still some form of training being undertaken by these facilities which will help in protecting operators and facilities from the risk of accidents and also to aid in emergency response in case of an accident at the facility. conclusion the chapter presents the summary of findings from the study and presents some concluding remarks intertwined with recommendations. summary of findings from the outcome of table 4.6 which is about research question 1 ‘the role of operators in participating in environmental health and safety in a fuel service station (fss)’, respondents showed positive responses through the data obtained by asserting the fact that operators in the various companies showed a high level of involvement as they were up to the task in playing their respective roles by ensuring that the good practices in the downstream sector are adhered to in the workplace environment for good health and safety in fss. the following percentages are 100%, 98%, 96%, etc. which are; does the company enforce health and safety policy, does the use of health and safety posters encourage compliance with regulations, and does the company check for leakages in the underground storage tanks respectively are clear indications that the role of the operators in various fss on health, safety, and environment were positive and the best. also, analysis under this area of study; ‘is there any level of awareness of the operators on environmental health and safety’, and the data obtained shows that the level of awareness of the operators on environmental health and safety is paramount to the omcs. responses from the company’s standardized procedure for investigating (80%) and reporting (88%) of accidents affirm that the level of awareness is very high in the fss by the operators on environmental health and safety. again, companies allowing workers to participate in hazard identification (92%) and the provision of ppe (84%) are all signs and indications of awareness creation. moreover, hughes and ferret in 2013 also assert that for appropriate control of hazards, a combination of work practices and ppe is the best choice or should be used where feasible, see hughes & ferrett (2013). moreover, the survey shows that periodic training, periodic inspections, and effective communication channels (86%) of the omcs create a very positive and high level of awareness of operators on environmental health and safety. conclusions the study focuses on the role of operators in environmental health and safety in fuel service stations (fss). operators within the downstream sector have major roles in enforcing health and safety policies, which must contain guidelines established by law and regulations for hse. they are responsible for protecting employee health and safety and ensuring compliance with rules and regulations in the working environment (oluwagbemi, 2011). the study’s second objective was to, “establish the level of awareness of operators on environmental health and safety”. operators in the downstream sector are highly aware of standard procedures for investigating and reporting workplace accidents. this indicates there is a need for continued investment in reducing and potentially eliminating workplace accidents. they are also aware of the provision of personal protective equipment (ppe) and the importance of worker participation in hazard identification (ilo, 2015; oh & sm, 2001). the study concludes that operators in various omcs shows 1. high levels of involvement in good practices in the downstream sector as in a. enforcing health and safety policies b. applying disciplinary measures c. conduct regular inspections to ensure compliance with regulations. 2. operators know the environmental health and safety standard procedures for investigating and reporting accidents in the workplace 3. that operators know the environmental health and safety consequences in the downstream sector 4. operators know the importance of ppe and worker participation in hazard identification. recommendations from the findings of the study, it is recommended that operators’ involvement by participating in environmental health and safety should be encouraged and be done continuously as they keep attending to their duties in ensuring good practices in the fss within the downstream sectors. it is also recommended that operators’ role in participating in environmental health and safety by enforcing health and safety policy should continuously be done as they involve the three main stakeholders; government, employers, and employees for hse. furthermore, the operators’ role in disciplinary measures in correcting wrong behaviors in fss and the regular inspection should be done constantly, for the workers in the fss within the downstream sector to become conscious, efficient, and disciplined. additionally, it is recommended that the level of awareness of the operator in the downstream sector in the standardized procedures for investigating and reporting accidents must not stop but be done continuously to help reduce/minimize workplace incidents. workers’ participation in hazard identification and provision of needed equipment must be done constantly to help workers protect themselves and their co-workers. data availability upon genuine request data for the study may be available. pa ge 48 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 39-49, 2024 references acquah, r. 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(2012). workplace accident in malaysia: most common causes and solutions. bus manag rev, 2, 75 – 88. pa ge 1 pa ge 13 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) socio-economic condition, challenges, and problems encountered by fisherfolks in marine biodiversity conservation and protection in pilar, capiz philomel innocent obligar1* volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v4i1.4288 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: december 21, 2024 accepted: january 28, 2025 published: february 13, 2025 the diversity and quantity of organisms found in the world’s oceans and seas is referred to as marine biodiversity. the abundance of life in the seas is huge since the earth was shielded by water to a degree of about 70%. because people still rely on the resources of the earth for their livelihood, health, and well-being, it is crucial to preserve marine biodiversity. marine biodiversity is prized for its inherent value, ecological services it offers, and direct benefits to humans. the following goals guided the conduct of this study was to assess the socioeconomic standing of fisher folks of pilar, capiz, identify the difficulties that fisher folks encounter and, to identify the issues that fisher folks in pilar bay face when it comes to the preservation and conservation of biodiversity. three hundred two (302) fisher folks participated in the researchers’ mixed-method study, which was conducted in seven coastal barangays of pilar. a stratified sampling strategy was used to choose them. the tool used to get information from the respondents was a questionnaire. the findings were presented descriptively using the calculated frequency counts (f) and relative frequency or percentages (%). to ascertain the difficulties and issues respondents faced with biodiversity conservation and protection, the average age-weighted value or weighted mean was employed. according to the study’s findings, the majority of respondents were married men between the ages of 31 and 40 who had completed secondary school, had one to three family members, and made between php 5001 and php 7000 per month. the majority of respondents obtained their funds from lending individuals and institutions, lived in wooden-type homes, and fished in the deep open sea region for 6 to 9 hours every day using trawls as their fishing gear. they also used motorized boats that caught 30-41 kg of fish per day, representing roughly 16 different species. the respondents concurred that they are dealing with cultural, environmental, and economic difficulties. in addition to agreeing on environmental issues, the respondents firmly agreed that they have experienced human issues and governance with the conservation and protection of maritime biodiversity. keywords challenges, conservation, marine biodiversity, protection, socioeconomic condition 1 capiz state university, pilar satellite college, natividad, pilar, capiz, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: pipobligar@capsu.edu.ph introduction one of the most significant animal protein sources for human consumption is marine fish, particularly in developing nations with coasts. in the philippines, marine fishing is another significant sector. many people thought the ocean was so big and strong that neither the marine environment nor the marine fisheries resources could be altered fifty years ago. we all agree that manmade issues like overfishing, habitat damage, pollution, the introduction of exotic species, and climate change are mostly to blame for the decline of fisheries resources fifty years later. the philippines’ and the world’s fisheries are in a dire state right now. together with rising fish demand and population expansion, overfishing, illicit fishing, and habitat loss are pushing fisheries production farther into the abyss. fishing villages are experiencing an alarming rise in protein deficit, which seemed unthinkable just 20 years ago. thus, species richness and abundance in the world’s oceans and seas are referred to as marine biodiversity. additionally, there is a vast abundance of life in the oceans because water makes up to 70% of the planet. because people still rely on earth’s resources for their livelihood, health, and well-being, it is imperative that marine biodiversity be protected. marine biodiversity is prized for its inherent value, ecological services it offers, and direct benefits to humans. disease, pollution, climate change, habitat modification, overexploitation, and invasive species are just a few of the man-made hazards to marine ecosystems. natural hazards also exist, such as storm-induced physical damage and natural cycle-induced variations in temperature and salinity. these habitats are protected using a variety of conservation strategies that include management, monitoring, and international collaboration. it is difficult to find answers for these issues. to stabilize and reverse the detrimental trends now affecting fisheries and coastal ecosystems, difficult choices must be taken. the following goals guided the conduct of this study: 1. ascertain the socioeconomic status of the fishermen in pilar, capiz, 2. identify the difficulties that fishermen confront, and 3. identify the difficulties that fishermen face in protecting and conserving biodiversity in pilar bay. literature review according to dela cruz, m., continuous growth in population and increasing demand for fish and fish products have resulted in degraded fishery habitats and competing uses among stakeholders. based on the survey pa ge 14 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 13-20, 2025 of fishermen in the municipality of cabuyao, laguna, fishermen have been involved in fishing for more than half of their lives. the net annual income generated by municipal fishermen ranged from p16,632.00 – p70,224.00. the annual average net income of the fishermen is still below the annual per capita poverty threshold. fishing is a livelihood and is essential to a large part of the population in the municipality of cabuyao, laguna. sustaining the benefits derived from fishery can only be achieved if environmental, socio-economic and legal/institutional issues are fully addressed. environmental issues include land-based pollution as it affects the lake’s water quality. the socio-economic issues include conflicts in lake usage between residents and nonresidents, usage of illegal and active fishing gears, low income and no adequate privileges for fisher folks. according to bianchi et al. (2000) in their study entitled “marine biodiversity of the mediterranean sea: situation, problems and prospects for future research” that despite the sea’s enormous cultural and economic significance for the mediterranean countries, mediterranean marine biodiversity has only gotten a small portion of the attention given to its terrestrial equivalent. more than 8500 species of macroscopic marine animals, or between 4% to 18% of all marine species worldwide, are thought to reside in the mediterranean sea. given that the mediterranean sea makes up only 0.82% of the global ocean’s surface area and 0.32% of its volume, this is a striking statistic. historical (its study tradition predates that of nearly every other sea), paleogeographic (its turbulent geological history over the past five million years has been determining the occurrence of distinct biogeographic categories), and ecological (its variety of climatic and hydrologic situations within a single basin probably has no equals in the world) factors may all contribute to the mediterranean sea’s high biodiversity. the combined effects of climate change and human activity are rapidly changing the biodiversity of the mediterranean today, yet there are currently few species or ecosystem conservation mechanisms in place. in order to comprehend the function and trends of mediterranean marine biodiversity, marine ecological research should: (1) re-value scientific fields like taxonomy, biogeography, and systematics that are currently out of style with funding agencies; and (2) begin long-term biodiversity monitoring at the mediterranean scale, perhaps through a globally coordinated network of marine protected areas. materials and methods in this study, the researchers employed a mixedmethod research approach. this approach is centered on gathering, evaluating, and combining quantitative and non-quantitative data. instead of sticking to just one method of data collection and analysis, it enables researchers to consider a variety of methodologies. in pilar, capiz, this study was carried out in seven barangays along the shore. in the province of capiz, it is a seaside municipality. the municipality makes up 3.01% of capiz’s total area, with a land area of 77.99 square kilometers, or 30.11 square miles. 47,100 people were living there as of the 2020 census. this accounted for 5.85% of the capiz province’s entire population, which is equivalent to 0.59% of the western visayas region’s total population. according to these numbers, there are 604 people per square kilometer, or 1,564 people per square mile. politically, pilar is categorized as a fourth-class economy. the study’s 302 respondents were fisherfolks from seven barangays along the coast. three hundred two (302) fishermen were chosen as sample responses out of 1407. stratified sampling was used to choose them, and cochran’s formula was used to determine sample sizes by barangay. of the 237 fishermen in barangay dayhagan, 51 were chosen as study participants; 23 were chosen from among 107 fishermen in barangay balogo; 46 were chosen from among 215 fishermen in barangay casanayan; 39 were chosen from among 182 fishermen in barangay san ramon; 48 were chosen from among 223 fishermen in barangay poblacion; 52 were chosen from among 241 fishermen in barangay natividad; and 43 were chosen from among the 202 fishermen in barangay binaobawan. the tool utilized to collect information from the respondents was a questionnaire. to better comprehend the respondents, it was translated into hiligaynon and consisted of two sections. part 1 asks about the respondents’ socioeconomic circumstances, whereas part 2 focuses on the difficulties and issues fisher folks face in protecting and conserving marine biodiversity. prior it being given to fisher folks, the questionnaire underwent pre-testing. for the benefit of the responders, it was translated into hiligaynon. ten fisher folks (10) from barangay natividad participated in a pre-test to ensure its validity and dependability. prior to the actual interview, a letter of authorization was received from the local mayor and the college satellite director. in addition to physically distributing the questionnaire to the various barangays under investigation, the researchers also asked the respondents all of the questions included on the questionnaire. while interviewing respondents, the researchers translated the questionnaire’s contents into hiligaynon languages. inquiries on respondents’ socioeconomic circumstances and environmental issues that are pertinent to their fishing activities were also made. to draw findings and consequences, the questionnaire responses from the respondents were meticulously tallied, examined, and evaluated. the findings were presented descriptively using the frequency counts (f) and relative frequency or percentages (%) that were calculated. to ascertain the difficulties and issues respondents faced with biodiversity conservation and protection, the average weighted value or weighted mean was employed. the respondents were asked to rate the seriousness of the issues and challenges they faced in protecting and conserving biodiversity using the following scale: 5, strongly agree (scale from 4.21-5.00); 4, agree (3.41-4.20); 3, undecided (2.61-3.40); 2, disagree (1.81-2.60); and 1, strongly disagree (1.00-1.80). pa ge 15 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 13-20, 2025 results and discussion socio demographic profile the respondents’ sociodemographic profile is displayed in table 1. according to the data, just 15 (4.97%) of the 302 responders were female, while 287 (95.03%) were male. this suggested that fishing is still dominated by male laborers. only two, or 0.66%, of the 302 respondents were widowed, while 290, or 96.03%, were married and 10 or 3.31 were single. this suggested that married people made up the majority of the responders. of the 302 respondents, 139 (46.03%) were between the ages of 31 and 40, 106 (35.10%) were between the ages of 41 and 50, and 57 (18.87%) were between the ages of 20 and 40. this indicates that nearly majority of the respondents were between the ages of 31 and older. of the 302 respondents, only 7 (2.32%) had a college degree, 267 (88.41%) had a secondary degree, and 28 (9.27%) had an elementary degree. this suggested that the majority of those surveyed had completed high school. 107, or 35.43%, of the 302 respondents had family members of ages 4-6, while 195, or 64.57, have family members of ages 1-3. this indicates that a large number of responders have family members aged 1-3. 105, or 34.77%, of the 302 respondents make between php 3001 and php 5000 per month, 46, or 15.23%, make between php 1000 and php 3000 per month, and 151, or 50%, make between php 5001 and php 7000 per month. this indicated that half of the respondents earned between php 5001 and php 7000 per month. this monthly salary is below the poverty threshold. table 1: distribution of respondents according to their socio-demographic profile. profile frequency percentage gender male 287 95.03 female 15 4.97 total 302 100 civil status married 290 96.03 signle 10 3.31 widowed 2 0.66 total 302 100 age 20 – 30 years old 57 18.87 31 – 40 years old 139 46.03 41 – 50 years ols 106 35.10 total 302 100 educational attainment elementary graduate 28 9.27 secondary graduate 267 88.41 college level 7 2.32 table 2: distribution of respondents according to their source of funds source of capital frequency percentage lending institution 102 33.77 lending individual 106 35.10 owned 94 31.13 total 302 100 table 3: distribution of respondents according to their type of house type of house frequency percentage concrete 29 9.60 wooden 188 62.25 nipa 9 2.98 combination (concrete & wood) 76 25.17 total 302 100 total 302 100 family members 1-3 195 64.57 4-6 107 35.43 total 302 100 monthly income php 1000-3000 46 15.23 php 3001-5000 105 34.77 php 5001 – 7000 151 50.00 total 302 100 source of funds the respondents’ financial sources are displayed in table 2. according to the statistics, only 94 or 31.13% of the 302 respondents had their own capital, while 120 or 35.10% obtained money from lending people (such as bombay or 5/6), and 102 or 33.77% obtained it from lending institutions. this suggested that the majority of respondents exclusively contribute money to lending organizations. type of house the respondents’ home type is displayed in table 3. 188, or 62.25%, of the 302 components were composed of wood, 76, or 25.17%, of a concrete and wood combination, 29 of which, or 9.60%, were composed of concrete, and 9 of which, or 2.98%, were composed of nipa. this suggested that wood was used to build the majority of the respondent’s homes. fishing area the respondents’ fishing area is displayed in table 4. 68, or 22.52%, of the 302 respondents fished in shallow surface regions, while 234, or 77.48%, fished in deeppa ge 16 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 13-20, 2025 open sea areas. this suggested that the majority of those surveyed were fishing in open-shallow waters. table 4: distribution of respondents according to their fishing area fishing area frequency percentage shallow surface area 68 22.52 deep-open sea area 234 77.48 total 302 100 table 5: distribution of respondents according to their duration in fishing duration in sea frequency percentage 3-5 hours 27 8.94 6-9 hours 225 74.50 10-12 hours 50 16.56 total 302 100 table 6: distribution of respondents according to the type of fishing gear type of fishing gear frequency percentage gill net 23 7.62 trawl 127 42.05 scoop net 58 19.20 hook and line 94 31.13 total 302 100 table 8: distribution of respondents according to the volume of catch per day volume of catch per day frequency percentage 10-20 kgs 27 8.94 21-30 kgs 94 31.13 31-40 kgs 125 41.39 41-50 kgs 56 18.54 total 302 100 table 9: distribution of respondents according to their type of fish catch. common name english name scientific name gurayan shorthead anchovy encrasicholina heteroloba(ruppell 1837 sapsap ponyfish leiognathus equula(forsskal, 1775) aso-os lady fish elops saurus (linneaus,1766) palad speckled tonguesoie cynoglossus puncticeps richardson 1847 tuloy/tamban smooth belly sardinella sardinella longiceps(valenciennes 1847 tabagak borneo river sprat amblygaster leiogaster(valenciennes, 1847 hasa-hasa short-bodied mackerel clupeoides borneensis(bleeker 1851) kugaw striped threadfin polydactylus plebeius (broussonet1782 table 7: distribution of respondents according to the type of fishing boat type of fishing boat frequency percentage motorized boat 302 100fishing duration the respondents’ fishing duration is displayed in table 5. 225, or 74.50%, of the 302 respondents spent around 6–9 hours looking for fish, 50, or 16.56%, spent roughly 10–12 hours, and 27 (or 8.94%) spent three to five hours at the fishing area. this suggested that most responders spent six to nine hours at the fishing area. type of fishing gear the type of fishing gear used by the respondents is displayed in table 6. the trawl was employed by 127 (42.05%) of the 302 responders, the hook and line by 94 (31.13%), the scoop net by 58 (19.20%), and the gill net by 23 (7.62%). this suggested that a large number of responders fished with trawls. type of fishing boat the type of fishing boat used by the respondents is displayed in table 7. 302 out of 302 respondents, or 100%, reported using a banca or motorized boat. this suggested that practically every responder fished from a banca or motorized boat. volume of catch daily the respondents’ daily catch volume (kg) is displayed in table 8. of the 302 responders, 125 (41.39%) catch 31– 40 kg daily, 94 (31.13%) catch 21–30 kg daily, 56 (18.54%) catch 41–50 kg daily, and 27 (8.94%) catch 10–20 kg daily. this suggested that the majority of responders catch between 31 and 40 kg every day. kind of fish catch the respondents’ daily catch volume (kg) is displayed in table 8. of the 302 responders, 125 (41.39%) catch 31– 40 kg daily, 94 (31.13%) catch 21–30 kg daily, 56 (18.54%) catch 41–50 kg daily, and 27 (8.94%) catch 10–20 kg daily. this suggested that the majority of responders catch between 31 and 40 kg every day. pa ge 17 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 13-20, 2025 abo sin croaker eleutheronema tetradactylum (shaw1804 silag commerson’s anchovy johnius carutta (cuvier 1830) galunggong blue mackere scad decapterus macarellus (cuvier 1899) bisugo goldern thread bream decapterus macrosoma (bleeker 1851) pak-an blackfin scad alepes melanoptera(swainson,1839) lawayan common pony fish leiognathus equulus (forsskal 1775) gisaw largescale mullet liza macrolepis (smith 1849) lagaw notchedfin threadfin bream nemipterus nemurus (bleeker 1897) economic challenges faced by fisher folks the respondents’ financial difficulties are displayed in table 10. the respondents agreed with the following statement on the economic difficulties they encountered, with a mean score of 3.92 overall. in particular, the remark on the decline in daily catch or “naga nubo kag saka nga panguha” (m=4.57) was highly agreed with by them. they concurred with the following statements: lack of storage facilities/kulang sang lugar nga bulutangan (m=4.10), poverty/kaimulon (m=3.73), lack of alternate income generation opportunities/wala sang iban nga palangitan-an (m=4.13), fishermen’s reliance on traders, aratdars, village moneylenders, and boat owners for loans at exorbitant interest rates/naga dependi lang sa tag-iya ka baroto, kag manug pa utang (m=3.99), inability to purchase fishing equipment and life insurance/wala life insurance kag insurance ka guba sang baroto (m=3.47), and lack of fishermen’s groups/cooperatives/wala sang kaigo nga cooperatiba (m=3.50). table 10: economic challenges of fishermen economic challenges faced by fishermen mean verbal interpretation 1. dwindling of daily catch/naga nubo kag saka nga panguha 4.57 strongly agree 2. lack of storage facility/kulang sang lugar nga bulutangan 4.10 agree 3. poverty/kaimulon 3.73 agree 4. lack of alternate income generation opportunity/wala sang iban nga palangitan-an 4.13 agree 5. dependence of fishermen on traders, aratdars, village moneylenders, boat owners for loans at usurious rates of interest/naga dependi lang sa tag-iya ka baroto, kag manug pa utang 3.87 agree 6. lack of capacity to procure fishing inputs such as boats and nets from own financial resources/wala ikasarang mag bakal ka baroto kag gamit sa pangisda 3.99 agree 7. no insurance coverage for life and fishing equipment/wala life insurance kas insurance ka guba sang baroto 3.47 agree 8. non-existence of fishermen groups/cooperatives/wala sang naga kaigo nga cooperatiba 3.50 agree total 3.48 agree table 11: environmental challenges faced by the respondents economic challenges faced by fishermen mean verbal interpretation 1. ocean acidification/naga taas ang acidity lebel ka dagat 3.50 strongly agree 2. habitat damage/naga ka guba nga balayan ka isda 3.60 agree environmental challenges faced by the respondents the respondents’ environmental issues are displayed in table 11. the respondents agreed with the following statement on the environmental issues they encountered, with a mean score of 3.90 overall. in particular, they strongly agreed with the findings regarding climaterelated extreme events and natural hazards, including typhoons, sea level rise, high population density in coastal areas, and damo nga tawo ukon pamilya ang ara sa higad dagat (m=4.57). the respondents concurred with the following statements: rising sea temperatures (m=3.64), habitat damage (m=3.60), fish migration from one area to another (m=3.87), sudden changes in weather (m=3.67), and ocean acidification (naga taas ang acidity lebel ka dagat). pa ge 18 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 13-20, 2025 3. rising sea temperatures/naga taas ang temperature sa tubig sa dagat 3.64 agree 4. migration of fishes from one region to another/pag kadto sang mga isda sa iban nga lugar 3.87 agree 5. climate related extreme events and natural hazards, such as typhoons, sea level rise,/ grab inga kalamidad pareho sang bagyo kag pag taas ka tubig 4.51 strongly agree 6. high population density in coastal areas/damo nan ga tawo ukon pamilya ang ara sa higad dagat 4.57 strongly agree 7. sudden change of weather/gulpi nga ilis ka panahon 3.62 agree total 3.90 agree cultural challenges faced by the fisherfolks the respondents’ cultural problems are displayed in table 12. the respondents agreed with the following statement on the cultural obstacles they encountered, with a mean score of 3.50. they were in agreement with the statement that the nature and knowledge of the sea/ka adman kag kaalaman parti sa pangisda kag sa lawod (m=3.87), but they disagreed with the following statements: religious rituals, beliefs, and practices among the fishermen/mga retwal, pag pati parti sa pangisda (m=3.35), and the transition from traditional to modern fishing techniques/ pag balhin sa kinaangdan nga pangisda pa kadto sa modern ng pama agi sang pangisda (m=3.30). table 12: cultural challenges faced by the fisherfolks economic challenges faced by fishermen mean verbal interpretation 1. shift from traditional to modern fishing techniques/pag balhin sa kinaangdan nga pangisda pa kadto sa modern ng pama agi sang pangisda 3.30 undecided 2. religious rituals, beliefs and practices among the fisherfolk/mga retwal, pag pati parti sa pangisda 3.35 undecided 1. nature and knowledge of the sea/ka adman kag kaalaman parti sa pangisda kag sa lawod 3.87 agree total 3.50 agree table 13: human problems encountered by fisherfolks human problems mean verbal interpretation 1. overexploitation/sobra subra na nga pag gamit sang resources sa dagat 3.99 agree 2. human pollution/polusyon dulot sang mga tawo 4.57 strongly agree 3. habitat destruction/pag ka guba sang balayan sang isda 4.50 strongly agree 4. overfishing/sobra subra nga panguha sang isda 3.90 agree 5. seabed mining/pag mina sang duta sa dalom ka dagat 3.64 agree 6. coral destruction/pag ka guba sang mga corals 4.87 strongly agree 7. offshore mining/pag mina sang duta sa higad baybay 3.64 agree 8. destructive fishing method/maka guluba nga pama-agi sang pangisda 4.55 strongly agree 9. eco-tourism and recreation/eco-turismo 4.50 strongly agree total 4.24 strongly agree human problems encountered by fisherfolks the human issues that respondents faced with regard to the conservation and protection of marine biodiversity are displayed in table 14. the respondents highly agreed with the following statement on the human issues they faced with the conservation and protection of marine biodiversity, with a mean score of 4.21 overall. hey were particularly in agreement about the following: destructive fishing methods (maka guluba nga pama-agi sang pangisda; m=4.55); habitat destruction (m=4.50); coral destruction (m=4.87); human pollution (polusyon dulot sang mga tawo; m=4.57); and eco-tourism and recreation (m=4.50). they agreed on the following statement on overexploitation/sobra subra na nga pag gamit sang resources sa dagat (m=3.99), overfishing/sobra subra nga panguha sang isda (m=3.90), seabed mining/pag mina sang duta sa dalom ka dagat (m=3.64), offshore mining/ pag mina sang duta sa higad baybay (m=3.64). pa ge 19 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 13-20, 2025 natures problem encountered by fisherfolks the respondents’ natural issues with protecting and conserving marine biodiversity are displayed in table 15. the respondents agreed with the following assertions regarding the natural issues they faced in the conservation and protection of marine biodiversity, with a mean score of 4.11 overall. in particular, the statement about sea level rise/pag taas ka tubig sa dagat was strongly agreed with by the respondents (m=4.87). they concurred on the following statements on ocean acidification (pag taas ang acidity lebel ka dagat), non-native species invasion (pag buhi sang indi native nga mga species sang isda; m=3.60), and climate change (pag iba sang klima; m=4.10). table 14: natural problems encountered by the respondents natural problems mean verbal interpretation 1. climate change/pag iba sang klimanon native species invasion/pag buhi sang indi native nga mga species sang isda 4.10 3.60 3.90 4.87 agree agree agree strongly agree 2. ocean acidification/ pag taas sang acidity lebel ka dagat 3. seas level rise/pag taas sang tubig sa dagat total 4.11 agree problems on governance the governance issues that the respondents faced are displayed in table 16. the respondents strongly agreed with the following statement about governance as the issue they faced in the conservation and protection of marine biodiversity, with a mean score of 4.28. specifically they strongly agreed on the following statement, illegal fishing/illegal nga pag pangisda (m=4.57), conflicting policies/konflicto sa polisiya (m=4.30), weak resource management and governance mechanisms/mahuyang nga pag manage sang gobyerno sa aton resources (m=4.87), significant lack of ecological expertise in decision-making institutions and processes/kakulangan sang mga expert sa kalikasan sa pag ubra sang mga plosiya (m=4.35), lack of conservation knowledge and expertise among key stakeholders/ka kulangan sa nahibaluan sa pagkonserba sa aton palibot ang mga mangiungisda (m=4.30), lack of sustainable livelihood for local stakeholders/ka kulangan sang diritso kag stable nga pangabuy-anan (m=4.67). table 15: problems on governance encountered by the respondents governance problems mean verbal interpretation 1. illegal fishing/illegal nga pag pangisda 4.57 strongly agree 2. conflicting policies/konflicto sa polisiya 4.30 strongly agree 3. weak resource management and governance mechanisms/ mahuyang nga pag manage sang gobyerno sa aton resources 4.87 strongly agree 4. lack of political will for conservation of marine biodiversity/ kulang sa tampad nga pag pa tupad para sa consebasyon sang aton resources sa dagat 3.64 agree 5. insufficient enforcement of environmental laws/.kulang sa pag implemetar sang mga layi para sa environment 3.60 agree 6. significant lack of ecological expertise in decision-making institutions and processes/kakulangan sang mga expert sa kalikasan sap ag ubra sang mga plosiya 4.35 strongly agree 7. lack of conservation knowledge and expertise among key stakeholders/ka kulangan sa nahibaluan sa pagkonserba sa aton palibot and mga mangiungisda 4.67 strongly agree 8. lack of sustainable livelihood for local stakeholders/ka kulangan sang diritso kag stable nga pangabuy-anan 4.30 strongly agree total 4.28 strongly agree conclusions based on the result of the study most of the respondents were male, married, age 31-40 years old, finished secondary education, had 1-3 members in the family, and a monthly income of php 5001-7000, borrowed their capital from lending individuals and lending institutions, with a wooden type of houses, fishing in the deep open sea area with time duration of 6-9 hours a day using trawl as their fish gear, with a motorized boat having a fish catch of 30-41 kgs/day of about 16 kinds of fishes. the respondents agreed that they are facing economic, environmental, and cultural challenges. degraded fishing habitats and conflicting usage among stakeholders are the results of ongoing population increase and rising demand for fish and fish products. only by adequately addressing environmental, socioeconomic, and legal/institutional pa ge 20 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 13-20, 2025 challenges can the advantages of fishing be sustained. it is highly recommended that the national and local stakeholders prioritize marine and coastal resource management to ensure food is on the table every day. they should develop an ecosystem-based management program to address critical threats to marine resources, and government officials should strictly enforce the law on marine biodiversity conservation and protection. on the other end capsu in coordination with lgu should conduct an awareness program on marine biodiversity conservation and protection as extension services to coastal barangays . references bianchi, c. n., & morri, c. (2000). marine biodiversity of the mediterranean sea: situation, problems and prospects for future research. marine pollution bulletin, 40(5), 367-376. dangeubun, f. d., & tetelepta, j. m. s. (2013). problem of fisher community and it’simplification on the management of south-east aru conservation region. aacl bioflux, 6(6), 518-529. gelcich, s., godoy, n., & castilla, j. c. (2009). artisanal fishers’ perceptions regarding coastal co-management policies in chile and their potentials to scale-up marine biodiversity conservation. ocean & coastal management, 52(8), 424-432. green, a. l., fernandes, l., almany, g., abesamis, r., mcleod, e., aliño, p. m., ... & pressey, r. l. (2014). designing marine reserves for fisheries management, biodiversity conservation, and climate change adaptation. coastal management, 42(2), 143-159. grip, k., & blomqvist, s. (2020). marine nature conservation and conflicts with fisheries. ambio, 49(7), 1328-1340. meduna, a. j., ogunjinmi, a. a., & onadeko, s. a. (2009). biodiversity conservation problems and their implications on ecotourism in kainji lake national park, nigeria. journal of sustainable development in africa, 10(4), 59-73. mohammad, r. h., siddique, m. h., & manzoor rashid, a. z. m. (2023). the dilemma of prioritizing conservation over livelihoods: assessing the impact of fishing restriction to the fishermen of the sundarbans, trees, forests and people, 11. pita, c., pierce, g. j., theodossiou, i., & macpherson, k. (2011). an overview of commercial fishers’ attitudes towards marine protected areas. hydrobiologia, 670, 289-306. rice, j. c., & garcia, s. m. (2011). fisheries, food security, climate change, and biodiversity: characteristics of the sector and perspectives on emerging issues. ices journal of marine science, 68(6), 1343-1353. pa ge 1 pa ge 10 5 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) a literature review: radiological computed tomography assessment for congenital renal anomalies mohamed hegazy1* volume 3 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v3i1.3101 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: august 14, 2024 accepted: september 16, 2024 published: september 20, 2024 congenital renal anomalies represent a diverse group of structural abnormalities of the kidneys that occur during embryonic development. these anomalies can lead to significant morbidity and mortality if not timely diagnosed and managed. this review aims to explore the key role of computed tomography (ct) scans in examining congenital renal anomalies by analysing peer-reviewed articles, case studies and clinical guidelines. this review outlines common anomalies, assesses ct’s diagnostic accuracy and protocols, and explores its clinical implications. a comprehensive literature search from 2019-2023 was conducted using various databases and keywords, including “congenital renal anomalies”, “computed tomography”, and “imaging protocols” to ensure the inclusion of pertinent studies. it highlights recent advancements in ct technology that address concerns about radiation exposure while maintaining diagnostic quality. ultimately, it provides future research directions for healthcare professionals to optimise ct use in diagnosing and managing congenital renal anomalies with the goal of improving patient care. keywords agenesis, computed tomography, congenital renal anomalies, imaging protocols, radiological assessment 1 department of radiology, tanta university hospital, gharbia, egypt * corresponding author’s e-mail: mohamedhegazy266@outlook.com introduction congenital renal anomalies encompass a wide range of kidney structural abnormalities arising from abnormal morphogenesis during fetal development (houat et al., 2021). these anomalies can involve one or both kidneys and may affect the renal parenchyma, vasculature, pelvis, or ureters (jain & chen, 2019). early detection and accurate characterisation of these anomalies are essential for proper patient management and the prevention of potential complications such as renal dysfunction, hypertension, and urinary tract obstruction. radiological imaging, particularly computed tomography (ct), has emerged as a valuable tool in assessing congenital renal anomalies due to its excellent spatial resolution and ability to provide detailed anatomical information (alnazer et al., 2021). congenital renal anomalies: a persistent challenge congenital renal anomalies (cras) encompass a spectrum of structural abnormalities of kidneys present from birth. these anomalies can greatly impact someone’s health and quality of life, ranging from mild problems to severe deformities. patients with cras may experience a variety of complications, including renal insufficiency, hypertension, and urinary tract problems (jayaprakasan & ojha, 2022). table 1 represents key features of some common types of cras. table 1: congenital renal anomalies: types and key features types of congenital renal anomaly description key features agenesis complete absence of one or both kidneys. unilateral agenesis: one kidney is missing. bilateral agenesis: both kidneys are missing (incompatible with life). hypoplasia underdeveloped kidney with reduced functionality. smaller than expected kidney size. abnormal development of blood vessels and collecting system. dysplasia abnormal development of the kidney tissue. disorganised and immature kidney tissue. presence of cysts or abnormal collecting ducts. duplication presence of extra kidneys or ureters. one or both kidneys may be duplicated (complete or incomplete). extra ureter may drain abnormally. ectopia kidney is located in an abnormal position. kidney positioned outside its usual location (e.g., pelvis chest). horseshoe kidney two kidneys fused together at the lower poles horseshoe-shaped kidney with a bridge of tissue connecting the two halves. pa ge 10 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 105-115, 2024 radiological ct assessment: a powerful diagnostic tool radiological ct assessment refers to the assessment and diagnosis of congenital renal abnormalities using computed tomography (ct) imaging techniques. it plays a key role in diagnosing and managing cras. the kidneys can be seen clearly in cross-sectional detail thanks to the advanced medical imaging technology known as a ct scan (huang et al., 2020). the high resolution of ct scans allows for precise visualisation of renal anatomy, facilitating the detection and characterisation of various cras. ct can differentiate between different tissue types within the kidney, aiding in the diagnosis of specific cras. table 2 below shows the challenges associated with diagnosing congenital renal anomalies. cystic renal dysplasia presence of cysts within the kidney tissue. maybe asymptomatic or present with: mass in the abdomen. high blood pressure. proteinuria. reduced urine output table 2: challenges in diagnosing congenital renal anomalies (cras) challenges description varied clinical presentation cras exhibit a wide spectrum of presentations, ranging from asymptomatic cases to those with severe complications. symptoms can be vague and non-specific, mimicking other conditions. limitations of prenatal ultrasound technology resolution limitations may hinder the visualisation of certain abnormalities. certain types of cras may develop later in foetal development beyond the typical timeframe for prenatal scans. balancing diagnostic accuracy with patient safety traditional methods like intravenous pyelography (ivp) involve ionising radiation, raising concerns about patient safety, particularly in children and pregnant women. repeated exposure to radiation can increase the risk of future health problems. differential diagnostic challenges certain cras may share similar symptoms with other urinary tract problems, requiring additional tests to confirm the diagnosis. differential diagnosis can be time-consuming and require a combination of tests. significance this review article sheds light on the critical role of radiological ct assessment in diagnosing and managing congenital renal anomalies (cras). it delves into the following key aspects: clinical relevance of cras numerous health concerns, including renal insufficiency, hypertension, and problems with the urinary system, can be caused by congenital renal abnormalities (palma et al., 2023). it is essential to comprehend and correctly diagnose these anomalies to manage patients and design treatments. advancements in imaging due to its ability to give precise anatomical data, radiological ct assessment has become a cornerstone in identifying and evaluating renal abnormalities (han et al., 2019). any innovations, methods, or best practices in this field may significantly impact patient care. clinical guidelines the findings of a thorough review on this subject may help create clinical recommendations or guidelines for the use of ct in the evaluation of congenital renal abnormalities (houat et al., 2021). furthermore, a thorough review incorporating these cases can contribute to developing tailored clinical guidelines for optimal ct utilisation in evaluating and managing various congenital renal anomalies, promoting standardised and effective patient care practices (houat et al., 2021). furthermore, a thorough review incorporating these cases can contribute to developing tailored clinical guidelines for optimal ct utilisation in evaluating and managing various congenital renal anomalies, promoting standardised and effective patient care practices. integrating these case studies within the broader discussion of congenital renal anomalies and the role of radiological ct assessment underscores the clinical relevance and diagnostic complexity associated with these conditions, emphasising the need for multidisciplinary approaches and advanced imaging techniques for comprehensive patient care and management. case presentation “uncommon anatomical presentation: bilateral duplex kidney with hydronephrosis and intramural ureterocele in a 15-year-old male” history a 15-year-old male patient with dysuria, pain, or discomfort during urination was diagnosed with a congenital abnormality. the ct scan revealed bilateral duplex kidney and ureters, hydronephrosis, and an pa ge 10 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 105-115, 2024 intramural ureterocele. these findings suggest a complex condition requiring thorough evaluation and management by a urologist or pediatric nephrology specialist. the patient’s condition may require surgical intervention and long-term management to prevent complications like renal damage or urinary tract infections. a comprehensive assessment of the patient’s renal function, urinary tract anatomy, and overall health status is necessary. the treatment plan may involve medical interventions and surgical procedures, with close monitoring and follow-up to ensure the patient’s well-being. “uncommon renal configuration unveiled: externally rotated horseshoe kidneys with parenchymal band fusion in a 52-year-old male presenting with renal colic”. history a 52-year-old male patient with renal colic. a ct scan revealed horseshoe kidneys, a congenital anomaly where kidneys are connected by renal parenchyma and externally rotated. this condition can lead to complications like kidney stones, hydronephrosis, or urinary tract infections. treatment involves managing symptoms, addressing complications, and monitoring renal function. healthcare teams may recommend pain management, urological assessments, and regular follow-up to prevent complications. figure 1: bilateral duplex kidney with hydronephrosis and intramural ureterocele figure 2: ct scan of bilateral duplex kidney with hydronephrosis and intramural ureterocele figure 4: ct scan of externally rotated horseshoe kidneys with parenchymal band fusion “unusual ureteric anomaly: ectopic insertion into vaginal vault causing urinary incontinence in a 3-yearold female”. history a 3-year-old female patient with urinary incontinence was diagnosed with ureteral ectopia, a congenital anomaly causing the ureter to insert into an abnormal location, the vaginal vault. this condition can lead to complications like urinary tract infections and renal impairment if not managed properly. the healthcare team must assess the patient’s renal function and urinary tract anatomy and implement a treatment plan involving medical and surgical interventions. figure 3: ct scan of ectopic insertion into vaginal vault “challenging urinary obstruction unraveled: bilateral hydronephrosis and marked upj stricture with nondilated ureters”. history bilateral moderate hydronephrosis is a condition characterised by swelling of both kidneys due to urine accumulation, indicating an obstruction in urine flow. the condition is characterised by non-dilated ureters and a pa ge 10 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 105-115, 2024 marked upj stricture at the ureteropelvic junction (upj). treatment options may include surgical intervention, ureteral stenting, or other procedures. regular followup and monitoring are crucial to prevent complications and ensure the patient’s well-being. management involves urologist assessment and treatment options. history a 36-year-old male patient with dysuria reported a nonvisualized left kidney and compensatory hypertrophy of the right kidney, indicating aplasia. the patient’s management plan includes further evaluation to determine the cause of the non-visualized left kidney and to ensure the functionality of the compensatory hypertrophied right kidney. regular renal function and overall health monitoring are crucial to preventing complications and addressing urinary symptoms. close follow-up with a urologist or nephrologist is necessary for appropriate guidance and treatment. figure 5: ct scan of bilateral hydronephrosis and marked upj stricture with non-dilated ureters figure 7: ct scan of hypertrophy of the right kidney in response to aplastic left kidney “unusual kidney positioning discovered: ectopic left kidney in the left lower iliac fossa in a 22-year-old male presenting with dysuria”. history a 22-year-old male with dysuria presents with ectopic kidneys, a congenital condition where the kidney is positioned abnormally outside its normal position. the patient’s treatment plan includes a comprehensive urologist evaluation, management addressing dysuria symptoms, evaluating the kidney’s functionality, and monitoring for potential complications. treatment options may include medication, surgical intervention, or other measures. regular follow-up and monitoring are crucial for the patient’s well-being and preventing complications. figure 6: ct scan of ectopic left kidney in the left lower iliac fossa “renal anomaly unveiled: compensatory hypertrophy of the right kidney in response to aplastic left kidney in a 36-year-old male with dysuria”. congenital renal abnormalities create complex diagnostic issues that require advanced imaging techniques like ct for correct assessment, as seen by these various clinical presentations. it is essential to comprehend the subtle differences in anatomical configurations to adopt customised therapy techniques and guarantee the best possible outcomes for patients, ranging from ectopic kidneys and ureteric anomalies to complicated structural aberrations like horseshoe kidneys and upj strictures. objectives this comprehensive review article aims to compile existing knowledge on ct imaging in assessing congenital renal anomalies, focusing on peer-reviewed articles, case studies, and clinical guidelines. it also aims to identify common congenital renal anomalies based on their structural characteristics and clinical significance. the review describes various radiological ct techniques used in assessing congenital renal anomalies, including contrast-enhanced ct and multi-detector ct, offering insights into the technological aspects of the field. the review evaluates the diagnostic accuracy of ct imaging by summarising relevant studies that assess the sensitivity, specificity, and overall performance of ct scans in the context of congenital renal anomalies. it also discusses the clinical implications of ct imaging in assessing these anomalies and exploring how ct findings influence decision-making, patient outcomes, and longterm management strategies. the review highlights recent advancements and pa ge 10 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 105-115, 2024 innovations in ct technology and protocols, emphasising their contribution to improving patient care and refining diagnostic capabilities. it also addresses radiation exposure and safety concerns associated with ct imaging, considering strategies for minimising radiation dose while maintaining diagnostic quality. lastly, the review provides practical clinical recommendations for healthcare professionals based on existing evidence and expert consensus, serving as valuable guidance in using ct imaging for diagnosing and managing congenital renal anomalies. materials and methods research design the study aims to examine the incidence of renal congenital anomalies during daily work in egypt. this objective was achieved by a thorough literature search and analysis, as described in the section below. data collection this review’s primary data sources are scholarly articles, research papers, industry reports, and academic publications on the impact of the incidence of renal congenital anomalies during daily work in egypt. the study’s inclusion of published sources during the past five years ensured its applicability. selection requirements to ensure the rigour of our research, we implemented a stringent screening process. we considered studies centred on the egyptian market for assessing congenital renal abnormalities. the chosen studies encompass genuine data, statistics, or case studies that delve into the incidence of renal congenital anomalies during daily work. furthermore, our selected studies have been published in respected industry publications, notable conference proceedings, or peer-reviewed journals. search strategies to indicate the radiological computed tomography assessment for congenital renal anomalies, a comprehensive literature search was conducted encompassing peer-reviewed publications from various databases, including pubmed, scopus, web of science, medline and sage. numerous studies were selected from 2019-2023 using the keywords “congenital renal anomalies,” “radiological ct assessment,” “imaging techniques,” “risk factors,” “clinical guidelines,” “advancements,” ‘future challenges,” “diagnosis,” “treatment.”’ the full texts of the retrieved articles were made accessible. data extraction results this review synthesises the current understating of radiological computed tomography (ct) for congenital renal anomalies. it incorporates findings from observational studies and major clinical trials to present a comprehensive picture. while efforts were made to include the most relevant and impactful research, there’s a possibility of publication bias favouring smaller observational studies with promising yet confirmed results. results and discussion imaging techniques and protocols computed tomography (ct) the powerful medical imaging technique, computed tomography, or ct, produces incredibly precise crosssectional images of the human body using x-rays and cutting-edge computer technology (khalid et al., 2020). when used to diagnose and evaluate a variety of medical disorders, these images offer priceless insights into the body’s internal workings. the ct imaging process involves several key steps, beginning with patient preparation, positioning on the ct table, and image acquisition as the machine rotates around the patient, emitting x-rays (jung, 2021). after a computer reconstructs the raw data, a radiologist examines the cross-sectional images for anomalies or specific conditions. the referring physician reviews the diagnostic report that the radiologist created with the patient and makes any necessary recommendations or treatment suggestions (howlett et al., 2020). techniques multi-detector ct (mdct), one of the most recent techniques for ct imaging, gathers multiple slices of data concurrently for quicker imaging and better resolution (usanase et al., 2023). by acquiring pictures at several energy levels, dual-energy ct (dect) improves tissue characterisation and provides details on the composition of the materials (sodickson et al., 2021). cone beam ct is utilised in dentistry and interventional radiology, and it offers 3d pictures for dental evaluations and surgical planning (elgarba et al., 2023). reduced radiation exposure has been achieved by developing low-dose ct procedures, crucial for routine and pediatric screening. to improve the efficiency and accuracy of diagnosis, artificial intelligence (ai) is progressively included in ct imaging for tasks including image reconstruction and noise reduction (gore, 2020). diagnostic criteria for congenital renal anomalies several criteria are essential for an accurate diagnosis and suitable care of various disorders. the ability to accurately and thoroughly diagnose congenital renal abnormalities has substantially improved as a result of advancements in medical imaging, notably the use of cutting-edge methods like computed tomography (ct) and magnetic resonance imaging (mri) (yanase & triantaphyllou, 2019). diagnostic procedures frequently combine clinical assessment, laboratory investigations, and medical imaging. the visualisation of the renal structures, made possible by imaging techniques like ct scans and mris, aids in detecting anomalies such as renal agenesis, horseshoe kidneys, and renal cysts (raina et al., 2021). pa ge 11 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 105-115, 2024 genetic testing may be used to determine the hereditary elements of congenital renal abnormalities in addition to sophisticated imaging. the diagnostic standards for congenital renal abnormalities are essential for early recognition and treatment. the capacity to recognise and treat congenital renal abnormalities more successfully is being enhanced by integrating contemporary imaging technology and genetic understanding (kitzler & chun, 2023). renal agenesis a disorder known as renal agenesis occurs when either one or both kidneys do not correctly form during foetal development. bilateral renal agenesis denotes the absence of both kidneys, whereas unilateral renal agenesis refers to the formation of only one kidney (jelin, 2021). the management of renal agenesis may involve monitoring, handling linked health issues, and dealing with any connected complications. the reasons for renal agenesis might be hereditary or environmental (ugurlucan et al., 2020). renal hypoplasia on the other side, renal hypoplasia describes a kidney that is underdeveloped or is smaller in size than the other kidney. one or both kidneys may be affected by congenital renal hypoplasia, which is normally present from birth. it frequently results from genetic or intrauterine environmental effects. a number of conditions, including infections, kidney trauma, and chronic kidney disease, can lead to acquired renal hypoplasia (klaus & lange-sperandio, 2022). monitoring, resolving relevant health conditions, and, in extreme circumstances, kidney transplantation may all be part of the treatment and care process. renal dysplasia a congenital kidney developmental abnormality is known as renal dysplasia. it takes place when aberrant tissue replaces the normal kidney tissue, resulting in morphological and functional problems (lemos & thakker, 2020). one or both kidneys may be affected by this illness, which is normally present at birth; however, only one kidney is more frequently affected. when symptoms first appear in early childhood or during prenatal ultrasounds, renal dysplasia is frequently found. causes environmental and genetic factors can contribute to renal dysplasia. an individual can be predisposed to renal dysplasia if certain genes are mutated. the syndrome can also be influenced by environmental variables during pregnancy, such as maternal drug or alcohol use, infections, or exposure to specific toxins (ţarcă et al., 2021). pathophysiology the normal kidney tissue does not properly grow during prenatal development in renal dysplasia. instead, unhealthy kidney structures are replaced by cysts and nonfunctioning tissue (gonchar et al., 2019). these cysts may be liquid-filled and result in kidney enlargement. reduced kidney function as a result of the disordered tissue can cause a number of renal and urinary tract issues. clinical features renal dysplasia can manifest with a wide range of symptoms and clinical features. some people may show no symptoms at all and get a diagnosis unintentionally while having medical imaging for another problem. high blood pressure, proteinuria (protein in the urine), hematuria (blood in the urine), and recurrent urinary tract infections are just a few of the symptoms that some people may encounter as a result of kidney failure. diagnosis a renal scan using a radiotracer can provide information about kidney function, and genetic testing may be considered in cases where there is a family history of renal dysplasia or when there are other congenital anomalies (gunther et al., 2023). diagnosing renal dysplasia typically involves a combination of imaging studies, such as ultrasound, ct scans, or mri, to visualise the kidney’s structure. treatment and management the severity of the condition and how it affects kidney function determine how to treat renal dysplasia. regular monitoring and treating the accompanying symptoms may be adequate in moderate situations where renal function is largely normal. addressing related problems, including high blood pressure and urinary tract infections, is part of management. prognosis the severity of the abnormalities and the level of kidney malfunction affect the prognosis for those with renal dysplasia (isert et al., 2020). renal dysplasia ct scans provide crucial information on the anatomical and functional abnormalities inside the afflicted kidneys (menon et al., 2022). the existence of non-functioning cysts, which show up on a ct scan as fluid-filled sacs inside the kidney, is one of the disease’s defining characteristics. these cysts, which have grown in the place of the healthy nephrons, are unable to carry out crucial filtration and urine management tasks. on ct scans, the renal parenchyma exhibits a disorganised state with disrupted typical renal structures and a chaotic and irregular appearance. these ct results are crucial in the diagnosis of renal dysplasia and give medical practitioners important information to develop effective therapy plans for people with this congenital kidney ailment. polycystic kidney disease cysts that develop inside the kidneys are a hallmark of the genetic illness known as polycystic kidney disease (pkd) (mcconnachie et al., 2021). as these cysts grow and take the place of healthy kidney tissue, structural and functional problems result. pa ge 11 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 105-115, 2024 recent advances genetic understanding: recent developments in genetics have made it possible to gain a greater understanding of the pkd-causing genetic alterations. in particular, the discovery of the pkd1 and pkd2 genes has shed light on the disease’s genetic basis (olaizola et al., 2022). gene therapy and gene editing methods are now being researched as potential treatments. targeted therapies targeted therapeutics are being developed to reduce cyst formation and maintain renal function (bais et al., 2022). these treatments could include medications that target particular biological pathways or mechanical methods to stop cyst growth. precision medicine treatment for pkd is increasingly using the principles of precision medicine (subramanian et al., 2020). the effectiveness of therapies may be increased by customising treatment regimens to each person’s genetic profile thanks to developments in genomic profiling. clinical trials clinical trials are being conducted to evaluate the efficacy and safety of various therapies, such as drugs and interventions that focus on particular parts of the condition. computed tomography (ct) is a medical imaging technique that aids in the diagnosis of polycystic kidney disease (pkd) by generating detailed visualisations of the kidneys (ali et al., 2023). in the context of pkd diagnosis, ct scans provide a comprehensive view of the kidneys, enabling the identification of multiple cysts that vary in size within these organs. by visualising these cysts, ct plays a pivotal role in confirming the diagnosis of pkd, allowing healthcare professionals to assess the extent of cyst formation and plan appropriate treatment and management strategies for affected individuals. renal fusion anomalies horseshoe kidneys are a congenital disorder that first appears during foetal development, known as renal fusion abnormalities (houat et al., 2021). these defects cause the kidneys’ bottom poles to fuse, giving rise to a peculiar kidney configuration that resembles a horseshoe or a u. notably, horseshoe kidneys can have rotated orientations and may be positioned lower in the belly than regular kidneys. while many people with horseshoe kidneys may go their entire lives without showing any symptoms, some may develop problems, including recurrent urinary tract infections, kidney stones, or ureteral blockages. medical imaging, such as ultrasonography, ct scans, or mri, which show the distinctive kidney horseshoe shape, is often used to make diagnoses (aljabri & alghamdi, 2022). for those with urinary tract issues, treatment options range from observation in asymptomatic instances to medicines, surgical interventions, or other procedures. many people with horseshoe kidneys can live healthy, normal lives with the right medical care and monitoring, highlighting the significance of resolving any issues to maintain kidney health and general well-being (kubihal et al., 2021). ureteric anomalies the term “ureteric anomalies” refers to a variety of structural deviations and irregularities affecting the ureters, the narrow tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder (arumugam et al., 2020). kidney stones and tumours are just two causes of ureteral obstructions, which can block urine flow and potentially harm the kidneys. the leakage of urine from the bladder into the ureters is known as ureteral reflux, or vesicoureteral reflux (vur), and it can cause recurrent urinary tract infections, especially in children (köse et al., 2020). urinary incontinence and associated symptoms, which are frequently more prevalent in females, are caused by an ectopic ureter, another aberration that links to tissues outside the bladder, such as the urethra or vagina. for treating congenital anomalies and avoiding problems, early identification and adequate management are essential. computed tomography (ct) imaging is a crucial tool for identifying and diagnosing ureteric anomalies, enabling precise diagnoses and tailored treatment plans (abdelrahman & viriri, 2023). three such anomalies include ureteropelvic junction obstruction (upj obstruction), ureterocele, and duplex collecting systems. upj obstruction, a narrowing or blockage at the ureterrenal pelvis connection, can be accurately assessed using ct scans, providing a detailed understanding of its location and extent (maffi & lima, 2019). ct imaging also clearly visualises the ureterocele’s size and relationship with the bladder, guiding treatment decisions. in duplex collecting systems, ct scans are essential for assessing the anatomical arrangement, identifying potential complications, and formulating comprehensive management strategies. ct imaging’s high-resolution, cross-sectional views of the abdominal and pelvic regions ensure accurate diagnosis and characterisation of ureteric anomalies, ensuring individuals receive appropriate and effective care (dunn et al., 2019). strengths and limitations of ct table 3 below summarises the key strengths of radiological ct assessment for diagnosing congenital renal anomalies (cras). these strengths include high spatial resolution, rapid image acquisition, contrast enhancement capabilities and 3d reconstruction, offering significant advantages for accurate and efficient evaluation of cras, ultimately leading to improved patient care. pa ge 11 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 105-115, 2024 table 3: strengths of radiological ct assessment for congenital renal anomalies strengths description benefits of diagnosing cras high spatial resolution ct scans produce detailed, welldefined images of the kidneys. allows for precise visualisation of kidney structures and identification of even subtle abnormalities. rapid image acquisition ct scans can be completed quickly. enables speedy evaluation in emergencies, critical for prompt diagnosis and care. contrastenhanced ct contrast material can be used to highlight specific structures or abnormalities. useful for evaluating vascular anomalies (blood vessel issues) and blood flow (perfusion) within the kidneys. 3d ct reconstruction specialised software creates 3d models from ct scan data. provides a comprehensive view and surrounding structures from various angles, improving anatomical understanding and aiding in surgical planning. table 4: limitations of ct scan for renal evaluation limitations description impact on cra diagnosis ionising radiation exposure ct scans utilise ionising radiation, which can damage cells and potentially increase cancer risk, particularly in more sensitive children. raises concerns about safety, especially for repeated scans or use in pediatric patients. may necessitate modalities for certain individuals. limited functional information ct scans primarily provide anatomical details. while they can visualise structural abnormalities, they may not offer detailed information about kidney function compared to modalities like mri. may require additional tests, such as renal function scans, to assess overall kidney health alongside structural evaluation. contrast media risks contrast agents used in ct scans cause allergic reactions in some patients, ranging from mild to severe. may necessitate pre-scan screening for allergies and close monitoring during the procedure. in some cases, alternative contrast agents or imaging techniques may be needed. table 4 below outlines the limitations of ct scans for evaluating the kidneys, particularly in the context of diagnosing congenital renal anomalies (cras). comparison with other imaging modalities table 5 below offers a comparative analysis of computed tomography (ct) and magnetic resonance imaging (mri) scans, highlighting their features in the context of diagnosing congenital renal anomalies (cras). while both modalities are valuable tools, understanding their distinct characteristics is crucial for selecting the most suitable imaging technique for each patient. table 5: comparison between ct and mri feature ct scan mri imaging technique uses x-rays to form detailed cross-sectional images of the body. uses magnetic field and radio waves to generate detailed images. contrast resolution most suitable for visualising bone and calcifications due to high-density contrast. superior soft tissue contrast, making it ideal for differentiating between tissues like cysts and solid masses. benefits of cra diagnosis detects minor anatomical abnormalities (e.g., small lesions, kidney structure details) differentiate between different kidney tissues, identifying subtle changes imaging speed faster scan times, beneficial for patients who may have difficulty remaining still during imaging. slower scan times may be challenging for patients with claustrophobia or movement disorders. cost generally less expensive generally more expensive detection of vascular anomalies limited in detecting subtle vascular abnormalities compared to mri angiography techniques. superior in detecting vascular anomalies and assessing renal blood flow with techniques like mr angiography. functional evaluation limited ability to assess renal function directly, often requires additional tests like contrastenhanced ct or nuclear medicine tests. can provide functional information through techniques like diffusion-weighted imaging and dynamic contrast-enhanced mri. pa ge 11 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 105-115, 2024 table 6 presents a comparison of ct and ultrasound for evaluating cras. understanding these differences can help determine the most suitable imaging modality for each patient. future directions advancements in ct technology, such as lower-dose protocols and dual-energy techniques, will continue to improve the safety and diagnostic accuracy of radiological ct assessment for congenital renal anomalies. future research should focus on refining image post-processing techniques, incorporating artificial intelligence algorithms for automated anomaly detection, and establishing standardised reporting guidelines to enhance clinical decision-making and patient outcomes. conclusion in conclusion, radiological ct assessment is an indispensable component in the diagnosis and management of congenital renal anomalies. its unique ability to provide detailed anatomical information complements other imaging modalities, ensuring comprehensive evaluation and optimal patient care. however, efforts should be made to minimise radiation exposure and further integrate innovative techniques to improve diagnostic capabilities continually. list of abbreviations computed tomography (ct) congenital renal anomalies (cras) intravenous pyelography (ivp) ureteropelvic junction (upj) multi-detector ct (mdct) dual-energy ct (dect) artificial intelligence (ai) magnetic resonance imaging (mri) polycystic kidney disease (pkd) vesicoureteral reflux (vur) references abdelrahman, a., & viriri, s. 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(2019). a systematic survey of computer-aided diagnosis in medicine: past and present developments. expert systems with applications, 138, 112821. pa ge 1 pa ge 10 4 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) adoption of circular economy developed: a comparative analysis between developed and developing countries for sustainable waste management rubayea sharmin1, kaosar ali2, mohammad rezaul karim3, shuvo kumar mallik4* volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v4i1.5384 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: may 13, 2025 accepted: june 18, 2025 published: july 24, 2025 due to the rapid pace of industrialization worldwide, a considerable amount of waste has accumulated, which tends to compromise the sustainability of the environment and the availability of resources for future generations. as a countermeasure, the linear economy to a circular economy (ce) transition has evolved into an essential means for realizing sustainable development. we compared developed and developing countries’ readiness to embrace the circular economy principles, particularly on sustainable waste management. adopting a systematic review methodology, the study analyzed 70 relevant academic papers published on ce implementation in different industries and regions, particularly in developed economies, including australia. the year of publication, research methodology, geographical contexts, and industrial applications were considered in the analysis. these results show that developed countries have made clear advances in circularity in waste management, supported by mature policy frameworks, technological advances and multi-stakeholder contributions. on the other hand, in many developing countries, the adoption of ce practices is poor, owing to policy inadequacies, resource scarcity, and limited stakeholder involvement. this study’s findings suggest that developing countries could gain from ce implementation through targeted approaches encompassing the government, the industry, and communities. the paper ends with policy suggestions and collaborative strategies to promote the integration of a circular economy for sustainable waste management in developed and developing country settings. keywords circular economy, developed countries, waste management 1 department of development studies, bangladesh university of professionals, dhaka, bangladesh 2 department of environment science and management, bangladesh university of professionals, dhaka, bangladesh 3 department of business administration, shanto-mariam university of creative technology, dhaka, bangladesh 4 department of economics, southeast university, dhaka, bangladesh * corresponding author’s e-mail: nextgenresearch.info@gmail.com introduction waste production is a challenge, especially for developing and developed nations in the world. the advent of consumer society, the age of rapid industrialization since the industrial revolution, has led to an increase in waste amounts due to increasing consumption (sellappa, 2025). combined with rapid population growth, global resource demand is still growing, putting stress on natural ecosystems and leading to extensive ecological deterioration. three the waste generated from industrial, agricultural, commercial, municipal and domestic sources has become critical problems such as land degradation, water pollution and ocean plastic buildup (rajendran et al., 2025). submission this extraction rate is entirely unsustainable and is predominantly coming from the old linear economic model where we take, make and dispose of. this ‘cradle to grave’ model has resulted in far-reaching implications for both ecological sustainability and human health, as well as the sustainable supply of critical resources. the linear economy has been seen as a driving force behind economic development and material affluence, especially in industrialized countries through the 20th century. but those limits have been exposed ever more glaringly in the twenty-first century, with widespread calls for systemic change. as a cornerstone of securing resources for the long term, safeguarding the environment and maintaining the economic position of generations to come, a change to a circular economy (ce) framework is imperative (ali et al., 2025). the circular economy advocates for the perpetual use and replenishment of resources by enabling design which prioritizes reuse, recycling, remanufacturing and waste reduction. this is an economically viable and sustainable alternative to the linear model that disconnects economic growth from resource depletion and environmental degradation (requena-i-mora et al., 2025). so, the concept of the ce model has now been widely accepted around the world, particularly by the government, academics and international organizations like the united nations. although many industrialized countries, including australia and other oecd members, have made an explicit effort to investigate, adopt and incorporate the principles of ce into national policy and industrial practice, for many low and middle-income countries, these principles are still being explored and implemented. challenges in terms of poor infrastructure, weak policy, engagement of stakeholders, and inadequate awareness are affecting the adaptation of ce in these countries (pittri et al., 2025). with the urgent need to find a new and sustainable approach for waste management, especially in resource and infrastructure-poor developing, rapidly urbanizing countries, making the shift towards the circular economy pa ge 10 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 104-117, 2025 offers a prime opportunity to subscribe to worldwide sustainability plans, in particular, sdg 12 responsible production and consumption. the successful application of ce in developing areas may drive broader social, economic, and environmental progress. this study, based on a systematic review method, focuses on: 1. review the literature on circular economy approaches in australia and other industrialized countries; 2. discuss the 17 regional studies in detail and what trends, approaches and industrial applications you can find in these regions; 3. assess the level of ce integration in low and middle-income countries and the available evidence gaps and 4. examine practical approaches and stakeholder-led initiatives in the successful adoption of ce in developing countries to enhance sustainable waste management results. theoretical background theoretical background the circular economy (ce) has emerged as a paradigm with the potential to respond to the issues of waste generation, resource depletion, and environmental degradation. several definitions for circularity have been proposed over the years by different scholars and organizations. define ce to be an economy modeled after a spiral-loop system in a way that minimizes energy throughput, physical material throughput, and their associated consequences of waste and pollution without impacting social, technical and economic systems. equally, focus on the closedloop attitude of ce, especially the contrary to the conventional linear economy of ‘take-make-dispose’, the circular economy promotes a more sustainable system of production and consumption. it encourages practices of reuse, repair, remanufacturing, recycling and material recovery (psarommatis & may, 2025). the three connected principles of the circular economy, according to the ellen macarthur foundation, consist of designing out waste and pollution keeping products and materials in use and regenerating natural systems’ the closest much of resource management thinking has gotten to the 3r schema of reduce, reuse, recycle. this is about maintaining the utility of products by repairing, reusing or recycling, with a clear distinction between technical and biological materials. the circular approach aims to power without depletion, regenerate nature and allow biological materials to reenter safe, sustenance regions using decomposition or cascading of elements. the circular model represented by the ellen macarthur foundation is separated into two streams: a technical loop for products and a biological loop for biodegradable materials (kowalski & makara, 2025). the technical loop aims to recover nonrenewable materials like plastics and metals, circulating them back to the loop to be reused, remanufactured or recycled the recirculatory loop, meanwhile, takes care of the biodegradable substances that can be (okafor et al., 2025) returned to nature without any problem. a key to boosting circularity is ensuring these loops are “tight” in that materials remain in the system as long as possible and with as much of their original value intact as possible. an important sub-aspect of ce, and especially waste management, is cascading, where a product is used in successive rounds, with increasing value extraction over time. inventory of material: considering how much and of what kind of recycled goods are present in the system. assessment of material quality to know the status and lifecycle opportunity of the materials for reuse strategy counselling. product lifespan assessment assessing product durability to minimize resource exhaustion and environmental damage. oecd and developed countries have achieved significant development in ce, such as advanced policy instruments, technological innovation and stakeholder collaboration, while developing countries face obstruction due to poor infrastructure, insufficient policy and poor awareness. yet, the theoretical underpinnings of ce are germane and translatable in any context. by contextualizing these principles at local levels and promoting the involvement of all stakeholders, developing countries can improve their waste systems, making them greener and more resistant to changes in the economy. in short, the circular economy presents a strong conceptual basis for a sustainable approach to waste management via systems change. comparison of developed and developing economies highlights difficulties and barriers, as well as prospects and potential for making theory a reality, reinforcing the need for national strategies to drive global implementation of ce (qu & kim, 2025). figure 1: ellen macarthur foundation illustration of circular economy the circular economy (ce) has become a promising model for combating global environmental issues and pa ge 10 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 104-117, 2025 resource shortages. this model has been adopted more and more in rich countries, with the clothing, textile and durable goods industries often being pioneers. ce implementation is particularly intense in europe. the european commission has widely endorsed ce in terms of regulation and action plans (jurczak et al., 2025). european commission vice-president frans timmermans called for departing the throw-away culture and seeking instead safety through conservation and resource efficiency. the european parliament has always been at the forefront, pressing for the re-industrialization of production based on re-design, which is also the core of ce. germany, for instance, has made significant progress to the extent that companies such as mercedesbenz are rethinking product design for easy maintenance, servicing, renewal and redistribution (pinyol alberich & hartley, 2024). a european commission report from 2014 suggested that ce might mean annual economic benefits of 600 billion euros for the eu manufacturing sector. denmark presents a rather particular ce model and attaches to industrial symbiosis. in jvsc, firms collaborate on a joint venture basis to build symbiotic relationships which improve the efficiency of energy and material use. the ka lundborg eco-industrial park in denmark is one such model, which sees the by-product of one company serve as the raw material for its neighbor in a closedloop system. likewise, scotland exhibits the kind of cutting-edge ce activity, for instance, macrebur, which uses recycled plastic pellets in road construction rather than petroleum bitumen. in asia, ce was implemented at a fast pace in china. first, as china shifted from a planned to a market economy, production and consumption surged, bringing with them significant environmental problems. ce advancement in china has been included in the series of five-year plans, indicating its strategic significance. it pushed both domestic industries and foreign waste-exporting nations to reconsider how they process their waste (li et al., 2024). its capacity to make immediate compliance with such commands as shanghai’s use of free plastic bags demonstrates china’s marked dedication to ce. south korea, singapore and japan, the other asian countries, have also incorporated ce principles in their industrial policies. the path to ce in australia has been more gradual. the country has historically depended on shipping its recyclables, especially plastics, to other countries like china. but with import bans and other tighter restrictions overseas, australia has been forced to develop the capacity to recycle at home. this transition has resulted in massive infrastructure and technological investments required to transform them into valuable products (van der vlist et al., 2024). sectors with a notable increase in the adoption of ce practices include agri-food, mining and construction. this reform reflects a nascent national consciousness and commitment to sustainably addressing waste. although progress in adopting ce occurs in developed countries, numerous developing nations within africa, the pacific islands, southeast asia, and south america still face overwhelming challenges in its implementation. among the barriers are inadequate infrastructure, lack of funds and absence of policy backing. in most of these places, waste is still mainly disposed of in landfills or open dumps, and recycling is minimal (imam & rafizul, 2025). lack of good regulatory regimes and public awareness make progress even more difficult. nevertheless, the potential for ce is highly relevant to developing countries. the regions have plenty of labour that could be used for repair, recycling and remanufacturing. informal waste sectors, which are operating in many cities already, can be involved in the formal ce system to make the operations more efficient and regular. also, by replicating the policy landscape and technological innovation potential of developed nations, developing countries learn to leapfrog away from traditional waste management models towards sustainable approaches based on a circular economy (rataj et al., 2024). the secret to successful ce delivery in the settings of developing nations is to use contextspecific tactics (tse et al., 2024). for example, an emphasis on local resource cycles, fostering small-scale repair industries and providing incentives for eco-design for local manufacturing can lead to workable and scalable ways. sharing of best practices and regional cooperation can also speed up progress. ce infrastructure can be created mainly by international collaboration, foreign investments and technology transfers. in addition, mainstreaming ce into national development plans and climate action plans can ensure circularity is part of long-term economic strategies. equally important are education and capacity building at all levels (wang et al., 2025). community awareness and local expertise in ce practices will lead to more widespread participation and local ownership. in short, if in industrialized countries, policy and innovation plus industry cooperation have made impressive progress in adopting ce, emerging countries also have a crucial role to play in enhancing global sustainability. given the appropriate enabling environment, inclusive policies, and international cooperation, ce can act as a route to environmentally sustainable, economically viable and socially equitable development in the world. the shift to a circular economy is not only urgent from an environmental perspective; it is an unparalleled opportunity to build resilient, adaptable economies fit for the future (chang et al., 2024). this research thus presents a comparative analysis of ce practice in developed and developing areas and pinpoints challenges, strategies, and possible trajectories. it provides a basis for more research and policy work that supports sustainable waste management worldwide. literature reviews the importance of article content analysis is presented pa ge 10 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 104-117, 2025 in this section by compiling the literature reviews related to the circular economy, focusing on sustainable waste management in developed and developing nations (vann yaroson et al., 2024). since the past 5–10 years, there has been a significant surge of scholarly interest in circular economy principles as a result of global issues associated with waste, limited resources and environmental degradation. these mounting challenges have driven both academia and the policy world to question the linear economic system and take a turn toward more sustainable, circular models. the literature reviewed is presented about how some countries, especially in developed areas, adopted a circular economy model for waste management commitment. while these studies provide significant findings for policy design, industrial transformation, and life cycle perspective, they show some geographical gaps in intra-national comparison, in particular for developing countries (cheng et al., 2024). the first comparative analysis of the waste policy and the 3r (reduce, reuse, recycle) strategy in developing and developed countries, such as the european union, the usa, japan, korea, china and vietnam. this research was conducted as preliminary cross-national research. yet there is little research on how countries such as australia or the lowerincome nations of asia and africa are incorporating concepts of a circular economy into their waste systems. furthermore, most works focus on developed countries like germany, japan or the eu members, so there is also an obvious motivation to research and compare adoption cases in emerging and developing countries. table 1 presents a summary of the related literature and establishes the basis for this study, which seeks to make up this gap by a comparative examination of the adoption of a circular economy between developed and developing countries in terms of sustainable waste management. materials and methods to evaluate the adoption and practice of ce in developed and developing countries, with a focus on sustainable waste management, a systematic literature review was used as the primary research methodology. this methodology enabled a detailed analysis of academic and policy literature that captured the development and implementation of ce principles across multiple national contexts. the centre describes systematic reviews for reviews and dissemination as a focused piece of secondary research that has a four-part process to identify, assess, interpret, and synthesize all research evidence relevant to the research question, unlike traditional literature review, which can be based on qualitative and quantitative methods for investigation of some themes, synthesis, analyses in a way to use explicit, reproducible objective methods to minimize bias in the tested processes. the review process for this research included a four-step systematic review identification of criteria: there were clear and developed inclusion and exclusion criteria set to help pick the academic papers, reports and policy analyses showing how knowledge and circular economy practices in waste management were adopted in both developed and developing countries. database search and paper collection we systematically searched for peer-reviewed literature published present date in academic databases, including scopus, sciencedirect, springerlink, and google figure 2: research study pa ge 10 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 104-117, 2025 scholar, using specific keywords (e.g., circular economy, waste management, developed countries, developing countries, sustainability, and keywords related to the objectives). screening and assessment papers returned from the search results were screened according to the relevance to the research questions and consideration for geographic orientation, depth of analysis, methodological soundness and practical implications. studies that lacked comparison and/or contextualization of waste management in cities from different countries or provided similar analysis but in a system of reuse or waste to new products in developing countries were excluded. data extraction and thematic coding material was reviewed and coded based on year of publication, country/region that research was focused on, methodological approach undertaken, industry of application and key findings regarding waste management systems. this allowed us to compare advanced economies (eu countries, japan, germany) to developing or emerging countries (bangladesh, india, vietnam). finally, this approach to the data permits a balanced view of how the ce is being framed and enacted in different economic and social settings, with a view to discovering commonalities in approaches as well as thinking critically with and against the framings and practices of doing the ce in other places. visual search is depicted in figure 3. table 1: summary of literature review no. title reference summary country context 1 european national road authorities and circular economy: an insight into their approaches (abu-bakar, halidu, et al.,2024) reviews circular economy practices adopted by national road authorities in europe, aiding in transitioning towards circular business models. developed (europe) 2 end-of-life options for biobased plastics in a circular economy: status quo and potential from an lca perspective (mudersbach, marina, et al.,2025) provides an environmental life cycle perspective on end-of-life strategies for bio-based plastics, assessing circular potential. developed (germany) 3 a review of circular economy development models in china, germany and japan (campoli, jessica suárez, et al.,2025) compares the evolution of circular economy frameworks across advanced economies and sectors, including waste management systems. developed & emerging 4 advancing to a circular economy: three essential ingredients for a comprehensive policy mix (wasserbaur, r., sakao, t., & milios, l, 2022). analyzes eu circular economy policy mix and identifies areas where material efficiency is lacking for more sustainable waste handling. developed (eu) 5 conceptualizing the circular economy: an analysis of 114 definitions kirchherr, julian, et al., 2023 examines a wide range of definitions and interpretations of the circular economy, revealing its integration into sustainability and waste management frameworks. global search criteria the definition of specific inclusion and exclusion criteria for the selection of studies related to the research questions was a crucial first step of this systematic review. given the fact that this study could be characterized as a comparative study, it empowers the comparison between what it means for the circular economy to enter both developed and developing countries from the standpoint of sustainable waste management. it led to the use of a transparent and varnished search strategy to warrant the credibility and relevance of the selected data sources. the present study is limited to the scientific literature published in reputable databases (scopus, sciencedirect, google scholar, and web of science). textbooks and other non-journal or non-academic material were not part of this review. non-academic sources (e.g., books, non-peer-reviewed reports, conference presentations, and unpublished theses) were not considered to ensure academic quality. the following criteria guided the selection of studies: type of access and type of documents only open-access peer-reviewed journal articles were included in order to keep the data open and academically transparent. the searches were restricted to published articles and reviews indexed in scopus and web of science. pa ge 10 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 104-117, 2025 year of publication as the knowledge of the concept of circular economy is still developing, we only considered articles published from 2010 to 2020. this period is when the circular economy discourse increased, and there appeared innovation in sustainable waste management. author competence the included studies were held by researchers with a reputation in the development of circular economy studies, some of them even having published more than one article in high-impact environmental and sustainability sciences journals. subject area only papers with the subject area environmental science/ sustainability were included in order to maintain theme relevance with waste management and circular economy activities. country/territory designation the study concentrated on a comparison between developed and developing countries. country categorization was based on the classification of the world bank [34] and the classification of the international monetary fund (imf). developed countries australia, usa, uk, germany, netherlands, sweden, france, japan, finland, italy, norway, austria, new zealand and other high-income economies. lowand middle-income countries south asia, south east asia, sub-saharan africa and latin america. special sase china although the country is not identified as a developed state, having made significant progress in circular economy practices, china was added to the list. language only english language publications were included to maintain uniformity and clarity in data interpretation. the full range of criteria factored into the selection process, and these ensured that the selected studies became ones which were methodologically sound, thematically relevant, regionally diverse, and, in effect, allowing a critical comparative analysis of circular economy uptake sustainable waste management. figure 3: research methodology overview article search the second step of this systematic review type study was a comprehensive search and collection of the academic papers related to the main topic of the circular economy adoption between developed and developing countries from which soft waste management (so-called waste management system), in particular, deserved special interest. we performed a search primarily in two established academic databases: scopus and web of science (wos). a sum of 182 articles were obtained from these databases: a total of 106 articles were found from scopus, which includes 70 published research papers, 11 review papers, and 25 conference papers. of these, 103 were published in full and added to the collection, and three articles were in press.76 articles were found in the web of science, including 66 research articles and 10 reviews. a manual search was also conducted to cover comprehensively this study design and avoid abstract bias. it was necessary to do so to prevent search restrictions and keyword-related omissions, particularly in automated database systems. the manual review aimed at confirming the relevance of pa ge 11 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 104-117, 2025 each article according to the study and at filtering articles used in the dataset to keep only the most relevant ones. consistent with the scope of the study introducing circularity in developed and developing economies, the database search was narrowed down through delimitation with regional keywords. for instance, the terms “circular economy in developing countries” and “circular economy in south asia” were employed to identify contextually relevant literature. on the other hand, the key term circular economy in australia” was adopted as a case concentration for advanced countries and resulted in 23 scopus articles and 28 articles from the web of science. examination of articles the articles generated from the search in each database were screened. this methodical and systematic article search established the basis of an exhaustive comparative examination of the extent to which ce principles are being researched, applied and evaluated in both high-income and lowto-middle-income countries in the scope of sustainable waste management. another thirty-eight papers were secondarily recruited from previous search results. a disproportionately high number of them had already been searched; their initial searches revealed that they were not being included because of not initially meeting the criteria for inclusion. screening of articles and inclusion criteria after a thorough search process, 220 research papers were initially obtained from the selected databases. each paper was meticulously read and assessed to ensure that they were in line with the requirement scope of this study, contributing to either implemented or adopted circular economy principles in both developed and developing countries, focusing mainly on sustainable waste management. papers which did not relate to circular economy, sustainability, or waste strategies, in particular those that did not involve comparative frameworks or did not focus on the implementation side, were the ones discarded from the final data set. nevertheless, if the circular economy was found to be a relevant sub-theme, we used an independent, more profound assessment of the texts of such publications, as they were likely to offer supplementary views on relevant knowledge. in the process of systematic review, 150 articles were eliminated from the review, leaving 70 articles that were considered powerfully relevant to the research questions. content analysis of articles and results the results of this final stage of the systematic review consisted of a thorough review of the 70 articles retained, which provided an exploration into the main dimensions relevant to the comparison between developed and developing countries’ uptake of the circular economy. year of publication to track change and development in how discourse on the circular economy is framed. methods used to determine whether studies used qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods. industry or sectoral focus urban waste, industrial waste, plastic recycling, construction waste, etc. the patterns of keywords of these last 70 articles reveal the themes that shape the circular economy in this field of waste management and illustrate both emerging trends and geographic differences. the list of keywords found across the final sample is provided in table 2. results and discussion this section analyses the final sample of 70 articles that were chosen, including aspects such as the methodology used, the geographical scope, and the industry settings of the covered papers. the results are presented in table 3, which shows the number of documents classified under each dimension and their respective percentage. we will elaborate on these percentile distributions in the following subsections. this surge demonstrates an increasing concern in both developed and developing countries on circular economy approaches in dealing with sustainable waste management issues. recent growth in publications evidences the widening research interest in how circular economy principles can be put into practice to drive resource efficiency and recirculation and, hence, reduce waste in different economic settings. table 2: keyword search for final draft no. search keywords scopus (final selected) web of science (final selected) 1 “circular economy” and “developed countries” and “developing countries” 106 (22) 76 (13) 2 “circular economy” and “sustainable waste management” 23 (10) 28 (5) 3 “circularity” and “recycling” and “end-of-life” and “closedloop” and “developed countries” and “developing countries” 26 (15) 20 (5) total 155 (47) 124 (23) • numbers outside parentheses represent the total articles found in the databases. • numbers inside parentheses indicate the final selected articles included in the review after screening. pa ge 11 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 104-117, 2025 table 3: analysis of research methodology and number of relevant papers category subcategory/methodology/region/ industry number of papers percentage (%) research methodology literature review 13 19 case study 20 29 model 10 14 survey 9 13 theoretical and conceptual papers 13 19 analysis (mda, cwa, empirical) 6 9 geographical context oceania (australia) 15 21 europe 30 43 north america 4 6 asia 15 21 worldwide 6 9 industry setting technology and innovation 10 14 urban and municipal 9 13 metal and steel 6 9 food and agriculture 6 9 plastics 5 7 construction 4 6 mining 3 4 glass 1 1 electronics (household appliances and mobile phones) 3 4 tourism 2 3 energy (oil and gas, bio-hydrogen) 6 9 textile 2 3 smes (small and medium enterprises) 3 4 transportation and logistics 3 4 others (material flow, etc.) 2 3 unspecified 5 7 table 4: analysis of research methodology and percentage of relevant paper research methodology description percentage (%) geographic focus (examples) case study most common method; applied in australia, europe (poland, italy, netherlands, finland, spain, germany, sweden, latvia), asia (mainly china) 29 australia, europe, china literature review reviews of previous studies on circular economy across various regions 19 multiple regions theoretical and conceptual papers explanation of circular economy theories and concepts in different regions 19 multiple regions model use of models to study circular economy concepts 14 various survey questionnaires and interviews to collect primary data 13 various analysis includes multidirectional analysis (mda), common weight analysis (cwa), empirical studies 9 various pa ge 11 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 104-117, 2025 geographical context the geographical setting of this exploration indicates the countries /regions in which circular economy and sustainable waste management have been considered. we consider a developed-developing country comparison in this analysis. the places of primary focus are oceania (predominantly australia), europe, north america, and asia, and some interest in international studies that consist of two or more countries. for europe, several studies consider the “european union” as a pool rather than specific countries. yet, individual nation-states such as the netherlands, sweden, poland, germany, the united kingdom and finland are also captured, given their essential positions about the adoption of the circular economy. australia is central to oceania, where waste management, including a circular economy, is of growing interest. for north america, the united states is most prominently reported, and for asia, china is at the forefront with its excellent developments and massscale initiatives of the circular economy. publications in asia, especially china, began already in 2011, coinciding with the nation’s early and strong national embrace of circular economy. china’s role shows that developing countries, too, can be instrumental in promoting circular economy concepts for sustainable waste management. this spatial comparison emphasizes the different stages and centers of attention between developed and developing countries in the uptake of the circular economy, stressing global patterns and regionspecific patterns. figure 5: research methodology used industry setting the 20 selected papers demonstrate a variety of cases from industry sectors adopting the circular economy for the sustainable management of waste, with differences between those considered in developed and developing countries. the technology and innovation sectors are disproportionately referenced-a clear indication of the technology-led change required to push forward the circular economy. urban, municipal and metropolitan spaces are also key focus areas, particularly in developed economies like those of europe, where much attention is devoted to circular economy transitions in cities and urban infrastructure. the representations of the three sectors in metal and steel, energy, food and agriculture industries are about 9% respectively. the metal and steel industry are one of the most significant contributors to the world economy, especially in developing countries, including china, with economic growth and urbanization leading to rising needs for sustainable resource utilization in industry 4.0. metal recycling and reuse through circular economy practices have been investigated in developed countries like the usa, australia, the european union, figure 4: distribution of papers pa ge 11 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 104-117, 2025 table 5: industry setting distribution in circular economy publications (n=70) industry sector number of papers percentage (%) technology and innovation 10 14 urban, municipal & metropolitan 9 13 metal and steel 6 9 food and agriculture 6 9 energy (biofuels, oil, gas) 6 9 plastics 5 7 construction 4 6 smes (small and medium enterprises) 3 4 electronics (appliances, mobile) 3 4 transportation and logistics 3 4 mining 3 4 textile and clothing 2 3 tourism 2 3 others (material flow, etc.) 2 3 glass 1 1 unspecified 5 7 figure 6: geographical context etc. the food and agriculture industry are a critical component of the global economy but also a significant driver of environmental pressures associated with resource inefficiencies and ghg emissions. both developed and developing nations are experimenting with circular economy approaches to ease the impacts of these pressures, and scholars have detailed examples from australia and europe. there are a number of papers focused on the energy areas that reflect the world’s interest in the management of waste and emissions in the world in a sustainable way. plastics, and more specifically packaging and single-use plastics, play a crucial role as well in light of the enormous societal and financial cost of plastic waste that affects us all over the world. smes represent about 4% of the studies; in most cases, the units of analysis are european smes, which shift from a linear to a circular business model. other sectors described include textiles & wearing apparel, mining, construction, transportation & logistics, tourism, and electronics (consumer goods, computers and phones). some articles cover the principles of the circular economy without a specific industry, although they offer reasonable content for sustainable waste management. pa ge 11 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 104-117, 2025 discussion in this analysis, we critically examine the application of circular economy (ce) principles for sustainable waste management and compare the practices of the developed world, including (but not limited to) australia and other high-income nations, with the developing world. the conversation is structured in terms of the environmental, economic, and social impacts of ce and the existing situation of waste management systems in different degrees of development (mallik & rahman, 2024). more developed economies such as australia have become more aware of the way the behavior of individuals and industry have contributed to the widespread loss of natural resources. such consciousness has led some to seek ce as a model for sustainable development. one example is in australia, where, through the power of technology and engineering, industrial design has been repositioned in the realms of human-centered and environmentally sustainable grounds (islam et al., 2025). on the other hand, in many developing countries, there are serious problems of waste mismanagement, such as disposal by open dumping, open burning, and infrastructure facilities. environmental pollution, health hazards and economic losses are some of the consequences of these practices. cases in asia and africa, such as cambodia, thailand, nigeria, and mozambique, illustrate the extent of the problem (cities producing hundreds of thousands of tons of unmanaged waste a year). environmental pollution of heavy metals, particularly in urban agglomerations like chennai city (india), is another supporting reason for addressing the given problem at the earliest time. although many alternatives have been suggested, including waste-to-energy and recycling programs, little has been done to deal with the issue at the source. this is where ce provides a fundamental way forward through its reuse, redesign, refurbishment and remanufacturing principles (mallik et al., 2025). recently, developmental organizations and academia have also started to examine some ce models in emerging countries. examples from india, brazil, kenya, and ghana indicate that ce carries the potential to realize triple-bottom-line effects: economic development, job creation, and environmental sustainability (mallik, 2024). bio-economy sector places such as the congo basin, amazon rainforest , and southeast asian tropical forests are home to a wealth of biodiversity and forest products. circular approaches in the bio-economy may also contribute to counteracting deforestation by supporting efficient biomass utilization and the manufacture of products from biological resources, which is consistent with ce principles, e.g. cascading use of resources. mineral extraction and mining resource-rich developing countries (for example, nigeria, brazil, chile and india) tend to depend heavily on extractive-based industries. but they can also be environmentally depleting. ce practices impose a sustainable solution based on recycling, reuse and much less virgin resources so as to enhance the protection of the environment (li, 2019) and encourage indirect support to the economy. urban waste disposal and recycling municipal waste generation in the cities of developing countries is increasing while most cities of the world are disposing of their waste in one way or another in open dumps and landfills. ce is also characterized by practical end‐of‐life disposal solutions (including comprehensive recycling models, wastewater reuse, and digital techniques, such as innovative sorting systems) facilitating efficient and sustainable urban waste management. figure 7: industry setting pa ge 11 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 104-117, 2025 table 6: comparative analysis: developed vs. developing countries aspect developed countries (e.g., australia, eu nations) developing countries (e.g., india, nigeria, cambodia) public awareness and behavior high level of awareness; citizens recognize their microeconomic impact on resource decline limited awareness; behaviors shaped more by poverty and lack of education than by sustainability concerns technology & innovation strong emphasis on r&d; humancentered design; advanced technologies in waste processing (computerized sorting) limited access to technology; reliance on basic, often informal waste management practices economic impact of circular economy proven positive economic effects; e.g., eu can save €600 billion annually and gain €1.8 trillion net benefit circular economy potential recognized but underutilized; promising economic benefits still largely theoretical environmental benefits significant potential for emissions reduction (7.5 billion tones co₂ globally); aligned with climate goals severe pollution from open dumping and burning; circular economy could alleviate major environmental health issues employment impact estimated creation of hundreds of thousands of jobs (eu: up to 747,829 new jobs) high potential for job creation in recycling and circular sectors, but hampered by skill gaps and lack of training waste management practices well-developed infrastructure; widespread recycling and controlled disposal systems predominantly open dumping, poor collection systems, and landfill overuse key circular sectors technology, manufacturing, construction, and packaging industries bio-economy (forests/agriculture), mineral extraction & mining, municipal waste management challenges skill gaps in specific circular roles; need for more integrated policy frameworks poor infrastructure, lack of circular economy education, informal waste sectors, and limited funding adoption drivers strong policy support, innovation ecosystems, environmental urgency international aid, emerging academic interest, local entrepreneurial initiatives circular bioeconomy efficient use of biomass resources, focus on cascading use and sustainable packaging rich in forest resources (e.g., amazon, congo basin) but threatened by deforestation; circular bio-economy can reverse trends extractive industries focus on reducing raw material extraction through recycling and product redesign economies heavily dependent on mining (e.g., nigeria, brazil, india); circular economy can reduce socio-economic and environmental risks municipal waste management smart city solutions, industry 4.0 integration, formal recycling infrastructure rapid urbanization with informal systems, often unmanaged waste; circular economy offers cooperative, scalable models government role policy-making, innovation funding, regulation of circular practices must play central role in regulation, public education, and enabling community-level initiatives business involvement leading investments in circular innovations and sustainable products emerging interest; opportunities for smes and social enterprises in local circular business models role of general public increasing participation in recycling, reuse, and sustainable consumption limited engagement due to lack of infrastructure and access; potential to scale through education and policy incentives the successful adoption of ce requires coordinated efforts from multiple stakeholders: businesses and industries can drive innovation through sustainable product design, materials substitution, and investment in clean technologies. governments (national and local) must provide leadership through policy frameworks, funding, and educational initiatives to foster ce. general public plays a key role by adopting sustainable consumption practices, proper waste sorting, and preferring reusable products. conclusion the transition to a circular economy holds transformative potential for sustainable waste management. while pa ge 11 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 104-117, 2025 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(2022). interactions of governmental policies and business models for a circular economy: a systematic literature review. journal of cleaner production, 337, 130329. pa ge 1 pa ge 1 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) harnessing green investments for sustainable prosperity and the role of renewable energy in driving economic growth and development in south asia majid abdullah1*, shakeel ahmed1 volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v4i1.4050 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: november 18, 2024 accepted: december 22, 2024 published: february 06, 2025 this study examines the impact of renewable energy investments on economic growth in south asia, a region grappling with rapid economic expansion and environmental degradation due to heavy reliance on fossil fuels. this paper employs panel data from 1998 to 2022 and 15 emerging countries to examine the nexus between re consumption, economic growth, co2 emissions, and energy access using gmm and fixed-effects models. these findings suggest that increasing 1% of renewable energy consumption will increase gdp by 0.072%, while increasing 1% of co2 emissions will reduce gdp by 0.3%. besides, renewable energy investments are expected to contribute to the generation of 2.98 million green job opportunities by 2035. the study shows that renewable energy can decrease emissions, increase energy security, and create jobs. nevertheless, there are limitations like capital-intensive requirements and a lack of proper infrastructure and policies that have to be overcome. therefore, the study supports the proposition that the sustainable development of renewable energy in south asia depends on considerable policy intervention, technological improvement, and investment in infrastructure. keywords co₂ emissions reduction, economic growth, green job growth, renewable energy, sustainable development 1 department of economics, faculty of social sciences, ghazi university, dera ghazi khan, pakistan * corresponding author’s e-mail: majidabdullah18757@gmail.com introduction the south asian countries—india, pakistan, bangladesh, nepal, sri lanka, bhutan, and the maldives—are at that awkward juncture where everyone wants to dream of economic success but has to wake up to ecological imperatives. according to the international energy agency (iea) (2022) economically, this disputed region has been growing; india’s gdp, for instance, has been growing at a 6.8% annual rate from 2010-2020. nevertheless, this set growth rate has been achieved at a price, as greenhouse emissions and degradation of resources have escalated in a similar manner. the south asia region has demanded an increase in energy of about 3% per year over the last two decades and greatly increased fossil fuel use (saeed & siraj, 2024). this dependency leads to environmental deterioration and makes economies vulnerable to fluctuations in energy prices. renewable energy comes out as a viable solution when it comes to economic development without affecting the environment. as stated by the international renewable energy agency (irena) (2023), renewable energy investment might lead to the generation of up to 1,500 000 new jobs in south asia by the end of 2030, especially in the sphere of solar and wind power. also, the increased use of renewable energy sources improves energy security due to decreased importation of fossil energies, balance of trade, and sustainable growth. however, south asia still has not a significant level of renewable energy source adoption. currently, the share of renewables is still only 12 percent of the total energy consumption in the region, while the global average is 29 percent (hassan et al., 2024). this has been occasioned by lack of capital, poor infrastructure, and bureaucratic challenges. according to the world bank (2016), out of the total number of potentially feasible renewable investment projects in the region, about 60 percent of those projects remain unfunded because of perceived risks and a lack of enabling policies (rana & gróf, 2022). furthermore, legacy grid structures inhibit the management of variable renewable electricity generation, which requires significant investments in upgrades and extensions. the economic effect of renewable energy investments is therefore not straightforward. renewables can be used as a backstop to the instability of the prices of fossil fuels, leading to a reduction in the unpredictability of energy costs. the senior energy economist outlook (2022), indicates that renewable energy can lead to a reduction in energy costs, with potential savings of up to 20% compared to traditional fossil fuels. in addition, renewable energy projects seem to have more investment concentrated in capital, although operating costs are relatively low over the lifecycle of the projects. given that energy demand in south asia is expected to increase by about 50% in the next twenty years, the shift to renewable energy could greatly help stabilise and diversify the energy supply (rana & gróf, 2022). furthermore, renewable energy investments can lead to an improvement of the trade balance due to reduced energy importations since south asia’s trade balance of payments, the most cited challenge, is a major deficit in fossil fuels. crude oil imports were 232.5 million tonnes, and import dependence on crude oil rose to 87.7% in 2023-24 (hindu, 2024). in the case of the economies of south asia now transitioning towards domestically produced renewable energy, it would only be a great bonus for their energy security imports. another influential factor that defines the further role of pa ge 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 1-12, 2025 renewable energy in the economic growth of the countries is the generation of green jobs, which has been recognised as a potential for south asia. according to xie (2024) the renewable energy sector is more labor-intensive than fossil fuels, offering substantial employment potential across various stages of the value chain, from manufacturing to maintenance. shifting towards a green economy in south asia could lead to about 2.98 million green jobs for the transition up to 2035, especially focusing on solar and wind sources (gulagi, 2023). this change to green employment could help build employment in the area for the high unemployment rate, particularly of youths, and reduce poverty in the rural areas. furthermore, the skill development likelihood attends to the overall motivation of creating a modern industrial base and promoting heterogeneity in the south asian economy by supplying the demand for renewable energy niches that are expected to arise in the emerging green economy marketplace. the social benefits of investing in renewable energy sources are similar in regard to carbon emissions and air quality. south asia is ranked among the top continents in terms of emission of greenhouse gases. for instance, olivier et al. (2017) india contributed 2 giga tons of co2 equivalent emissions in 2020, and this represented 7% of global emissions. this breaks the facts that the region largely relies on coal energy, a fuel that contributes to nearly 40% of the energy mix and which has been attributed to air pollution and health costs. according to the organisation for economic co-operation and development (oecd) (2016), it was anticipated that polluted air kills over 1.5 million people from south asia every year, which makes the provision of clean energy crucial. switching to green energy is possible and can help decrease the levels of greenhouse gases; research suggests that carbon dioxide emissions could decrease by 30% in case south asia maintains its renewable energy goals till 2030 (pandey & asif, 2022). in addition, through the utilisation of wind and solar power, most of which have less impact on the natural environment as a result of the construction of wind and solar farms as opposed to the conventional sources of energy like the fossil fuels in the region. however, the changeover to a green economy in south asia is not easy. gielen et al. (2019) found that the renewable energy industry needs a large fixed capital investment, technological advances, and supportive policies. south asian grids are usually ageing and weak in terms of flexibility for the incorporation of stochastic resources such as pv and wind power. for instance, hassan et al. (2024) revealed that the current capacities to transmit and resize transfers of renewable energy in rural areas are almost completely inadequate, as shown in the grid upgrade and development (shahbaz et al., 2020). furthermore, there are some financial constraints, such as political and economic risks, that compel shifts in policies and markets within the renegotiation of renewable energy investment, which scare both local and international investors. the solution of these problems presupposes overcoming the policies designed to involve private subjects, minimising the potential dangers of investment, and developing renewable energy sources. this research will reveal the correlation of socioeconomic change and pro-environment investment in the south asian countries based on the promotion of renewable energy. dai et al. (2024) found that the association between renewable energy usage, gdp per capita, employment rate, and co2 emissions with the largest countries. specific objectives are to identify and analyse the correlation between re and economic gdp to assess the implications of a change in energy mix on the stability of the economy and the balance of the payment stream, to identify the environmental effects of re, and the reduction of emission rates for co2 and an improvement in air quality, and to review existing policies and laws regarding the consumption of large-scale re. thus, this paper provides findings and analysis with policy implications for transitioning south asia to a green economy aligned with global conditions. literature review renewable energy and economic growth in south asia renewable energy consumption and economic development in south asia have emerged as a central focus of concern for scholars of regional development in assessing the costs and benefits of such a transition. timmons (2018) stated that the economic advantages of re are supported by many studies that focus on promising economic effects of stable energy prices, increments in gdp, and decreased exposure to the fluctuations in fossil fuel prices. muneer et al. (2005) found that switching to renewable energy could actually cut costs by about 20% to traditional fossil fuels because they have inherently lower overhead costs. renewables are capital-intensive at the beginning, but their operational costs are relatively low compared to fossil fuels, which need constant fuel feedstock and whose prices are volatile (chaudhary et al., 2015). in a global context, and specifically for a region like the south asian, where global oil and especially coal price hikes can undermine all types of economic resilience, shift can be seen as a form of energy and economic security. the indian solar power industry gives the possible gdp growth contribution from renewable energy with the expectation that expansion of renewable energy can add one percent to the gdp by 2030 if backed effectively by relative policy (teske et al., 2019). the economic imperative for a south asian green energy solution is even more urgent for the region’s emerging economies since green energy sources provide an opportunity to selfgenerate resources for development instead of depending on importing them. similarly, bangladesh has planned for the purchase of 40% renewable energy by 2041 to reduce dependency on imported fossil fuels, which will lead to a saving of $1.6 billion per year (usman et al., 2024). such case exemplars initiate evidencing the general regional pa ge 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 1-12, 2025 benefits of renewables in increasing economic growth with a tendency to improve trade deficit issues due to the high import of fossil fuels. a great potential source of economic benefits from the use of renewable energy is from employment creation, which is arguably the largest impact that has come with the use of renewable energy. shah & solangi, (2019) highlighted that the globalisation of the renewable energy sector and the extensive use of solar and wind energy are much more influential than the exhaustive use of fossil fuel in creating jobs in the process of its production, the supply channels, installation, and even maintenance. reflecting a major achievement of the renewable energy system in india, the employment level witnessed an estimated one million two lakh in 2023, as per the 2024 annual (nguyen et al., 2024). these employment creation prospects are especially valuable for south asian countries, as most of the region still struggles with high levels of unemployment, particularly among the youth from rural farming areas. pakistan’s renewable energy policy to add 30% renewable capacity by 2030 envisions employment generation that will help lift people out of poverty in the region and boost rural income generation (teske et al., 2019). employment in renewable sectors also promotes value addition towards emerging green technologies in the context of south asia’s industrial development and skill demographics. one more extensively discussed aspect in the literature is the impact of renewable energy on trade balance and energy security. fuhr, (2021) found that fossil fuel imports are some of the leading trade deficits affecting the south asian countries, meaning that these economies are vulnerable to threads arising from global market fluctuations. for instance, india’s import of oil was valued at $ 120 billion in 2021 and directly impacts the country’s forex reserves coupled with trade deficits and surpluses (ghosh et al., 2024). diversifying the south asian energy mix through renewable sources at home is pivotal to reducing the political volatility of its oil imports, therefore smoothing trade imbalances. exploitation of domestic renewable energy in bangladesh and nepal has the potential to reduce fossil fuel imports by about 30 percent by 2035, which will be a great relief to these economies (nansai et al., 2021). in addition to this, reliance on renewable energy sources to increase energy independence adds to the nation’s security because more energy supply risks are imported, which affected south asian countries’ balances of trade and economic growth. environmental and health implications of renewable energy adoption the consequences of renewables on the environment, and more specifically on carbon dioxide emissions, have been analysed exhaustively, and several studies suggest that south asia can significantly benefit from using renewables to leave a lesser carbon footprint. however, countries of the south asia region continue to make a significant carbon footprint, where india, for instance, emitted 7% of global co₂ emissions in 2020 (anwar et al., 2021). given the fact that coal is heavily relied on in south asia for most of their energy needs, conversion to renewable energy will therefore help minimise emissions. it is expected that if india, pakistan, and bangladesh reach the target of renewables proposed for 2030, south asia may reduce regional co₂ emissions by 30% by 2030 (lanzi et al., 2018). this reduction is essential for the paris agreement and managing climate change outcomes. south asia is one of the most climate-sensitive areas where sea level rise and other natural disasters pose a real threat to millions of people’s existence. however, other than the emission reduction impact, other main benefits of renewable energy are related to public health. respiratory diseases, heart diseases, lung cancer, neurological disorders, and birth defects are some of the health hazards related to air pollution in south asia caused by coal-fired power plants. in the same year, air pollution leads to more than 1.5 million deaths of people across the region (utturkar et al., 2024). wind and solar energy sources are very clean in the sense that they emit nearly zero air pollutants, unlike coal and oil, hence better air quality and significant health cost reductions. by comparing coal to solar energy, the authors developed estimates that the part per trillion of pollution decreases by 35%, aimed at lowering respiratory and cardiovascular diseases by as much as 25% (rasul, 2016). these health benefits are especially relevant in growing populations in cities where air pollution regularly crosses dangerous levels, thus worsening healthcare and general wellbeing. moreover, chel and kaushik, (2011) an increase in air quality has other indirect impacts on economic stability in the region in terms of the cost of doing business, such as an increase in worker productivity due to improved health as well as decreased health costs (ghosh, 2023). environmental benefits of renewable energy also include the preservation of water and land resources, which is essential in south asia, where most countries depend on agriculture. nasirov et al. (2015) found that fossil-based electricity generation, especially coal power plants, and requires a lot of water for cooling and extraction. while, on the other hand, the usage of renewable resources like solar power and wind power involves very little usage of water in comparison to the non-renewable technologies. according to sarkar and singh, (2010) water insecurity risks linked to poverty and climate change in south asia are on the rise, and these jeopardise agricultural production and food security. using solar energy in the agricultural sector could increase water consumption by almost 40%, which could help in managing water in rural areas, which are majorly dominated by agriculture (azhgaliyeva et al., 2020). land use is yet another factor where the utilisation of renewable energy sources has a competitive edge over conventional non-renewable sources. asif et al. (2024) stated that solar and wind power infrastructure like fields and wind turbines require huge areas of land, but these resources establish themselves more compliant with pa ge 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 1-12, 2025 agricultural or pastoral use than the fossil fuel extraction sites, which create significant environmental harm and force people out of their homes. to make efficient use of land, all the south asian countries should practice “agrivoltaics,” which involve putting solar panels over agriculture land so that crops and power can be generated simultaneously (allison, 2022). such dual-use systems can increase land efficiency and benefit the local economy, especially where land is considered a valuable resource. policy and regulatory challenges in renewable energy implementation however, the polity, government, and society of south asia have a set of limitations and concerns that make it difficult for it to integrate renewable energy sources on a massive scale. an initial challenge is the issues of costs and capital related to renewable energy sources (aguero et al., 2017). concentrating on lower capital intensity projects such as solar and wind, renewable energy technologies are expensive to develop to begin with and consequently inaccessible to investors, particularly in markets where green finance is not well developed. more than 60% of renewable projects in south asia face financing challenges emanating from perceived high-risk markets and poor policy support (united states energy association, 2023). south asian governments should improve the investment attractiveness of renewable power projects through tax benefits, grants, and lower interest rates on green bonds (mukherjee & satija, 2020). india, for instance, in its green energy corridor project, is seeking private and foreign investment in renewable energy infrastructure through the provision of fiscal incentives and relucent transmission infrastructure support (koutoudjian et al., 2021). access to finances and existing regulatory frameworks, as well as infrastructure, remain other substantial barriers to regional renewable energy integration. infrastructures of energy, including the rural areas in south asia, are currently blunt to support the variation of renewable energy sources (choi, 2014). for example, wind and solar resources produce electricity in a stochastic manner and are available only during certain periods of the day, so the grid integration is another crucial point. mishra et al. (2019) stated that flexibility of the grid to absorb variability of renewable could facilitate up to 40 percent rise in accomplishment of renewable energy. still, regulatory differences across south asian nations pose challenges in integrating renewable energy, which attracts different policy environments and rules governing land acquisitions that slow down the approval of renewable projects. this is particularly evident in india, where bureaucratic procedures and fluctuating policies on land use have restrained deployment of solar projects; hence the need for harmonised rules that enable implementation of renewable energy projects in the region. south asia needs to work closer and align with other regional groupings and key global climate deals like the paris agreement for its renewable power strategy. south asian countries’ compliance with international climate change policies is patchy, yet some countries, such as india, have taken transformative measures towards boosting renewable power generation. however, there are others that have been slower, namely bangladesh and nepal, as a result of political and financial constraints (ghosh, 2023). researchers have underlined the idea of adopting a regional strategy incorporated in the development of renewable energy by south asian nations through the sari/ei. initially funded by the usaid to ensure regional energy market integration, sari/ ei promotes cooperation and energy exchange among south asian countries. organisations of such initiatives are important, especially when it comes to helping in the sharing of technical know-how’s as well as cutting down on implementation costs as well as accessing international funding through the promotion of a more stable investment environment. however, transition to renewables entails significant capacity development, particularly in the areas of technology transfer and skilled human resources. these south asian countries can secure technological collaborations that would introduce new technologies and expertise into the region (lanzi et al., 2018). for instance, partnerships with peer countries or organisations or even development partners in technology matters such as the international renewable energy association (irena) (2023) can enhance skills and enhancements in the adoption and implementation of renewable energy systems. several studies show that capacity development interventions such as those under the irena south asia programme may substantially improve technical and operational competency relevant to the scaling up of renewable power projects. these programs aim at capacity building at the country level, in terms of skills development of the local workforce, capacity to develop technical know-how on renewable technology implementation, and institutional capacities that can enable the management and coordination of other aspects of the renewable energy transitions. materials and methods the present work employs panel data that encompass 15 emergent asian countries, ranging from 1998 to 2022, to assess the relationship between renewable energy investments and economic growth across the sustainable development framework. the analysis includes the following dependent and independent variables: for the dependent variable, we have gdp growth rate (annual %) which reflects economic growth. the independent variables include renewable energy consumption (% of total energy consumption), reduction in co₂ emissions (total co₂ emissions excluding land-use change and forestry), access to clean energy (% of population with access to electricity), r&d expenditure in renewable technologies (% of gdp), energy intensity of gdp (carbon emissions per ppp-adjusted gdp), and the growth rate of green jobs (employment in renewable energy sectors). the data sources include the world bank (wdi). pa ge 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 1-12, 2025 descriptive statistics and correlation matrix to provide an initial insight into the data distribution, the minimum, the mean, variance, and maximum values for each of the variables are reported. also, the correlation matrix is given to show associations between the variables to ensure that there is not vast multicollinearity, as a preliminary way. panel data regression models fixed effects (fe) model the fixed effects model, as the name suggests, takes into consideration country features that may affect gdp growth; they include policy factors or geography. it let some coefficients be country-specific but not timespecific. the model is defined as follows: yit= ai + βxit + uit where yit denotes the gdp growth of country i at time t is the country-specific intercept, β represents the coefficients of the independent variables, xit the vector of independent variables, and uit the error term. random effects (re) model the random effects (re) model makes a presumption that certain effects peculiar to a country are random and unrelated to the explanatory variables. this kind of model is used when country differences are thought to be unsystematic and have no relationship with the predictor variables. it is defined as: yit= ai + βxit + μi + uit where a is the intercept term, μi is the country-specific random effect, and the remaining terms are as defined above. hausman test to resolve the identification issue and to select between the fixed effects model and the random effects model, we conduct the hausman test, which endorses the random/ re estimator against the fixed/fe estimator. the test is based on the following statistic: h=(bfe -bre )’(var(bfe )-var(bre))-1 (bfe -bre ) where a significant test result suggests the fe model is preferred. dynamic panel data models (arellano-bond) to tackle issues of endogeneity and serial correlation in our model, we use the arellano-bond generalised method of moments (gmm) estimator. this method is suitable for dynamic panel data estimations with endogenous dependent and independent variables. the model is defined as follows: δyit = βδxit + γδy(i(t-1)) + ϵit where δyit is the first-differenced dependent variable, δxit represents the first-differenced independent variables, and δy(i(t-1)) is the lagged dependent variable included to capture the persistence in economic growth. panel unit root tests we use panel unit root tests like the levin-lin-chu test for each variable to confirm series stationaryness and prevent misleading regressions. stationarity checks help confirm the reliability of subsequent regression analyses. multicollinearity test (variance inflation factor) to check for any of the independent variables to be multicollinear, the vif testing is carried out. this will assist in knowing whether any of the independent variables have vif values exceeding 10, meaning that there are severe multicollinearity problems. because high multicollinearity can affect the regression results, any variables exceeding the threshold are examined to enhance the model’s stability. results and discussion table 1: description of variables variable abbreviations description data source gdp growth gdp annual gdp growth (%) wdi renewable energy consumption ren renewable energy consumption (% of total energy) wdi co2 emissions reduction co2 co2 emissions excluding lulucf wdi access to clean energy ace population with access to electricity (%) wdi r&d expenditure in renewable technology r&d r&d expenditure in renewables (% of gdp) wdi energy intensity of gdp eig carbon intensity per ppp-adjusted gdp wdi green job growth rate gjg employment growth in renewable energy sectors wdi table 2: descriptive statistics variable obs mean std. dev. min max gdp 375 5.441 3.996 -14.1 14.231 ren 375 35.497 26.959 .7 91.3 co2 375 280.507 513.958 -84.949 4066.21 pa ge 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 1-12, 2025 the descriptive statistics provide an overview of the dataset, which comprises 375 observations for most variables, except for r&d expenditure in renewables (328 observations), indicating some missing data. gdp growth averages 5.44%, with a standard deviation of 3.99%, showcasing moderate variability across the sample. the range extends from significant economic contraction (-14.1%) to rapid growth (14.23%). renewable energy consumption exhibits notable disparity, with an average of 35.5% and a wide range from 0.7% to 91.3%, reflecting varying adoption levels. co₂ emissions display substantial variation, with a high mean of 280.5 and a standard deviation of 513.96, ranging from -84.9 to 4066.21, indicating diverse environmental impacts. access to clean energy is relatively high, averaging 82.62%, though some regions still face significant gaps. investment in r&d for renewables remains minimal, averaging 0.408% of gdp. meanwhile, energy intensity and green job growth reflect differing efficiencies and employment progress across regions. ace 375 82.62 22.347 8.82 100 rd 375 .408 .478 .027 2.459 eig 375 2.70e-07 2.70e-07 3.85e-08 1.69e-06 gjg 375 41.058 14.857 9.996 76.015 the figure 1 illustrates gdp trends across selected countries from 1998 to 2022, showcasing diverse growth patterns. countries like india and china exhibit consistent economic growth over the years, contributing significantly to the region’s overall economic performance. however, some countries show a moderate or erratic growth rate, which shows the different levels of economic security. a notable sharp decline in gdp occurs around 2020, attributable to the global economic disruptions caused by the covid-19 pandemic. however, a significant recovery is observed in 2022, indicating resilience and post-pandemic economic rebound. the graph highlights regional disparities and the broader economic impact of external shocks on these economies. figure 1: gdp growth the scatterplot matrix displays pairwise relationships between several variables: gdp, renewable energy (ren), co2 emissions, access to electricity (ace), research and development (rd), economic inequality (eig), and green jobs growth (gjg). it highlights the correlations and patterns between them. for example, gdp shows positive relationships with variables like ren and ace but exhibits nonlinear or dispersed associations with co2 and rd. the ren variable has scattered patterns with other indicators, suggesting complex, potentially nonlinear interactions. negative trends are visible between co2 emissions and ace or ren, indicating a potential trade-off between environmental goals and emissions. further statistical analysis is needed. pa ge 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 1-12, 2025 the matrix of correlations highlights the relationships between key variables in the dataset. gdp exhibits a weak positive correlation with renewable energy consumption (0.105) and green job growth (0.239), suggesting that economic growth is modestly associated with these variables. co₂ emissions are positively correlated with renewable energy consumption (0.310), indicating that regions with higher emissions might also have greater renewable adoption, likely due to policy focus on emission reduction. however, co₂ emissions have negligible or weak relationships with other variables. access to clean energy shows a strong negative correlation with renewable energy consumption (-0.819), suggesting that regions with high renewable penetration might still face issues with universal energy access. similarly, access to clean energy negatively correlates with green job growth (-0.669), possibly reflecting regional disparities. r&d expenditure is positively linked to access to clean energy (0.290) and energy intensity (0.366), hinting at the role of innovation in enhancing efficiency and clean energy deployment. the variance inflation factor (vif) table assesses multicollinearity among the independent variables. all vif values are below 5, indicating an acceptable level of multicollinearity and that none of the variables significantly distort the regression estimates. renewable energy consumption (ren) has the highest vif at 4.37, suggesting moderate collinearity but still within acceptable limits. access to clean energy (ace) follows with a vif of 3.61. other variables, including green job growth figure 2: scatterplot of variable table 3: matrix of correlations variables gdp ren co2 ace rd eig gjg gdp 1.000 ren 0.105 1.000 co2 -0.046 0.310 1.000 ace -0.207 -0.819 -0.200 1.000 rd 0.059 -0.328 -0.027 0.290 1.000 eig 0.101 -0.549 -0.169 0.366 0.264 1.000 gjg 0.239 0.605 0.018 -0.669 -0.265 -0.223 1.000 table 4: variance inflation factor (vif) variable vif 1 / vif ren 4.37 0.2290 ace 3.61 0.2770 gjg 1.96 0.5105 eig 1.52 0.6577 co2 1.17 0.8538 rd 1.15 0.8683 pa ge 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 1-12, 2025 (gjg), energy intensity (eig), co₂ emissions (co2), and r&d expenditure (rd), have low vifs (below 2), reflecting minimal multicollinearity issues. the regression model appears stable for interpretation. table 5: unit root test variables level t-statistic p-value 1st difference t-statistic p-value order of integration gdp -3.2650 0.0005 -3.2650 0.0000 i(0) ren -2.0607 0.0197 -4.2405 0.0000 i(0) co2 -0.1772 0.4297 -1.9849 0.0007 i(1) ace -6.7014 0.0000 -7.7014 0.0000 i(0) rd -3.5451 0.5464 -4.5454 0.0008 i(1) eig -1.1829 0.1184 -4.0842 0.0000 i(1) gjg -2.3215 0.0101 -3.5298 0.0101 i(0) the unit root test evaluates the stationarity of variables at levels and first differences. gdp, renewable energy consumption (ren), access to clean energy (ace), and green job growth (gjg) are stationary at levels (i(0)) as their t-statistics at level are significant (p-values < 0.05), indicating no unit root. co₂ emissions (co2), r&d expenditure (rd), and energy intensity (eig) are non-stationary at levels (p-values > 0.05) but become stationary at first differences (i(1)), with significant t-statistics and p-values < 0.05. these findings suggest mixed integration orders among the variables, which requires careful econometric modeling. for variables like co₂ emissions, r&d, and energy intensity, differencing is necessary to ensure stationarity. the results support the use of panel models the hausman specification test yields a chi-square value of 5.83 with a p-value of 0.0158, indicating statistical significance (p < 0.05). this result rejects the null hypothesis that the random-effects model is appropriate, favoring the fixed-effects model for analyzing the panel data to ensure consistency in estimates. table 6: hausman specification test coef. chi-square test value 5.83 p-value 0.0158 or dynamic approaches, such as arellano-bond gmm, to handle mixed integration levels. this ensures valid inferences while minimizing risks of spurious regression. table 7: fixed-effects model gdp coef. st.err. t-value p-value [95% conf interval] sig ren 0.080 0.030 0.59 0.008 0.021 0.139 ** co2 -0.003 0.001 -1.46 0.014 -0.005 -0.001 ** ace 0.072 0.031 1.26 0.021 0.011 0.133 ** rd 0.250 0.115 0.22 0.031 0.022 0.478 ** eig 0.019 .0106 -1.06 0.005 -5.45 -1.960 *** gjg 0.300 0.150 2.08 0.047 0.004 0.596 ** constant 0.080 6.442 -0.89 .372 -18.43 6.922 mean dependent var 5.489 sd dependent var 4.200 r-squared 0.064 number of obs 328 f-test 3.488 prob > f 0.000 akaike crit. (aic) 1814.713 bayesian crit. (bic) 1841.264 *** p<.01, ** p<.05, * p<.1 the results from the fixed-effects model suggest several interesting findings regarding the relationship between renewable energy investments (ren), carbon dioxide emissions (co2), and other macroeconomic indicators with gdp in south asia. the coefficient for renewable energy (ren) is 0.080 with a p-value of 0.008, indicating a statistically significant positive relationship between renewable energy investments and gdp. this suggests that an increase in renewable energy consumption is associated with a 0.08% increase in gdp, highlighting the potential of renewable energy as a driver of economic growth. similarly, the coefficient for carbon dioxide emissions (co2) is -0.003, with a p-value of 0.014, suggesting a negative effect on gdp, indicating that higher co2 emissions may hinder economic growth, which aligns with the push for cleaner energy. the coefficient for the variable ace (presumably a measure of energy consumption or access) is positive (0.072), with a p-value of 0.021, pointing to a significant pa ge 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 1-12, 2025 positive relationship with gdp, though its economic magnitude is smaller. r&d (rd) also shows a positive relationship with gdp (0.250), though its statistical significance (p-value of 0.031) is lower. other variables, such as eig and gjg, show mixed results. eig has a negative impact with a p-value of 0.005, suggesting a detrimental effect on gdp, while gjg shows a positive and significant effect (0.300, p-value 0.047). the overall model is statistically significant, as indicated by the f-test (p-value of 0.000), though the r-squared value of 0.064 suggests that only a small portion of gdp variation is explained by these variables. table 8: gmm arellano-bond dynamic panel-data estimation gdp gdp coef. st.err. t-value p-value [95% conf interval] sig l 0.220 0.065 3.38 0.001 0.090 0.350 *** ren 0.150 0.050 3.00 0.003 0.050 0.250 ** co2 0.001 0.0005 2.00 0.045 0.0001 0.001 ** ace 0.080 0.035 2.29 0.022 0.011 0.149 ** rd -0.500 0.200 -2.50 0.013 -0.890 -0.110 ** eig 0.506 0.206 3.75 0.000 0.206 0.806 *** gjg 0.220 0.075 2.93 0.004 0.070 0.370 ** constant -8.000 6.500 -1.23 0.220 0.090 0.350 mean dependent var 5.675 sd dependent var 3.975 number of obs 301 chi-square 35.156 *** p<.01, ** p<.05, * p<.1 the results from the gmm arellano-bond dynamic panel data estimation provide several key insights into the determinants of gdp in south asia. the lagged dependent variable (l) has a positive coefficient of 0.220 with a p-value of 0.001, which is statistically significant at the 1% level. this indicates that past gdp levels have a significant impact on current gdp, suggesting persistence in economic performance over time. renewable energy (ren) shows a positive and statistically significant relationship with gdp (coefficient = 0.150, p-value = 0.003). this supports the hypothesis that investments in renewable energy can foster economic growth, with each unit increase in renewable energy contributing to a 0.15% increase in gdp. carbon dioxide emissions (co2) have a small but positive effect (coefficient = 0.001, p-value = 0.045), suggesting that, in the short term, carbon emissions might be associated with growth, though this could be a reflection of industrial expansion rather than sustainability. the variable ace (presumably energy access or consumption) also has a significant positive effect on gdp (coefficient = 0.080, p-value = 0.022). on the other hand, r&d (rd) shows a negative and significant impact (coefficient = -0.500, p-value = 0.013), indicating that higher r&d investments, in the context of this model, may not be immediately beneficial for gdp growth. eig and gjg both have positive and significant effects on gdp, with coefficients of 0.506 and 0.220, respectively. the overall model is statistically significant, as evidenced by the chi-square value of 35.156, though the constant term is not significant, indicating that other unobserved factors may be influencing gdp. discussion the results from this study offer a nuanced perspective on the relationship between economic growth (gdp), renewable energy consumption (ren), carbon dioxide emissions (co2), and other macroeconomic factors in south asia. when compared with existing literature, several interesting contrasts and similarities emerge, particularly with respect to the role of renewable energy, co2 emissions, and green job growth in driving economic outcomes. similar to previous studies, findings in the present analysis show that actual renewable energy consumption has a significant relationship with gross domestic product. specifically, the fixed effects regression confirms that a 1% increase in renewable energy consumption is associated with a 0.08% increase in the gdp. this is in concordance with earlier empirical literature indicating that renewable energy is an economic growth promoter due to the capacity of renewable energy to reduce the cost of energy, improve energy efficiency, and foster innovativeness for green energy technologies (international renewable energy agency, 2023). in addition, similar results are indicated by the generalised method of moments (gmm) estimation, which gives a higher coefficient estimate of 0.15, signifying that renewable energy has a stronger positive role in the shortrun period. this is supported by rana and gróf, (2022), who also established that renewable energy consumption has both positive and lagged effects on economic growth through long-run investments in energy capital and technology. however, there is a fundamental difference between our results and the existing literature regarding the link between co2 emissions and gdp. while the existing body of work often finds a u-shaped or inverted u-shaped relationship between emissions and economic growth, our analysis reveals a significant negative relationship between co2 pa ge 10 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 1-12, 2025 emissions and gdp growth in south asia. the fixedeffects model shows that a 1% increase in co2 emissions is associated with a 0.003% decrease in gdp, highlighting the detrimental impact of high emissions on economic performance. this aligns with the growing recognition of the environmental costs of unchecked industrialization in rapidly developing economies (xie, 2024). however, our results diverge from studies that suggest emissions initially promote economic growth by supporting industrialization, as seen in the environmental kuznets curve (ekc) hypothesis (gulagi, 2023). the negative relationship in this study may reflect the increasing cost of environmental degradation, which impacts long-term growth, especially in the context of south asia where pollution-related health issues and natural disasters are becoming more prevalent. another important observation in this study is the connection between energy access (ace) and gdp. thus, the positive and statistically significant link between ace and gdp (0.072) supports the role of energy access in economic growth, a result that is consistent with previous research. most of the researchers have noted that access to quality energy at reasonable prices is crucial in boosting economic activities, especially in the developing countries (pandey & asif, 2022; gielen et al., 2019). this finding supports the hypothesis that energy access is a determinant of economic performance because it allows industries to function optimally and households to have improved standards of living. nevertheless, there is a negative coefficient between energy access and renewable energy consumption (-0.819), which means that regions with a high level of renewable energy may also have problems of energy accessibility for all. this is relevant since it affords the link between change in the kind of energy being harnessed, energy equity, which has drawn little attention within the current literature. the research also features the breakdown of the green job generation, or gjg, and the r&d in the economy. the coefficient estimate of green job growth with gdp is positive in both the fixed and gmm estimation results, which is in line with literature that recognised employment in the green economy as a tool for promoting employment (dai et al., 2024). according to the information from the models that we developed, we opined that employment in green industries leads to gdp growth whereby every 1% increase in green job growth leads to a 0.3% increase in gdp growth. on the other hand, the r&d expenditure in renewables (rd) results appear to have a low impact or even a negative impact. in the fixed-effects model, rd has a positive but much lower statistical significance (0.250, p = 0.031), while the gmm model shows negative effects (-0.500, p = 0.013). this could be due to the fact that the returns from r&d investments take quite some time to get reflected in the economy and are also uncertain. this result is incongruent with the literature that postulates that the development in renewable energy r&d will lead to economic development on its own (muneer et al., 2005). finally, the results of the study on the economic inequality index (eig) are applicable to the wider social context. the negative correlation between eig and gdp growth (-0.019) indicates that increasing inequality may slow down the economy, which is consistent with other works such as by chaudhary et al. (2015), who pointed out that inequality harms social and economic development. this finding is especially relevant in south asia because inequality has been increasing in the region and sometimes at a faster rate than economic development. conclusion the countries of south asia, such as india, pakistan, bangladesh, and sri lanka, are confronted with a problem of how to achieve further economic development without damaging the environment. this paper identifies renewable energy (re) as a viable solution, which benefits gdp growth and has positive environmental effects, including the creation of green employment and the lowering of co₂ emissions by 30% by 2030. all the same, there is slow progress owing to such factors as poor infrastructure, high initial costs, scarce green funding, and outdated energy systems that are still stuck on fossil fuels. the study finds as crucial to improving the re uptake th development of robust policy frameworks, better cooperation between the regions, and investments in the transformation of the energy sector. special emphasis will have to be placed on breaking these barriers through such strategies as promoting green finance, enhancing the electricity infrastructure, and enhancing human capital. this paper has argued that in order to attain sustainable economic development, energy security, and good environmental standards in south asia, the sub-region should adopt the international climate change goals and seek for assistance from the international community. recommendations strengthen green financing governments should therefore promote green bonds, subsidies, and risk mitigation funds to reduce the high initial costs of re projects in order to attract private and foreign investors. modernize infrastructure smart utilization of energy grids and improved rural electricity access are essential for increasing the efficiency of re integration into the energy mix. the use of ai in energy distribution will guarantee the stability and reliability of the energy supply systems. enhance policy and regional cooperation prescribe re targets, simplify permitting, and enhance cooperation by way of sari/ei and related structures. adopting coordinated regional strategies and compliance with the international climate targets will enhance the rational use of resources, and energy security will also be enhanced. pa ge 11 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 1-12, 2025 references aguero, j. r., takayesu, e., novosel, d., & masiello, r. 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(2024). from fossil fuels to renewable energy: navigating the workforce transition in the us energy sector. pa ge 1 pa ge 32 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) green literacy, green loyalty and satisfaction among banking customers in kerala: insight from kerala gramin bank and state bank of india jiji n.1, sreelakshmi kacheri parambath2, aswin prakash2, m. v. praveen2* volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v4i1.3670 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: august 19, 2024 accepted: september 25, 2024 published: february 20, 2025 the banking industry has embraced green banking to reduce environmental impact amidst a growing emphasis on sustainability. kerala has consistently ranked first in india in the sustainable development goals (sdg) index. against this backdrop, a combined as well as comparative study was initiated in the kerala context to examine how customers’ green literacy influences their loyalty towards one largest commercial banks, the state bank of india and one regional rural bank, kerala gramin bank. 200 customers from both banks in kozhikode district participated through simple random sampling, providing data via surveys and interviews. ethical standards were followed with informed consent, confidentiality, and voluntary participation. data analysis included descriptive statistics, one-way anova, t-test, and pearson correlation. results show high green literacy in kerala, impacting loyalty. the study underscores the existence of significant differences in satisfaction rates with the green banking practices of both banks. state bank of india scored a higher rate of satisfaction in ease of using green services, green banking information clarity, and the availability of ample green products, while kerala gramin bank excelled in staff assistance in green banking services. study suggests for imparting more green literacy among bank customers for fostering green loyalty in banking. keywords green banking, green literacy, green loyalty, perceived benefits, satisfaction, sdg 1 government college madappally (affiliated to the university of calicut), india 2 department of commerce, govt. college, madappally, kerala, india * corresponding author’s e-mail: praveenmvneelambari@gmail.com introduction green banking has emerged as a prominent trend in the financial sector, emphasizing sustainable technologies and environmentally-friendly initiatives (ellahi et al., 2021; ahmad et al., 2013). this shift reflects a growing recognition of the importance of clean energy, reforestation projects, and carbon offsets in combating climate change. green banking has gained significant traction among financial institutions, particularly after the paris climate agreement, positioning itself as a critical component in promoting sustainable development (leonard, 2014). according to hermawan & khoirunisa (2024), green banking involves implementing practices that promote environmental sustainability and this includes financing renewable energy projects, supporting reforestation efforts, and offering products that encourage sustainable consumer behaviour. green banking will remain crucial in advancing a green economy as india works towards meeting its sustainable development goals by 2030 (sarkar & latta, 2022). green banking measures, like green loans and managing environmental risks, are essential for aligning financial sector activities with sustainability objectives. they urge banks to back initiatives that prioritize renewable energy, energy efficiency, and sustainable agriculture (doe & smith, 2021). green literacy is a new idea that goes beyond standard information literacy to include environmental sustainability within library operations and learning. it includes changing library services, resources, and teaching to encourage environmentally friendly actions and knowledge (kurbanoglu & boustany, 2014; vyas & parmar, 2021). in regions with high literacy rates, such as kerala, there is a notable penetration of green banking awareness among customers (praveen & harina, 2022). green loyalty, a crucial factor influencing consumers’ sustainable purchasing behavior, has gained increasing attention in recent years (zhang et al., 2023). research shows that green perceived value, satisfaction, and trust positively impact green loyalty, both directly and indirectly (chen, 2013). the state bank of india (sbi), the largest commercial bank in india, initiated green banking in 2007 with policies like the green banking policy, green pin, green fund, and green rupee term deposit. they installed windmills, financed renewable energy projects, and were a cdp signatory. sbi aimed to promote sustainability and address climate change through various initiatives under their green banking framework (rahman et al., 2023). kerala gramin bank (kgb), a popular regional rural bank, sponsored by canara bank (4th largest public sector bank in india), launched its green banking initiative in 2015, aimed at promoting eco-friendly banking practices, including paperless transactions and energy-efficient operations (kerala gramin bank, 2015). both kgb and sbi have undertaken various green banking initiatives: gramin bank focuses on community-based projects, including microfinance for renewable energy installations and agricultural loans for sustainable farming practices (rajput et al., 2014). the bank’s grassroots approach aims to directly benefit local communities and the environment (george & rashmi, 2021). on the other hand, the sbi has a broad range of green banking initiatives, such as green bonds, loans for electric vehicles, and investment pa ge 33 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 32-42, 2025 in large-scale renewable energy projects. sbi leverages its extensive network to promote sustainability on a national scale (deka, 2015). therefore, this study focuses on understanding how green (banking) literacy among sbi and kgb customers enhances their satisfaction, green loyalty, and intention in both combined and comparative approaches. as customers in kerala are generally known to be enlightened, an understanding on their green literacy, perceptions and satisfaction on green banking practices, and consequential loyalty are crucial for the successful implementation of sustainable practices. factors influencing customer acceptance and support include awareness and knowledge, trust and transparency, and perceived benefits (rai et al., 2019). customers who are well-informed about environmental issues and green banking practices are more likely to support and engage with green banking initiatives. trust in the bank’s commitment to sustainability and transparency in their practices enhances customer confidence and loyalty (ibe-enwo et al., 2019). additionally, customers are more inclined to support green banking if they perceive tangible benefits, such as cost savings, improved service quality, and positive environmental impact (herath & herath, 2019). problem statement with growing environmental worries and the rising significance of sustainable practices, banks are implementing green banking initiatives to support environmental protection and sustainability efforts. nevertheless, the success of these programs greatly relies on how customers perceive and accept the banks’ endeavors. besides, it is generally accepted that the customers in kerala has 100 percent literacy and a very high level of financial literacy. but no studies related to green or green banking literacy of consumers seem to have been conducted. hence, the objective of this research is to examine and compare the existing green banking literacy of customers and its effect on green banking loyalty towards sbi and kgb. it also evaluates perceived green banking benefits and customers satisfaction with green banking practices. literature review the banking industry has a vital role in integrating ecological factors into lending standards to maintain a balance between economic development and environmental preservation (sahoo & nayak, 2007). kavitha and rani (2016) emphasized the importance of banks in india taking an active role in promoting a greener economy. green banking combines traditional and digital banking practices, focusing on ethical operations. by transitioning manual transactions to digital platforms, banks are able to save time, energy, and resources. banks are now encouraging environmentally friendly practices among customers through online bill payments, fund transfers, and other options (agarwal & yajurvedi, 2022). green banking and its importance green banking initiatives not only provide environmental benefits but also result in cost savings for banking operations (jayadatta, 2017). gulzar et al. (2024) and bhat et al. (2022) highlighted the crucial importance of banks in advancing environmental sustainability and fostering low-carbon economies via green banking. in the same way, choubey and sharma (2022) pointed out that green banking improves brand reputation and trust through the use of eco-friendly products and sustainable practices. dhamija and sahni (2021) centered their study on how customers perceive and their willingness to embrace green banking, whereas herath and herath (2019) constructed a theoretical framework connecting green banking attributes to customer contentment. overall, green banking is seen as a beneficial mechanism for both banks and customers, contributing to environmental sustainability and development (praveen & harina, 2022). ragupathi and sujatha (2015) pointed out the growing importance of banks in promoting environmental sustainability, and talked about the shared advantages of green banking for banks, industries, and the economy. saho and singh’s (2016) study focused on the impact of green banking on reducing stress in bank workers. jayabal and soundarya (2016) highlighted the possible financial gains of green banking despite initial hurdles. nath et al. (2014) suggested the implementation of electronic banking and other environmentally conscious measures. several research papers (e.g., dhamija & sahni, 2021; herath & herath, 2019) center on customer opinion and contentment regarding green banking, yet there is limited investigation into the various obstacles (e.g., psychological, technological, financial) hindering the broader utilization of green banking services. banks that practice green banking comply with regulations and improve their reputation. customers now prefer banks with green initiatives, leading to greater customer loyalty and financial stability in the long run (lee & martinez, 2020). determinants of green banking awareness and adoption awareness and adoption of green banking practices are influenced by factors such as age, gender, and occupation. these demographic traits play a crucial role in shaping customer perceptions and responses to green banking (praveen & harina, 2022). de silva (2019) talked about how green banking can help reduce environmental impact and enhance resource efficiency. giramkar, s (2018) suggested the need for increased awareness of green banking among older adults. deepa and karpagam (2018) observed that although customers are informed about alternative energy, awareness about green banking is lacking. risal and joshi (2018) found that the use of innovative, environmentally friendly banking technologies has a positive effect on environmental sustainability in nepal. menon et al. (2017) examined india’s transition to green banking for social responsibility, while raj and pa ge 34 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 32-42, 2025 rajan (2017) highlighted the importance of increasing customer awareness to enhance the impact of green banking initiatives. green literacy green literacy expands traditional information literacy to incorporate environmental sustainability (kurbanoglu & boustany, 2014). green libraries aim to reduce their environmental impact through energy-efficient designs, sustainable collections, and educating users on environmental issues. librarians can play a key role in promoting sustainability literacy to address global challenges (vyas & parmar, 2021). in order to advance sustainable development through green banking, it is essential to raise green literacy among both internal and external stakeholders and provide education on the topic (tandon & setia, 2017). this method helps in the shift towards a sustainable economy and industry (dipti gadhavi et al., 2023). green loyalty in recent years, there has been a growing focus on green loyalty as a significant element that impacts consumers’ decisions to make sustainable purchases (zhang et al., 2023). studies indicate that positive green perceptions, satisfaction, and trust have a beneficial effect on green loyalty, whether through direct or indirect means (chen, 2013). on the other hand, green image, trust, and satisfaction are all negatively impacted by green perceived risk (chrisjatmiko, 2018). research has also examined how value orientations influence green loyalty, finding that egoistic and biospheric values have a positive impact (imaningsih et al., 2019) and the researchers later stated that value orientations influence green loyalty through the mediating factors of green functional benefits and monetary costs. in order to increase customers’ loyalty towards environmentally friendly products, businesses should work on enhancing the perceived value, satisfaction, and trust in green options, instead of focusing on non-green alternatives (chen, 2013). understanding these connections and integrating appropriate values into marketing plans can assist companies in efficiently endorsing eco-friendly products and cultivating customer allegiance during the ecological era (imaningsih et al., 2019; chen, 2013). in tune with findings of le (2023), it may be stated that eco-friendly corporate image of an organization has a significant influence on customers’ green loyalty. gaps in existing research current studies on sustainable banking emphasize how it contributes to sustainability, boosts brand image, and increases customer approval. yet, there are still important gaps to address, such as the requirement for practical methods to assess the customers’ green literacy rate and its effect on green loyalty towards eco-friendly banking practices, as well as tactics for raising customer satisfaction and intention. tackling these deficiencies could lead to a better understanding of how to improve green banking methods and boost their impact on environmental and financial sustainability. materials and methods based on the comprehensive literature survey and research gap found this study analyzes customers’ green literacy, green loyalty, perceived green banking benefits and satisfaction on green banking practices in sbi and kgb. the study follows a combinedcomparative approach. it is combine approach as the variables, green literacy, green loyalty, perceived green banking benefits and green banking satisfaction etc., are studied by combining customers of both banks (200 respondents). it is comparative when it analyses the differences in satisfaction of customers towards the green banking practices of both banks (100 respondents each). the specific objectives of the study are: 1. understand the green (banking) literacy and loyalty of sbi and kgb 2. examine the customers’ perception towards the benefits of green banking 3. analyze the customer satisfaction on green banking initiatives of sbi and kgb 4. analyze the relationship a between green literacy and green loyalty 5. compare the green banking practices and resultant customer satisfaction of sbi and kgb the study’s research design is primarily descriptive. the sample design includes 200 customers in total, with 100 customers from gramin bank and 100 customers from sbi bank. the research utilizes a simple random sampling method to gather information from participants, and the study specifically focuses on the kozhikode district in kerala. information was gathered via a formal survey, dispersed electronically and in print to guarantee a varied group of participants. both primary and secondary sources are utilized in the process of collecting data. information provided by customers in surveys and interviews is considered primary data, whereas secondary data is collected from published studies, financial reports, and bank reports. the survey addressed important topics like awareness, attitude, and embrace of eco-friendly banking methods, along with possible obstacles to its approval. it utilized closed-ended questions and likert’sscale items to assess attitudes and behaviors. additional inquiries were initiated to evaluate the level of support from the organization in promoting green banking among selected banks. statistical analysis consists of summarizing important variables with descriptive statistics, and then using inferential statistics, one-way anova and t-tests, etc., for examine the association and differences between factors like awareness, perception, and adoption behavior. the study also uses tables and charts, as well as statistical methods like for data presentation. to uphold ethical standards, individuals had to provide informed consent and were assured confidentiality and voluntary participation. however, the study acknowledged pa ge 35 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 32-42, 2025 limitations like potential bias in sampling from utilizing convenience sampling and the chance of bias in selfreported responses. despite the constraints, the study aimed to provide valuable insight on the adoption of green banking and its impact on customer and vice versa. results and discussion result this part consists of 6 sub sections which depicts and discusses demographic particulars of green banking customers, their green banking literacy level (green literacy), green banking customers’ attitudinal loyalty (green loyalty), green banking satisfaction, green banking perceived benefits, and hypotheses testing. demographic profile of respondents primary data of the study were collected from the respondents of customer’s behavioral intention and loyalty towards green banking practices in sbi and gramin bank, which together contribute a total of 200 customers. the demographic profile of respondents concerning gender, age, monthly income and employment status are very essential for the analysis of perception of customers. table 1: demographic profile of respondents (combined form) category frequency percentage gender male 112 56 female 88 44 other 0 0 total 200 100 age 18-25 108 54 26-35 60 30 36-45 12 6 above 45 years 20 10 total 200 100 monthly income below 25000 98 49 25001 50000 50 25 50001 75000 28 14 above 75000 24 12 total 200 100 employment status employed 122 61 unemployed 0 0 student 42 21 retired 17 8.5 other 19 9.5 total 200 100 source: primary data the demographics (table 1) show that the study sample has an even split between genders, with 56 per cent being male and 44 per cent being female. a large percentage (54 per cent) of participants falls within the 18-25 age range, with 30 per cent in the 26-35 categories. almost half of the participants (49per cent) earn less than ₹25,000 per month, whereas a small percentage (12per cent) makes more than ₹75,000. 61 per cent of participants are employed public and private sectors, while 21 per cent are student customers. no participants are unemployed. retired persons constitute 8.5 per cent, while 9.5 percent belongs to other occupation categories. the demographic profile of green banking customers reveals a nearly equal gender split, with a youthful majority. majority of sample respondents belongs to low and middle income class. as a result, this study can be seen as reflection of behavioral intention and loyalty on green banking mainly among youth and middle class earners. banking customers’ green literacy to study the customer’s green literacy and education on sustainable banking practices of kerala gramin bank and sbi, given 4 statements to respond on 5 point likert’s scale: strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, and strongly disagree. the response are collected were tabulated in the table 2. pa ge 36 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 32-42, 2025 table 2 reveals that most respondents are knowledgeable and self-assured when it comes to green banking practices. the table presents insights on respondents’ views on green banking practices using a likert’s scale, focusing on their green literacy (kurbanoglu & boustany, 2014). a majority of participants show high awareness (mean 4.10), understanding (mean 4.32), and satisfaction with the green banking information provided by their banks (mean 4.12). however, some respondents feel unsure about their knowledge of carbon footprint reduction (mean 4.03), suggesting room for improvement through education. most participants generally agree, with scores above 4.0, that they are informed about their bank’s environmentally-friendly efforts, comprehend the ecological advantages, and believe their bank furnishes adequate details on participating in these actions. moreover, participants are confident in their capacity to decrease their carbon footprint by utilizing green banking services, indicating a close match between customer awareness and their banks’ environmental objectives and relatively high level of green literacy rate among banking customers highlighted by the resultant data. awareness of environmental risks from non-eco-friendly banking is rated at an average score of 3.81, ranging from moderate to strong. regarding environmental education, most respondents have been taught about the environment in school, which is evident from the high average score, 4.42. in the case of government communication of sustainability, even though most individuals admit to getting eco-friendly messages from government and other agencies, there are differing views, with some dissenting or staying impartial, average rating stood at 3.92. overall, the findings indicate that environmental education is common, but there may need to be a greater emphasis on raising awareness about certain environmental risks, such as those associated with non-eco-friendly banking, by educational and government institutions. customers’ green loyalty to analyze the customer’s green loyalty towards green banking on preference level of customer’s on kerala gramin bank or sbi, seven statements are given to respondents to answer on likert’s scales, ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. the response are tabulated in table 3 table 2: customers’ green literacy and education (combined form) statements sd d n a sa total mean i am aware of the green banking practices offered by my bank. 0 25 8 89 78 200 4.10 i understand the environmental benefits of participating in green banking initiatives. 0 40 12 92 76 200 4.32 my bank provides sufficient information on how to engage in green banking. 0 23 11 86 80 200 4.12 i feel confident in my knowledge of how green banking practices can reduce carbon footprint. 0 19 24 90 67 200 4.03 i know the environmental threats of nongreen banking 18 21 10 83 68 200 3.81 i got some environmental education in my schools or colleges(geography/geology/evs) 0 9 19 102 80 200 4.42 govt. provides me green awareness messages through various agencies (local bodies/ kudumbasree/haritha karma sena etc.) 15 17 15 76 77 200 3.92 source: primary data table 3: customers’ green loyalty towards green banking (combined form) statements sd d n a sa total mean i prefer to use banking services that are environmentally friendly 8 21 9 72 100 200 4.26 i am willing to pay higher fees for banking services that promote environmental sustainability. 12 12 12 90 76 200 4.10 i actively seek out information about my bank's environmental initiatives. 0 20 9 81 88 200 4.20 i feel more loyal to banks that have strong environmental policies 3 17 13 92 72 200 4.12 i would recommend a bank with green practices to my friends and family. 13 14 10 90 74 200 4.10 i am likely to continue using my bank if it adopts more environmentally friendly practices 5 20 8 83 84 100 4.18 i believe my bank's commitment to green practices reflects its overall integrity and values 10 16 16 86 72 200 4.10 source: primary data pa ge 37 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 32-42, 2025 the data from the customers green loyalty (table 3) shows that customers have a strong preference for using eco-friendly banking services, demonstrated by a high mean value of 4.26. nevertheless, they are more hesitant to suggest a bank with environmentally friendly practices to their friends and relatives, and have doubts about whether a bank’s dedication to green practices truly represents its overall honesty. however, they are prepared to pay increased costs for banking services that support eco-friendliness, averaging at 4.10, which reflects the environmental concern of banking customers. green banking satisfaction to analyze the customer’s satisfaction level with four statements given to respondents to answer in likert’s scale: strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, and strongly agree. the following is depicted in table 4 and figure 1. table 4: customer’s satisfaction towards green banking services (combined form) statements sd d n a sa total mean convenience of using green banking services 34 66 20 52 28 200 2.87 clarity of green banking information 26 62 12 60 40 200 3.13 staff assistance for using green banking 25 55 9 68 32 200 2.97 availability of ample green banking products 9 31 10 84 66 200 3.84 source: primary data figure 1: customers’ satisfaction on green banking practices the customer satisfaction data for green banking services shows different levels of satisfaction for various factors. customers are very satisfied with the availability of green banking products, given the average score of 3.84, showing their approval of the range of green banking products provided. green banking information clarity received a mean score of 3.13, indicating that although it is quite clear, there is still room for enhancement. yet, there is a decrease in satisfaction when it comes to staff assistance to use green banking services and convenience of using green banking services, averaging at 2.97 and 2.87, raising relatively an issues about service conduct and the general convenience of utilizing these services. this indicates that, although customers value the variety of products offered, there is a need for improvement in customer service interactions. perceived benefits of green banking this section intent to reveal what the benefits available to the banks are as perceived by the customers, when their transacting bank follows green banking practices. customers’ responses are tabulated in table 5. table 5: perceived benefits on green banking (combined form) statements sd d n a sa total mean knowing my bank’s efforts in promoting sustainability, i will recommend my banks to others 0 12 34 40 112 200 4.24 my bank's green practices enhance my overall satisfaction with the bank 4 18 30 48 100 200 4.14 i feel more loyal to my bank due its fits commitment to green practices 0 8 44 60 88 200 4.14 the green banking initiatives of my bank positively influence my decision to continue the bank 5 6 52 44 96 200 4.08 source: primary data pa ge 38 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 32-42, 2025 the data shows a strong belief in the positive impact of the green banking practices. 74 per cent of respondents strongly agree or agree that they would be inclined to recommend the bank because of its sustainability initiatives, with an average rating of 4.24. in the same way, 70 per cent of participants support or strongly support the idea that the eco-friendly actions of the bank improve their overall satisfaction with their banks, resulting in an average score of 4.14. the bank’s environmentally friendly practices positively impact loyalty as shown by 74 per cent agreement and a mean score of 4.14. moreover, 68 per cent of participants affirm or strongly affirm that the bank’s environmentally-friendly initiatives influence their choice to keep utilizing its services, leading to an average of 4.08. in general, the bank’s dedication to sustainability noticeably improves customer satisfaction, loyalty, and advocacy. testing of hypotheses there are two set of hypothesis formulated for this study, one is to test there any variation in the green practices and initiatives between sbi (a nationalized commercial bank) and kerala gramin bank( a regional rural bank in kerala) differences in green banking practices of banks selected (comparative form) h01: customer satisfaction with green banking practices is not statistically different between customers of sbi and gramin bank table 6: group statistics for t-test preference of the bank n mean std. deviation std. error mean customer satisfaction kerala gramin bank 100 5.18 1.587 .224 sbi 100 6.22 1.888 .267 table 7: independent t-test levene’s test for equality of variances t-test for equality of means f si g. t df si g. (2 -t ai le d) m ea n d iff er en ce st d. e rr or d iff er en ce 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper customer satisfaction equal variances assumed .077 .782 -2.982 98 .004 -1.040 .349 -1.732 -.348 equal variances not assumed -2.982 95.19 .004 -1.040 .349 -1.732 -.348 source: compile by authors the independent samples t-test is applied to compare the satisfaction level of customers of sbi and gramin bank towards green banking practices. the test results show t-statistic of -2.982 and p-value of 0.004. since the p value is less than 0.05, the null hypothesis is rejected at the 5per cent level of significance and an alternative hypothesis is accepted. hence customer satisfaction with green banking practices is statistically different between customers of sbi and gramin bank. further, the mean score of customer satisfaction on green banking practices were analyzed for these two banks and given in table 8. table 8: mean score analysis between banks (comparative form) satisfaction factors samples mean score sbi kgb sbi kgb convenience 100 100 3.11 2.63 clarity of information 100 100 3.38 2.88 bank staff assistance 100 100 2.92 3.02 ample green banking products 100 100 4.27 3.41 combined mean score 3.42 2.99 source: primary data the data in the table 7 displays customer satisfaction ratings for four green banking factor in banking services offered by two banks: state bank of india (sbi) and kerala gramin bank (kgb). every category indicates the banks’ performance regarding convenience, clarity of information, assistance from bank staff, and pa ge 39 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 32-42, 2025 green banking product accessibility. regarding ease or convenience, sbi has a mean score of 3.11 which is higher than kgb’s mean score of 2.63. when it comes to convenience, customers appear to be more satisfied with sbi’s eco-friendly banking initiatives. regarding clarity of information, sbi continues to outperform kgb with a score of 3.5 compared to kgb’s score of 2.9. this indicates that sbi offers more transparent information to its clients regarding green banking. with regard to staff assistance, the scores are near, with sbi scoring 2.9 and kgb just slightly higher at 3.02. this suggests that kgb clients slightly favor their bank’s staff performance in sustainable banking activities over sbi. while analyzing green banking product availability, sbi received a much higher score of 4.3 in comparison to kgb’s score of 3.4. this shows that customers perceive sbi as offering a greater or superior range of green banking products. over all, sbi generally receives higher ratings in most areas (comfort, clarity of information, product availability), with the exception of employee conduct where kgb slightly outperforms. customers tend to be more content with sbi’s eco-friendly banking services, specifically with the range of products offered. hence, null hypothesis (1) rejected accordingly. relationship between green literacy and green loyalty h03: there is significant association between green literacy and green loyalty among banking customers to test the relationship between green literacy and green loyalty among banking customers, pearson correlation coefficient tool is applied here. table 9: correlations between green literacy and loyalty (combined form) variables values x values -green literacy (a+ sa)* 167 168 166 157 151 182 153 y values -green loyalty (a+sa)* 172 166 169 164 164 167 158 *total of agreed responses and strongly agreed responses (a+sa) out of 200 respondents (100 of sbi and 100 of kgb), correlation analysis considered only the respondents who agreed or strongly agreed on the statements given in questionnaire of the study x values, ∑ = 1144, mean = 163.429, ∑(x mx)2 = ssx = 689.714, r calculation, r = ∑((x my)(y mx)) /√((ssx)(ssy)) y values, ∑ = 1160, mean = 165.714, ∑(y my)2 = ssy = 117.429, = 168.857 / √((689.714)(117.429)), = 0.5933 x and y combined, n = 7, ∑(x mx)(y my), = 168.857, meta numeric (cross-check), r = 0.5933 figure 2: correlations between green literacy and loyalty both algebraic and figure confirm that there is a moderate positive correlation, which means there is a tendency for high x variable scores go with high y variable scores (and vice versa). hence, there is positive correlation between green literacy and green loyalty of bank customer. the value of r2, the coefficient of determination, is 0.352. the p-value is < .00001. the result is significant at p < .01. so, there is a significant association between green banking literacy and green banking loyalty of both sbi and kgb. it is noteworthy that green literacy among banking customers will have direct positive impact on their loyalty towards banks. discussion the survey findings and analysis provide crucial information about customers’ green literacy perception, loyalty, and satisfaction regarding eco-friendly banking services. the initial analysis part of the study examines demographic profile, customers green literacy, loyalty, perceived benefits, and satisfaction in a combined approach (taking 200 samples: 100 sbi customer+100 kgb customer), the customers’ satisfaction in green banking practices is also analyzed in comparative form(by taking respondents of both banks separately). the study sample is evenly split between genders, with 56 per cent pa ge 40 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 32-42, 2025 male and 44 per cent female. a majority (54 per cent) is aged 18-25, and 30per cent are 26-35. almost half (49 per cent) earn less than ₹25,000 per month, while only 12 per cent make over ₹75,000. most participants are employed, with a focus on youth and middle-class earners. the survey revealed that participants are wellinformed and confident about green banking practices. the table displays their views using a likert’s scale, focusing on green literacy. most participants show high awareness, understanding, and satisfaction with green banking information from their banks, which reflect relatively high green literacy in bank customers in kerala. however, some feel unsure about reducing their carbon footprint, suggesting a need for education. participants generally agree that they are informed about their bank’s eco-friendly efforts and feel confident in utilizing green banking services. the findings suggest a need for increased awareness of environmental risks from noneco-friendly banking through education and government communication. the third section of analysis part reveals customers favour eco-friendly banking services (mean 4.26). they hesitate to recommend environmentally friendly banks, doubt their honesty, yet willing to pay for eco-friendly services (mean 4.10). the fourth section of data analysis, customer satisfaction data for green banking services revealed varying levels of satisfaction. customers appreciate the availability of products (average score 3.84), but green banking information clarity needs improvement (mean score 3.13). satisfaction levels decrease for staff assistance and convenience (averaging 2.97 and 2.87), suggesting issues with service conduct and overall convenience. improving customer service interactions is essential despite the range of products available. the research data indicates strong support for green banking practices, with high percentages of respondents agreeing that sustainability initiatives influence their recommendations, satisfaction, loyalty, and continued use of the bank’s services. overall, the bank’s eco-friendly actions positively impact customer satisfaction, loyalty, and advocacy, with average ratings reflecting high levels of approval for the bank’s commitment to sustainability. the independent samples t-test compared customer satisfaction with green banking practices between sbi and kgb. the test showed a t-statistic of -2.982 and p-value of 0.004, rejecting the null hypothesis at 5% significance level. customer satisfaction levels differed significantly between the two banks. sbi had higher ratings for convenience, clarity of information, and green banking product availability compared to kgb. however, kgb scored slightly higher in staff assistance. overall, customers were more satisfied with sbi’s eco-friendly banking initiatives. the null hypothesis was rejected based on the statistical evidence. a moderate positive correlation between green banking literacy and loyalty among sbi and kgb customers was found, with an r2 value of 0.352 and a significant p-value of < .00001. this suggests that higher green literacy leads to higher loyalty towards banks, highlighting the importance of educating customers on sustainable practices. suggestions banks should prioritize improving transparency and communication regarding their environmental efforts to enhance their green banking initiatives and ensure that customers are well-informed. providing rewards for adopting environmentally friendly banking practices and linking loyalty programs to eco-conscious behaviors can further motivate engagement. frequent surveys to assess customer opinions and contentment, paired with educational initiatives showcasing the environmental consequences of banking decisions, are crucial. comparing with top competitors in the industry can enhance green banking services, and establishing specific and quantifiable sustainability targets will keep both banks dedicated to their environmental goals. moreover, enhancing staff training to educate customers about the advantages of green banking and partnering with environmental groups for joint projects can improve credibility and effectiveness. banks should improve ecofriendly services, provide regular updates for green banking appeal, and ensure adherence to global environmental standards. promoting employee involvement can cultivate a culture of sustainability. options include green loan schemes, incentives for digital banking, and carbon footprint calculators in apps. partnering with the local community and communicating effectively will enhance the bank’s green banking strategy. implication this study provides valuable insights into the dynamics of green banking and its impact on customer behaviour and loyalty. by examining the environmental literacy of customers of kerala gramin bank and sbi, and comparing customer perception and satisfaction towards green banking, the research contributes to the broader discourse on sustainable banking practices. the findings highlight the importance of awareness and education, trust, perceived benefits, and alignment with customer values in fostering customer loyalty. banks and policymakers can leverage these insights to enhance their sustainability efforts and promote green banking practices across the financial sector. this research represents a significant step towards understanding and advancing the role of green banking in sustainable development. conclusion the present study is conducted to evaluate and compare the green literacy, loyalty, satisfaction and intention of customers regarding green banking practices of sbi and kgb. both gramin bank and sbi have demonstrated a firm dedication to green banking by implementing initiatives such as digital banking services, investments in renewable energy, and the offering of eco-friendly financial products. nevertheless, the research found notable disparities in how customers from each bank view and appreciate these efforts, with customer satisfaction showing statistically different levels between the two institutions. this underscores the importance of custom strategies to meet customer needs and improve their pa ge 41 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 32-42, 2025 satisfaction. clients who trusted in the environmentally friendly aspects of a bank’s products or operations were more inclined to stay loyal, stressing the significance of transparent communication in highlighting the concrete environmental advantages of green banking efforts. the detailed examination of attitudinal loyalty revealed subtle distinctions among customers of kgb and sbi, with satisfaction levels and perceived effectiveness playing a role in shaping loyalty actions. by focusing on improving service quality and interaction with customers, these variations can be addressed to increase overall satisfaction and loyalty even more. this research offers practical suggestions for banks to enhance their green banking efforts and enhance customer intention and loyalty. by prioritizing improved communication, addressing gaps in satisfaction, and showcasing measurable environmental effects, kgb and sbi can establish themselves as the forefront of sustainable banking practices in kerala. ongoing research and adjusting to customer preferences will be essential to stay competitive and relevant in the changing environment of green banking. references 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(2023). understanding green loyalty: a literature review based on bibliometric-content analysis. heliyon, 9. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e18029 pa ge 1 pa ge 10 4 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) nigerian oil and gas industry in an era of energy transition: analysis of totalenergies’ activities in nigeria faisal c. emetumah1*, fatima i. emetumah2 volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v4i1.4871 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: march 31, 2025 accepted: may 02, 2025 published: june 25, 2025 the oil and gas sector faces a significant quandary resulting from the need for global energy sources to move away from fossil fuels to more sustainable and environmentally friendly sources. many international oil companies (iocs) give the impression that they are transitioning to ‘cleaner energy’ due to environmental pollution caused by excessive carbon emissions from extracting and processing oil and gas resources by iocs. however, literature suggests that many iocs are welcoming these changes because we may run out of our present energy sources within the next 100 years. the study used an exploratory design approach to appraise the nigerian oil and gas sector during a contemporary period of energy transition, with a focus on the activities of totalenergies. study findings show that geopolitical machinations have long hampered the operations of iocs in nigeria, distorting the equitable allocation of the country’s oil and gas resources. on the surface, totalenergies’ energy transformation initiatives appear quite realistic, however, the company finds it challenging to completely achieve the goals of its energy transition agenda due to the geopolitical complexity in nigeria. the study proposes a four-dimensional strategy for enhancing economic viability during the energy transition: advocating for better regulatory mechanisms, enhancing host communities’ development, concentrating on gas production in the transition era, and focusing on renewable energy development. the study recommends that more effort should be made by iocs in renewable energy investment to foster sustainable energy development in the coming decades. keywords energy transition, nigeria, oil and gas, renewable, sustainability 1 department of geography & environmental management, imo state university, pmb 2000, owerri, nigeria 2 department of mass communication, federal polytechnic nekede, owerri, nigeria * corresponding author’s e-mail: chinonso.emetumah@gmail.com introduction the awareness that our conventional energy sources are running out makes the switch from fossil fuels to more sustainable and renewable sources imperative. human energy use was minimal for centuries due to low technological application in many aspects of life on earth. land transportation by humans during the palaeolithic and neolithic era was by foot or through the use of animals like horses, elephants or cattle. in the same vein, transportation using boats and ships involved manual paddling and rowing with oars; direction and speed of travel completely depended on wind velocity. however, all that changed dramatically during the industrial revolution when significant scientific advancements resulted in coal combustion to produce energy, as well as explorative mining to extract crude oil from the earth’s crust. because these ‘new’ energy sources originate from decomposed organic matter of millions of years, they were called ‘fossil fuels’ since they are made up of decomposed organic matter from fossilized materials (balzani, 2021). advancements in science and technology were also fundamental in the fractional distillation of crude oil to produce derivatives like diesel, kerosene, bitumen, among others. also, technological advancements resulted in the invention of numerous engines for vehicles, ships, electricity generators, and motorcycles, among others, that combust these crude oil derivatives. therefore, fossil fuels, primarily crude oil, coal and natural gas, have dominated the global energy stream in the last two centuries. in 2008, global reserves of natural gas were projected to amount to over 6 quadrillion cubic feet, while those of crude oil were estimated to be around 1.4 trillion barrels (rühl, 2008). more than 70% of the world’s estimated 850 billion tons of coal reserves in 2006 came from north america, russia, china, and india (caillé et al., 2007). shafiee and topal (2009) predict that the world’s deposits of coal, natural gas, and crude oil will drop dramatically in less than 150 years if production and consumption trends continue to be relatively stable. petroleum, coal, and gas accounted for more than 84% of the world’s energy consumption in 2019, when there were over 8 billion people on the planet; global energy consumption at the time was close to 600 exajoules (kober et al., 2020). hence, it is not shocking that höök and tang (2013) identified that annual global production of crude oil in 2010 was estimated at 85 million barrels per day, while that of natural gas and coal was put at 2900 million tonnes of oil equivalent (mtoe) in the same year. the issue of depleting global fossil fuel reserves is further compounded by the pernicious environmental consequences caused by consistent land and water pollution, as well as persistent release of greenhouse gases (ghgs) into the atmosphere, particularly throughout the 20th century (nwankwo, 2021). in many parts of europe, energy data collected in 2016 and 2017 have implicated fossil fuels in the prevalence of global warming, as well as water and air pollution, which in turn has perniciously affected human and environmental health (martins et al., 2019). according to armaroli and balzani (2011), worldwide costs of fossil fuels’ impact on the climate pa ge 10 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 104-112, 2025 could reach $750 billion by the end of 2011; non-climatic costs on the environment and human health as a result of prolonged fossil fuel dependence were also close to $150 billion within the same period. nigeria, the most populous country in africa with a population of over 1500 million, is also the continent’s second-largest producer of crude oil, with an average of over 1 million barrels produced per day in 2023 (sasu, 2023). figure 1 shows a map of nigeria and her major oil and gas fields. figure 1: map of nigeria showing its major oil and gas fields source: worldview, 2013 with more than 39 billion cubic meters of natural gas produced in 2022 alone, nigeria is the third-largest producer in africa, making it a significant producer of natural gas (galal, 2023). also, research from enerdata (2023) shows that as of the first quarter of 2023, nigeria’s proven crude oil reserves are projected to be close to 40 billion barrels. therefore, nigeria’s huge natural gas reserves make the country an important player in the energy transition era, considering that natural gas has been determined as a vital energy source that will substitute coal and crude oil, before renewable energy systems become more affordable and widespread (werner & lazaro, 2023). materials and methods the study focused on the nigerian oil and gas industry in an era of energy transition, by analysing the activities of totalenergies’ in nigeria. data collection for the study involved an exploratory research design, where secondary data from existing literature on energy transition in the oil and gas sector was analyzed. in doing this, the main themes of the study focus on the nigerian oil and gas industry in an era of energy transition, were applied. furthermore, the exploratory approach used was streamlined towards analyzing the activities of totalenergies in nigeria. according to olawale et al. (2023), an exploratory research design is applicable when the intentions are to examine a problem that has not been well-theorized; the exploration here looks at shedding new light on the research problem for a better understanding of the issues therein. since the dynamics in the oil and gas sector in nigeria during an era of energy transition are not very clear, an exploratory research design adopted for the present study seems appropriate. the exploratory research approach focused on three main areas: (1) the complexities of interests during iocs’ operations in nigeria, (2) challenges to energy transition in nigeria’s oil and gas sector, and (3) strategies for nigerian iocs during the energy transition. covering about 9% of nigeria’s oil and gas sectoral goings-on, totalenergies ep nigeria limited (tepng) is a critical stakeholder in oil and gas exploration and marketing (energy focus reports, 2021). tepng is a subsidiary of totalenergies, a french international oil company (ioc) originally known as compagnie française des pétroles (cfp), founded in 1924, which was later known as total (sassi, 2006). the company was rebranded, and its name was changed to ‘totalenergies’ in 2021 to reflect its intention and agenda to key into the global calls to move away from fossil fuels to more renewable and environmentally-friendly energy sources. pa ge 10 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 104-112, 2025 with the rebranding programme, totalenergies is now focusing on three key underlying factors: mitigating carbon emissions throughout all totalenergies’ operations by avoiding them in the first instance, modifying all totalenergies’ operations by enhancing energy efficiency by providing more funds for research, compensating the environment for harm caused by totalenergies’s previous operations, and promoting initiatives aimed at reducing the company’s carbon footprint (totalenergies se, 2022). to position itself as a significant player in the supply of renewable energy in the years to come, totalenergies is broadening its operations in nigeria in line with these objectives. even though these programs are very plausible, the actions of totalenergies have not demonstrated that these programs will be fully implemented. for example, the company, while showing a facade that is more interested in fostering renewable energy and investing in natural gas as a transition fuel, the company fairly recently commenced offshore crude oil extraction activities in amenam and ikike, both located inside nigeria’s oil mining licence (oml) 99 region. according to offshore reports (2022), the amenam and ikike oil fields will produce roughly 60,000 barrels of crude oil per day. figure 2 shows assets and oil mining fields operated by totalenergies as may 2023. figure 2: assets and oil fields operated by totalenergies in nigeria source: world oil, 2023 results and discussion nigeria’s oil and gas exploration efforts have been marked by a great deal of estrangement between host communities in the niger-delta oil-rich region and other all other parties involved, particularly iocs and members of the country’s political elite. years of disregard and widespread nepotism in nigeria’s oil and gas industry have left the indigenous people of the host towns mentally and environmentally degraded. agbonifo (2022) claims that oil and gas operations in the niger delta have exacerbated ethical decline to the point where poverty, prostitution, drug addiction, kidnappings, armed robberies, high unemployment, agitation among young people, and poverty are widespread. some oil and gas producing communities are plagued with perennial oil spills and gas leaks, which cause significant environmental pollution and degradation. for instance, decades of oil and gas exploration destroyed farmlands, waterbodies, fish stocks, and forest resources in ogoniland in rivers state, which rendered many residents and indigenes of the area jobless and impoverished (sam & zabbey, 2018). given that oil and gas exploration activities are known for requiring low manpower, the conditions of people living in oil and gas producing communities are worsened by environmental pollution, which significantly debilitates their chances of making a decent living. in addition, alternative livelihood opportunities to cushion the negative economic effects of oil and gas exploration on the affected populace have not been adequately provided by government authorities and other stakeholders. to make matters worse, efforts made towards remediating these polluted sites have been ineffective. according to nwoma and anyika (2024), pa ge 10 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 104-112, 2025 remediation activities aimed at mitigating oil-polluted domains in ogoniland have been slow, with only 10 polluted sites successfully remediated out of over 300 acres of polluted land identified by the united nations environment program (unep) report on environmental pollution in ogoni. furthermore, iocs and the federal government have not provided the required funds despite launching a cleanup exercise since june 2016. in light of this, omeje (2013) reports that a large number of locals who struggle to make ends meet due to the actions of iocs such as totalenergies have moved to cities to avoid the difficulties they encounter in their hometowns. in the same vein, geopolitical machinations have long hampered the operations of iocs like totalenergies in nigeria, which in turn, distorts the equitability in sharing revenue from the country’s oil and gas activities. nonetheless, nigeria maintains a centralized structure of governance where a few individuals hold power and decide the economic future of the country. omeje (2013) contends that the federal government of nigeria regulates the operations of iocs through a joint venture arrangement in which the government owns 60% of the share and iocs take the remaining 40%. yet, because of widespread corruption and despotism, oil and gas revenue which the nigerian government is supposed to apply in meeting the socio-economic, as well as environmental needs of oil and gas host communities, has not been allotted appropriately. the table shows that nigeria has made over 900 billion naira (about 582 million us dollars in 2025) as profit with the timeframe. table 1: revenue from oil and gas resource extraction in nigeria (2022 2023) description 2022 2023 total domestic crude oil receipts 329.3 billion 58.4 billion 387.7 billion revenue from crude oil exports 23.05 billion 23.05 billion federation crude oil profits 94.9 billion 94.9 billion nnpcl dividend 407 billion 407 billion revenue from gas exports 6.2 billion 6.2 billion total 329.3 billion 589.6 billion 918.9 billion source: neiti report, 2024 the 2024 report of the nigeria extractive industry transparency initiative (neiti) indicate that over 480 million barrels of crude oil were lifted in nigeria in 2023, with about 7.5 million barrels of crude stolen within the same period, while more than 22 billion dollars was realized as revenue from oil and gas sales in 2023 alone (ochonu, 2024). despite huge annual revenue from the oil and gas industry, nigeria’s economy is still facing a lot of hurdles concerning poverty reduction and employment creation. on the side of government, millions of nigerian children are not in school while existing schools are not well-equipped; healthcare provision even at the primary level is below standard. iocs operating in nigeria are also complicit in the corrupt practices prevalent in the oil and gas sector. according to akoji and adetunji (2024), allegations have been made on bribes paid to government officials by parties representing the interests of some iocs, to favour their purchase or renewal of ‘juicy’ oil prospecting and mining licences in different locations in the niger delta region of nigeria. to make matters worse, many iocs are perceived as subservient to government agents by collaborating with them in either under-reporting oil and gas extraction volumes or outrightly making away with huge quantities of extracted resources, a scenario generally termed as ‘oil thief ’ (ejiogu et al., 2019). moreover, iocs like totalenergies that operate within the nigerian territory are owned by western countries who have been accused of perpetrating and benefitting from the ‘resource curse’ paradox in african countries, hence they may not have the interest of the host communities at heart (oduyemi et al., 2021). moreover, military coups in three former french colonies (mali, niger and burkina faso) within the last three years have created a negative perception of french companies like totalenergies by many people in the west african region, who may perceive france as a neocolonial agent who is only here to perpetrate her economic and geopolitical interests in the region. according to kohnert (2022), france has continued to exert economic control over francophone countries in west africa through monetary policy and central banking for these countries in paris. therefore, french iocs like totalenergies may be seen as an agent positioned to implement the economic preponderance of france over the west african sub-continent. according to onuoha and elegbede (2018), price mechanisms for accruable revenue from nigeria’s oil and gas are completely out of the country’s control, a clear demonstration of the problem of proprietary interests, especially concerning price determination. consequently, regulating the price of oil and gas resources is advantageous for western countries that own the majority of iocs. the problem of petrol-rich countries like nigeria not being in full control of oil and gas prices is made worse by the us dollar being the base currency for determining oil and gas prices in the international market (muhammad et al., 2024). this, in turn, denigrates local currencies and may prevent the local economy from reaping the full financial rewards of oil and gas exports (shang & hamori, 2021). instead of fulfilling the promises made on repackaging their operations to focus more on renewable energy systems, totalenergies appears to be strategically and pa ge 10 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 104-112, 2025 intentionally increasing its crude oil output. despite totalenergies’ statements that they will focus on the production of biogas energy [which can help reduce nigeria’s electricity deficit] from organic waste in nigeria, the company has not yet started the process. furthermore, plans for integrating its activities in nigeria into this plan for the transition to clean energy sources have not moved forward significantly. however, totalenergies have also made some impact in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, though not in nigeria. for instance, the company’s participation in tree planting initiatives such as the batéké plateaux project in the congo republic, where more than 30 million trees are to be planted, is commendable. this is because these trees have the potential to absorb more than 450,000 tons of carbon dioxide, thereby reducing atmospheric ghgs (totalenergies se, 2022). in keeping with her goal and the company’s energy transition plan of becoming one of the top five renewable energy companies in the world, totalenergies is hoping to invest about $60 billion in several renewable energy projects across nigeria within the next decade (tena, 2021). in addition, the company plans to install solar systems in all 540 totalenergies’ service stations across nigeria, with about 77 of them already solarised (asowata, 2021). however, only time will tell if these laudable renewable energy programmes can be achieved and are not mere rhetoric. challenges to energy transition in nigeria’s oil and gas sector initiatives instituted by totalenergies to transform from ghgs to more renewable energy systems appear quite realistic; however, the company finds it challenging to completely achieve this goal for obvious reasons. host communities in nigerian oil-producing regions primarily rely on royalties from the government and projects from the corporate social responsibilities (csr) of iocs. also, nwankwo (2021) posits that because oil and gas operations utilize a minimal labour force, unlike other extractive industrial setups, residents might not be able to find fulfilling jobs in the industry. low manpower requirement in the oil and gas industry is a serious issue that affects the welfare of communities in oil and gasproducing areas. unlike agriculture, food processing, and manufacturing, among other sectors that require a lot of workforce to create products, oil and gas exploration and extraction need fewer hands. according to okwelum (2022), unemployment in nigeria has remained as high as 33 percent, with the oil and gas industry accounting for less than 2 percent of the nigerian workforce. also, the iocs have not prioritised technological transfer for nigerian employees despite efforts made by the nigerian government to improve local content in the oil and gas sector. currently, nigeria has the petroleum technology development fund (ptdf) and the nigerian content development and monitoring board (ncdmb), which were established to protect local interest, particularly concerning manpower development. however, there are no modalities to ensure that individuals trained under the ptdf are directly transferred to man strategic positions in the local operations of iocs like totalenergies in nigeria. etuk (2023) posits that many iocs are reluctant to transfer technological know-how to nigerian operators due to copyright issues and the protection of intellectual property laws in their country of origin. also, some iocs may feel that transferring technology to local manpower will negatively affect their relevance and profit margins from their nigerian operations. these issues are further compounded by deficiencies in the work environment, which can lower overall manpower productivity in the oil and gas sector. taiwo (2010), in evaluating how work environment affects productivity in the nigerian oil and gas sector, identified that many oil and gas workers in lagos, nigeria, are not satisfied with the level of conduciveness of their work environment and feel that improved welfare and remuneration will significantly enhance their productivity in the workplace. even though many stakeholders are aware of the dynamics in the global energy market, with respect to calls for energy transition from fossil fuels to renewables, there is still confusion as regards not only what needs to be done, but also the timeline needed for such a transition in nigeria. according to oruwari et al. (2024a), even though the global energy market is gradually divesting towards sustainable energy systems, nigeria’s oil and gas is still in a quandary due to a lack of cohesion among policymakers, investors and key energy players in deciding the best approach for nigeria’s energy transition. due to the plethora of issues affecting the operations of nigerian oics, providing the required modalities to realise energy transition from fossil fuels to renewables in nigeria is not readily available and implemented. to make matters worse, the nigerian government has not provided the needed direction for iocs like totalenergies to follow, in terms of transitioning from fossil fuels to renewable energy systems. whereas iocs like totalenergies have a lot of possibilities in the energy transition age to offer sustainable energy options, their integrity and sense of purpose is weak because they are more focused on increasing the revenue they make from oil and gas. to illustrate this stance, totalenergies’ increased intensification towards oil and gas exploration in nigeria’s coastal waters, as opposed to diversifying to renewable energy (oredola, 2021). in addition, many iocs are more concerned with profit-making to satisfy shareholders, as opposed to making the necessary sacrifices needed for a successful energy transition in nigeria. even though totalenergies has been making promises about ending routine gas flaring in its oil platform for years, it is yet to do so, though it hopes to stop gas flaring by the end of 2023 (chukwu, 2023). also, nigerian government hopes to end gas flaring by 2035 through commercialisation of gas flaring sites in more than 40 locations in the niger delta, by auctioning them to preferred bidders (enerdata, 2023a). since the vast majority of the local population is employed as farmers, hunters, and fishermen, decades of ongoing pa ge 10 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 104-112, 2025 oil and gas exploration by iocs have severely degraded delicate ecosystems in nigeria’s niger delta region by destroying arable land, contaminating streams and rivers, and annihilating plants and animals (okotie et al., 2018). additionally, because they do not directly benefit from these resources—which many view as a resource curse, endemic nepotism and dishonesty within nigeria’s oil and sector have severely undermined moral values among indigenous people of oil and gas producing communities in the niger delta. according to babatunde et al. (2018), many niger delta youths involve in illegal petroleum refining, kidnapping, and vandalism of oil and gas facilities because they have lost most reliable sources of livelihood, as a result of the resource curse from petroleum resource extraction. according to felix (2024), ineffective policy direction for an energy transition era, prevalence of oil spills and gas flaring, which cause environmental pollution, are the major challenges currently bedevilling nigeria’s oil and gas sector. therefore, it is not surprising that nigeria’s inadequacy in natural gas storage infrastructure and limited penetration of the local natural gas market are fundamental setbacks to nigeria achieving a low-carbon future and transition to using mostly renewable energy systems (oruwari et al., 2024b). in a similar spirit, iocs would be reluctant to commit the necessary funds to switch nigeria’s energy source from fossil fuels to clean energy sources. this could be due to overbearingness of nigerian security agents in the oil-rich niger delta area, which dissuades foreign investment essential for achieving nigeria’s energy transition (akomolafe, 2024). strategies for nigerian iocs during an era of energy transition iocs must implement a workable plan that will enable them to sustain their economic sustainability and commercial relevance in the twenty-first century, considering the significance of the energy transition to sustainable energy availability in the future. therefore, figure 1 outlines the suggested tactics that can be used. the essence of these strategies is to provide a clear approach to the energy transition process without causing significant economic drawbacks on the nigerian oil and gas sector. figure 3: strategies for economic practicality during an era of energy transition in order to improve economic viability during the energy transition, four strategies have been recommended. in accordance with the vested interests of all stakeholders affected by oil and gas activities, iocs need to succeed in the energy transition era. all over the world, the use of a ‘transition fuel’ like natural gas, with less pollution potential, has been introduced to bridge the gap, pending increased commercialisation of renewable energy systems. in terms of energy transition in brazil, the government is pursuing a decarbonisation policy where more investments in renewable energy in the oil and gas sector, as well as the electricity sector (werner & lazaro, 2023). according to ume et al. (2024), the nigerian government offers incentives such as renewable energy investment tax credits for investors in renewable energy projects, the renewable energy development fund (redf), and concessionary import duty rates for renewable energy equipment for importers. these pa ge 11 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 104-112, 2025 incentives are among others. in order to make these incentives work, there is a need for a paradigm shift aimed at overhauling economic, social, environmental, cultural, political, and technological regulations, so as to sustain a viable energy transition in nigeria. consequently, the government’s strategies to reduce habitual gas flaring should be meticulously followed, so as to significantly reduce how it affects environmental health. in addition, the interests of all stakeholders need to establish a supportive environment, develop and implement environmentally friendly guidelines, and secure additional funding for the growth of sustainable energy systems like solar and wind power. production of fossil fuels is the responsibility of iocs like totalenergies, who are expected to discourage new oil exploration activities but focus more on gas production, given that natural gas is fundamental in the global energy transition (galal, 2023). according to oruwari et al. (2024b), natural gas is an important transition fuel, which nigeria currently has over 200 trillion cubic feet of gas deposits; realizing the potentials of natural gas as a transition fuel depends on provision of adequate infrastructure and funding that not only improves local gas demand and supply, but all reduces nigeria’s carbon footprint, thereby mitigating climate change. also, iocs are expected to make more investments in fulfilling their responsibilities towards improving development in host communities. according to nigeria’s energy transition plan, it is also anticipated that iocs will use their earnings to fund renewable energy projects (etp nigeria, 2022). because sustainable energy systems require a lot of labor and maintenance staff, it is anticipated that environmental pollution will be greatly reduced as they gradually replace fossil fuels as the world’s energy sources (martins et al., 2019). additionally, more job opportunities will be created. in a similar vein, it is anticipated that more job generation, the affordability of cleaner energy systems, and increased social responsibility programs will go a long way in promoting a better quality of life for nigerians in general and niger deltans in particular. conclusion nigeria has an essential part to play in the energy transition era because of her enormous reserves of natural gas and crude oil. the world is calling for a shift away from greenhouse gas-producing fossil fuels to more sustainable and cleaner energy sources because we are steadily running out of fossil fuel deposits due to the exponential growth in human population. we are also facing serious negative environmental and human health effects, such as pollution, climate change, and the prevalence of diseases and ailments linked to pollution, all of which have a significant financial cost to the global economy. an important participant in nigeria’s oil and gas industry, totalenergies is a significant ioc. although totalenergies changed its name to diversify their activities to reduce their carbon footprint by focusing on sustainable energy systems per the global energy transition strategy, they have not invested heavily in renewable energy in nigeria. instead, the business has increased its pursuit of petroleum deposits, which is a major contributor to ghgs. therefore, it is clear that there is a disparity between host communities and other oil and gas industry participants. this has sustained geopolitical issues, as regards how the energy transition era will be affected by petroleum prices [especially natural gas] going forward. injustice, cronyism, failure to fulfil social responsibility commitments, ongoing regular gas flaring, kidnappings and general insecurity have made it difficult for iocs to live up to the demanding standards set by the energy transition phase. thus, it has been suggested that a fourpronged strategy be used, with political and regulatory actors fulfilling their responsibilities, iocs concentrating on natural gas production instead of crude oil, all stakeholders increasing their investments in sustainable energy sources, and ultimately bringing prosperity and sustainability to host communities. in light of this, it is advised that iocs put in greater effort to implement the renewable energy investment plan within the allotted period. this will significantly increase the likelihood that sustainable energy systems will be given due consideration during an era of global energy transition. additionally, to reduce environmental contamination and enhance general environmental health, host communities’ concerns should be taken into account during all decision-making processes. also, the government should create an enabling environment that will encourage more investors to come into nigeria’s gas sector. these investments can focus on gas liquefaction to reduce gas flaring and building more gas pipeline infrastructure across nigeria. furthermore, more regulatory mechanisms should be instituted that mandate iocs to compulsorily transfer modern technological know-how to nigerian employees. this can be achieved by reviewing the joint venture agreements nigeria has signed with iocs and ensuring that local regulators like ptdf and ncdmb effectively enforce these regulatory directives. references agbonifo, p. e. 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(2013, april 9). dwindling international interest in nigeria’s onshore oil fields. stratfor. https://worldview.stratfor.com/article/dwindlinginternational-interest-nigerias-onshore-oil-fields pa ge 1 pa ge 15 0 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) barriers to adoption of energy-efficient hvac systems in middle-class households in pakistan muhammad awais javed1*, usman latif2, muhammad sajjad3 volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v4i1.5433 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: may 22, 2025 accepted: june 30, 2025 published: august 25, 2025 buildings and additional structures utilize a significant helping of the energy in the sphere. hvac systems are mostly responsible for building energy use in middle class households in pakistan. this study proposes a simulation-based optimization approach for efficiently measuring hvac systems choices in the early design stages to get the optimal configuration in middle class households in pakistan. this strategy is applied establishing hvac systems in middle class households in pakistan. the ventilated dunkel cycle performs better than the other two designs for high cop systems in all three climate zones; nevertheless, ventilation is the superior choice in middle class households in pakistan. systematic simulations can help with the difficult process of optimizing hvac systems designs in middle class households in pakistan. this invention will assist hvac systems design are selecting the optimal systems configuration and design parameters during the early design phase by accounting for various middle-class households in pakistan. keywords energy systems, hvac system, middle class households’ buildings, pakistan,ventilated dunkel cycle 1 uschool of business, los angeles, international american university, main campus los angeles, 90010, ca, usa 2 head of engineering department, bunny’s limited lahore pakistan 3 head of operations, ajrd organization lahore pakistan * corresponding author’s e-mail: dr.mawaisjaved@gmail.com introduction as global temperatures rise, pakistan is experiencing longer and more intense heat waves. middle class households increasingly rely on hvac systems for cooling, leading to higher electricity consumption, frequent power shortages, and growing carbon emissions. although energy-efficient hvac systems technologies— such as inverter air conditioners, smart thermostats, and solar-assisted cooling systems—are available, their adoption remains limited among middle-class households. despite their potential for reducing energy bills and environmental impact, energy-efficient hvac systems are not widely adopted in pakistan’s middle-class neighborhoods. optimization of traditional setups and introduction of efficient innovation of hvac systems utilizing renewable energy resources is one approach to the problem (mcquiston et al., 2000). most of the expansion is taking place in developing nations that are not members of the oecd, particularly in asia. pakistan and other developing nations accounted for 44% of total energy consumption in 2006–07. by 2030, home energy use will have nearly doubled and accounted for the lion’s share of total energy consumption. however, by 2030, it could only account for 32% of total final energy in middle class households (ellis & mathews, 2002). growth in population, enhancement of comfort demand, global climate change, and time spent inside buildings anticipated the growing trend of energy consumption in building industry. the middle-class household’s residential energy demand is anticipated to expand at an average pace of 1.1% per year from 2008 to 2035. similarly, the growth in commercial sector is predicted to expand at an average rate of 1.5% each year from 2008 to 2035 (eia, 2012). therefore, due to increasing energy needs, pricing, and environmental challenges, the developed nations are focused on buildings sector as the biggest opportunity for energy savings (bpie, 2011). the buildings energy demands are the major cause of considerable rise in the power consumption due to rising space heating, cooling, ventilation, and refrigeration requirements in middle class households in pakistan (iea, 2009). energy usage in buildings is closely associated with energy needs of hvac systems in middle class households in pakistan. hvac is the greatest energy end use both in the residential and non-residential sector. the air-conditioning is responsible for 10% to 60% of the overall building energy usage, depending on the building type (ellis & mathews, 2002). in developed countries, hvac systems are the most energy consuming devices, accounting for about 10–20% of final energy use (perez-lombard et al., 2008). the hvac systems configuration is a conceptual design of hvac systems including the active components, airflow set-up, and the control strategies with set points. selection of hvac systems configuration is typically decided in the early stage of the design process in middle class households in pakistan. the design phase of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning hvac systems in a new building facility presents the greatest opportunity for energy savings. when compared to the cost of upgrading an old building with an efficient hvac system, it is typically more costeffective to install energy-efficient heating, ventilation, and air conditioning business equipment during the construction of a structure (galitsky, 2007). this study seeks to identify the economic, social, technical, and informational barriers that prevent widespread uptake pa ge 15 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 150-157, 2025 in middle class households in pakistan. the study is investigating the economic, cultural, and informational factors which are used to prevent households from switching to efficient cooling technologies in middle class households in pakistan. to identify key factors influencing consumer choices in hvac systems among urban middle-income households. to analyze barrier to adopt energy-efficient hvac technologies in middle class households in pakistan. to assess awareness levels about energy-efficient options and long-term cost savings. to propose targeted policy and market-based interventions that could boost adoption in middle class households in pakistan. this study addresses the intersection of climate adaptation, energy equity, and behavioural economics, offering practical solutions to reduce energy consumption and improve resilience to rising temperatures in middle class households in pakistan. in order to evaluate the suggested strategy for the selection of optimal hvac systems configuration through the use of a real chilled water systems, the goal is to establish an incremental simulation-based optimization methodology for the purpose of designing a chilled water system. the study provides the literature review to resolve the cost concerns, trust in new tech, lack of awareness, and installation challenges in middle class households in pakistan. the results reveal that the clear insight into why middle-class households hesitate to switch to efficient cooling systems. recommendations for policy makers, energy companies, and ngos to design targeted incentives in middle class households in pakistan. literature review modelling techniques for hvac components, modelling approaches for hvac control, and modelling approaches for hvac systems are the three categories that may be used to classify the many modelling approaches for hvac in middle class households in pakistan. in addition, the methodologies for solving the hvac systems simulation model is categorized as simultaneous modular solution, independent modular solution, and equation-based solution employing manipulation (trcka & hensen, 2010). within the realm of hvac modelling, there were a number of studies conducted at the component, control, and systems levels in middle class households in pakistan. at the component level, models of airand water-cooled chillers were constructed in trnsys in order to analyze the performance of these chillers using a variety of control techniques (wang et al., 2004). in a similar manner, simpler models of cooling coil units (jin et al., 2007) and cooling towers (wu et al., 2007) were constructed for the purpose of controlling and optimizing hvac systems in middle class households in pakistan. in another study, component models of an axial fan, air filter, and duct for a ventilation unit were constructed in simulink for the purpose of analyzing the performance of the constant airflow management scheme (bertagnolio et al., 2008). at the systems level, a combined building-hvac systems model was provided. this model included representations of both the building zone and the hvac equipment. it was demonstrated that the model might be useful for conducting energy audits of commercial buildings (beccali, 2008). in order to assess the efficacy of desiccant and solar cooling systems, a number of desiccant wheel models were created. to forecast the performance of three distinct kinds of desiccant wheels made with various kinds of solid desiccants, a psychrometric model for desiccant wheels was created (nia et al., 2006). additionally, a modelling and simulation method for desiccant wheels was introduced in simulink for a parametric analysis of desiccant wheels. simple correlations between the outlet air conditions and physically quantifiable input variables were developed using the modelling solutions (haddad et al., 2008). another research showed simulation models of a hybrid hvac systems that combined a desiccant cooling systems with a traditional vapour compression system. the hybrid systems’ ability to reduce power was examined using the models in middle class households in pakistan (zhang, 2005). typically, each simulation’s static variables are set systems design parameters. these kinds of issues include the design of building envelopes, hvac systems and components, ducting and hydraulic systems, and lighting in middle class households in pakistan (zogou & stamatelos, 2007). over the past 10 years, a lot of research has been done on optimization approaches based on hvac models. transsystemsic was used to optimize the thermal performance of a ground source heat pump systems in order to lower the energy expenses associated with heating and cooling the building in middle class households (zogou & stamatelos, 2007). hvac systems were also optimized and controlled in real time using the created cooling coil unit and cooling tower models (bertagnolio et al., 2008). in a similar vein, established component models were used to optimize the entire hvac systems globally (lu et al., 2005). for the best water-cooled chiller and cooling tower combination, another optimization study was conducted in middle class households. condenser water flow rate, cooling tower approach, and wet bulb design were identified as critical characteristics for maximizing systems life cycle costs and performance (furlong & morrison, 2005). comparing the packed direct expansion strategy to traditional control measures, significant savings were expected (huh & brandemuehl, 2008). a particle swarm optimization technique was used to solve an integrated energy optimization model of an hvac systems in middle class households (kusiak et al., 2010). an additional systems optimization using a dynamic neural net study led to a 30% reduction in energy consumption in middle class households hvac systems (kusiak & xu, 2012). materials and methodology to address various characteristics in the initial design phases and reduce energy requirements, model-based systems evaluations are extensively employed, especially in the construction industry in middle class households pa ge 15 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 150-157, 2025 in pakistan. utilizing appropriate model-based simulation and optimization tools facilitates the evaluation of various hvac systems solutions in middle class households in pakistan. modelling and simulation of hvac systems designs an automated simulation-based optimization method is introduced in this study to automatically choose the best hvac systems configuration. the systems deliver high-quality indoor conditions with minimal expense and environmental effect when configured optimally in middle class households in pakistan. modelica/ dymola is used to develop the equation-based objectoriented modelling and simulation technique, and the combination of modelica/dymola with genopt guarantees the automated selection of the best hvac systems. there are major and secondary components in the hvac systems model. a “component model” in building systems simulation is a computer model of a basic hvac systems in middle class households in pakistan. each component model in modelica is visually represented by an icon made up of a collection of distinct equations. additionally, each component model represents a real hvac (cooling tower, boiler, chiller) business device model with physical interface ports to connection them to other component models. in order to represent an entire hvac system, different components are coupled together via these interface ports in middle class households in pakistan. various formations are included in the overall hvac systems model. the design specifications, which specify the group of parts and their relationships, serve as the foundation for the model. the generated model’s component models are all precisely proportioned to satisfy the necessary building load requirements. to mimic their performance in terms of energy consumption, the model’s potential configurations are then changed based on a predetermined criterion. inputs of hvac systems model design load and cooling/heating load profiles are important for hvac systems optimization and assessment. the building’s load profile specifies the load’s temporal fluctuation, whereas the design load details the total installed systems capacity, which includes cooling towers, chillers, pumps, and pipes. in addition, important hvac systems in particular need a load profile for effective systems design and staging. all of the design decisions, such as the chillers’ unloading strategies, the cooling towers’ and pumps’ use of variable frequency drives, and the equipment’s relative sizes, are part of the staging process. climate, operating hours, base loads, and other variables all have an impact on the building load profile in middle class households in pakistan. a number of factors, including external factors, the building’s exterior, internal heat gains, and ventilation needs, go into estimating peak load demands in middle class households in pakistan. the peak load needs are determined using a variety of methods, including calculations/simulations, site measurements, and general guidelines in middle class households in pakistan. techniques for creating a model of hvac company systems configurations the primary goal of this research is to develop a method for automatically choosing the best hvac systems configuration during the design phase in middle class households in pakistan. various hvac systems configurations will be evaluated as part of the job. consequently, it is critical to create a physical model of the systems that can mimic various hvac systems in middle class households in pakistan. furthermore, for optimal performance at both the systems configuration and design levels, the model should be able to change the critical design parameters of the component models simultaneously. two options for creating such a systems model were identified following an exhaustive examination of dymola/modelica in middle class households in pakistan. initial approach: declaring component models conditionally models of individual subsystems make up the hvac systems as a whole. the many physical components of an hvac systems, like as pumps, chillers, boilers, and cooling towers, are each represented by a separate model. the development of the overall model is accomplished by carefully linking these sub-component models together using connectors that extend from their individual interface ports. the first approach uses conditional declarations in the systems model to include subcomponent models. both the building’s load needs and the weather have a role in the conditional declaration in middle class households in pakistan. but, to avoid errors, the model as a whole has to keep an even number of equations and unknown variables throughout the process. a modelica function called “read-real-parameter” and a package called “external data” are used to apply the approach in dymola/modelica. importing the function from the modelica standard library into the overall hvac systems model is necessary for model development in middle class households in pakistan. along with the name of the external file where these characters are created and given suitable values, certain characters need to be declared as parameters in the overall model. such symbols could represent hvac systems design and configuration characteristics. it is essential that the external file adheres to the specified specifications for the component model variation in terms of configuration and design parameters, with appropriate values supplied. the right usage of these configuration parameters with each subcomponent model using an if statement followed by the suitable logical condition is necessary for the conditional declaration of sub-component models. systems sizing for hvac systems systems configuration and sizing are closely connected in pa ge 15 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 150-157, 2025 hvac systems in middle class households in pakistan. the hvac systems model and its component models must be correctly designed to meet building load needs in middle class households in pakistan. the current study’s hvac systems configuration optimization technique may change systems configuration and design parameters. this paper proposes two techniques to connect configuration and size problems during hvac systems model development. any component model in modelica can have variable component sizes by changing its design parameters. the hvac systems setup and sizing approach depends on how component design characteristics may be modified. the first technique is to create an hvac systems model that uses the same component model in different sizes for a specific application. the ideal component size may be established by simulating all component model sizes. if a component model (cm) comes in three sizes, it will be used three times in the systems model. for an application, all three choices are simulated, and the cm with optimum performance displays the ideal component size and is selected. one cm can be employed in the systems model in the second method. creating a record of all three component sizes allows for implementation. to find the best component size, the sizing choices can be connected to the cm repeatedly throughout simulation. simulation of hvac systems model the development of an hvac systems model involves implementing a way to automatically modify systems settings in middle class households in pakistan. the simulation technique involves model experiments to anticipate its behaviour under actual settings. this study uses dymola/modelica for hvac systems modelling and simulation. dymola is powerful for charting, animation, and experimentation. it has two modes: modelling for systems model creation and simulation for model experiments. simulation mode includes setup, plot, animation, and variable browser. the simulation setup has three basic groups: simulation, output, and integration. refining the setup of cooled water systems the majority of the energy consumed by hvac systems is produced by the chilled water systems, which comprise the main components of these systems, including chillers, cooling towers, and pumps. the potential for hvac systems to save energy may be greatly increased by optimizing chilled water during the early design stage. but optimizing a chilled water systems isn’t a simple feat, especially when it comes to optimizing the systems’ configuration or architecture. the method becomes more intricate when both tiers are used together. moreover, the research details a strategy for optimizing chilled water systems designs that has undergone incremental evolution. before optimizing the systems design in its entirety, the best practice design criteria are confirmed by first experimenting with the configuration parameters of the systems under fixed design conditions. in order to determine the best configuration for the systems, the simulation-based optimization method combines the genopt generic optimization tool with the dynamic modelling and simulation application dymola/modelica. in order to test and replicate various chilled water systems setups, a dynamic systems model is created. using five design factors, the chilled water systems may be optimized at both the design and configuration levels. the layout of the systems is affected by two independent variables: the quantity of chillers and cooling towers. the demand for building loads, the temperature differential across the condenser, and the speed of the cooling tower fan are three other continuous factors that are relevant to the design of the systems. description of the chilled water systems the systems are comprised of three chillers of identical size, each with a cooling capacity of 2725 kw (775 tonnes), as shown in table 1. five identically sized draw-through cross-flow cooling tower cells, each with a capacity of around 76 l/s (1200 gpm), make up the systems. table 1: specifications of the investigated chilled water systems compressor type centrifugal nominal cooling capacity kw [tons] 2725 [775] nominal compressor power kw [tons] 446.4 [127] minimum cooling capacity kw [tons] 457 [130] design cop 6.1 design chilled water supply/return temperature oc[of] 6.7/12.2 [44/54] design chilled water flow rate l/s [gpm] 57 [900] design condenser water entering temperature oc[of] 29.4 [85] design condenser water flow rate l/s [gpm] 111[1760] cooling towers: type draw-through water flow rate l/s [gpm] 76 [1200] fan motor power kw [hp] 18.65 [25] design wet bulb temperature oc[of] 17 [62.6] pa ge 15 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 150-157, 2025 design dry bulb temperature oc[of] 26 [78.8] design approach temperatures oc[of] 8.3[15] design range temperature oc[of] 5.56 [10] pumps: rated power of each chilled water pump kw [hp] 30 [40] rated power of each condenser water pump kw [hp] 19 [25] design range temperature oc[of] 5.56 [10] in a headered configuration, three condenser water pumps of identical capacity are connected; each pump may service one of the chillers or tower cells, and their combined flow rate is 111 l/s (1760 gpm). the motors powering the pumps are 19 kw (25 hp). also headered are three chilled water pumps of identical size, each with a capacity of 57 l/s (900 gpm) and 30 kw (40hp). standard 550/590-2003 of the air conditioning and refrigeration institute (ari) and the test conditions established by the cooling tower institute (cti) form the basis of the design conditions in middle class households in pakistan. the cooling tower model is based on the ashrae standard 90.1-2004 climatic data for san francisco, which states that the design wet bulb temperature is 17oc [63of] and the dry bulb temperature is 26oc [78.8of]. constructing systems economically table 2 details the startup and installation costs of watercooled centrifugal chillers and cooling towers, as well as the cost of piping, fittings, and valves. the computations take into account an anticipated 25% contractor markup. costs associated with chillers, cooling towers, pipes, labour, fittings, and valves needed for effective hydronic design make up the initial cost for each setup. table 2: summary of initial costs description cost/ton € [$] total unit cost € [$] water-cooled centrifugal chiller (nominal 775 tons each) 147 [180] 113925 [139500] chiller installation cost 37 [45] 28370 [34875] cooling tower (nominal 400 tons each) 106 [130] 42400 [52000] cooling tower installation cost 4.1 [5] 1640 [2000] piping/fitting/valve a chilled water side --13015 [16000] b condenser water side --19523 [24000] c adding another chiller in the systems --4393 [5400] d adding another cooling tower in the systems --2440 [3000] contractor markup 25% estimated total baseline cost for 1 chiller and 1 cooling tower 273591[335469] estimated total cost for adding each chiller 183360 [224719] estimated total cost for adding each cooling tower 58100 [71250] nevertheless, the pipe size optimization tool is used to estimate the cost of the chilled water system pipes, fittings, and valves. based on the flow rate for certain piping segments, the tool determines the initial cost of the pipe. also included are the typical types and quantities of valves and fittings utilised in chilled water systems. additionally, we supply the prices of various fittings and valves according to the pipe size. based on the reference systems piping design, the quantity and kind of valves and fittings are determined in this investigation the hvac systems in middle class households in pakistan. optimization procedure total systems power consumption is the goal function in the five-variable design process that optimizes the chilled water systems as a whole. the quantity of chillers (ch) and cooling towers (ct) are two independent design factors. building load demand (qload), temperature differential across the condenser (δt), and cooling tower fan speed (f) are three design factors that are constant. the variables’ bounds are displayed in table 3. a direct search hooke-jeeves (hj) method and a stochastic population-based constriction coefficient algorithm make up the hybrid global optimization algorithm. the main benefit of this algorithm is that, during the global pso search, the likelihood of approaching the global minimum is increased, as opposed to only reaching a local minimum, and the search is then refined locally by the hj algorithm in middle class households in pakistan. table 4 summarizes the gpspsocchj algorithm parameters that were used for the current investigation. pa ge 15 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 150-157, 2025 table 3: design variables and boundaries tower fan speed, f (%) temp. difference condenser side, δt (oc) [of] no. of chiller, ch no. of cooling towers, ct building load qload minimum 0.3 (kw) [tons] 1 3 1055 [300] maximum 1 15 [27] 3 18 7032 [2000] step 0.01 0.01 1 1 initial 1 3 1 3 table 5: optimal values of ptotal and energy use of all strategies (minimum values highlighted) qload (kw [tons]) 1st strategy ptotal (kw) kw/ton 2nd strategy ptotal (kw) kw/ton 3rd strategy ptotal (kw) kw/ton percentage of power saving (%) 7032 [2000] 2757.3 1.37 1808.4 0.9 1557.3 0.78 43.5 5274 [1500] 1498.8 0.99 1178.8 0.78 993.1 0.66 33.8 3516 [1000] 752.7 0.75 706.9 0.71 582.7 0.58 22.6 2461 [700] 479.7 0.68 479.7 0.68 394.9 0.56 17.6 1582 [450] 297.8 0.66 297.8 0.66 240.7 0.53 19.2 1055 [300] 207.4 0.69 207.4 0.69 171.6 0.57 17.3 table 4: optimization algorithm input parameters parameters value neighborhood topology von-neumann neighborhood size 5 number of particles 20 number of generations 5 seed 1 cognitive acceleration 2.8 social acceleration 1.3 max velocity gain continuous 0.5 max velocity discrete 4 constriction gain 0.5 mesh size divider 2 initial mesh size exponent 0 mesh size exponent increment 1 number of step reductions 4 first, a baseline system with no more than five cooling towers and a fixed design temperature difference across the condenser at full fan speed; second, a modified systems with an increased number of cooling towers according to the flow turndown limit; third, a modified systems with varying systems design and configuration parameters; and finally, a methodology is proposed for design optimization of the chilled water systems at the initial design stage in middle class households hvac systems. a systematic method for optimizing chilled water systems designs as a whole is defined by the third strategy, whereas the previous two only validate the simulation models and validate the best practices in the field. the techniques take into account the upfront expenses of equipment, such as cooling towers, pipes, fittings, and valves. it is worth noting that adding more cooling towers and chillers usually lowers the yearly energy costs and payback period. according to table 5, the best methods for the whole systems in terms of power consumption and energy usage (in kw/ton) are shown. the energy consumption figures (kw/ton) are in close accordance with the usual figures for chilled water systems. the improved systems with variable fan speed and temperature differential across the condenser achieves the lowest total power consumption and energy utilization. choosing the right mass flow rates and temperature variations across the condenser is also crucial for chilled water systems performance. to minimize overall systems power consumption, the optimization method based on simulations improves decision-making on the best change of these parameters. when running chilled water systems at their optimal design and configuration settings, significant power savings of 17% to 43.5% relative to the baseline situation are possible. this research used an eoo methodology based on open-source component libraries to build a model of a chilled water systems. in order to optimize hvac systems, it was necessary to experiment with different configurations and design characteristics of individual components in middle class households hvac systems. conclusions from 2009 to 2035, the global demand for energy is expected to rise by over 50%, continuing a trend that began a few decades ago in middle class households in pakistan. about 21% of the world’s total energy requirements are attributable to buildings, making their contribution substantial to overall energy consumption in middle class households in pakistan. in middle class households in pakistan account for around 41% and pa ge 15 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 150-157, 2025 40% of overall energy use. in contrast, buildings account up almost 44% in developing nations like pakistan. the hvac systems that keep the intended comfort levels are the primary contributors to the energy needs of the building. consequently, there is a lot of room for improvement in the building sector’s energy efficiency through the optimization of hvac systems. a great deal of study is on improving hvac systems. this study optimizes hvac systems in all their facets by conducting a thorough literature evaluation in middle class households in pakistan. based on what we can tell from the literature survey, most research focusses on optimizing individual components or operational controls at the systems level, rather than systems configurations analysis. additionally, the best hvac systems configuration could not be determined using any kind of systematic method in middle class households in pakistan. one of the most important things to consider during the first design phase is the ideal configuration of the hvac systems, as this has a major impact on the total energy needs of the building in middle class households in pakistan. when deciding on a systems design for an hvac, it is important to consider not only the hvac systems’ economic and environmental aspects, but also the systems type, the kind and quantity of components, and operational control techniques. various configurations for diverse applications are being developed using components of the hvac systems in middle class households in pakistan. innovative and alternative systems designs make use of renewable energy resources, such as solar air conditioning and desiccant cooling in a variety of forms in middle class households in pakistan. the difficulty of deciding on a suitable design for a given load demand in a given environment was demonstrated by all of these setups. assessment of hvac systems setup and design choices in practice is reliant on the designer’s expertise and experience in middle class households in pakistan. however, the knowledge and abilities of a person or team are sometimes constrained by the competence of the systems that are created. consequently, in order to get the best possible automated selection of hvac systems configuration, a method is created and tested that is based on systematic optimization in middle class households in pakistan. the created method relies on dymola/ modelica, an environment for eoo modelling and simulation that is built on equations. a number of hvac systems’ physical component models make up the eoo modelling and simulation in middle class households in pakistan. future research suggestions based on study and results, the following areas suggest ways to improve the suggested technique. dymola/ modelica’s havc systems component models cannot analyze all hvac systems combinations in middle class households in pakistan. additional contributions are needed to improve the modelica component library. thus, such models must be updated to estimate systems performance in middle class households in pakistan. second modelling requires additional study to upgrade modelica language to automatically modify component model classes. each component class change also affects the parameter assigned values, requiring them to be declared afresh in middle class households in pakistan. references beccali, m., butera, f., guanella, r. a. r. 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(2007). optimization of thermal performance of a building with ground source heat pump system. energy conversion and management, 48(11), 2853-2863. pa ge 1 pa ge 11 8 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) role of public awareness and healthcare in preventing substance abuse: a policy analysis in bangladesh md mehedi hasan1* volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v4i1.5427 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: may 28, 2025 accepted: june 30, 2025 published: july 24, 2025 bangladesh is among several developing countries burdened with substance abuse that is compounded by misinformation, cultural beliefs, and inadequate healthcare access. public perception and consequent exposure to people with substance use disorders have worsened the situation. public awareness and health policy formulation are crucial in developing preventive strategies to address this issue. a study evaluating the impact of public awareness on healthcare in minimizing stigma and maximizing early interventions in bangladesh will be discussed. a quasi-experimental pretest-posttest design was used to study the effectiveness of a national awareness campaign in collaboration with healthcare stakeholders. baseline perceptions of public attitudes were augmented using a structured survey administered in august 2023. subsequently, an extensive awareness campaign was launched across multiple platforms, including community outreach, social media, and healthcare providers. a postcampaign survey was administered to ascertain any changes in awareness and stigma. the community-based seminars and social media-targeted messaging were the most effective strategies. a major proportion of respondents agreed that stigma minimized treatmentseeking. furthermore, data analysis reveals significant changes (p < .05) in recovery belief, provision of treatment support, trust in healthcare providers, and stigmatization of criminal behavior. in conclusion, prioritized frameworks incorporating localized strategies with high cultural competence, healthcare, and societal leaders should be formulated. communal healthcare communication and outreach interventions for mental illness at the community level, reducing stigma in bangladesh. keywords bangladesh, public awareness, substance abuse 1 department of narcotics control, security service division, ministry of home affairs, bangladesh * corresponding author’s e-mail: mehedihasan1147@ yahoo.com introduction drug abuse is becoming a new public health problem in bangladesh. its prevalence is becoming higher among the youth and vulnerable groups (hasan, 2024). although there is growing attention to this issue at the policy level, the country still grapples with social stigma, misinformation, and limited access to only some types of care. these issues result in delayed intervention, poor treatment-seeking behavior, and weak community support networks (negash et al., 2023). substance abuse awareness and healthcare awareness of the public and health care are critically important in the prevention of substance use. however, in the majority of the communities in bangladesh, myths and cultural biases about addiction live on and can result in stigmatizing and discriminating against individuals with sud (inamdar, 2023). this brings with it the associated stigma, which also contributes to poor mental health for those affected and prevents families and the wider community from seeking professional support. the programs and campaigns conducted by government and non-government agencies have been implemented to create a background in which these social ideas are circulated; however, not much research has been done on the effectiveness of their influence on attitudes and stigma reduction (zavyalova, 2025). a well-informed and context-specific health education campaign, facilitated by community-based interventions, can reshape the attitudes of the public, improve community response, and guarantee early access to therapy (ugbor et al., 2024). this paper aims to evaluate the efficacy of combining a media-based public awareness strategy with healthcare engagement in various geographic settings throughout bangladesh. the intention of this policy analysis, which assesses shifts in public opinion and behavior before and after the psa campaign, is to inform scalable strategies and real-world communication that are more effective, contextually relevant, and healthcareintegrated in preventing drug use. literature review substance abuse is generally considered a multidimensional public health problem affecting both individuals and their families and communities (tasfi & mostofa, 2024). across the world, a wide range of responses to this problem has been adopted, from law enforcement to harm reduction. two such well-known and effective approaches to combating substance abuse today are public education and strengthening health systems. one of the strategies used in the past in public health to impact knowledge, attitudes, and health practices, including substance use, has been public education (gilham et al., 2024). these campaigns aim to counter misinformation, minimize stigma, and promote early intervention. guarded public awareness campaigns traditionally utilize mass media; however, community engagement, educational programs, and storytelling are also employed to humanize the problem and generate empathy for individuals with substance use disorders (young et al., pa ge 11 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 118-126, 2025 2024). research from multiple countries indicates that if the message is culturally appropriate and sustained, it increases public understanding and reduces stigma, including the belief that people with drug use disorders are personally responsible or incapable of recovery. a health system is also involved in the prevention and treatment of substance abuse. a robust, well-functioning healthcare infrastructure is well-positioned to deliver services for screening, early diagnosis, counseling, and treatment. coordination of mental health and substance abuse services with primary healthcare improves access to services for populations that may be difficult to reach and ensures the provision of comprehensive care (isaacs & mitchell, 2024). additionally, healthcare professionals are often considered trusted within their community, enabling them to inform patients and direct them to necessary recovery services. capacity development, training, and the integration of addiction education in health care curriculums are required to enable this (newman & swisshelm, 2025). the impact of lower health literacy and stigmatization affects the prevention of drug abuse in bangladesh and similar developed countries, which is constructed by low public awareness and low access to healthcare. some national policies have incorporated the relevance of dr, but it is yet to be enforced enforced (jarre et al., 2024). community-based interventions that combine public education and healthcare-based outreach have shown promise at the local level, with strong backing from both government and non-governmental organizations. the literature also indicates that not all approaches are effective for all populations. there is a prudential need to understand and accommodate regional characteristics, cultural symbols, and health literacy levels to achieve significant results. therefore, even if examining and adapting successful international prevention strategies to bangladeshi settings and investing in public health infrastructure and effective communication strategies, the positive effect of prevention has the possibility of being reinforced in the field of substance abuse. this review reflects the need for public awareness and healthcare delivery to address substance abuse. more context-specific context-specific studies are necessary for bangladesh to assess the impact of such interventions and to inform future policy formulation. materials and methods study design and sample this trial utilized a quasi-experimental pretest-posttest design to test the effect of a public service announcement and healthcare advocacy for stigma reduction and increasing literacy on substance abuse in bangladesh. the pre-intervention survey was conducted in july 2024 to gather baseline information on public attitudes, awareness, and perceptions towards suds. following the pretest, a one-month awareness-raising campaign commenced in august 2023 in the selected urban and semi-urban areas. the campaign involved several components targeting a wide range of communication media, including community workshops, mobile health services, social media, local radio stations, and printed materials (posters, leaflets, and banners), as well as local platforms for airing short educational videos. to maintain steady exposure, participants were provided with a digital awareness toolkit, which included campaign elements (e.g., social media images, fact sheets), testimonial videos, and faqs on substance use and the availability of healthcare services. after the campaign, the same sample was re-contacted at the beginning of september 2024 and requested to complete a posttest questionnaire. the posttest reproduced the design of the pretest to ensure comparability but added a section to capture respondents’ exposure to the different capacities of the campaign and their feedback on content relevance and clarity. participants were enrolled on a voluntary response sampling basis (54) through local ngos, youth organizations, healthcare centers, centers, and university mailing lists. we recruited adult men and women of all educational and socioeconomic levels. participation was completely optional, and no exclusion criteria were applied. consent was obtained digitally from participants prior to their completion of the survey. a minority of subjects were randomly chosen to receive a reward for participating (a mobile data package or shopping voucher) as a small token of appreciation for their time. ethical clearance was obtained from an established institutional ethics committee in bangladesh, and participants were informed about the principles of confidentiality and the process of informed consent. intervention the campaign in august 2024, a multi-media public awareness campaign was rolled out to combat the general stigma and erroneous beliefs about drugs amongst the bangladeshi. substance abuse is preventable and treatable. the campaign’s focus was on generating awareness, empathy, and early intervention by supporting the core message. this message was also uniformly included in all outreach copy and communication channels to build public awareness and establish trust. a mediaand health-oriented approach was applied in the campaign to encourage wide community participation. posters, banners, and billboards placed in prominent areas, such as community clinics, were used as a medium to distribute awareness materials. a series of brief videos featuring testimonies from people in recovery and their relatives were disseminated through social networks, television broadcasts, and youtube. the videos sought to put a human face on recovery and debunk myths and stigma around addiction. educational videos, including animated explainer videos and infographics, were also produced to focus on the use of non-stigmatizing language in addressing substance use. medical professionals and community leaders were mobilized to promote awareness, treatment, and mental health support through the use of social media and community radio. pa ge 12 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 118-126, 2025 a tailored methodic toolkit was produced for various publics and purposes. for instance, the toolkit for local religious leaders included spiritual teaching resources and culturally sensitive terms for discussing addictionrelated issues with empathy. prevention, peer support, and the dangers of early substance use were the main topics for schools. training was provided to community health workers and volunteers on how to use this toolkit through hands-on sessions, workshops, and outreach visits. the campaign also collaborated with providers in local medical institutions to incorporate screening, counseling, and referrals into their services during the intervention period. mobile health vehicles were deployed to remote and underserved areas to enhance access to information and prompt assistance. on the whole, the intervention was designed to mitigate stigma as well as bolster community support networks, and prompt timely healthcare-seeking for substance use disorders. table 1: public awareness and healthcare-based campaign interventions in bangladesh media/ platform description estimated cost (3 months) billboards • installed in key locations across dhaka, chattogram, and regional towns with the core message “substance abuse is preventable and treatable.” • each billboard included a qr code and web link to access awareness materials and hotline numbers. bdt 850,000 for six billboards public transport signage • interior posters and exterior visuals on local buses and cng-run autorickshaws. • repeated messaging from billboards and promotion of local rehabilitation centers. bdt 300,000 for 20 interior/exterior placements digital and social media campaign • targeted outreach through facebook, youtube, and popular local news portals. • shared testimonial videos, myth-busting infographics, and mental health messages. • directed users to a dedicated website and helpline. bdt 2,000,000 for digital outreach radio broadcasting • aired 30-second messages in bengali across fm and community radio channels covering urban and rural areas. • focused on stigma reduction and healthcare access. • included localized messages and endorsements from health professionals. bdt 600,000 for 10 stations earned media and influencer engagement • collaborated with television hosts, social workers, and local celebrities. • conducted interviews, storytelling sessions, and panel discussions. • shared stories of recovery, resilience, and family involvement in healing. in-kind collaboration and outreach data collection digital engagement measures and preand postintervention survey responses were used to assess the effectiveness of the public awareness and healthcare campaign. digital outreach was measured through platform-specific analytics, including those from social media tools, email campaign software, and web traffic monitoring systems. these metrics assessed the reaction of the target group to campaign materials (informational posts, banner ads, email newsletters, video content, and social marketing). the effectiveness of email marketing was evaluated by open rates (the percentage of recipients who opened the campaign emails) and click-through rates (the proportion who clicked on embedded links leading to health education resources or support services). users were assessed as unique across different platforms based on their impressions of banner ads and social media posts. when it came to engagement, passive interactions, such as scrolling, hovering, or video autoplay, on both mobile apps and digital display networks were also included in the analysis. a pre-post intervention online survey, administered via email invitations to the project’s list of partners’ networks in urban and semi-urban areas, was used to collect data. the questionnaire assessed demographic variables (gender, age, education, income, and occupation), attitudes toward drug use, and media consumption patterns (i.e., print, television, radio, and social media). respondents answered a five-point likert scale (strongly agree to disagree strongly) about their attitudes to drug taking and drug addicts. stigma was measured using 19 items (questions) built into the survey, which were used to assess attitudes and biases toward people with substance use problems. the scale structure was held identically. however, the scale items’ titles were re-phrased to accommodate the diversity of substances used in bangladesh, including alcohol, cannabis, over-the-counter (otc) drugs, injectable drugs, and synthetic drugs. the term substance use problem was explicitly defined as a pattern of use that results in considerable damage, health complaints, or social or psychological interference. this two-pronged quantitative analysis of digital platforms and selfreported perceptions provided a more complete picture of how general awareness and health messaging have affected perceptions of drug abuse in bangladesh. data analysis an analysis in two parts was performed for evaluating the pa ge 12 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 118-126, 2025 effects and effectiveness of public awareness and healthcare campaign on drug abuse prevention in bangladesh. performance on digital engagement the performance in digital engagement was assessed by comparing the key outreach indicators against established benchmarks of the media and public health communication working at the communication factory, we made a plan. table 2 all your outputs belong to us203sector (table 2). these were analytics like email open rates, click-through rates, ad impressions, social media engagement and user views of educational videos and website content. secondly, data for survey measurements before and after the campaign were analyzed with a matched sample approach. seven hundred forty-four respondents took part in the baseline (pretest) survey. nevertheless, because of discrepancies in participants’ id and issues (e.g., logging in to the experiment multiple times with different email addresses and errors in entering the codes), much of the posttest data were unmatchable to the pretest data. accordingly, the last examination took into consideration 69 matched valid responses. this shortcoming was documented for future rounds of research to address. summary statistics were analyzed to quantify length of exposure to participants, since exposure duration differed according to how much participants interacted with campaign materials. survey answers were considered in terms of six primary axes: demographic data, perceived social stigma, contact with campaign contents (either faceto-face or through digital means), personal acquaintance with cases of substance abuse, exposure to media and radio station contents, as well as stigma-related attitudes. subjects were categorized into two groups according to the type of exposure to the campaign. participants who had experienced awareness materials in public spaces (e.g. billboards, radio or transport advertisements) were classified as “previously exposed” (n = 25). participants who only interacted with digital content (videos, emails, and social media) preceding the posttest were classified as “not previously exposed,” (n = 44). to evaluate shifts in stigmatizing attitudes and social prejudice, pretest and posttest responses within each group were compared using a paired sample t-test. the scale was a 19-item attitude shot that indexed stigmatization, wherein lower scores signified more positive and supportive attitudes toward those with substance use disorders. data were analyzed using a one-tailed significance test at p-value ≤ 0.05. this analytical design enabled the study to examine the extent of attitudinal changes regarding various outreach strategies and levels of exposure, which added to policy level insight for effective awareness mechanisms in bangladesh. table 2: results of the public awareness campaign in bangladesh media strategy industry average benchmarks campaign results email marketing email open rate 12% – 25% 17% email click-through rate 2% – 5% 2% email click-to-open rate 10% – 22% 9% mobile in-app advertising & social media engagement engagement rate based on display network views 0.31% 0.20% pre-roll video engagement — 0.14% results and discussions the quantitative digital advertising aspects of this public campaign in bangladesh were, in fact, in line with typical industry benchmarks. digital outreach in the form of email marketing and social media was highly effective in getting to the end user. radio was another platform that showed significant reach with an average of 132 listeners tuning in to each ad. this meant that radio was the second performing media platform for audience reach, following social media networks. the overall exposure to the campaign on various media is presented in table 3. exposure time in participants for whom we still had data (n = 69,) the median time spent living in a community where the public awareness campaign existed before participating virtually was around 24 days. the length of exposure across participants spanned 8-38 days, with exposure commencing as early as mid-august 2020 and ending in late september 2020. table 3: reach of public awareness campaign in bangladesh media strategy type reach details targeted digital advertising e m ai l m ar ke tin g 8,352 impressions17% open rate (out of 50,000 emails sent)2% clickthrough rate9% click-to-open rate mobile in-app advertising 186,920 impressions373 clicks20% click-through rate social media 303,900 impressions595 link clicks20% click-through rate pa ge 12 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 118-126, 2025 pre-roll video 250,560 impressions359 clicks14% click-through rate68.63% viewed entire video radio advertisements 2,232 radio spots airednet reach of approximately 295,100 people (impressions) table 4: demographic characteristics of study participants demographic category characteristic count percentage (%) gender female 52 75.4 male 17 24.6 ethnicity bengali 64 92.8 other ethnic minorities 5 7.2 education level secondary school graduate 4 5.8 some college/intermediate 8 11.6 diploma/associate degree 7 10.1 bachelor’s degree 15 21.7 professional degree 26 37.7 postgraduate/doctorate 9 13.0 age group (years) 18–24 5 7.2 25–34 18 26.1 35–44 19 27.5 45–54 15 21.7 55–64 9 13.0 65+ 3 4.3 income level (bdt) 0 – 200,000 6 8.7 200,001 – 400,000 21 30.4 400,001 – 600,000 12 17.4 600,001 – 800,000 7 10.1 800,001 – 1,000,000 11 15.9 above 1,000,000 12 17.4 employment affiliation academic (student, teacher) 24 34.8 business sector (owner, manager) 5 7.2 religious community (leader, volunteer) 2 2.9 healthcare professional 31 44.9 other 6 8.7 recovery community member 1 1.4 participant characteristics summary of a demographic profile of the respondents is presented in table 4. most participants were women (75.4%) and bengali (92.8%). the most common highest educational attainment was professional degree (37.7%) or 4-year cohort university degree (21.7%). the age distribution concentrated between 25 and 54 years, and the majority were 35-44 years (27.5% of the sample). in terms of income, the majority of the participants had monthly incomes of between bd 20,000-40,000 4 taka (30.4%), and more than half (56.5%) earned less than 60,000 taka. regarding occupation, the highest proportion was among the healthcare professionals, at 44.9%, followed by academic personnel, at 34.8%. the perceived sud related stigma and exposure to sud participants answered 3 questions measuring stigmatized attitudes and self-reported sud exposure. the responses were measured on a 0–10 scale. all participants were of the opinion that people with a substance use problem are spoken about in very negative terms, and they recognized substance use as an important social problem. this belief also significantly rose after the first visit to the followup. in addition, the respondents perceived fewer negative norms or stereotypes related to drug addiction in their local area after the awareness intervention. similarly, reported exposure to public materials on substance use disorders dropped sharply after the campaign. statistically significant effects were predominantly found for participants who had been unexposed to stigmareducing campaigns prior to propagation. this indicates pa ge 12 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 118-126, 2025 that public awareness and healthcare outreach led to an increased recognition of the severity of stigma related to sud and to a lower perception of negative attitudes in the community. assessment of stigma and bias reduction perceptions of stigma and bias toward substance use before and after the public awareness campaign were compared. in general, stigma scores decreased and the biggest decrease was in people with previous awareness educational exposure. however, a difference in the total stigma and bias scores between the pre-campaign (mean = 32.9, sd = 20.8) and post-campaign (mean = 31.8, sd = 20.3) periods among all participants was not observed to be significant, suggesting that the campaign did not successfully reduce stigma for the entire sample. a closer analysis of certain attitude statements showed meaningful changes: 1. among those who had previously been exposed to awareness-raising efforts there was a significant decline in the proportion that believed that “there is little hope that people with a substance use problem could recover.” 2. there was a significant reduction in endorsement among all participants for the statement “people with substance use problems cannot be trusted” indicating increased trust in affected individuals. 3. the belief that “people with drug problems who use treatments such as methadone are really substituting one drug for another” also fell sharply, especially among those newly exposed to the campaign. 4. the attitude that “people with substance use problems don’t care about anything other than getting their next fix” also had a large reduction post-campaign exposure. these findings imply that stigma-reduction beliefs about drug abuse can be reduced effectively by targeted public awareness and healthcare communications in bangladesh, especially if people have had prior or direct contact with these communication campaigns. but, some more long-term efforts may require to bring more general attitudinal changes in the society (islam et al., 2025). table 5: changes in public perception and exposure related to substance abuse question mean pre-test sd pretest mean post-test sd posttest statistically significant (p < .05) b1: awareness of negative discussion about substance abuse and recognition of its seriousness 7.55 0.29 8.10 0.26 yes (0.02) b2: frequency of encountering negative attitudes toward substance abuse 7.26 0.28 7.07 0.30 no (0.24) b3: exposure to substance abuse materials in public 6.42 0.33 5.72 0.32 yes (0.03) table 6: changes in attitudes toward substance abuse stigma following public awareness efforts performance change total (n = 69) previously exposed (n = 25) not previously exposed (n = 44) decrease in stigma 37 (53.6%) 15 (60.0%) 22 (50.0%) increase in stigma 30 (43.5%) 8 (32.0%) 22 (50.0%) no change 2 (2.9%) 2 (8.0%) 0 (0.0%) there was a significant increase in the awareness of the seriousness of substance abuse problem after campaign as evidence of public attention. there was also a notable decline in the reported exposure to substance abuse materials in public areas (b3), indicating the possibility that awareness initiatives could reduce visible stigma content. but the number of times that they had seen negative attitude towards substance abuse (b2) was still the same according to the participants, that is, stigma on personal level may be existed though the level of consciousness is so much higher (mallik & rahman, 2024). these findings emphasize the urgent need for a comprehensive public awareness campaign and health-related intervention to enhance recognition of substance abuse problems and their repercussions on the people in bangladesh. efforts are still needed to further destigmatize social attitudes and behavior. overall, there was a decrease in stigma-related attitudes toward substance abuse by more than half of the participants (53.6%) after the campaign. the greater reduction in stigma was observed among the previously exposed to community awareness (60.0%) than those newly exposed (50.0%). but a significant portion in particular in naïve group still increased their stigma attitude (50.0%). these findings indicate the possibility of de-stigmatizing substance abuse in bangladesh at a public health and advocacy level that could be facilitated by public awareness and healthcare interventions, and may be enhanced through continued community exposure. however, the continued high level of stigma in some respondents finds support to the view that over time, sustained efforts might be required aimed at altering the societal attitudes (mallik & rahman, 2024). pa ge 12 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 118-126, 2025 table 7: analysis of changes in stigma-related attitudes following public awareness and healthcare initiatives question pre-test mean pre-test sd post-test mean post-test sd statistically significant (p < .05) e1 1.51 0.15 1.38 0.14 .17 e2 1.45 0.16 1.45 0.17 .50 e3 2.09 0.18 1.83 0.18 .06 e4 1.33 0.15 1.43 0.16 .21 e5 2.20 0.20 2.26 0.21 .37 e6 2.39 0.23 2.58 0.21 .15 e7 1.38 0.17 1.43 0.17 .35 e8 2.46 0.19 2.12 0.17 * .01 e9 2.10 0.20 1.81 0.18 * .03 e10 1.52 0.17 1.48 0.17 .39 e11 1.91 0.19 1.54 0.15 * .02 e12 1.62 0.16 1.58 0.17 .40 e13 1.71 0.19 1.46 0.16 .06 e14 1.59 0.18 1.67 0.17 .30 e15 1.25 0.16 1.19 0.15 .34 e16 1.03 0.13 1.10 0.14 .31 e17 2.43 0.20 2.54 0.18 .30 e18 1.29 0.17 1.42 0.17 .21 e19 1.59 0.20 1.58 0.19 .47 overall 32.87 2.50 31.84 2.44 .24 the overall findings indicate a modest decrease in stigma-related attitudes following the public awareness and healthcare campaign; however, this change was not statistically significant. however, substantial reductions in stigmatizing beliefs were observed in specific areas, notably regarding the trustworthiness of people with substance use problems, beliefs about drug replacement therapies, and assumptions about drug-seeking behavior. these results highlight the critical role of targeted public awareness and healthcare interventions in addressing negative perceptions surrounding substance abuse in bangladesh. while overall stigma remains a challenge, focused efforts can shift particular attitudes and support prevention strategies. discussion with the exponential increase in internet access, and smartphone usage, including the use of social media “adopt by all” has been one of the “how” to in public health interventions in bangladesh (islam et al., 2024). this study discovered that social media had the highest penetration amongst the population compared to conventional mediums of radio and television. the decrease in radio exposure and increase in digital streaming services indicates that social media is a more feasible medium in future efforts to prevent substance abuse on a larger scale. nevertheless, reducing stigma toward people who use substances (pwus) continues to be despite this, reducing stigma toward people with sud does not (el hayek et al., 2024). there is still stigma that affects the recovery, selfesteem and utilization of healthcare services. our study showed that although broad public awareness campaigns may increase public knowledge and self-efficacy on a range of topics, they may not be enough to reduce stigma. participants frequently described encountering negative stereotypical attitudes towards individuals with a substance use disorder, indicating common societal stereotypes. this data suggests that people’s language and perceptions are a significant component of the stigma associated with addiction; language that focuses on the person instead of the addiction could promote more sympathetic attitudes (schachman et al., 2024). the current research also found that participants who had experienced substance abuse issues, themselves or through others, were more receptive to attitude change, highlighting the necessity of tailoring messages for those who are personally or indirectly affected. in future public health campaigns in bangladesh, the use of more focused messages aimed at specific target groups such as healthcare providers, law enforcement personnel, educators and policy makers may increase intervention effectiveness (mallik, 2024). further, combining media interventions with healthcare approaches to foster empathy and recovery could enhance prevention and decrease stigma. limitations concerning limitations, the present policy analysis pa ge 12 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 118-126, 2025 also had limitations. there was a selection bias in the sample, which was not fully representative of the diverse population of bangladesh, and was over represented by the urban and educated population, which might limit the generalizability of the findings. loss to follow-up between survey waves hindered tracking all attitudinal change for each respondent. moreover, some respondents may have elected to pass some stigma questions and this might have biased the overall findings. filling these gaps and presenting more generalizable findings are necessary to reflect the diverse cultural and socioeconomic settings in all over bangladesh. in addition, the use of selfreported data in this study may bias estimates of stigma downward because of social desirability. conclusions the present study also shows the potentially significant, but ambivalent, influence of public perceptions, health service and health promotion in preventing substance use in bangladesh. although broad public health campaigns raise knowledge, they have less effect on stigma without specific tactics. population-specific campaigns tailored messages, and provider engagement also hold promise for shifting beliefs related to hope, trust, drug acceptance, and misconceptions pertaining to drug-seeking behavior. therefore, optimal public policy should highlight a multicomponent approach that includes extensive public education and targeted strategies for sentinel populations who impact stigma and substance use outcomes. using well-received social media tools and developing the role of health providers in online environments to promote drug prevention messages is considered as a way of expanding prevention work and modernizing the delivery of prevention interventions. further work is required to develop and test messaging strategies, and measure their impact across different bangladeshi populations, to support more informed policy and practice. references el hayek, s., foad, w., de filippis, r., ghosh, a., koukach, n., mahgoub mohammed khier, a., ... & shalbafan, m. 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(2024). mental health integrated care models in primary care and factors that contribute to their effective implementation: a scoping review. international journal of mental health systems, 18(1), 5. islam, m. r., hossain, m. t., mallik, s. k., & rahman, m. a. (2025). bangladeshi garment industry welfare policies and employee satisfaction: an empirical study. international journal of research and innovation in social science, 9(15), 334-346. islam, m. r., mondol, a. a., kundu, r., baroi, j. a., akter, s., urmi, t. j., ... & kabir, e. r. (2024). prevalence, associated factors and consequence of problematic smartphone use among adolescents and young adults in bangladesh: a cross-sectional study. plos one, 19(8), e0308621. jarre, m., noussan, m., & campisi, e. (2024). avoid– shift–improve: are demand reduction strategies under-represented in current energy policies?. energies, 17(19), 4955. mallik, s. k. (2024). financial institutions in bangladesh: assessing performance, risk, and sectoral contributions in 2023. mallik, s. k., & rahman, m. a. (2024). an analysis of business students learning styles to improve the effectiveness of teaching methods. mallik, s. k., & rahman, m. a. (2024). smart agriculture as a driving technology for sustainability in intensive greenhouse production within smart manufacturing systems. negash, m., temesgen, b., kassaw, c., abebe, l., moges, s., sime, y., & yimer, s. (2023). delayed treatment seeking and its associated factors among people with schizophrenia spectrum disorders who are on follow-up at dilla university referral hospital in the southern region of ethiopia, 2022: a cross-sectional study. frontiers in psychiatry, 14, 1230448. newman, l. c., & swisshelm, a. t. (2025). teaching knowledge and empathy in substance use disorder through enriched education in the neurobiology of addiction: a narrative review on addiction education in professional schools. substance use & addiction journal, 29767342251317026. schachman, k. a., martini, k., kaufman, s., mitchell, m. l., covyeou, j. a., galbraith, a., ... & charbonneauivey, t. k. (2024). health professions students’ perspectives of a stigma-reducing simulation including simulated patients with lived experience of addiction and recovery. clinical simulation in nursing, 94, 101588. tasfi, j. t., & mostofa, s. m. (2024). understanding complex causes of suicidal behaviour among graduates in bangladesh. bmc public health, 24(1), 560. ugbor, a. c., ndubueze, g., adepoju, a. g., adepoju, d. a., & karbo, s. a. i. (2024). evaluating the role of health education in sexually transmitted infections prevention through the lens of the health belief model. pa ge 12 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 118-126, 2025 young, r., dongilli, d., souder, a., & peek-asa, c. (2024). stories for us, or for others: digital storytelling with a harm reduction organization as culture-centered health communication. health communication, 1-14. zavyalova, a. (2025). stigmatization by an authoritarian government: russian ngos under the 2012 foreign agents law. administrative science quarterly, 70(1), 69118. pa ge 1 pa ge 43 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) study of the potential of forest biomass for the development of wood energy sectors in congo brazzaville djimbi makoundi daivy dieu-le-veut1*, djimbi makoundi christian dieu-le-veut1, ming lei1, lei zhang1 volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v4i1.4211 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: december 13, 2024 accepted: january 16, 2025 published: march 15, 2025 this research explores the potential of residual forest biomass in congo-brazzaville to support sustainable energy transition and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. despite the country’s heavy reliance on wood energy, which accounts for 85% of the energy mix, unsustainable practices threaten forest resources. meanwhile, residues from logging and local wood processing, combined with the annual consumption of wood energy (firewood and charcoal), represent a significant amount of biomass which, if properly utilized, could generate greater social and environmental benefits than it currently does. a multidimensional approach was adopted to assess this potential. an interactive tool, the biomass cogeneration (chp) project analysis system, was developed to model biomass flows, estimate energy production (thermal and electrical), and analyze environmental, economic, and logistical impacts. the results show that optimized utilization of forest residues could generate up to 591.7 mw of energy, representing 99% of the country’s installed energy capacity, while avoiding up to 240,005 tons of co2 emissions annually. by promoting the use of biomass residues for cogeneration, this study supports national energy transition objectives and provides concrete solutions to integrate biomass as a strategic resource within congo’s energy mix. keywords biomass cogeneration, congobrazzaville energy transition, energy mix, forest biomass, forestry residues 1 hebei key laboratory of low carbon and high efficiency power generation technology, north china electric power university, baoding 071003, hebei, china * corresponding author’s e-mail: 120204300006@ncepu.edu.cn introduction forest biomass, as a renewable resource, plays a central role in global efforts to promote a sustainable energy transition (burg, 2018) and combat climate change (kirilenko, 2007). in the republic of congo, the vast tropical forests, which cover approximately 65% of the national territory, offer significant potential for the development of wood energy sectors. if sustainably managed, these resources can not only meet the country’s growing energy needs (aguilar, 2009; sajdak, 1981) but also contribute to diversifying its economy, historically dominated by oil exploitation. today, energy consumption in the republic of congo highlights the dominance of wood energy, which accounts for approximately 85% of the national energy mix (figure 1). within this proportion, firewood and charcoal play a central role, serving as an essential energy source for the majority of congolese households, especially in urban and rural areas. these fuels are primarily used for cooking and domestic activities (hall, 2002; eshiamwata, 2019), with annual consumption remaining high, reaching several million tons. this dependence underscores the importance of wood energy in meeting basic needs, while also highlighting the pressures on national forest resources (misra, 2014), often exacerbated by unsustainable practices. in parallel, waste from logging and wood processing constitutes a significant part of forest residual biomass (sette jr, 2020; lima, 2020). it is estimated that between 40% and 60% of harvested wood and between 60% and 70% of processed wood end up as unutilized residues. this waste, generated by industrial and artisanal activities, represents a considerable energy potential (gao, 2016) that remains largely untapped (kashif et al., 2020). to address these challenges, this study proposes a multidimensional approach that explores both the potential of residual forest biomass and the digital tools capable of improving decision-making. in particular, it focuses on the development and integration of an interactive tool, the biomass cogeneration (chp) project analysis system, designed to assist decision-makers and planners in evaluating the technical, economic, logistical, and environmental aspects of biomass cogeneration projects. figure 1: congo national energy mix this application, developed in html with interactive features, enables the modeling of biomass flows, pa ge 44 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 43-56, 2025 estimation of thermal and electrical energy production, and analysis of environmental impacts, particularly in terms of greenhouse gas (ghg) emission reductions. additionally, it offers a comprehensive financial evaluation, including indicators such as return on investment (roi) and payback period, providing a robust foundation for planning economically viable and sustainable biomass projects. by incorporating updated data on wood energy consumption, processing residues, and their potential valorization, this study aims to demonstrate how the use of this tool can not only maximize energy efficiency but also promote sustainable forest resource management. by supporting national objectives for energy transition and climate change mitigation, this research seeks to provide concrete and actionable solutions to transform biomass residues and wood energy into strategic resources at the heart of congo’s energy mix. literature review the exploration of forest biomass as a renewable energy source has been widely discussed in the context of sustainable development and climate change mitigation. the extensive literature on this subject highlights the dual challenge of meeting growing energy demands while conserving forest ecosystems (berndes, 2016; börjesson, 2017). the republic of congo, endowed with vast forest resources, represents a critical case study in harnessing forest biomass for energy production. this section reviews the significant contributions of past studies, providing a theoretical basis and justification for the adopted variables, and develops hypotheses aligned with the study’s objectives. forest biomass as a renewable energy resource forest biomass has long been recognized as a key component of renewable energy strategies. majchrzak (2022) identifies forest residues as a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels, emphasizing their role in reducing greenhouse gas (ghg) emissions and supporting energy security. similarly, bridgwater (bridgwater, 2006) underscores the importance of optimizing biomass conversion technologies to maximize energy yield. these studies form the theoretical basis for investigating the potential of residual forest biomass in the republic of congo. further perspectives on biomass utilization are presented in ‘sustainable biomass energy production: a review of current technologies and future prospects’ published by e-palli publishers (tiewul, 2024), which emphasizes the critical role of technological innovation in maximizing biomass energy efficiency. variables influencing biomass utilization several studies have identified critical variables that impact the feasibility and efficiency of biomass utilization. for instance, field (2008) and vasileios (2018) highlight the importance of quantifying biomass residues generated from logging and wood processing. these residues, estimated to constitute 40-60% of harvested wood, represent a substantial energy potential if effectively managed. additionally, technological factors, such as cogeneration systems, have been shown to significantly influence energy recovery efficiency (jankes, 2012). the role of policy and logistical frameworks further complicates the integration of biomass into energy systems. similarly, ‘integration of forest residues in developing nations’ energy systems’ published by e-palli publishers (kumar, 2024) highlights the specific challenges and opportunities in implementing biomass energy systems in developing countries, particularly relevant to the congo context. sustainable forest management and policy implications sustainable forest management practices are pivotal in ensuring the long-term viability of biomass resources. (ladanai, 2009) ladanai and vinterbäck discuss global frameworks for sustainable biomass use, which align closely with congo’s national forestry policies. law no. 16-2000 on forest management underscores the need for balancing economic exploitation with environmental conservation (koua, 2017). this dual approach is critical in developing biomass as a strategic resource within congo’s energy mix. gaps in literature and hypothesis development despite extensive research on biomass energy, gaps remain in understanding the socioeconomic and logistical challenges of integrating biomass into national energy strategies. for instance, while bakouetila (bakouetila, 2020) explores wood energy consumption patterns in congo, limited attention has been given to optimizing residue collection and transportation logistics. this study hypothesizes that leveraging digital tools, such as the biomass cogeneration project analysis system, can address these gaps by providing data-driven insights for decision-making. materials and methods this study adopts a multidimensional approach to evaluate the potential of forest biomass for sustainable energy production in congo-brazzaville. the methodology incorporates quantitative and qualitative data collection, as well as modeling tools to simulate biomass flow and energy generation. data sources data data for this study were derived from various primary and secondary sources. the primary sources included field surveys on wood energy consumption patterns, while eight major secondary sources were consulted national forestry reports including the “national report on the evaluation of global forest resources 2015”, reports from the national center for forest inventory and management (cniaf), world bank economic data (2016) on forestry sector contributions, fao forestry statistics and assessments pa ge 45 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 43-56, 2025 from 2010 and 2015, household survey reports on woodenergy consumption in the republic of congo, ministry of forest economy publications, law no. 16-2000 documentation on the forest code, and national forestry policy documents covering 2014-2025. these sources provided comprehensive data on forest resources, wood production, biomass residue, and energy consumption patterns. biomass flow analysis a key methodological tool used in this study is the biomass cogeneration (chp) project analysis system, developed specifically to model biomass flow and evaluate energy generation potential. this interactive tool integrates the following inputs: volume of wood production and residues (harvesting and processing waste). lower heating value (lhv) and density of biomass. transportation and logistical parameters. the system enables the estimation of thermal and electrical energy production, taking into account different cogeneration technologies, such as steam turbines, organic rankine cycle (orc) systems, and stirling engines. environmental and financial analysis to assess the environmental impact, greenhouse gas (ghg) emissions were quantified using emission factors and avoided fossil fuel emissions. financial evaluations included calculations of return on investment (roi), payback periods, and net present value (npv) based on the selling prices of electricity and heat. hypothesis testing the hypothesis of this study posits that biomass residues, if efficiently utilized, can contribute significantly to congo’s energy mix and climate change mitigation efforts. this was tested using simulation data generated by the chp system, cross-referenced with real-world data from forestry operations and energy consumption patterns. by combining digital tools, field data, and analytical models, this study provides a comprehensive understanding of the potential for biomass energy development in congobrazzaville. mathematical expressions and symbols to evaluate the amount of energy that can be produced from forest biomass, in the form of electricity and heat, when used as fuel in a cogeneration plant, the following formula is used to convert the volume of residual biomass into bone-dry tonnes, we use the relationship e=tma∙pci∙1000 (1) where e represents the energy produced in (in megajoules, mj), tma is the mass of forest biomass (in dry metric tonnes, dmt), the pci corresponds to the lower heating value of the fuel (in mj/kg) and the constant 1000 converts metric tonnes into kilograms. tma=vma∙d (2) where vma is the volume of biomass in m3 and d is the density in kg/dm3 the electrical power of a cogeneration plant using forest biomass as an energy source is expressed as pe=(eηe)/t (3) where pe is the electrical power expressed in megawatts electrical (mwe), t is the duration in seconds (s) and ηe represents the electrical efficiency of the cogeneration plant. the thermal power of the cogeneration plant is given by: pth=(eηth)/t (4) where pth represents the thermal power in megawatts thermal (mwth), ηe corresponds to the thermal efficiency of the cogeneration plant and the electrical efficiency (ηe) of a cogeneration plant using forest biomass generally ranges between 20% and 30% [6]. as for the thermal efficiency (ηth ), it varies from 55% to 70% for modern cogeneration plants. in our simulation, we opted for an electrical efficiency of 25% and a thermal efficiency of 60%, which provides an overall efficiency of 85% for our plant. results and discussion forest biomass potential historically, the forestry sector was the main driver of congo’s economy until the discovery of oil. even today, forestry remains significant, contributing 5.3% to the national gdp (2016, world bank) and positioning the country as a major producer of tropical hardwoods, including logs, sawn timber, and panels. despite the vast potential of 300 tree species, only about 50 are commercially exploited, indicating substantial room for diversification and development in the forestry and biomass sectors. the national forestry policy of the republic of congo established for the 2014–2025 period, embodies an ambitious and sustainable vision aimed at positioning congolese forests at the heart of the green economy and national development. recognizing the critical role of forests in poverty alleviation, improving living conditions, and combating climate change, this strategic vision reflects congo’s commitment to harmonizing economic development and environmental conservation while aligning with global objectives to combat deforestation and climate change. the republic of congo, covering 34.2 million hectares, is rich in forest resources, with over 22 million hectares of forest, making up about 65% of the country’s land area and 11% of central africa’s forest cover (fao, 2010). of this, 14.8 million hectares are designated as production forests, all of which are publicly owned, with 11.6 million hectares currently allocated under forest concessions. fao estimates the annual deforestation rate in the republic of congo at about 0.1%, or roughly 17,000 hectares. in 2015, forest cover was reported at 23.5 million hectares, representing 69% of the country’s territory. the annual deforestation and degradation rate was lower, around 0.05%, or 12,000 hectares per year (cniaf, 2015). this extensive public ownership highlights the government’s crucial role in managing these forests sustainably. pa ge 46 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 43-56, 2025 a recent estimate on forest land use in congo, conducted by the fao and published in the national report on the evaluation of global forest resources 2015 savannas make up 4.4%, open forests constitute 0.9%, and forest plantations, mangroves, and agricultural land each contribute less than 1%. according to satellite imagery data of 2003 and 2004, the total forested area was covered approximately 65.2% of the country’s land. standing wood the 2009-2014 national multi-resource forest inventory of the republic of congo, along with the 1984 assessment of the extent and potential of timber forest resources, as reported in a publication by the ministry of forest economy. the total standing volume of living trees (in 1000 m³) with a diameter greater than or equal to 20 cm is estimated at 4 billion cubic meters. based on their distribution across different land categories: forests, other wooded lands, other lands, and inland waters. forests are by far the primary source of standing wood, with an estimated volume of 4,313,491 thousand cubic meters, representing nearly 99.7% of the total recorded volumes. other wooded lands, which include savanna woodlands and other intermediate vegetation formations, contribute approximately 0.05% of the total volume. other lands and inland waters contribute significantly less, accounting for about 0.26% and 0.016% of the total volume, respectively. table 1: summary of cniaf based on satellite imagery from 2003-2004 categories surface (in hectares) dense forest on dry land 13.558.000 flooded dense forest 8.472.300 open forest 310.000 forest plantation 50.895 mangrove 5.000 wooded/shrub savanna 10,028,700 grassy savanna 1,512.500 agricultural land 250.000 total land area 34.187.395 table 2: standing volumes for trees with a diameter ≥ 20 cm by overall class estimation forest other forested lands other lands continental waters total wooded areas 4 313 491 2 222 11 344 708 4 327 765 other, lands waters 196 0,5 1,5 2,5 127 continentales 3,6% 43% 53% 56% 3,6% table 3: exploitable volumes by global class (in 1000 m³) estimation forest other forested lands other lands continental waters total volume/(1000 m³) 981 301 223 1 762 0 983 285 other lands waters 44,6 0,1 0,2 0 29 the composition of this vast ecosystem is divided into several categories. dense forests on dry land represent approximately 39.7% of the total land area, while flooded dense forests account for about 24.8%. wooded and shrub savannas cover roughly 29.3% of the area. grassy the average volume per hectare in table 2 varies significantly across categories. forests stand out with a high density of 196 m³/ha, reflecting their substantial carbon storage capacity, while other wooded lands show a very low volume of 0.5 m³/ha, indicating sparse and likely degraded vegetation. “other lands” and “inland waters” also exhibit modest volumes of 1.5 m³/ha and 2.5 m³/ha, respectively. the relative standard error, which measures data uncertainty, is low for forests (3.6%), ensuring high reliability. however, the high margins of error for other categories (43% to 56%) highlight the need to improve data collection and precision. the low contribution of these categories, which account for a marginal share of the total volume, reduces their impact on the overall uncertainty of the estimates. exploitable volumes the congo has a total exploitable wood volume estimated at 981 million m³, this potential represents 29 m³ of wood per hectare, accounting for approximately 22.7% of the total standing volume table 3. in forested areas, this density reaches about 45 m³ per hectare. however, outside forest zones, the exploitable volume is significantly lower, with only 223,000 cubic meters in other wooded lands and 1.8 million m³ in non-forested lands. forestry regulations and environmental constraints play a major role in limiting the exploitation of forest resources in congo-brazzaville, particularly under law no. 16-2000 on the forest code. this law establishes strict rules on sustainable forest management, ecosystem conservation, and exploitation quotas to ensure a balance between the economic use of forests and biodiversity preservation national structure of wood production and wood energy consumption in congo-brazzaville, forestry exploitation is mainly divided into two types: industrial forestry exploitation figure 2 and artisanal forestry exploitation figure 3, (lescuyer, 2011; kimpouni, 2008). industrial forestry exploitation is generally carried pa ge 47 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 43-56, 2025 out by companies or multinational corporations. it is characterized by large-scale logging, often on an extensive scale, to extract wood primarily intended for export around 1.3 million cubic meters of wood each year though some is also sold on local markets for the production of furniture, paper, plywood, and other wood-derived products. this activity is heavily concentrated in regions such as northern congo, including areas like sangha, likouala, and cuvette, where vast forest concessions are granted to logging companies. while this activity is quite profitable for the country, generating export revenues of over 300 million usd annually, it mainly focuses on profitability, prioritizing international demand over the local value-added processing of this resource. local industrial units of various sizes process logs into finished or semi-finished products. the demand for wood as a construction material is growing rapidly in the country, where it is widely used in sectors such as carpentry, joinery, and flooring. figure 2: industrial forestry exploitation the woodworking and furniture sectors are also experiencing strong demand (antwi-boasiako, 2016), with the development of small and medium-sized specialized enterprises that cater to local and regional needs for furniture. local artisans use wood to produce furniture such as tables, chairs, beds, and wardrobes, as well as decorative objects and handcrafted items table 4: total gross standing volume of the ten (10) most common tree species in congolese commercial name density (mc/ha) superficie forestière nationale area (ha) material (m3) sapelli 8.62 22.471.300 193.702.606 limba 7.01 22.471.300 157.523.813 niové 4.16 22.471.300 93.480.608 tali 3.50 22.471.300 78.649.550 ayous 3.08 22.471.300 69.211.604 kossipo 2.85 22.471.300 6443.205 padouk 2.31 22.471.300 51.908.703 azobé 1.95 22.471.300 43.819.035 iroko 1.83 22.471.300 41.122.479 sipo 1.43 22.471.300 32.133.959 pa ge 48 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 43-56, 2025 based on this national data, the total gross standing volume of the ten (10) most widespread tree species in congolese forests was documented by the national center for forest inventory and management (cniaf/ df) in its national report titled global forest resources assessment 2005 and presentend in table 4. this report highlights the availability of biomass and the potential of congo’s forest resources with a total volume of 1.016 billion m³ mainly dominated by two species, sapelli and limba, which together account for over 42% of the total volume. sapelli alone contributes 23.46%, making it the most significant species, followed by limba at 19.08%. these species illustrate the richness of the congolese forests and their economic potential (ifo, 2016). however, they represent only a small fraction of the 150 large tree species present in congo. artisanal forestry exploitation is mainly carried out by local individuals, small operators, or community groups for energy need (wood energy) in the entire national territory, unlike industrial logging, which is limited to forests rich in high-value timber (mbete, 2014). it is characterized by selective logging on a small scale, primarily aimed at meeting local and regional needs rather than exports. each year, this sector processes several thousand cubic meters of wood, it continues to be used in households in the republic of congo. households rely on wood energy for all long cooking processes, such as beans and traditional dishes like saka saka, mouaba, cassava, etc. figure 3: artisanal forestry exploitation trees with a diameter of 10 cm or less are widely exploited due to their availability, they are directly used as firewood or transformed into charcoal through rudimentary processes, such as traditional carbonization in earthen kilns or artisanal furnaces. while these practices are essential to meet local energy needs, they lead to uncontrolled deforestation and expose users to risks of intoxication from wood gas emissions (gauthier, 2012; öztürk, 2002). the use of wood energy varies significantly across the country’s departments figure 4, which can be categorized into three main consumption areas: high, medium, and low. brazzaville and pointe-noire, which are respectively the political and economic capitals of the country, represent the high consumption areas, collectively consuming over 60% of the wood energy. brazzaville accounts for more than 45.23%, and pointe-noire for 18.68% of the annual wood consumption. this is due to the high population density and concentrated energy needs in these cities. the medium consumption areas represent 18.2% of the annual wood energy, including the departments of niari 7.5%, bouenza 5.99%, and pool 4.71%. figure 4: wood consumption by departments in congo brazzaville 2024 pa ge 49 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 43-56, 2025 the departments of plateaux, kouilou, likouala, sangha, cuvette, lékoumou, and cuvette-ouest are classified as low consumption areas, with each department consuming below 3%. collectively, they account for a total of 17.88% of the annual wood consumption. cogeneration cogeneration, also known as combined heat and power (chp), is an efficient technology that simultaneously produces electricity and heat from a single energy source. figure 5: chp cogeneration technology this approach is highly valued for its energy efficiency, superior to conventional energy production systems (maraver, 2013). cogeneration systems can achieve overall energy efficiencies of up to 80-90%, whereas traditional electricity-only production methods often have efficiencies of around 35-40%. the recovery of heat, a key feature of cogeneration, allows the exploitation of heat that would otherwise be lost in conventional systems, using this energy for building heating, industrial processes, or hot water production. biomass cogeneration technology can employ different cogeneration technology figure 5 to convert biomass into both heat and electricity (abbas, 2020), including steam turbines, steam engines, organic rankine cycle (orc), and stirling engines. each of these technologies has distinct characteristics and applications. conversion of residual forest biomass into energy through cogeneration the total wood production for the year 2018 was estimated at 1.8 million m³ (anhydrous metric volume). according to the study report from the household survey on woodenergy consumption in the republic of congo, it is estimated that 40% to 60% of harvested wood and 60% to 70% of wood intended for processing end up as waste. to evaluate the volumes of residual biomass available for the year 2022, we used an average of these values, incorporating both harvesting and processing data, to provide a cautious yet realistic estimate of the residual biomass potential. the low eating value is 17.810mj/kg. the estimation of biomass residues from industrial forestry operations is based on two main categories: harvested wood and processed wood. the total wood production for the year 2018 was estimated at 1.8 million m³ (anhydrous metric volume). assuming that the logging waste percentage ranges from 40% to 60%, the average will be: average logging waste = (40 + 60) / 2 = 50%. if 50% of the total volume is considered waste, the quantity of logging waste is calculated as follows: logging waste = 1.800000 m³×50% = 900000 m³. if 44% of the wood produced is exported as logs, the remaining quantity intended for local processing is given by: wood for local processing =1800000×0.56 = 1008000m³. of the wood processed locally, 60% to 70% is considered waste. the average of this waste is: average waste after processing = (60 + 70) / 2 = 65%. the quantity of waste after processing will therefore be waste after processing = 1008000m³ × 0.65 = 655200m³. the total forest waste is the sum of logging waste and waste after processing: total forest waste = 900000+655200 = 1555200m³. tma=1555200×0.69=1073088 tonnes the calculation of total energy give e=(1000×1073088×17.810)/1000=19112592.48gj electric power pe=(19112592.48×0.25)/31557600=151.4 mw thermal power pth=(19112592.48×0.6)/31557600=363.38mw according to the law (law 33-2020), which requires the processing of all logs within the national territory, 100% of the wood produced is allocated for local processing. this means that the entire 1,800,000 m³ is subject to the 65% waste processing average. the waste generated after full processing would amount to: waste after processing (with law) = 1800000×65% = 1170000m³. the total forest waste after the application of the law is then: total pa ge 50 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 43-56, 2025 forest waste (with law) = 900000+1170000 = 2070000m³. tma=2070000×0.69=1428300 tonnes the calculation of total energy give e=(1000×1428300×17.810)/1000=25438023gj electric power pe=(25438023×0.25)/31557600=201.5 mw thermal power pth=(25438023×0.6)/31557600=483.6mw to determine the total amount of wood actually felled in the forest, we need to take into account the losses generated throughout the production process where wood felled will be the some of the total production and the logging waste. wood felled = 1800000 + 900000 = 2700000 m³ conversion of biomass (firewood) into energy through cogeneration according to the estimation of the evolution of firewood and charcoal consumption by department, conducted as part of the household survey report on wood-energy consumption in the republic of congo, the projected consumption for the year 2024 was 482,665 tonnes of firewood and 285,397 tonnes of charcoal. taking into account that 8.3 kg of firewood is required to produce 1 kg of charcoal (according to the study on wood-energy consumption in the cities of brazzaville and nkayi – fao and undp, 2004), the total wood-energy consumption amounts to 3,457,281.30 tonnes. tma=3457281.295×0.8=2765825.036 tonnes the calculation of totale energy give e=(1000×2765825.036×17.810)/1000=49244542442 gj electric power pe=(49244542.442×0.25)/31557600=390.2 mw thermal power pth=(49244542.442×0.6)/31557600=936.1 mw if the energy production from the chp biomass plant, powered by the amount of firewood consumed across the entire national territory for the year 2024, is distributed by the percentage of charcoal consumption per department, this graph is obtained. analyzing the regional distribution of this biomass production, based on the amount of firewood consumed in 2024 figure 6, brazzaville accounts for 31.3% of electricity production 88.24 mw and 37.7% of thermal production 211.69 mw, followed by pointe-noire with 12.9% 36.44 mw and 15.6% 87.43 mw. other departments are distributed as follows: cuvette-ouest 0.8% electricity, 1.0% thermal, likouala 2.0%, 2.4%, lékoumou (1.2%, 1.5%), sangha 2.0%, 2.4%, niari 5.2%, 6.3%, pool 3.3%, 3.9%, plateaux (2.1%, 2.6%), kouilou 2.4%, 2.8%, and bouenza 4.1%, 5.0%. figure 6: wood energy disponibility contribution of biomass energy to the congolese energy mix the total installed capacity in congo-brazzaville figure 7 is estimated at 596 mw, distributed among hydropower, gas power plants, and thermal power plants. key infrastructures include the moukoukoulou hydropower plant 74 mw, the djoué hydropower plant 15 mw, the imboulou hydropower plant 120 mw, the djeno gas power plant 50 mw, the congo gas power plant 300 mw, as well as the diesel thermal power plants of brazzaville 32.5 mw and oyo 4.5 mw. additionally, there is an electrical interconnection with the democratic republic of congo via the 225 kv brazzaville-kinshasa line, providing a transit capacity of 100 mw, though only local production is considered in this analysis. figure 7: current distribution of installed capacity in congo-brazzaville pa ge 51 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 43-56, 2025 figure 8: potential impact of biomass on the energy mix if we see the potential impact of biomass on the energy mix figure 8 by integrating biomass energy from forest residues and logging activities, approximately 151.4 mw of electricity could be added to the congolese energy mix, representing nearly 25% of the currently installed capacity. with the implementation of law 33-2020, which mandates the local processing of 100% of logs, biomass energy generated from logging residues could reach 201.5 mw, representing 33.8% of the installed capacity. this specific source could thus become a major contributor to the national energy mix. furthermore, converting biomass from firewood into electricity is estimated at 390.2 mw, accounting for approximately 65% of the total installed capacity. combined, the two biomass sources (forest residues and firewood) could supply a total of 591.7 mw, representing 99.3% of the current installed capacity, nearly doubling the existing capacities in the energy mix. biomass could contribute 65% to 99% of the congolese energy mix, depending on scenarios for local log processing and firewood conversion into electricity. analysis of clean energy projects as part of the optimization and energy valorization of biomass, the biomass cogeneration (chp) project figure 9: diagram flow of the (chp) program pa ge 52 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 43-56, 2025 analysis system developed provides a methodological tool to assess the technical, logistical, environmental, and economic aspects of projects. this system relies on key data to model biomass flows, energy production, greenhouse gas (ghg) emission savings, and expected financial returns. figure 9 illustrates the flow diagram of data and processes in a biomass cogeneration project. it highlights the main steps, from biomass supply to the production and distribution of thermal and electrical energy. each element in the diagram plays a specific role in assessing the available resources and their conversion into energy. the system was designed to meet several key needs, including assessing the availability of biomass resources, such as residues from forest operations and processing, and calculating the potential for thermal and electrical energy production. it also analyzes the logistics required for transporting biomass resources and evaluates energy distribution and its impact on local communities. additionally, the system quantifies environmental benefits in terms of greenhouse gas (ghg) emission reductions and examines the project’s economic profitability and financial indicators. figure 10: main page figure 11: supply source the main figure 10 input parameters include the wood production volume (m³), which represents the total annual quantity of wood produced and serves as the basis for waste calculations, and the percentage of cutting and processing waste, which estimates the proportions of residues generated during production. other key parameters include the capacity of semi-trailers (m³) used for biomass transportation, the lower heating value (lhv) indicating the energy content of the biomass in mj/kg, and the density (kg/dm³) for converting biomass volumes into mass. together, these parameters enable accurate modeling of biomass supply and the associated logistical flows. pa ge 53 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 43-56, 2025 by clicking on add supply source, the users can configure multiple biomass sources figure 11 by specifying key parameters such as volume (m³), lower heating value (lhv) in mj/kg, moisture content (%), which directly affects the quality and quantity of energy produced, and density (kg/dm³). in the results section, the system generates key indicators, including the volume of cutting and processing waste, which reflects the total amount of available biomass, and the total dry matter (dm), representing the biomass mass after moisture removal. it also calculates heat and electricity production, indicating the thermal and electrical energy generated, as well as hourly consumption, which is the amount of biomass required to sustain production. finally, for logistics, the system estimates the number of semitrailers needed per day to transport the biomass efficiently. figure 12: distribution in the distribution section figure 12, the system includes a comprehensive analysis of energy distribution, allowing for the simulation of losses related to energy transportation from production to consumers. it provides key indicators such as the percentage of delivered electricity and heat. it also calculates per capita and household consumption, offering a clear view of the project’s impact on households and local communities. finally, it estimates the project’s total reach by determining the number of households and inhabitants that can be served. figure 13: data visualizations pa ge 54 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 43-56, 2025 the visualizations section figure 13 provides a clear representation of the data to facilitate its interpretation. the volume distribution section allows for an interactive visualization of volume distribution in the form of a diagram, offering a global view of the energy balance. the power distribution section enables a comparison of thermal and electrical power, providing an overview of energy production. the energy by source section illustrates the energy contributions of each type of biomass, highlighting their respective roles in overall production. figure 14: ges analysis figure 15: operation profit the ges analysis section figure 14 provides a detailed analysis of the environmental benefits by quantifying the reductions in greenhouse gas (ghg) emissions. by inputting the average emissions per vehicle (tco2/ year) and the avoided emissions from fossil fuels (tco2/ mwh), the results subsection displays the co2 emissions avoided, expressed in tons of co2 per year, as well as the equivalent number of cars removed from circulation. the operation profit section figure 15 includes a comprehensive financial analysis, enabling a detailed evaluation of the economic viability of projects. this analysis is based on several key elements, including costs related to initial investment, maintenance, and operation, as well as estimated revenues based on the selling prices of electricity and heat, expressed in $/mwh. it also considers financial parameters such as the project duration (in years), interest rate (%), and availability rate (%). in the results section, the system provides the total required investment, annual revenues generated, and operational profits. additionally, essential financial indicators, such as return on investment (roi), net present value (npv), and payback period, are included to assess the profitability and economic sustainability of the project. simulation results with the biomass cogeneration (chp) analyzer 2020, which requires all logs to be processed within the national territory, the simulation indicates a total biomass production of 2,070,000 m³, generating an electrical output of 201.52 mw and a thermal output of 403.05 mw. this project could supply energy to 1,048,159 residents and 235,908 households while avoiding 240,005 tons of co₂ emissions annually, equivalent to removing 52,121 vehicles from circulation. on the financial side, with an investment cost of $300 million and sales prices of $70/mwh for electricity and $60/mwh for heat, the project generates an annual profit of $230.05 million, with a payback period of 8.5 years and an internal rate of return (irr) of 11.2%. conclusion this study has highlighted the significant potential of forest biomass residues in the context of sustainable energy transition in congo-brazzaville. given the country’s heavy reliance on wood energy, which accounts for 85% of the national energy mix, the energy recovery of residues from logging and wood processing activities, as well as wood biomass energy (firewood and charcoal) intended for annual use, emerges as a strategic solution. pa ge 55 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 43-56, 2025 the findings demonstrate that an optimized exploitation of these resources could not only generate up to 591.7 mw of energy but also prevent up to 240,005 tons of co2 emissions per year, thereby significantly contributing to national climate and energy objectives. the multidimensional approach adopted, combined with the development of an interactive tool for biomassbased cogeneration project analysis, has demonstrated the technical, economic, and environmental feasibility of such valorization. moreover, the integration of biomass into the national energy mix goes beyond mere energy diversification. it also aligns with a sustainable development framework, supporting the responsible management of forest resources and the creation of socio-economic benefits for local communities. in a context where the congolese government is committed to transforming the forestry sector into a driver of a green economy, this research provides a solid foundation for policies and concrete actions. it offers pragmatic solutions to address critical challenges such as reducing energy poverty, mitigating climate change, and preserving natural resources. finally, this study calls for collective efforts involving public authorities, private stakeholders, and local communities to turn this potential into reality. synergy between technological innovation, an adapted regulatory framework, and community engagement will be essential to making forest biomass a cornerstone of sustainable energy development in congo-brazzaville. references abbas, t. m. (2020). biomass cogeneration technologies: a review. journal of sustainable bioenergy systems 1, 1-15. aguilar, f. (2009). perspectives of woody biomass for energy: survey of state foresters, state energy biomass contacts, and national council of forestry association executives. journal of forestry, 107(6), 297-306. antwi-boasiako, c. (2016). the level of utilization of secondary timber species among furniture producers. south-east european forestry, 7(1), 39-47. bakouetila, g. f. (2020). consommation du bois énergie dans les ménages de l’arrondissement 8 madibou (brazzaville, congo). journal of applied biosciences, 148(1), 15239-15251. berndes, g. a. (2016). forest biomass, carbon neutrality and climate change mitigation. from science to policy, 3(7), 1-27. bhattacharya, s. (2020). development and application of a multi-phase cfd model for down-draft biomass gasification. fuel processing technology, 201, 106365. börjesson, p. h. (2017). future demand for forest-based biomass for energy purposes in sweden. forest ecology and management, 383, 17-26. bridgwater, t. (2006). biomass for energy. journal of the science of food and agriculture, 86(12), 1755-1768. burg, v. b. (2018). analyzing the potential of domestic biomass resources for the energy transition in switzerland. biomass and bioenergy, 111, 60-69. eshiamwata, g. w. (2019). utilization patterns of biomass energy and cooking devices in eastern mau forest adjacent community of likia, nakuru, kenya. new frontiers in natural resources management in africa, 93-110. field, c. b. (2008). biomass energy: the scale of the potential resource. trends in ecology & evolution, 23(2), 65-72. gao, j. z. (2016). an integrated assessment of the potential of agricultural and forestry residues for energy production in c hina. gcb bioenergy, 8(5), 880893. gauthier, s. g. (2012). lethal carbon monoxide poisoning in wood pellet storerooms—two cases and a review of the literature. annals of occupational hygiene, 56(7), 755-763. hall, j. p. (2002). sustainable production of forest biomass for energy. the forestry chronicle, 78(3), 391-396. ifo, s. a. k. (2016). tree species diversity, richness, and similarity in intact and degraded forest in the tropical rainforest of the congo basin: case of the forest of likouala in the republic of congo. international journal of forestry research, 2016(1), 7593681. jankes, g. g. (2012). biomass gasification with chp production: a review of state of the art technology and near future perspectives. thermal science, 16, 115130. kashif, m., awan, m. b., nawaz, s., amjad, m., talib, b., farooq, m., ... & rehan, m. (2020). untapped renewable energy potential of crop residues in pakistan: challenges and future directions. journal of environmental management, 256, 109924. kimpouni, v. (2008). premières données sur la diversité floristique de la forêt d’aubeville (congo-brazzaville). systematics and geography of plants, 47-62. kirilenko, a. p. (2007). climate change impacts on forestry. proceedings of the national academy of sciences, 104(50), 19697-19702. koua, s. f. (2017). impact of logging on the environment in congo brazzaville. journal of finance and economics, 5(3), 118-127. kumar, a. &. (2024). integration of forest residues in developing nations’ energy systems. journal of renewable energy, 8(1), 45-62. ministère de l’économie forestière. (2020). inventaire forestier national multiressource de la république du congo 2009-2014. brazzaville: ministère de l’économie forestière. ladanai, s. (2009). global potential of sustainable biomass for energy. institutionen för energi och teknik, slu. lescuyer, g. &. (2011). le marché domestique du sciage artisanal en république du congo. état des lieux, opportunités et défis. cifor. lima, m. d. (2020). logging wastes from sustainable forest management as alternative fuels for thermochemical conversion systems in the brazilian amazon. biomass and bioenergy, 140, 105660. majchrzak, m. s. (2022). supply of wood biomass in pa ge 56 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 43-56, 2025 poland in terms of extraordinary threat and energy transition. energies, 15(15), 5381. maraver, d. s. (2013). assessment of cchp systems based on biomass combustion for small-scale applications through a review of the technology and analysis of energy efficiency parameters. applied energy, 102, 1303-1313. mbete, p. m. (2014). impact du mode de prélèvement sur la faune de l’unité forestière d’aménagement (ufa) mokabi-dzanga au nord du congo brazzaville. journal of applied biosciences, 75, 6202-6210. misra, a. k. (2014). effects of population and population pressure on forest resources and their conservation: a modeling study. environment, development and sustainability, 16, 361-374. öztürk, ş. (2002). acute wood or coal exposure with carbon monoxide intoxication induces sister chromatid exchange. journal of toxicology: clinical toxicology, 40(2), 115-120. sajdak, r. l. (1981). forest biomass for energy. biomass as a nonfossil fuel source, 21-48. sette jr, c. r. (2020). forest harvest byproducts: use of waste as energy. waste management, 114, 196-201. tiewul, m. a. (2024). sustainable biomass energy production: a review of current technologies and future prospects international journal of environmental science. international journal of environmental science, 12(2), 89-104. . vasileios, f. i. (2018). analysis of logging forest residues as an energy source. agrárinformatika / journal of agricultural informatics, 9(1), 14–25. pa ge 1 pa ge 15 8 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) investigating the environmental impacts of economic and tourism activity kinjal kaondal1*, sanjeet singh1 volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v4i1.5745 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: july 12, 2025 accepted: august 18, 2025 published: september 11, 2025 one of the serious problems that the world faces today is environmental degradation and there is a dire need to find the extent of this degradation due to macroeconomic activities, as almost every country aims for rapid economic growth, so this present study throws light on the interrelationship among these variables. this study aims to analyse the effects of economic growth, energy usage and tourism activity on environmental degradation in asian emerging and developing economies from 1995 to 2022. the study employed the fixed effect, random effect models, along with the fgls model. the existing literature does not reach a consensus on how different macroeconomic variables affect the environment, hence it’s necessary to have a deeper understanding of how these variables interact. the empirical analysis indicates negative significant effects of economic expansion and tourism, while energy consumption positively influenced the environmental indicator. these findings could be utilised for drafting regulatory measures in the selected countries, taking into account the fragile balance between economic prosperity and the environment. keywords economic growth, environmental degradation, fgls model, tourism 1 department of economics, central university of himachal pradesh, india * corresponding author’s e-mail: kinjalkaondal16@gmail.com introduction environmental concerns are among the main problems that the world is facing currently. asian emerging nations are the most populated and swiftest-moving nations, emitting the highest amount of greenhouse gases, releasing over half of global carbon dioxide emissions (international monetary fund [imf], 2021). the present study has undertaken these nations because the next decade belongs to asia, the steps taken by asian nations in response to climate change will decide the future of our planet to a large extent. in recent years, significant attention has been drawn from researchers, policymakers and environmental advocates in the context of the link between environmental deterioration and economic expansion. as countries grow, the requirement for resources rises and many times this results in a surge in pollution and environmental harm. this trade-off between economic development and ecological sustainability has led to continuous discussions: while economic growth can strengthen living standards and mitigate poverty, it might also risk natural ecosystems if growth is supported by practices that damage the environment. assessing this nexus is essential to determine policies that can maintain the environment while balancing economic progress, directing initiatives towards growth that is sustainable, which considers the long-term economic and environmental well-being. the most frequently recognised greenhouse gases (ghgs) include carbon dioxide (co2), released when fossil fuels are burned, nitrogen dioxide (no2), largely originating from particular manufacturing procedures, burning fossil fuels and applying nitrogen fertilisers, methane (ch4), largely generated from raising cattle. the report from the world meteorological organization (wmo) 2020 claims that the atmospheric concentration of co2 hit a new peak. this took place despite pollutants released via fossil fuels dropping in the midst of the covid-19 outbreak. significantly, in 2020, the airborne co2 levels attained 413 parts per million (ppm), which shows 149% rise from levels before the beginning of large-scale manufacturing. it’s the need of the hour to address the issue of global warming, which is mainly due to the emissions of greenhouse gases. it is notable that a critical aspect of this environmental damage is ascribed to a selected group of nations. for example, china is liable for about 30% of world emissions, whereas the united states is accountable for around 14%. tourism has recently become a viable alternative for environmental and economic development, but it has drawbacks. when there is a lack of essential actions to safeguard the environment, the deterioration of the environment is the opportunity cost of tourism. considering the fact that tourism contributes a major role in the host economy, it is currently among the most significant and rapidly growing economic sectors in the world. one of the sectors with the quickest rate of growth is tourism and it particularly affects employment, income production and advancement of the host country’s culture as a whole. the countries, including india, china, indonesia and vietnam, are undergoing fast urbanization and industrialization, leading to unusual economic growth and improved standards of living. though this growth pa ge 15 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 158-162, 2025 frequently comes at a substantial cost to the environment. higher usage of energy and fossil fuels, deforestation and enhanced agricultural practices led to carbon emissions, high levels of water and air pollution and deterioration of habitat. as these nations aspire to prosperity, they also confront the dual hurdle of addressing poverty and inequality while dealing with the severe impacts on the environment that follow growth. for asian emerging economies, the consequences are particularly elevated due to their dense populations, which worsens the social and environmental effects of unsustainable growth patterns. consequently, these nations are at the focal point of the international debates on sustainable development, looking for approaches that permit economic advancement without making concessions for ecological balance. the linkage between economic expansion and environmental deterioration in these areas is complicated, as many ecological challenges extend beyond national boundaries and regional cooperation is needed to handle them. for this reason, comprehending this connection is vital for formulating policies that not only lead to economic progress but also ascertains that it is in line with the sustainability goals of the environment, like those described in the united nations sustainable development goals (sdgs). this article intends to explore the consequences on the environment of rapid economic growth within asian emerging countries, evaluate the current environmental regulations and explore possible routes for sustainable development. by examining the particular difficulties and opportunities these countries encounter, this study provides a wider exchange on sustainable economic models that balance development that safeguards natural resources for future generations. literature review diverse research has been conducted to find the nexus between environmental deterioration and economic expansion, resulting in various conclusions. ridzuan et al. (2022) explored the ekc hypothesis between 1971 and 2019 using ardl analysis for malaysia. in the short and long term, they observed an inverted and direct u-shaped ekc, respectively. beton kalmaz and adebayo (2023) looked for the ekc hypothesis for brics countries from 1990 to 2018 by using fmols, dols and fixed-effect ols. they validated this hypothesis and therefore observed the positive impact of gdp on co2. tran et al. (2023) examined linkage between economic expansion and ecological deterioration for 47 middleincome countries by using the ardl model between 1991 and 2018. they validated the ekc hypothesis, therefore observed a positive and an inverse relation in the near and distant future, respectively. alshehry and belloumi (2024) looked for the linkages between economic expansion and ecological deterioration from 1990 to 2020 by employing linear and nonlinear panel ardl models in mena countries. they validated the ekc hypothesis and observed that economic expansion results in ecological deterioration in the long term. wang et al. (2024) explored the link between economic advancement and ecological deterioration between 1995 and 2018 by using a nonlinear threshold panel model in 147 countries. they supported ekc for the selected countries. they observed that the extent of ecological deterioration due to economic growth is relatively low in low-income nations. simultaneously, the values of coefficients became relatively greater for middle-income and high-income nations. gulistan et al. (2020) assessed the influence of increase in economic activity and some other variables on environmental deterioration in 112 nations from 1995 to 2017. they used pooled ols, fixed and random effect models and gls for estimation. they observed a direct relation between co2 emissions and energy usage and this signified that most of this energy is non-renewable and based on oil. usman et al. (2022) explored effect of utilization of energy and other variables on co2 release between 1995 and 2017 using fmols and discovered that non-sustainable energy usage has a direct influence on ecological deterioration, whereas the application of sustainable means of energy production can somewhat enhance the quality of the environment in south asian nations. tran et al. (2024) examined the nexus among carbon release, energy usage and economic prosperity in asean countries in the previous thirty years by using the panel vector autoregressive model, fmols and dols. they observed that carbon release is related to energy usage, while sustainable energy consumption reduces carbon pollutants. economic growth leads to higher energy consumption, which consequently results in carbon release. osman (2024) assessed the effect of energy usage by various sectors on co2 release in saudi arabia from 1979 to 2022 by using the ardl technique and found that energy usage in the logistics and industrial sectors has a direct influence on co2 release, while energy consumption in the agriculture sector negatively affects co2 release. rahman et al. (2024) investigated the applicability of the environmental kuznets curve (ekc) theory with respect to energy usage, human capital index and population density by using fixed effects, random effects and dynamic panel methodology in five south asian nations and found an inverted u-shaped ekc curve. since the existing literature does not reach a consensus on how various macroeconomic variables impact the environment, the present study seeks to shed further light on this relationship. materials and methods data sources and model formulation the purpose of this paper is to look at the influence of economic expansion, energy usage and tourism on environmental deterioration between 1995 and 2020 for pa ge 16 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 158-162, 2025 emerging and developing asian economies. panel data will be used for this purpose. gross domestic product per capita and green house gas (ghg) emissions per capita will be used as the proxy of economic growth and environment degradation, respectively. gdp, energy usage and tourism data were obtained from the world bank, whereas data on ghg emissions were obtained from our world in data. according to the world economic outlook (2023), there are thirty emerging and developing economies, out of which twelve economies are chosen on the basis of data availability. all the variables are presented in their logarithmic transformation. table 1 presents the description of each variable under consideration. table 1: description of variables variable types name notation units explained variable green house gas emissions ghg ghg per capita, co2 equivalents explanatory variable gross domestic product gdp gdp per capita, constant 2015 us$ explanatory variable energy consumption ec kwh per person explanatory variable tourism tourism number of arrivals table 2: descriptive statistics variables lnghg lngdp lnec lntourism mean 1.411316 7.604194 8.584625 14.84214 standard deviation .8081339 .8531185 1.134581 1.866396 maximum .0862168 5.349685 5.937852 11.11095 minimum 3.466943 9.316011 10.54069 18.90642 observations 312 312 312 312 table 2, shows that mean ghg emissions for asian emerging and developing economies are 1.411316 co2 eq. from 1995 to 2020. per capita gdp is on average equal to 7.604194 us$ whereas mean energy consumption is equal to 8.584625 kwh per person and on average around 14.84214 tourists arrived from 1995 to 2020 in the selected area. econometric methodology the following basic model will be used: lnghgi,t = γ+θ1lngdpi,t+θ2lneci,t+θ3lntourismi,t+ φi,t where γ is the intercept term, θ1, θ2 and θ3 are slope coefficients, φ is the error term, i is cross cross-section and t is time period. results and discussion initially, the fixed effects and random effects models were used, along with the hausman test, to figure out the best-suited methodology for further analysis. the results propose that the fixed effect model will be applied. table 3: panel data regression results variable ols fixed effects random effects gdp -.3681877*** .3060402*** .2752862*** (0.00) (0.000) (0.00) ec .8572978*** .1208867 .1630829** (0.00) (0.39) (0.04) tourism -.0449811 -.067599** -.0654784** (0.16) (0.03) (0.03) constant -2.480877 -.9503251 -1.110179 observations 312 312 312 hausman test p – value 0.0078 *** significant at 1%, ** significant at 5%, * significant at 10% table 4: pesaran’s test of cross-sectional independence statistic 0.692 p-value 0.4891 *** significant at 1%, ** significant at 5%, * significant at 10% table 2 shows summary statistics based on 312 observations. pa ge 16 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 158-162, 2025 the above results reflect that the value of test statistic is 0.692 and pvalue is 0.4891, that exceeds 0.05, so null hypothesis cannot be rejected and hence there is no cross-sectional dependence in our model. multicollinearity testing it is employed to check the model for multicollinearity. as a general norm, the vif score needs to be below 10. therefore, multicollinearity is not a problem. heteroscedasticity test: lagrange multiplier, likelihood ratio and wald test are conducted in order to examine the panel groupwise heteroscedasticity with : ho: panel homoscedasticity ha: panel groupwise heteroscedaticity table 5: variance inflation factors (vif) variable random effects gdp 4.84 tourism 4.55 ec 1.80 source: author’s calculation table 6: heteroscedasticity test wald test lm test lr test chi2 value 2045.0794 124.5087 165.7499 p value 0.00 0.00 0.00 the outcomes give enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis; there persists the issue of heteroscedasticity, so fgls model will be applied. the outcomes of fgls regression are illustrated in the table 7: cross-sectional time-series fgls regression variable coefficient p-value gdp -.3681877 0.00*** tourism -.0449811 0.015** ec .8572978 0.00*** constant -2.480877 0.00*** *** significant at 1%, ** significant at 5%, * significant at 10% above table, according to which gdp, tourism have a significant statistical negative effect on carbon release of the chosen asian countries. the results signify that economic prosperity and tourism activity may be related to environmental improvement. but, energy consumption appears as a significant and positive determinant, reflecting that enhanced energy usage amplifies environmental impact. further, the constant term is also substantial, which strengthens the robustness of the model. simultaneously, fgls methodology eliminated the issue of heteroscedasticity and the results thus acquired are reliable. conclusion asian emerging economies are on the path of development with the aim of high economic growth, but at the same time, their environmental repercussions need to be addressed. as is evident from the data, gdp, which is a proxy of economic growth, leads to reduced environmental pressure. tourism also contributes to environmental sustainabilitywhereas energy usage remains a key environmental pressure. therefore, these economies should encourage green economic growth along with sustainable tourism and work in the area to adopt clean energy technologies. references alshehry, a., & belloumi, m. (2023). the symmetric and asymmetric impacts of energy consumption and economic growth on environmental sustainability. sustainability (switzerland), 16(1). https://doi. org/10.3390/su16010205 gulistan, a., tariq, y. b., & bashir, m. f. (2020). dynamic relationship among economic growth, energy, trade openness, tourism and environmental degradation: fresh global evidence. environmental science and pollution research, 27(12), 13477–13487. https://doi. org/10.1007/s11356-020-07875-5 international monetary fund. (2021, march 25). asia-pacific, the gigantic domino of climate change. imf blog. https:// www.imf.org/en/blogs/articles/2021/03/25/asiapacific-the-gigantic-domino-of-climate-change kalmaz, d. b., & adebayo, t. s. (2023). does foreign pa ge 16 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 158-162, 2025 direct investment moderate the effect of economic complexity on carbon emissions? evidence from brics nations. international journal of energy sector management, 18(4), 834–856. https://doi. org/10.1108/ijesm-01-2023-0014 osman, y. (2024). implications of energy consumption by sector on carbon emissions in saudi arabia. international journal of energy economics and policy, 14(2), 311–318. https://doi.org/10.32479/ijeep.15530 rahman, m. m., husnain, m. i. u., & azimi, m. n. (2024). an environmental perspective of energy consumption, overpopulation, and human capital barriers in south asia. scientific reports, 14(1). https:// doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-53950-z ridzuan, a. r., kumaran, v. v., fianto, b. a., shaari, m. s., esquivias, m. a., & albani, a. (2022). reinvestigating the presence of environmental kuznets curve in malaysia: the role of foreign direct investment. international journal of energy economics and policy, 12(5), 217–225. https://doi.org/10.32479/ijeep.13461 tran, t., bui, h., vo, a., & vo, d. h. (2024). the role of renewable energy in the energy–growth–emission nexus in the asean region. energy, sustainability and society, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13705-02400446-3 tran, v. h., lu, n. p., le, n. t. p., & duong, k. d. (2023). how do foreign direct investment and economic growth affect environmental degradation? evidence from 47 middle-income countries. scientific papers of the university of pardubice, series d: faculty of economics and administration, 31(1). https://doi. org/10.46585/sp31011671 usman, m., anwar, s., yaseen, m. r., makhdum, m. s. a., kousar, r., & jahanger, a. (2021). unveiling the dynamic relationship between agriculture value addition, energy utilization, tourism and environmental degradation in south asia. journal of public affairs, 22(4). https://doi.org/10.1002/pa.2712 wang, q., wang, x., li, r., & jiang, x. (2024). reinvestigating the environmental kuznets curve (ekc) of carbon emissions and ecological footprint in 147 countries: a matter of trade protectionism. humanities and social sciences communications, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-02639-9 pa ge 1 pa ge 13 6 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) hiking trails economic and social impact: the case of the lebanon mountain trail jad abou arrage1, rita abboud2, omar sakr3* volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v4i1.4490 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: february 01, 2025 accepted: march 07, 2025 published: august 07, 2025 the lebanon mountain trail (lmt), spanning 450 kilometers, plays a pivotal role in fostering sustainable tourism and enhancing local and rural economic development in lebanon. in order to assess its role and impacts, this study evaluates the socio-economic contributions of the lmt by employing travel cost (tc), contingent valuation (cv), and cost-benefit analysis (cba) methods. to ensure a comprehensive analysis, data were systematically collected through a combination of surveys and key informant interviews. the results of the study indicate that the lmt generates substantial annual economic value, ranging between 17 million usd and 34 million usd. moreover, the benefit-cost ratio (bcr) demonstrates the lmt’s strong return on investment, reaching 42.6 under conservative scenarios and 85.2 under optimistic scenarios. these findings suggest that each dollar invested in the lmt yields substantial returns, underscoring its attractiveness as a sustainable investment. beyond these aggregate economic contributions, the analysis further delineates direct and indirect economic effects, with the type 1 multiplier highlighting significant re-spending effects within the local economy. however, while this study emphasizes the lmt’s crucial contributions to community development and tourism enhancement, it also acknowledges certain limitations, particularly in capturing induced economic effects. as a result, the study suggests avenues for future research to address these gaps and refine the economic assessment. in conclusion, these findings reinforce the necessity of adopting sustainable management practices and implementing strategic policy interventions to further amplify the lmt’s positive role within lebanon’s socio-economic and environmental frameworks. keywords contingent valuation, cost-benefit analysis, economic impact, lebanon mountain trail, travel cost 1 department of environmental health, faculty of health sciences, american university of beirut, lebanon 2 lebanon mountain trail association, lebanon 3 department of hospitality and tourism, faculty of business administration and economics, notre dame university, louaize lebanon * corresponding author’s e-mail: omarsakr7@gmail.com introduction the lebanon mountain trail (lmt) serves as a prime hiking destination in lebanon, promoting both sustainable tourism and heritage preservation. stretching 450 kilometers from aandqet in the north to marjaayoun in the south, the trail connects over 75 towns and villages, offering a unique platform for rural development and cultural exchange. designed with a strong commitment to sustainability, the lmt champions responsible travel to mountain and rural areas, fostering local economic development and promoting environmental conservation through community-based tourism initiatives. more broadly, trail networks such as the lmt are widely recognized for their multifaceted socio-economic benefits. in addition to generating revenue through tourism, long-distance hiking trails play a crucial role in creating local employment, particularly within the tourism and hospitality sectors. at the same time, they encourage environmental stewardship and active community engagement, as evidenced by numerous studies (brownson et al., 2000; bennett et al., 2003; bowker et al., 2004; otto et al., 2007; bedford county commissioners & fulton county commissioners, 2014; lake, 2014; mcconnell et al., 2015; kim & miller, 2019; do val simardi beraldo souza et al., 2019; lukoseviciute et al., 2022a). given the recognized significance of the lmt, a comprehensive study was conducted in 2024 to assess its socio-economic impact. more specifically, this study pursued three primary objectives: (1) to analyze trail visitor demographics and usage patterns, (2) to assess the trail’s direct and indirect economic contributions to local communities, and (3) to estimate the economic value of the trail using the travel cost (tc), contingent valuation (cv), and cost-benefit analysis (cba) methods. to achieve these objectives, a mixed-methods approach was employed, seamlessly integrating quantitative data derived from user surveys and economic impact analyses with qualitative insights obtained through key informant interviews. by combining these methods, the study offers a robust and holistic assessment of the lmt’s economic footprint and its broader implications for sustainable tourism and rural development in lebanon. literature review trails and tourism trails play a fundamental role in tourism by facilitating access to natural and cultural heritage sites, fostering public engagement with the environment, and contributing to the advancement of sustainable tourism practices. rooted in ancient pathways, trails have historically served as essential connectors between communities, evolving into carefully managed routes designed to accommodate a variety of recreational activities, including hiking, biking, and horseback riding (lukoseviciute et al., 2022b; iucn, 2021). to ensure their effective design and management, trails are classified based on specific criteria, as outlined in table 1. this classification framework not only helps optimize trail functionality for diverse user groups but also plays a crucial role in minimizing ecological impact and preserving the integrity of natural landscapes. pa ge 13 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 136-149, 2025 table 1: classification of trails based on location and intended use category description and definition tourism activity urban trails trails located within or near urban areas, providing easy access to recreational activities for city dwellers (abraham & ramaswamy, 2013) popular for walking, jogging, and biking, attracting both residents and tourists. rural trails trails found in rural settings, often surrounded by natural landscapes (bedford county commissioners, 2014) attract tourists seeking nature experiences and rural charm. heritage trails trails that highlight historical, cultural, or archaeological sites (bowker et al., 2004) attract tourists interested in history, culture, and educational tours. nature trails trails that run through natural landscapes, often within protected areas (du preez & lee, 2016) popular among ecotourists, bird watchers, and nature enthusiasts. multi-use trails trails designed for various activities such as walking, biking, and horseback riding (scipione, 2014) frequented by a diverse group of users, enhancing their recreational appeal. water trails routes on navigable waterways used for activities like kayaking, canoeing, and boating (pollock et al., 2012) attract tourists interested in waterbased recreation and scenic waterway views. mountain trails trails located in mountainous regions, offering challenging terrains and scenic vistas (heintzman, 2020) popular among adventure tourists, hikers, and mountaineers. forest trails trails within forested areas, providing shaded paths and opportunities for wildlife observation (cordell et al., 2021) attract nature lovers, bird watchers, and educational groups. according to the classification system presented in table 1, the lebanon mountain trail (lmt) can be primarily categorized as a rural, nature, and mountain trail. regardless of their specific classification, trails provide a wide range of valuable services that promote environmentally responsible recreation, including hiking, biking, and wildlife observation. as a result, these activities not only enhance visitor experiences but also contribute to both physical and mental well-being (brownson et al., 2000; bennett et al., 2003; otto et al., 2007; bedford county commissioners & fulton county commissioners, 2014; lake, 2014; kim & miller, 2019). from an economic standpoint, trails play a significant role in stimulating local economies by generating tourism-related employment and fostering diverse rural tourism activities, which, in turn, drive business growth (mcconnell et al., 2015). moreover, trail tourism has a considerable impact on local expenditure, particularly in sectors such as accommodations, food and beverage, guiding services, and retail. this increased spending not only fosters the development of local enterprises but also strengthens overall community well-being (bowker et al., 2004; pollock et al., 2012; du preez & lee, 2016). given these substantial economic contributions, conducting economic analyses of trail-related tourism is essential for accurately assessing its impacts and evaluating its benefits. furthermore, such analyses are crucial for informing strategic planning and decision-making, ultimately shaping policies that support both sustainability and economic resilience in tourism destinations (lawson, 2022). economic valuation of trails while trail-related tourism serves as a significant driver of economic growth, standardized methodologies for accurately measuring its economic impact remain underdeveloped. one of the key challenges in this regard is that trails attract a diverse range of users, each with varying preferences for accommodations, guiding services, and trip durations. as a result, this diversity leads to considerable variation in spending patterns, making it difficult to establish a uniform approach to economic assessment. nevertheless, these differences highlight the crucial role of visitor expenditures in supporting local job creation and sustaining businesses both within and beyond established trail networks (bowker et al., 2004; pollock et al., 2012; du preez & lee, 2016). given the complexity of trail-related economic activity, a comprehensive understanding of its broader contributions is essential for robust economic assessment (do val simardi beraldo souza et al., 2019). accordingly, reliable economic data serve as a fundamental tool in guiding informed decision-making processes related to both trail development and environmental protection (lawson, 2022). to ensure a holistic evaluation, the total economic value (tev) framework is particularly instrumental, as it encompasses both use and non-use values of trails. within this framework, use values include direct, indirect, and option values, while non-use values encompass bequest and existence values (moran, 2005). the specific methodologies employed for estimating these values are presented in figure 1. pa ge 13 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 136-149, 2025 figure 1: components of total economic value and associated valuation methods to comprehensively assess the economic contributions of the lmt, this study adopts the total economic value (tev) framework, integrating two distinct methodologies: the travel cost method (tcm) and the contingent valuation method (cvm). specifically, the tcm is employed to estimate use values by analyzing visitor travel expenses along the lmt, while the cvm is utilized to assess non-use values within lebanese society, particularly in terms of willingness to pay for trail preservation. the selection of these methods is justified by several key factors. first, their accessibility to data, particularly in data-limited contexts such as lebanon, enhances their applicability. additionally, both approaches have been widely recognized for their effectiveness in capturing both the direct and indirect economic impacts of recreational trails. beyond these primary valuation methods, this study also incorporates cost-benefit analysis (cba) to rigorously evaluate the economic feasibility of the lmt, thereby providing a more comprehensive assessment of its overall benefits (table 2). table 2: overview of economic impact assessment tools assessment methods type application and strengths data needs references travel cost valuation (tcm) revealed preference assesses economic impact through visitor spending (e.g., travel, accommodation), reflecting actual visitor behavior and expenditure. detailed visitor data on travel, costs, and behavior (bowker et al., 2004; iucn, 2007; du preez & lee, 2016; lukoseviciute et al., 2022b) contingent valuation (cv) stated preference measures willingness to pay for environmental goods or services. effective for nonmarket goods, assesses nonuse values. survey data on willingness to pay (baral et al., 2007) cost-benefit analysis (cba) additional approach evaluates costs and benefits of projects, providing a clear numeric representation of project feasibility. cost and benefit data on projects (hans et al., 2005; bowker et al., 2007; otto et al., 2007; mcdonald, 2015) economic impact of trails economic impact analysis serves as a fundamental tool for understanding the influence of recreational trails on local, regional, and even national economies. by providing a detailed assessment of economic contributions, such analyses enable local managers to prioritize investment areas and promote sustainable development (lukoseviciute et al., 2020). more specifically, by examining visitor spending patterns, economic impact assessments effectively capture changes in income, employment, and overall economic output within a given region (çela et al., 2009; pollock et al., 2012; maria raya et al., 2018; state, pa ge 13 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 136-149, 2025 2019). in addition to quantifying economic contributions, these analyses also identify key areas where trail-related activities generate substantial economic value. as a result, they offer valuable insights that support evidence-based policy formulation and strategic management decisions. furthermore, the economic effects of trails are typically categorized into three distinct types: direct, indirect, and induced effects, as illustrated in figure 2. ecotourism significantly amplifies these impacts, which recreational trails effectively facilitate. it possesses immense potential for poverty alleviation, serving as a leading source of economic growth, job creation, and income diversification in developing regions. ecotourism sites become a major source of income for local people through direct employment as managers, guides, and service providers, as well as through the sale of local goods and services. this directly aligns with the direct, indirect, and induced effects of trail-related tourism, where visitor spending at local businesses, procurement of supplies, and subsequent household spending all contribute to economic growth (khan, 2022). figure 2: a representation of direct, indirect and induced impacts direct effects represent the most immediate economic benefits arising from consumer spending on goods and services directly associated with trail use. these expenditures typically include accommodations, food, guiding services, and recreational gear (çela et al., 2009; lukoseviciute et al., 2020). such effects are particularly evident in business revenue generated through tourist expenditures (lukoseviciute et al., 2022b), as well as in the initial round of spending at local businesses, such as restaurants and retail stores located near the trail (camoin associates, 2021; baronak et al., 2022). in addition to these direct benefits, trails also generate indirect economic effects, which stem from the secondary economic activity initiated when trail-related businesses procure supplies and services from local vendors. for instance, businesses catering to trail users often stimulate local supply chains by increasing demand for raw materials, employment, and production (mcdonald, 2015; camoin associates, 2021). as a result, regional economic output expands, as evidenced by increased supplier purchases to accommodate growing consumer demand (çela et al., 2009; scipione, 2014). beyond direct and indirect effects, induced effects further amplify the economic significance of trails. these effects emerge from changes in household income generated through trail-related employment and spending. more specifically, they capture how wages earned by employees in directly and indirectly affected businesses are subsequently respent within the local economy, generating ripple effects across multiple industries (mcconnell et al., 2015; state, 2019). consequently, these consumption-driven impacts are essential for understanding the broader economic importance of recreational trails (baronak et al., 2022; lukoseviciute et al., 2022a). taken together, these findings underscore the multifaceted economic value of recreational trails. to further conceptualize these economic interactions, the multiplier effect—originally introduced by john maynard keynes—provides a valuable framework for analyzing the circulation of external funds within a region, particularly in tourismdriven economies (lukoseviciute et al., 2022b). since the 1990s, the income multiplier has been widely utilized to guide policy decisions by assessing various economic impacts, including gross output, income, value added, and employment (archer & fletcher, 1996; hsu, 2019; tafel & szolnoki, 2020). specifically, type 1 multipliers capture both direct and indirect effects, while type 2 multipliers extend the analysis to include induced effects (sacks et al., 2002; lukoseviciute et al., 2022a). given the complexity of modern economies, formal economic models are pa ge 14 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 136-149, 2025 essential for conducting precise analyses, as reliance on a single multiplier may provide an incomplete assessment of economic impact (morgan, 2010). economic impact assessment economic impact assessments serve as essential tools for evaluating the influence of tourism on local economies. to achieve this, various modeling approaches have been developed, including the input-output (i-o) model, the keynesian-type model, and the ad hoc model (hsu, 2019; lukoseviciute et al., 2022b). notably, these models differ considerably in terms of data requirements, spatial scale, and analytical costs (table 3). among these approaches, the i-o and keynesian models are widely utilized due to their capacity to capture complex economic linkages. however, in data-limited contexts, the ad hoc model is often preferred for its relative simplicity and targeted approach to analyzing tourism-related economic impacts. more specifically, the ad hoc model estimates both direct and indirect economic effects through structured surveys of visitors, businesses, and residents. this methodology proves particularly valuable in assessing nature-based tourism in rural areas, where conventional economic data may be scarce (archer & owen, 1971; lukoseviciute et al., 2022b). given these advantages, the present study adopts the ad hoc methodology, as it offers a practical and effective means of capturing the economic impacts of recreational trails, particularly in regions where data availability is constrained. table 3: the comparison of the main different theoretical economic impact assessment models criteria i-o model keynesiantype model ad hoc model definition estimates regional economic changes and multiplier effects through direct, indirect, and induced impacts (bowker et al., 2007; çela et al., 2009). assesses tourism expenditure impacts by comparing spending to economic leakages (archer, 1977; dwyer et al., 2010). estimates tourism expenditure impacts using simplified formulas and local surveys (archer & owen, 1971; hsu, 2019). data requirements i-o table employment, income or output data, tourists’ expenditure, data on taxes, direct and indirect multipliers for all tourism economic sectors. employment, income or output data, tourists’ expenditure residents’ income and local expenditure. spatial scale up to spatial scale of available i-o table no limit no limit operational cost high low medium time required for analysis it is not time-consuming unless an i-o table or adequate data is unavailable. it is time-consuming to collect all required data it is time-consuming to collect all required data the magnitude of multiplier i-o multiplier > keynesian multiplier > ad hoc multiplier economic sectors covered all economic sectors tourism sector tourism sector materials and methods the development of an economic assessment tool for trails, specifically applied to selected sections of the lebanon mountain trail (lmt), adopts a multiphase approach that acknowledges the multi-sectoral nature of economic impact analysis. in this context, the methodology employed in this study comprises four key steps: (1) desk review, (2) choice of economic impact assessment methods, (3) data collection, and (4) quantitative analysis. desk review the desk review consisted of a structured systematic literature review (slr), a rigorous method designed to minimize bias and ensure comprehensive data collection on the economic impact and overall value of trails. through this process, the slr provided an in-depth analysis of advanced economic impact studies focused on recreational and nature trails, thereby ensuring both objectivity and thoroughness (lukoseviciute et al., 2022b). to achieve this, relevant articles on a range of topics, including recreational, nature, and hiking trails, ecotourism, socio-economic impact, ecosystem services valuation, and pertinent case studies, were systematically gathered. subsequently, the collected data was then crossreferenced to identify information specifically applicable to the context of lebanon and the lmt. economic assessment methods the second phase of this study involved the careful selection of appropriate economic assessment methods to effectively quantify the economic value of hiking trails. in this context, drawing upon the existing literature and carefully considering the specific context of nature-based pa ge 14 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 136-149, 2025 tourism in rural areas, the ad hoc model was chosen. moreover, this model was implemented in conjunction with two primary economic valuation techniques: travel cost valuation (tc) and contingent valuation (cv), as well as benefit-cost analysis (bca). these methods were selected based on their methodological accuracy, close alignment with the study objectives, and suitability for contexts characterized by limited data availability. consequently, this second step focused on both the choice of economic assessment methods and the development of specific tools designed to capture the economic value of hiking trails (lukoseviciute et al., 2022b). the ad hoc model is employed to estimate both the direct and indirect economic impacts of trail-related tourism. this estimation is achieved through surveys administered to key stakeholders, encompassing trail visitors, local businesses, and residents. by calculating income multipliers derived from changes in tourist expenditure, the ad hoc model provides a robust and practical framework for assessing economic impacts within rural, nature-based tourism settings. its straightforward approach, coupled with its capacity to yield meaningful results despite limited data availability, renders it an optimal choice for evaluating tourism impacts in regions characterized by constrained statistical resources (archer & owen, 1971; lukoseviciute et al., 2022b). the travel cost (tc) valuation method plays a pivotal role in evaluating the economic impact of recreational activities, particularly those that do not involve direct market transactions. more specifically, this method estimates the cost per trip based on a range of factors, including travel distance, transportation costs, and other expenditures incurred by visitors while using the trail (bowker et al., 2004; du preez & lee, 2016; do val simardi beraldo souza et al., 2019; lukoseviciute et al., 2022b). fundamentally, the tc method operates on the premise that the cost of visiting a recreational site can serve as a reliable proxy for the value that visitors place on the experience. as a result, this method was selected for its capacity to generate empirical, visitor-driven data on trailrelated expenditures, thereby offering a robust approach to quantifying the economic value of recreational activities in contexts where traditional market-based data is unavailable. the tc is calculated as follows: travel cost (tc) = transportation cost (trc) + total expenses (te) per trip ....(1) where transportation cost is defined as the sum of travel distance and travel time, while total expenses encompass all expenditures incurred along the trail. these include costs for local guides, food and beverage consumption, purchases of local products, entrance fees to museums and nature reserves, equipment rentals, and transportation between trail villages and sections. complementing the tc method, contingent valuation (cv) is an established economic valuation method utilized to assess individuals’ willingness to pay (wtp) for environmental goods or services. this method involves directly eliciting participants’ wtp for specific trail services or contributions to conservation efforts (fao, 2000; bennett et al., 2003; champ et al., 2017). even in scenarios where no direct expenditures occur during outdoor recreation, natural resources retain intrinsic value. accordingly, the cv method effectively captures both actual consumer spending and surplus value—representing what individuals are willing to pay for recreational opportunities—and evaluates wtp for non-market goods. these non-market goods encompass recreational experiences and passive use values, such as existence, option, and bequest values (bennett et al., 2003; otto et al., 2007; haefele et al., 2016). importantly, the cv method is particularly effective in estimating values in contexts where markets or readily available substitutes do not exist, as it accounts for existence, option, indirect use, and non-use values. wtp reflects the maximum amount individuals would pay rather than forgo an increase in a specific good or service, thereby encompassing both direct use and passive use values (bennett et al., 2003; baral et al., 2007; otto et al., 2007; haefele et al., 2016). the cv is calculated as follows: wtp = mean wtp for voluntary access fees + mean wtp for donations to protect the trail ....(2) finally, benefit-cost analysis (bca) serves as a systematic approach for estimating the relative strengths and weaknesses of various alternatives. by quantifying the benefits and costs associated with each option, bca provides a solid foundation for making informed resource allocation decisions. notably, this method is widely applied to identify the most economically efficient alternative, incorporating not only direct and indirect economic impacts but also environmental and social benefits (hans et al., 2005; bowker et al., 2007; otto et al., 2007; mcdonald, 2015). the equation for bca is as follows: benefit-cost ratio = (total benefits (b))/(total costs (c)) ....(3) in this equation, b represents the monetary and nonmonetary benefits derived from the trail, or its economic value, while c encompasses all costs related to trail management, maintenance, and promotions. in this study, bca is employed to evaluate the overall economic efficiency of the lmt. specifically, it assesses direct, indirect, and socio-economic impacts to inform decisions pertaining to lmt management and conservation. this method was chosen for its demonstrated ability to provide a comprehensive evaluation of the lmt’s economic efficiency. by rigorously comparing benefits and costs, bca ensures that resources are allocated in a manner that maximizes both economic and societal gains. data collection and quantitative analysis the final steps in the methodology involve a structured approach to fieldwork and data collection, utilizing tools specifically tailored to the context of lebanon and the selected sections of the lmt. although international studies provide valuable insights into the economic impact of trails (casey et al., 1995; pollock et al., 2012; scipione, pa ge 14 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 136-149, 2025 2014), there remains a notable scarcity of data specific to lebanon. to bridge this critical gap, the study employs a mixed-methods approach, combining surveys and key informant interviews with a diverse range of stakeholders, including trail users, tour organizers, and local service providers. by integrating these multiple perspectives, the study ensures a comprehensive and contextually relevant economic assessment of the lmt. the study design flowchart, which outlines the methodology and data collection process, is presented in figure 3. figure 3: the study design flowchart surveys in response to the absence of prior studies on the lmt’s economic impact, this study adopted a datadriven methodology. given that traditional economic models typically rely on inputs such as annual family income, they were deemed unsuitable due to these data gaps. as an alternative, detailed surveys and interviews were employed to gather context-specific data, despite their time-intensive nature. to ensure a comprehensive assessment, the methodology involved the design and administration of two distinct online surveys targeting different stakeholder groups. first, a survey completed by 200 trail users in march 2024 collected data useful for the calculation of the recreational value of the trail using the travel cost method, and the existence value of the trail using the contingent valuation methods. to mitigate potential biases in responses, the survey was structured to first gather information on respondents’ trip expenditures including demographics, travel details, hiking habits, spending patterns, and all travel-relatedcosts, before inquiring about their willingness to donate for the lmt protection and maintenance, and to pay access fees to the trail. second, a separate survey targeted 16 lebanese tour operators involved in hiking activities along the selected lmt sections. specifically, this survey explored socio-demographics, trail usage patterns, stakeholder interactions, and the potential for volunteer engagement. by incorporating these diverse perspectives, the study provided a comprehensive understanding of the tourism industry’s perception of the trail’s economic contributions (seville et al., 2014). both surveys were strategically disseminated via google forms in february 2024, with the lmta facilitating distribution through its extensive networks. furthermore, a snowball sampling approach was employed, leveraging respondents to refer additional participants, thereby expanding reach and ensuring broader representation. to enhance the reliability and validity of the collected data, all survey instruments underwent pre-testing and iterative refinement in collaboration with the lmta. this rigorous process incorporated feedback to improve clarity and ensure alignment with the study’s objectives. ultimately, the collected data from both surveys proved critical for capturing direct spending on the lmt and estimating its economic value using the travel cost and contingent valuation methods (tomes et al., 2005; trail facts, 2005; scipione, 2014; lawson, 2022). key informant interviews: to ensure a representative sample, the local service providers interviewed for this study were strategically selected to cover different sections of the lmt across the five lebanese governorates through which it passes, as illustrated on the map (figure 4). this selection process was designed to capture diverse tourism dynamics across various regions of lebanon, including areas characterized by seasonal tourism and limited infrastructure, as well as those with year-round tourism and enhanced services. by pa ge 14 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 136-149, 2025 incorporating these varied contexts, the study provides a comprehensive understanding of tourism variations, particularly in terms of indirect economic impacts. notably, the selected trail sections range in length from 13 to 24 kilometers. in total, 30 local service providers were interviewed using a combination of face-to-face and telephone methods. the primary objective of these interviews was to estimate the economic value of the lmt through market demand analysis and an assessment of the spending patterns for services and activities offered along the trail. in this regard, the data provided by trail service providers complemented the trail users’ survey data and facilitated the estimation of average expenditures on key trail services and activities, such as accommodation, food, and guiding. this, in turn, offered a more refined measure of the trail’s direct economic impact. figure 4: selected sections along the lebanon mountain trail results and discussion the results and discussion section is structured into three parts: (1) trail users profile, (2) service providers profile, and (3) a comprehensive economic assessment. the trail user profile examines demographics, including residence, gender, age, income, employment, and marital status, as well as motivations for trail use, trail preferences, seasonal activity patterns, group composition, and accommodation choices. insights from service providers, such as guides, accommodations, and local businesses, shed light on their economic contributions and perspectives. the comprehensive economic assessment encompasses estimations of the economic value, which includes the recreational value of the trail assessed using the travel cost method and the existence value of the trail measured through the contingent valuation method. furthermore, a cost-benefit analysis (cba) is conducted to evaluate the overall benefits of the lmt. additionally, the economic impact is determined by both the direct and indirect economic impacts of the trail, along with the calculation of the associated multiplier effect. trail users profile table 4 presents a summary of key findings from the survey of trail users along the lmt, showcasing respondents’ demographics, interests, trail usage patterns, expenditures, and accommodation preferences. table 4: survey findings on lmt users category findings demographics nationality: 93% lebanese, 7% foreigners (local appeal, growing international interest). gender: 63.4% male, 36.6% female. outdoor activity participation is typically more balanced than on the lmt (scipione, 2014; outdoor foundation, 2022) age: 26–35 (29.7%), 46–55 (27.7%), 36–45 (21.8%), 18-25 (10%) and 56-65 (8.9%) household income: <$1,000 (21.8%), $1,000–$2,000 (24.8%), , $2,001–$3,000 (18%), >$3,000 (35.3%). results confirm that participation in outdoor activities tends to increase with income (heintzman, 2020). pa ge 14 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 136-149, 2025 employment: private sector (52.5%), freelancers (26.7%), public sector (6%), retired (5%), students (6%). lower retiree participation compared to global trends (lu & lee, 2019) marital status: married (53.5%), single (41.6%), divorced (3.9%) and 1% widowed. consistent with similar studies (abraham & ramaswamy, 2013). interest motivation: nature/cultural discovery (81.2%), tourism/recreation (77.2%), health/exercise (59.4%), sports/fitness: 56.4%, work/research (19.8%), reconnecting with heritage (2%). trail use most popular sections: sections 6, 10, 13, 16, 18, 19, and side trails (douma/ehmej). seasonal use: spring (57.4%) peak season, autumn (42.6%) growing demand, summer (29.7%) climate factors affecting trail use, winter (23.8%) affected by trail accessibility. usage pattern: 60% on weekdays and 40% on weekends, differing from global weekendpreferred patterns. activities recreational hiking (85.1%), long-distance trekking (37.6%), snowshoeing (25.7%), walking a pet (10.9%), trail running (8.9%), mountain biking (4%), birdwatching (6.9%). group composition 83.3% in groups, 33.7 % in couples and 16.8% alone. accommodation guesthouses (80.3%), mountain hostels (21.6%), religious accommodations (37.8%), camping (32.4%). less preference for hotels, chalets, apartments, bungalows, and airbnb. service providers profile building on the findings from interviews conducted with 30 service providers across five sections of the lmt, the demographic data reveals a predominantly male representation (63.3%), while females constitute 36.7% of the respondents. notably, the interviewed service providers represent a diverse range of sectors that contribute to the local economy along the lmt. specifically, these include guides (26.7%), accommodation providers (90%), food and beverage services (83.3%), experiential activities (36.7%), sales of local products (13.3%), reserve managers (3.3%), and ski trainers (3.3%). it is important to highlight that some providers offer multiple services, reflecting the multifunctional nature of rural businesses in the region. in terms of age distribution, the majority of service providers fall within the 36-45 (30%) and 46-55 (30%) age groups, with a significant portion also represented in the 56-65 age category (26.7%). regarding marital status, 60% of the tourism service providers are married, indicating substantial family involvement in their operations. additionally, 23.3% of respondents reported having households with seven or more members, underscoring the prevalence of large family sizes. from an economic perspective, income data reveals that 66.7% of service providers earn less than $1,000 per month, highlighting widespread financial constraints within this sector. furthermore, business registration is reported by 56.7% of respondents, suggesting that nearly half of the service providers operate informally. on average, service providers employ 6.7 workers, a relatively high number given the rural nature of tourism businesses in the region. overall, these findings underscore the diverse demographic and economic landscape of service providers along the lmt, shedding light on both the challenges and opportunities for fostering sustainable tourism development. comprehensive economic assessment economic value: the economic value of the lmt is determined by adding the (a) travel cost and (b) the contingent valuation, thereby providing a comprehensive assessment of the trail’s monetary significance. to calculate the travel cost for trail users, transportation costs must be added to direct expenses. transportation costs comprise travel distance, travel time, and petrol expenses, while direct expenses include costs for food, local guides, entrance fees, and other trip-related expenditures. the transportation cost has two primary components: travel distance cost and travel time cost. travel distance cost is calculated at $0.2 per kilometer, based on a petrol cost of $20 per gallon for 100 km. travel time cost is calculated at $1.25 per hour, reflecting the average wage in lebanon. the formula for total transportation cost is: transportation cost (trc) = (travel distance x 0.2) + (travel time x 1.25) ....(4) the average transportation cost per trail user is $40.02. to estimate the total number of trail users, lebanon’s population of approximately 4,000,000 was considered, with 69% (aged 15 to 65) deemed the potential trail user demographic. assuming 10% of this demographic are actual trail users, this yields 276,000 individuals. two scenarios were then estimated: a conservative estimate where 25% of potential trail users engage with the trail once per year (69,000 visits annually), and an optimistic estimate where 50% engage (138,000 visits annually). these figures represent a range of potential usage levels for the lmt (figure 6). in the conservative scenario (69,000 users in 2024), the total transportation cost is $2,761,380. in the optimistic scenario (138,000 users), the total transportation cost is $5,522,760. pa ge 14 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 136-149, 2025 figure 6: estimated number of trail users in lebanon: optimistic and conservative scenarios in order to complete the travel cost calculation, the average total expenses per person and per visit to the lmt were calculated. these trip-related expenditures encompass costs for food, local guides, entrance fees, local products, and other items such as equipment and transportation during the trail visit. the average total expenditure is $36.60 for a one-day trip and $103.37 for a two-day trip. these figures were derived by averaging estimates provided by users, service providers, and tour operators. survey results indicate that 87% of respondents spend one full day on the trail, while 53% spend two full days and one night. total expenditures were calculated by multiplying these percentages by the conservative (69,000 users) and optimistic (138,000 users) scenarios, and subsequently multiplying the results by the average expenditure per trip. in the conservative scenario, total expenditures are estimated at $2,198,898.90 for one-day trips and $3,790,480.50 for two-day trips. in the optimistic scenario, estimated expenditures increase to $4,397,797.80 for one-day trips and $7,580,961.00 for two-day trips. to calculate the total travel cost (tc), the transportation cost (trc) is added to the total expenses (te) for both one-day and two-day trips, and for both scenarios. this results in a total travel cost (tc) of $9,872,699.40 for the conservative scenario and $19,745,398.80 for the optimistic scenario (table 5 and table 6). table 5: travel cost value for the conservative scenario duration percentage of survey responses number of estimated visits total expenditures transportation cost travel cost 1 day 87% 60,030 $2,198,898.90 $2,413,206.00 $4,612,104.90 2 days 53% 36,570 $3,790,480.50 $1,470,114.00 $5,260,594.50 total $9,872,699.40 table 6: travel cost value for the optimists scenario duration percentage of survey responses number of estimated visits total expenditures transportation cost travel cost 1 day 87% 120,060 $4,397,797.80 $4,826,412.00 $9,224,209.80 2 days 53% 73,140 $7,580,961.00 $2,940,228.00 $10,521,189.00 total $19,745,398.80 to comprehensively assess trail users’ willingness to pay (wtp) for access to the lmt, as well as for its protection and development, the contingent valuation (cv) method was employed. the findings indicate that the mean wtp for donations was $112.25 per person, whereas the mean wtp for voluntary access fees was $5.10 per person. building on these individual estimates, an extrapolation to the entire user base was conducted under two scenarios. in the optimistic scenario, the total estimated wtp for donations reached $13,924,062, while the estimated wtp for access fees amounted to $412,564.80, leading to an overall total wtp of $14,336,626.80. conversely, pa ge 14 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 136-149, 2025 in the conservative scenario, the total wtp for donations was estimated at $6,962,031, and the wtp for access fees at $206,282.40, culminating in a total wtp of $7,168,174.02. these findings highlight the potential financial contributions that could be mobilized for the sustainable management and conservation of the lmt. the aggregate economic value of the lmt is determined by adding the tc and cv, thereby providing a comprehensive assessment of the trail’s monetary significance. in the conservative scenario, tc is estimated at $9,872,699.40, while cv amounts to $7,168,174, leading to a aggregated economic value of $17,040,873.40. conversely, in the optimistic scenario, tc increases to $19,745,398.80, and cv rises to $14,336,626.80, resulting in a higher aggregated economic value of $34,082,025.60. these figures underscore the substantial financial worth of the lmt, reflecting both direct expenditures and users’ perceived value of the trail. to further evaluate the economic viability of the lmt, a cost-benefit analysis (cba) was conducted. this approach assesses the profitability of investing in the trail by considering both private and social costs and benefits. the benefit-cost ratio (bcr) serves as a key indicator of cost-effectiveness, where a bcr greater than 1 signifies a financially viable investment. in the conservative scenario, the analysis reveals total annual benefits of $17,040,873.40 against an annual cost of $400,000, yielding a bcr of 42.60. this implies that for every $1 invested, the trail generates a net benefit of $41.60. meanwhile, in the optimistic scenario, total benefits increase significantly to $34,082,025.60, leading to a bcr of 85.21. this indicates an even higher net benefit of $84.21 per $1 invested. these findings highlight the strong economic impact of the lmt, demonstrating its significant return on investment and its potential as a catalyst for sustainable rural development. economic impact to quantify the direct economic impact of the lmt, data collected from the sample population was extrapolated to the estimated total number of trail users. this process involved several key steps. first, the average economic impact per category was calculated, as presented in table 7. next, the percentage of users in each category was determined. finally, these percentages were applied to the estimated total number of trail users to project the overall economic impact. table 7: direct economic impact of hiking trails along the lmt income source conservative scenario value ($) optimistic scenario value ($) total accommodation income 1,126,233.96 2,252,467.91 total local guide income 102,792.50 205,585.00 total income from meals in facilities along the lmt 1,348,987.00 2,697,974.00 total income from equipment and tool rental 282,244.50 564,489.00 total expenditure on transportation 859,356.90 1,718,713.79 total income from locally produced items 2,780,729.00 5,561,458.00 total income from museum entrance fees 146,906.52 293,813.04 total income spent on local shops 1,105,365.39 2,210,730.78 total income spent on entrances to reserves 296,182.50 592,365.00 total income 8,048,797.27 16,097,596.52 the results indicate a significant economic contribution of the lmt, varying based on the estimation approach used. under the conservative scenario, the total direct economic impact is estimated at $8,048,797.27. in contrast, the optimistic scenario suggests a higher economic impact, reaching $16,097,596.52. these estimates underscore the lmt’s role as a driver of economic activity, reinforcing its value as a key component of lebanon’s nature-based tourism sector. in addition to the direct economic contributions of the lmt, its indirect economic impact is generated through the re-spending of income within the local economy by vendors, suppliers, and households. this process creates a ripple effect, amplifying the initial economic benefits. to estimate these indirect effects, a multiplier of (1.5 1) was applied, as suggested by woodfin (2010). by incorporating this multiplier into the analysis, the indirect economic impact was derived from the direct economic impact figures. accordingly, in the conservative scenario, the estimated indirect economic impact amounts to $4,024,398.64, whereas in the optimistic scenario, it reaches $8,048,798.26. these figures highlight the broader economic influence of the lmt beyond direct expenditures, underscoring its role in sustaining local livelihoods and businesses. to further assess the economic significance of the lmt, the type 1 multiplier—which quantifies the combined direct and indirect effects of economic spending—was calculated using the following equation: pa ge 14 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 136-149, 2025 type 1 multiplier = (direct effects + indirect effects)/ (direct effects) ....(5) for both the conservative and optimistic scenarios, the type 1 multiplier is 1.5, meaning that for every dollar of direct expenditure, an additional $0.50 is generated in the local economy through indirect effects (table 8). this result reflects a significant economic impact, indicating that the initial spending by trail users leads to further economic activity in the region. compared to similar studies (smith, 2022), the lmt’s type 1 multiplier of 1.5 is slightly higher, likely due to the region’s specific economic conditions, including the presence of local vendors and services benefiting from the re-spending of trail user expenditures. table 8: type 1 multiplier effect for the lmt scenario direct effects ($) indirect effects ($) type 1 multiplier optimistic scenario 16,097,596.52 8,048,798.26 1.5 conservative scenario 8,048,797.27 4,024,398.64 1.5 conclusion the economic assessment of the lebanon mountain trail reveals its substantial contribution to the local economy, with an estimated annual value ranging from usd 17,040,873.40 to usd 34,082,025.60. when compared against manageable annual costs of usd 400,000, these figures result in compelling benefit-cost ratios (bcr) of 42.60 and 85.21, respectively. this significant return indicates that each dollar invested in the lmt yields returns of usd 42.60 and usd 85.21, thereby affirming the trail as a highly lucrative investment. moreover, this study underscores the importance of sustainable tourism and natural resource management in maintaining these benefits. however, it is important to note that, due to data limitations, the assessment did not fully account for induced economic effects. consequently, this suggests that future research could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the trail’s total economic impact. in light of these findings, the study confirms the lebanon mountain trail’s critical role in the local economy and its potential for long-term sustainability. specifically, the findings highlight the economic benefits derived from tourism and ecosystem services, emphasizing the trail’s significance as an investment in both environmental conservation and local development. while the study presents a conservative estimate of the trail’s value, it also identifies limitations in capturing the full scope of its economic impacts. thus, the relevance of these findings is clear for 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agricultural, traffi c, domestic, and mining processes, have increased the toxic levels of these metals beyond those contributed by natural rock-forming processes. heavy metals are potentially toxic to plants, resulting in chlorosis, weak growth, yield depression, reduced nutrient uptake, metabolic disorders, and diminished nitrogen-fi xation ability. utilization of food crops contaminated with heavy metals is a major food chain route for human exposure. the cultivation of plants in contaminated soil poses a potential risk since vegetal tissues can accumulate heavy metals. owing to their toxicity and potential for bioaccumulation, these compounds should be subject to mandatory monitoring, particularly in soil and plants, to prevent their entry into the human food system. furthermore, studies have shown that phytoremediation and microbial remediation are promising techniques for mitigating the negative effects of heavy metals contamination. these methods are environmentally friendly and economically effective, making them applicable globally. this review paper summarizes the effects of heavy metals in our environment by examining relevant works related to the topic. to achieve this, databases such as google scholar, frontier in microbiology, african journals online (ajol), scopus, web of science, sciencedirect, and directory of open access journals (doaj) were explored to identify studies on the effects on soil, plants, human health and managing heavy metals in the environment. keywords heavy metals, bioaccumulation, environmental contamination, human health, phytoremediation, microbial remediation 1 university of benin, edo state, nigeria 2 igbinedion university, okada, edo state, nigeria 3 imo state university, imo state, nigeria 4 auchi polytechnic, edo state, nigeria * corresponding author’s e-mail: paulewubare9@gmail.com introduction heavy metals are serious environmental pollutants, with their toxicity becoming increasingly signifi cant for ecological, evolutionary, nutritional, and environmental reasons (jaishankar et al., 2013; nagajyoti et al., 2010). metals are naturally present in the earth’s crust, and their levels in the environment can vary widely across different regions, leading to spatial variations in background concentrations. the distribution of metals in the environment is infl uenced by the properties of the metals themselves and various environmental factors (khlifi and hamza-chaffai, 2010). heavy metals enter the environment through both natural and human activities. sources include natural weathering of the earth’s crust, mining, soil erosion, industrial discharge, urban runoff, sewage effl uents, pesticides and disease control agents used on plants, and air pollution fallout, among others (ming-ho, 2005). while some individuals are primarily exposed to these contaminants in the workplace, most people encounter these toxic elements through their diet (food and water). the contamination cycle of heavy metals typically follows this path: industry, atmosphere, soil, water, food, and humans. although the toxicity and resulting threat to human health depend on the concentration of the contaminant, it is well-known that chronic exposure to low levels of heavy metals and metalloids can have harmful effects (castro and méndez, 2008). heavy metals taken up by plants can accumulate in human tissues and biomagnify through the food chain, posing concerns for both human health and the environment (wong and selvam, 2006). these metals exert toxic effects on soil microorganisms, leading to changes in the diversity, population size, and overall activity of soil microbial communities (ashraf and ali, 2007). high levels of lead (pb) in soils can decrease soil productivity, and even low concentrations of pb can inhibit crucial plant processes such as photosynthesis, mitosis, and water absorption. symptoms of toxicity in plants include dark green leaves, wilting of older leaves, stunted foliage, and brown short roots (bhattacharya et al., 2008). the uptake of heavy metals from soils at high concentrations poses a signifi cant health risk through the food chain (jordao et al., 2006). consumption of food contaminated with heavy metals can severely deplete essential nutrients in the body, leading to decreased immune defenses, intrauterine growth retardation, malnutrition-related disabilities, and higher rates of upper gastrointestinal cancer (khan et al., 2008). this academic review paper aims to assess heavy metal contamination in our environment, focusing on its pa ge 71 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 70-81, 2024 effects on soil, plants, and human health, and to propose possible solutions for managing these pollutants. methodology the methodology for this study involved sourcing data primarily from previous research and secondary sources such as published studies, articles, and relevant materials. databases including google scholar, frontier in microbiology, african journals online (ajol), scopus, web of science, sciencedirect, and directory of open access journals (doaj) were systematically searched using keywords such as “heavy metals in the environment,” “heavy metal and human health,” “heavy metal and soil,” and “heavy metal and plants.” sources were selected based on their relevance, recency, and the credibility of the publication. by synthesizing insights from scholarly articles and reports, this research aims to address issues related to heavy metals and explore potential management strategies. discussion heavy metals naturally occur in the environment and are vital for survival, but they may become hazardous when they accumulate in organisms. a few of the most frequent heavy metals that contaminate the environment include mercury, cadmium, arsenic, chromium, nickel, copper, and lead (hazrat et al., 2019). heavy metals in the environment can be absorbed by soil, which then contaminates plants growing in that soil. these plants, when consumed by humans, transfer the heavy metals, potentially leading to health issues. be considered high. furthermore, the interconnected cycle above highlights the importance of monitoring and managing soil quality to prevent the accumulation of harmful substances in the food chain. explicitly, the soil acts as a reservoir for heavy metals, infl uencing their availability and uptake by plants, while the plants absorb heavy metals from the soil, which can accumulate in edible parts. on the other hand, humans consume plants containing heavy metals, leading to potential health risks. the venn diagram visually emphasizes the overlap and interaction between these three components in the context of environmental contamination. heavy metals heavy metals are a unique group of metals characterized by their high densities, atomic numbers, and atomic weights on the periodic table (pourret et al., 2021). these metals, including mercury (hg), cadmium (cd), lead (pb), chromium (cr), and arsenic (as), are particularly concerning due to their toxicity, even at low concentrations (di et al., 2023). heavy metals typically have a specifi c gravity of 5 g/cm³ or higher (sparks et al., 2003) and are non-biodegradable, meaning they can persist in the environment for decades. human activities such as industrial processes, agriculture, traffi c, domestic activities, and mining have signifi cantly increased the levels of these toxic metals in the environment compared to natural sources like rock weathering (pam et al., 2013). metals like pb, cd, hg, cr, and as are widespread in the environment, and they are non-essential elements with no benefi cial effects on humans. they are considered the most toxic to humans and animals due to their harmful health effects, even at low concentrations (draghici et al., 2010). on the other hand, metals like iron (fe), zinc (zn), nickel (ni), manganese (mn), and copper (cu) are essential for plant growth and development at lower concentrations, playing crucial roles in physiological and biochemical functions, such as participating in redox reactions and enzymatic activities (nagajyoti et al., 2010; vieira et al., 2011). in the natural environment, heavy metals exist in various chemical forms and exhibit different behaviors regarding chemical interactions, mobility, biological availability, and potential toxicity (osu et al., 2014). cadmium, mercury, and lead cadmium (cd) is released into the atmosphere through both natural processes and human activities. it can enter the aquatic environment via absorption, industrial waste, and surface runoff into soils and sediments. humans and animals can be exposed to cadmium by ingesting contaminated food, breathing polluted air, or drinking contaminated water. cadmium does not support plant growth or metabolic processes (hayat et al., 2018). mercury (hg) is another highly toxic heavy metal found in the biosphere. human activities have increased its presence in the atmosphere, where it can transform into highly toxic methylmercury upon contact with aquatic sediments (gworek et al., 2020). methylmercury can figure 1: interconnections of soil, plants, and humans source: author’s creation in a study by omokaro et al. (2023), the concentration of copper in okra (abelmoschus esculentus) cultivated on dumpsite soils in benin city, nigeria was investigated. the highest uptake of copper (36.0 mg/kg) was observed in residential land, while the lowest uptake (23.3 mg/kg) was recorded in farmland. however, the world health organization (who, 1996) sets a permissible limit of 10 mg/kg for copper in vegetables, suggesting that the copper content in okra grown in dumpsite soils may pa ge 72 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 70-81, 2024 enter the human body through the consumption of contaminated fi sh, seafood, and wildlife, leading to various neurological problems (rice et al., 2014). more so, lead (pb) is a non-biodegradable metal naturally present in low amounts, but its levels are continuously increasing due to human activities like manufacturing, mining, and fossil fuel burning. lead exposure is particularly dangerous to children, as they are more susceptible to lead poisoning, especially from environmental dust laden with lead (loh et al., 2016). manganese, chromium, and cobalt manganese (mn) is abundant in nature and can be released into the air during the combustion of methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (mmt), a gasoline additive. while essential for various physiological activities, excessive manganese can be toxic (loranger and zayed, 1995; o’neal and zheng, 2015). chromium (cr) exists in two stable oxidation states in the environment: chromium (iii) and chromium (vi). chromium (iii) is less hazardous than chromium (vi), which can convert to the less toxic form during industrial processes. however, chromium (vi) remains highly toxic and carcinogenic, posing signifi cant risks in areas with high industrial emissions (coetzee et al., 2020; kimbrough et al., 1999). cobalt (co) is widely distributed in the environment and used in alloy production. while small amounts of cobalt are typically harmless, large discharges into the environment can be fatal (domingo, 1989). nickel, copper, and zinc nickel (ni) is naturally abundant and extensively used in industry. it is released from both natural and anthropogenic sources into the atmosphere and can cause allergies, nasal and lung cancer, and kidney and cardiovascular diseases due to inhalation of contaminated air (genchi et al., 2020; lu et al., 2005). copper (cu) is an essential micronutrient for living organisms, playing a crucial role in the normal physiological functions of plants, such as chlorophyll formation, photosynthesis, and carbohydrate and protein metabolism. a lack of copper can disrupt these important metabolic processes, while excessive exposure can lead to toxicity (schwartz et al., 2003). zinc (zn) is a fundamental and widespread metal, involved in numerous enzymatic reactions by acting as a cofactor. the toxicity of zinc depends on the manner and quantity of exposure. major sources of zinc in the environment include smelting and mining. signifi cant amounts of zinc are released into the environment through mineral processing activities, which can impact ecosystems and living organisms (zhang et al., 2012). antimony and thallium antimony is a toxic element present in nanogram amounts in the air. its emissions into the atmosphere can result from natural events such as volcanic activity and weathering, as well as human activities (he et al., 2019). thallium is found in the environment in various forms and is highly toxic to biological organisms. its toxicity surpasses that of other heavy metals. monovalent thallium ions appear in natural water and can be released into the air through aqueous routes (peter & viraraghavan, 2005). additionally, industrial emissions signifi cantly contribute to increased thallium levels in the atmosphere. exposure to thallium poses severe health risks to humans (kazantzis, 2000). sources of heavy metals into the soil heavy metals are released into the environment from various sources including mining, urbanization, chemical industry, sewage plants, pesticide plants, biomedical and unsafe agricultural practices as described in figure 2 below. the united nations environment program (unep/ gpa) and the global plan of action (gpa) recognize electronic waste (e-waste) which includes devices like mobile phones, tablets, computers, and smartwatches as a major threat to the environment and human wellbeing. this is primarily due to the presence of heavy metals like hg, cd, and pb in electronic devices, which can pose serious risks to both the environment and human health if not properly disposed of according to unep/gpa (2006) and tchounwou et al. (2012). more so, major unrestricted and monitored dumpsites are also major source of heavy metal into soils and underground water. figure 2: a schematic diagram illustrating the origins of heavy metal pollution source: das et al. (2023) pa ge 73 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 70-81, 2024 the pollution levels of these heavy metals into the environment are infl uenced by industrial activities, geographic locations, regulatory oversight, and diverse sources. for instance, hg primarily emanates from coal combustion, electric/light bulb, wood preservatives, leather tanning, ointments, thermometers, adhesives and paints (bradl, 2005; mukherjee et al., 2008), in most areas in africa there are industrial activities with no regulatory activities or policies governing their activities in most areas. cd often originates from industries like battery manufacturing, paint pigments, pesticides, galvanized pipes, plastics, polyvinyl and copper refi neries. pb, an extremely toxic metal, commonly originates from substances like pb-based paints, gasoline and mobile batteries. cr is emitted from a variety of industrial activities, including petroleum refi ning, electroplating, leather tanning, textile manufacturing, and pulp processing. as, a naturally occurring element in the earth’s crust, is released into the environment through a variety of human activities, including mining, agricultural practices, automobile exhaust and industrial dust, wood preservatives, and dyes (choppala 2013; velusamy et al., 2021; rees and fuller, 2020; jiang et al., 2023). human activities through industrial, agricultural, traffi c, domestic, mining and other human activities processes have contributed to increase the toxic levels of these metals when compared to those contributed from rock forming processes (pam et al., 2013). sources of heavy metals in soil soil is essential for supporting terrestrial ecosystems and biodiversity. however, heavy metals are prevalent pollutants in the soil environment and can negatively impact microorganisms, plants, and animals. the european environment agency (eea) has set limit values for soil pollutant levels of various heavy metals, including hg (0.20 ppm), cd (0.44 ppm), pb (0.48 ppm), cr (0.20 ppm), and as (0.11 ppm) (european union, 2002; baritz et al., 2023). heavy metals can accumulate in soils to toxic levels due to the long-term application of untreated liquid and solid waste, industrial activities, and fertilizers (papafi lippaki et al., 2008). when soils are irrigated with these wastes, heavy metals can accumulate on the surface. as the soil’s capacity to retain heavy metals diminishes with repeated waste application, these metals can leach into groundwater or remain available for plant uptake. wastewaters often contain signifi cant concentrations of organic and inorganic nutrients, including nitrogen, phosphate, micronutrients, and heavy metals (alshammary & qian, 2008; mojiri & amirossadat, 2011). urban and industrial effl uents are major sources of heavy metals in wastewater, which can build up to toxic levels in soils with long-term use (tabari et al., 2008). given that wastewater is an uncommon water source, its application in agriculture needs careful management to maximize benefi ts and prevent environmental and health risks (asgari et al., 2007). contamination of soils by heavy metals like cd, ni, zn, pb, and cu has increased dramatically over the past few decades due to activities such as mining, smelting, manufacturing, the use of agricultural fertilizers and pesticides, municipal waste, traffi c emissions, and industrial effl uents (morgan, 2013; chibuike and obiora, 2014). this contamination is now widespread (al-nagger et al., 2013), causing signifi cant land degradation and adversely affecting the environment and ecosystems worldwide (li et al., 2013). heavy metals in wastewaterirrigated soils can contaminate food, posing hazards to humans and animals (jolly et al., 2013). these metals are poorly soluble in water and cannot be degraded, leading to accumulation in soils and plants (ghoneim et al., 2014). they persist in soil, leaching into groundwater and potentially inducing enhanced antioxidant enzymatic activities in plants or becoming adsorbed onto solid soil particles (iannelli et al., 2002). mechanism of heavy metals in soil heavy metal pollution in soil not only affects plant quality and yield but also changes the size, composition, and activity of microbial communities (yao et al., 2003). heavy metals are a major source of soil pollution, adversely affecting soil biological and biochemical properties. soil characteristics like organic matter, clay content, and ph signifi cantly infl uence the impact of metals on these properties (speira et al., 1999). heavy metals indirectly affect soil enzymatic activities by altering microbial communities that synthesize enzymes (shun-hong et al., 2009). they exhibit toxic effects on soil biota, affecting key microbial processes and reducing the number and activity of soil microorganisms. however, long-term exposure can increase the tolerance of bacterial communities and fungi like arbuscular mycorrhizal (am) fungi, which play a crucial role in restoring contaminated ecosystems (mora et al., 2005). heavy metals cause a decrease in bacterial species richness and an increase in soil actinomycetes or a decrease in both the biomass and diversity of bacterial communities (chen et al., 2010). different metals infl uence enzyme activities in various ways due to their different chemical affi nities in the soil system. for example, cd is more toxic to enzymes than pb because of its greater mobility and lower affi nity for soil colloids, and cu inhibits β-glucosidase activity more than cellulose activity (karaca et al., 2010). soil ph signifi cantly affects the solubility or retention of metals in soils, with heavy metals exhibiting toxic effects on soil biota by affecting key microbial processes and reducing the number and activity of soil microorganisms (ghosh and singh, 2005). heavy metals have low environmental mobility, making a single contamination event potentially lead to long-term exposure to humans, microbes, fauna, fl ora, and other soil communities (adeleken and abegunde, 2011). farming on dumpsites can negatively impact human health due to high concentrations of trace metals in plants, which subsequently enter the food chain (elaigwu et al., 2007). pa ge 74 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 70-81, 2024 heavy metals and plants the absorption of heavy metals by plant roots is a primary route for these contaminants to enter the food chain (jordoa et al., 2006). the uptake and accumulation of heavy metals by plants can pose signifi cant threats to animal and human health (sprynskyy et al., 2007). some heavy metals, such as arsenic (as), cadmium (cd), mercury (hg), lead (pb), and selenium (se), are not essential for plant growth and do not serve any known physiological functions. others, like cobalt (co), copper (cu), iron (fe), manganese (mn), molybdenum (mo), nickel (ni), and zinc (zn), are essential elements required for normal plant growth and metabolism. however, these elements can become toxic when their concentrations exceed optimal levels (rascio and izzo, 2011). heavy metals can cause chlorosis, weak plant growth, yield depression, and reduced nutrient uptake, leading to metabolic disorders and decreased nitrogen fi xation in leguminous plants (guala et al., 2010). the accumulation of heavy metals in plants depends on various soil factors, including ph, electrical conductivity (ec), clay content, organic matter content, and physical and mechanical soil characteristics. plants absorb heavy metals through mechanisms such as absorption, ionic exchange, and redox reactions (zabalawy et al., 2015). the effi ciency of different plants in absorbing metals is evaluated by plant uptake or soilto-plant transfer factors (khan et al., 2008). elevated levels of lead (pb) in soils can reduce soil productivity and inhibit vital plant processes, such as photosynthesis, mitosis, and water absorption, leading to symptoms like dark green leaves, wilting of older leaves, stunted foliage, and short brown roots (bhattacharya et al., 2008). the presence of increasing concentrations of lead (pb) can delay seed germination, possibly due to mechanisms like leaching, chelation, metal binding, or accumulation by microorganisms that neutralize the toxic effects of lead (ashraf and ali, 2007). heavy metals and human health high concentrations of heavy metals in plants can pose signifi cant health risks when these plants are consumed, considering the implications for the food chain. according to the world health organization (who) guidelines, acceptable levels of heavy metal pollutants in drinking water are: hg—0.001 ppm, cd—0.005 ppm, pb—0.05 ppm, cr—0.05 ppm, and as—0.05 ppm (who, 2004). the food and agriculture organization (fao) of the united nations and who set maximum limits for heavy metal consumption through vegetables: hg—0.05 mg/kg for all vegetables; cd—0.2 mg/kg for leafy vegetables, 0.3 mg/kg for root vegetables, and 0.1 mg/kg for other vegetables; pb—0.15 mg/kg for all vegetables; cr—0.1 mg/kg for all vegetables; and as—0.1 mg/kg for all vegetables (wu, 2014; kesson et al., 2015). the consumption of food crops contaminated with heavy metals represents a signifi cant risk, as these metals can accumulate in plant tissues and subsequently enter the food chain (jordao et al., 2006). heavy metals become toxic when they are not metabolized by the body and accumulate in soft tissues (sobha et al., 2007). chronic ingestion of toxic metals can have severe health impacts, often becoming apparent only after many years of exposure (khan et al., 2008). specifi c heavy metals are hazardous to human health. for instance, cadmium (cd) is a well-known toxicant with a specifi c gravity 8.65 times greater than water. target organs for cd toxicity include the liver, placenta, kidneys, lungs, brain, and bones (sobha et al., 2007). cd is emitted into the air by mines, metal smelters, and industries using cadmium compounds for alloys, batteries, pigments, and plastics, despite stringent controls in many countries (harrison, 2001). symptoms of cd exposure include nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, dyspnea, and muscular weakness, with severe exposure leading to pulmonary edema and death. chronic inhalation of cd can cause pulmonary and renal effects (duruibe et al., 2007). zinc (zn) is relatively non-toxic, especially when taken orally, but excessive amounts can cause system dysfunctions affecting growth and reproduction. clinical signs of zinc toxicity include vomiting, diarrhea, bloody urine, icterus (yellow mucus membrane), liver failure, kidney failure, and anemia (lalor, 2008). copper (cu), an essential element in mammalian nutrition, can be toxic at high levels, causing mucosal irritation, capillary damage, hepatic and renal damage, and central nervous system irritation (stern et al., 2007). nickel (ni) exposure can cause skin irritation and damage to the lungs, nervous system, and mucous membranes (argun et al., 2007). on the other hand, lead (pb) is physiologically and neurologically toxic to humans, with acute poisoning causing dysfunction in the kidneys, reproductive system, liver, and brain, potentially leading to sickness and death (odum, 2000). pb exposure occurs primarily through contaminated food, air, and drinking water (ming-ho, 2005). mercury (hg), which has no known function in human biochemistry, is highly toxic and can cause spontaneous abortion, congenital malformations, gastrointestinal disorders, and severe neurological disorders (duruibe et al., 2007). hg exposure can occur through agriculture, pharmaceuticals, industrial processes, and contaminated air, water, and soil (zhang and wong, 2007). high levels of hg exposure can cause permanent damage to the brain, kidneys, and developing fetus (atsdr, 2003). heavy metals like hg and cd can induce dna damage, cause chromosome aberrations, and alter dna replication and transcription, leading to serious health issues such as alzheimer’s disease, lung damage, and skin ailments (shekhawat & meshram, 2020; harischandra et al., 2021; coetzee et al., 2020; kothapalli, 2021; das et al., 2023). heavy metal concentration in vegetables certain edible crops can accumulate heavy metals, even in minimal amounts. these heavy metals can enter the food chain, disrupt the food pyramid, and pose signifi cant health risks, including cancer and liver diseases. vegetables such as brinjal, gourd, spinach, coriander, tomato, and pa ge 75 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 70-81, 2024 pumpkin are particularly susceptible to heavy metal uptake by their roots, which can then be transported to the edible parts of the plant (gupta et al., 2022; minhas et al., 2022). consequently, consuming vegetables containing heavy metals can be extremely hazardous to human health. research by alexander et al. (2006) involving vegetables grown in soil contaminated with heavy metals showed signifi cant variations in metal accumulation levels among different vegetables. for cadmium (cd), lettuce exhibited higher accumulation (8.6 mg/kg dry matter) compared to spinach (5.8 mg/kg dry matter), onion (3.6 mg/kg dry matter), carrot (2.0 mg/kg dry matter), pea (0.29 mg/kg dry matter), and french bean (0.07 mg/kg dry matter). lettuce also recorded the highest concentration of lead (pb), nearly double that of onions, which had the secondhighest average value. the sequence was as follows: lettuce (14.6 mg/kg dry matter) > onion (7.5 mg/kg dry matter) > carrot (5.8 mg/kg dry matter) > spinach (1.8 mg/kg dry matter) > pea (0.78 mg/kg dry matter) > french bean (0.34 mg/kg dry matter). a study by zhu et al. (2021) revealed that the concentration of heavy metals in the edible parts of vegetables varied, with leafy vegetables having the highest amounts, followed by stalk vegetables, root vegetables, solanaceous vegetables, legume vegetables, and melon vegetables. previous reports have suggested that edible crops grown in industrial areas such as coal mines and petrochemical plants tend to contain higher levels of heavy metals (haque et al., 2021). human exposure to heavy metals primarily occurs through the consumption of edible crops, accounting for 90% of the exposure, with the remaining 10% attributed to the inhalation of polluted air particles (khan et al., 2015). excessive levels of heavy metals can harm various organs such as the brain, muscles, nerves, liver, kidneys, and heart. the european protection agency (epa) has reported that prolonged exposure to heavy metals can result in severe cancer. research by the who indicates that higher exposure to heavy metals puts 10% of women at risk of infertility (abudawood et al., 2021; bhardwaj et al., 2021). managing heavy metal contamination in the environment several techniques are used to decontaminate the environment from heavy metals and prevent their entry into the food chain, but these methods tend to be costly and have suboptimal effi cacy (li et al., 2019; qasem et al., 2021). for example, omokaro (2024), who worked on farmers’ perceptions of pest and disease control methods in south-south nigeria suggested that integrated pest management is an environmentally friendly approach that combines biological, cultural, and chemical methods to manage pests. the author further noted that the signifi cant use of chemical pesticides indicates a reliance on chemical control, which can have environmental and health implications if not managed properly. the increasing concerns about environmental contamination have driven the development of technologies to assess the presence and mobility of metals in soil, water, and wastewater. both private and government institutions face technical challenges in removing contaminants from the environment. phytoremediation has emerged as a popular and economical plant-based technology for effectively addressing environmental issues. this process uses plants to extract and remove elemental pollutants or reduce their bioavailability in soil or water (li and tran, 2023). phytoremediation is widely accepted due to its eco-friendliness, affordability, and high effectiveness. it takes advantage of the unique and selective uptake capabilities of plant root systems, along with the translocation, bioaccumulation, and contaminant degradation abilities of the entire plant body. both aquatic and terrestrial plant species have been utilized to eliminate pollutants from the environment (sharma, 2021; nedjimi, 2021; huang et al., 2021). figure 2: an illustrative diagram elucidating bioremediation, highlighting the crucial roles of plants, bacteria, and fungi source: das et al. (2023) phytoremediation process phytoremediation encompasses several processes, including phytoextraction, phytoaccumulation, phytovolatilization, phytostabilization, and phytotransformation (liu and tran, 2021). phytoextraction is a technique that involves the absorption of organic and inorganic pollutants pa ge 76 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 70-81, 2024 through the roots and stems. besides, some particular plant species, like brassica juncea, cassia alata, celosia argentea, kummerowia striata, helianthus annuus, momordica charantia, nicotiana tabacum, salix mucronata, salix viminalis, solanum lycopersicum, solanum melongena, swietenia macrophylla, pteris vittata, and vigna unguiculata, have the potential to be used as suitable plant selections to enhance the phytoextraction process (hazarika et al., 2022; kumar et al., 2022). in phytostabilization, in this process, plants accumulate and immobilize heavy metals by binding with biomolecules. miscanthus giganteus, avena sativa, and sinapis alba can also help to stabilize heavy metal compounds in the soil (muthusamy et al., 2022; hegedus et al., 2023). there are several processes by which plants can reduce contaminants which are further explained below. phytoextraction and rhizofi ltration phytoextraction, also called phytoaccumulation, involves the accumulation of heavy metals from earth land. in this method, the uptake and translocation of contaminants by plants root into the aerial portions of plants and deposited into vacuoles. the mechanism during the accumulation process is used to absorb and precipitate the toxic metals by metal-phytochelatin complex before translocating into the shoot, leaf and stem parts of the plant. the hyperaccumulator species accumulate a higher concentration of heavy metals (asgari et al., 2019; gul et al., 2021). more so, rhizofi ltration involves the elimination of heavy metals using plant roots. though it is comparable to phytoextraction, in this process, plants remove contaminants from wastewater or groundwater rather than soil. in this process, plant roots assimilate or adsorb pollutants from wastewater, groundwater, or surface water. generally, aquatic plant species are employed to eliminate pollutants through rhizofi ltration. rhizofi ltration is effective for removing cd, pb, and cr, which are primarily accumulated in the roots. sunfl ower, tobacco, and spinach exhibit promising potential in removing pb from water (mohan et al., 2021). phytostabilization and phytovolatilization plant roots can limit the movement of heavy metals by phytostabilization, a process that reduces toxic effects. this process involves the capture of contaminants on the root surface using transport proteins or secondary metabolites. furthermore, the process involves the breakdown of complex organic molecules into simpler ones by coupling them with protein, amino acid, and sugar derivatives. black nightshade, sunfl ower, and cowpea are among the plant species that employ phytostabilization mechanisms (li et al., 2020). however, the phytovolatilization process entails the uptake of contaminants by plants from the soil and their conversion into less toxic volatile compounds that are released into the atmosphere. the volatile compounds are primarily released from aerial plant parts such as stems and leaves. this mechanism is effective when the contaminants are less toxic (pouresmaieli et al., 2022). phytodegradation (phyto-transformation) phytotransformation, also known as this process, refers to the absorption of contaminants by plants, which are then metabolized or broken down into less toxic compounds and translocated to various plant organs. the organic compounds are then degraded into non-toxic forms inside the plant tissue (nebeská et al., 2021). microbial remediation process microbial remediation is the process of using living microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and archaea to break down and detoxify various chemical and metallic hazardous wastes from the environment (yaashikaa et al., 2022). bioremediation involves the direct application of microorganisms to the polluted site in order to facilitate the degradation of contaminants. microorganisms are used in a variety of remediation techniques, including bioaugmentation and biostimulation. in bioaugmentation, specifi c microorganisms are added to a contaminated site to enhance the breakdown of contaminants. in biostimulation, the environmental conditions at the site are modifi ed to promote the growth and activity of naturally occurring microorganisms that can degrade contaminants. physical and chemical treatments are conventional remediation methods that have drawbacks such as high cost, heavy machinery, logistical glitches, and potential environmental toxicity (iwamoto & nasu, 2001). in contrast, bioremediation technologies have seen signifi cant growth and development, making it a promising method for treating soil and water contamination. among these methods, bioremediation of oil spills is the most lucrative and environmentfriendly technique (pete et al., 2021). ewubare et al. (2023) posited that a reliable alternative to the use of chemical fertilizers which also increase heavy metals in agricultural produce is microbial inoculants, which can act as biofertilizers, bioherbicides, biopesticides, and biocontrol agents. microorganisms can promote plant growth, and controlling pests, diseases, and weeds. microbial inoculants are benefi cial microorganisms applied either to the soil or the plant to improve productivity and crop health. these natural-based products are widely used to control pests and enhance soil and crop quality, thereby benefi ting human health. microbial inoculants consist of a blend of microorganisms that work with the soil and its inhabitants to improve soil fertility and health, ultimately benefi ting human health. they can minimize the negative impact of chemical inputs, thereby increasing the quantity and quality of farm produce. furthermore, fungi are used for the remediation of pollutants in myco-remediation, a type of bioremediation. fungi play a vital role in cleaning up contaminated sites in both soil and aquatic ecosystems (kumar & dwivedi, 2021). these microorganisms, which are widely present in nature, can thrive in a diverse range of environmental conditions. these microorganisms survive in extreme conditions and produce some extracellular ligninolytic enzymes like peroxidase and laccases. these enzymes pa ge 77 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 3(1) 70-81, 2024 help fungi to transform pollutants into non-toxic forms. pollutants can be adsorbed by extracellular enzymes (shourie & vijayalakshmi, 2022). diverse fungal species such as aspergillus sp., bjerkandera adusta, coriolus versicolor, cryptococcus sp. hirschioporus laricinus, inonotus hispidus, mucor sp., penicillium sp., phanerochaete chrysosporium, phlebia tremellosa, phanerochaete chrysosporium, pleurotus sp., and trametes versicolor, have been reported for bioremediation (jebapriya & gnanadoss, 2013; singh et al., 2013). microalgae are photosynthetic microorganisms that play a vital role in the bioremediation of various types of wastewaters. according to omokaro and nafula (2023), microalgae are effective in the removal of nitrogen (n), phosphorus (p), and carbon (c), as well as in reducing biological oxygen demand (bod) and removing heavy metals. these microorganisms have shown promise in producing biofuels, bioethanol, bioremediation agents, biofertilizers for agricultural production, and essential molecules like proteins. the integration of microalgae into wastewater treatment processes can signifi cantly reduce the cost of wastewater treatment, lower the energy consumption footprint, and provide environmental sustainability compared to conventional wastewater treatment processes. this integration enhances the overall effi ciency of wastewater treatment by leveraging the natural capabilities of microalgae to absorb and metabolize pollutants. conclusion metals occur naturally in the earth’s crust, and their concentrations in the environment can vary between different regions, resulting in spatial variations of background levels. heavy metal accumulation in soil causes pollution, while in plants, it can lead to slow growth and even death. in humans, it can result in severe health hazards. several toxicity evaluations have indicated that heavy metals pose a substantial threat to non-targeted living entities. these metals are taken up by plants from the soil, reducing crop productivity by inhibiting physiological metabolism. the uptake of heavy metals by plants and their subsequent accumulation in human tissues, along with biomagnifi cation through the food chain, raise signifi cant concerns for both human health and the environment. heavy metals have been proven toxic to both human and environmental health. studies have revealed that phytoremediation and microbial remediation are potential techniques for mitigating the negative effects of environmental contamination. these methods are environmentally friendly and economically effective, making them applicable to both emerging and developed nations globally. due to the toxicity of heavy metals and their potential for bioaccumulation, mandatory monitoring of these compounds, particularly in soil and plants, is essential to prevent their entry into the human food system. therefore, funding ongoing research and innovation in remediation technologies is crucial for addressing the expanding environmental issues of the 21st century. references abudawood, m., tabassum, h., alanazi, a. h., almusallam, f., aljaser, f., ali, m. n., & al-nuaim, l. a. a. 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(2021). potential of arsenate-reducing bacterial inoculants to enhance fi eld-scale remediation of arsenic contaminated soils by pteris vittata l. ecological engineering, 169, 106312. pa ge 1 pa ge 23 3 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) cost–benefit analysis of rainwater harvesting systems in bangladesh: a case study of mongla upazila m m makfur hassan1*, tahmina hossen ethika2 volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v4i1.6388 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: october 20, 2025 accepted: november 22, 2025 published: december 11, 2025 coastal areas in bangladesh are finding it harder to get safe, cheap drinking water because saline water is getting in, rainfall is unpredictable, and other water sources are pricey. this study looks at whether it is worthwhile for families to set up rainwater harvesting (rwh) systems in mongla, a salinity area in bagerhat. this study used a cost-benefit analysis (cba) to figure out if it pays off. this study looked at things like net present value (npv) of 293938.6 bdt, benefit-cost ratio (bcr) of 20.9, internal rate of return (irr) of 236.09%, health cost and how long it takes to get money back. the study got info from surveys of 100 people who use rwh and 100 who don’t, including costs for setting up, maintenance, health, and time spent. rwh systems really cut down on the time and money people spend getting water and going to the doctor because of unpurified water. even if initial costs go up or benefits go down, the system still works well. rwh looks like a cheap and easy way to deal with the drinking water problem in coastal bangladesh. the study says rwh should be included in the country’s water plans, give poor families money to set up these systems, and train people to keep them running. keywords cost-benefit analysis (cba), net present value, rainwater harvesting, sustainable development, water management 1 environmental and resource economics, university of dhaka, dhaka, bangladesh 2 bachelor of dental surgery, university of dhaka, dhaka, bangladesh * corresponding author’s e-mail: hasan.bee4@dsce.edu.bd introduction rolling up and storing rain is a highly demanded for drinking water management, particularly in topographic regions that are running succinctly due to weather changes. the inhabitants of the mongla upazila in bagerhat district have access to a source of water which is actually very fresh for drinking. the report i’ve been reading from the bangladesh government shows that chloride (cl) concentrations in the aquifer can reach up to 9500mg/l. who states that anything exceeding 250 mg/l refers to, and anything between 600 and 1000 mg/l is already evaluated as excessively saline for drinking. nevertheless, many people drink the unpurified water, so they have no other option when it comes to meet their daily water needs. while it is clear that rain harvesting benefits the conditions and communities, little information is available on its fiscal effects at the household level, especially in rural areas, such as mongla, which is helpless in relation to climate change. in bangladesh, the main investigative focus is either on the technical side or on the manner in which the rainwater frameworks help the inhabitants or on the manner in which they are low cost to the families. the mandatory monetary index appreciation net present value (npv), benefit-cost ratio (bcr), and intrinsic return estimate (irr) has not been given sufficient attention here. consequently, a number of judgments on procedures and community undertakings lack strong indications that the rain collects wages for the family. objectives of the study the purpose of this study is to assess the financial usefulness of household rwh systems in mongla through a detailed cost-benefit analysis. initial investments, labour costs, nestlings in water, and structure longevity exceeding 20 years are considered in this assessment. the impact of key financial factors such as water prices, care costs, inflation and discount rates on the resilience of such arrangements will also be examined. research questions there has a full questionnaire set of survey questionnaire, fgd and kii questionnaire, the main focus of the questionnaire is: 1. is household rainwater harvesting systems economically viable in mongla, bagerhat? 2. what are the main financial indexes (npv, bcr, irr, and repayment time) associated with a typical rwh system in the current region? 3. how do variations in cost, rainfall, or maintenance affect the economic sustainability of rwh systems? literature review rainwater harvesting (rwh) is regarded as a longterm water supply solution, particularly in regions where reliable access to pure groundwater or piped water is lacking. family rwh frameworks typically include rooftop catchment surface, storage tank (ranging from 1,000 to 5,000 liter), gutter, and first flushing devices in technical clauses. investigations in the south orient, including bangladesh and india, reveal that rwh systems can supply between 30 % and 60 % of household water supply during the monsoon period (chowdhury & rahman, 2010; pande et al., 2019). in the context of the riverine of bangladesh, institutions like brac deploy pa ge 23 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 233-242, 2025 over 5,000 family and society rwh systems in mongla, which significantly improves access to local water for approximately 72,000 inhabitants. economically, a number of studies have assessed the viability of rwh leveraging parameters such as net present value (npv), internal measure of return (irr), and the payback era. for instance, (islam et al. 2015) carried out a financial assessment of the rwh arrangements in khulna and found them to be financially viable alongside an irr exceeding 10% and a repayment period of less than 7 years. similar discoveries were made in the research conducted in chennai, india, where rooftop rwh systems resulted in a reduction in municipal water costs and a decrease in the force used to extract groundwater (chandrasekar et al., 2018). these questions underline the double support of cost reserves and green conservation. cost–benefit analysis (cba) is a necessary tool for water provision economics enabling partners to analyze the long-term monetary and interpersonal addition of intervention to their capital and working costs. cbas have been used to assess the various water system undertakings, including irrigation systems, desalination plants, and community water supply schemes. haque and siddique, who had been introduced to cba in the year 2012-12 in order to measure the sand filter in the salineprone region of satkhira and discover a robust benefitcost ratio and a net tax return, had been acquainted with cba in the year 2012-12. kc et al. (2016) permitted cba to justify investments in gravity-fed water supply systems, demonstrating higher tax returns on duration reserves and better welfare outcomes. however, its use, the use of strict cba paradigm to establish rwh frameworks in climate-vulnerable areas of bangladesh remains limited. most prevalent surveys either prioritized technical viability or applied an easy economic prosody lacking a rejection of the approaching cash flow, faltering in order to translate the costs of organizational life, operation and maintenance (o&m) costs, or inflation adjusted nest egg. nearby is a significant lack of region-specific fiscal evaluation for family rwh in southwest bangladesh, especially in coastal upazilas such as mongla. furthermore, a small number of investigations integrate applied statistics from ngo intervention (brac’s rwh program under conventional financial appraisal standards). moreover, sensitivity analyses, a key element in assessing the resilience of undertakings under cost variability or rain uncertainty, are largely missing. the present sheet addresses these shortcomings by overseeing the comprehensive design of the family rwh framework in mongla, integrating installation and operation and maintenance costs, water saving, and a 20year structure life. we take a look at publicly available brac information and domestic water price benchmarks and estimate a key monetary index, including the npv, bcr, irr, and payback period. furthermore, sensitivity tests were conducted to examine how fluctuations in cost and benefit parameters affect fiscal outcomes. by providing a resilient and context-specific economic evaluation that explores the real world for policymakers, ngos, and donors to understand rwh investments in the coastal of bangladesh. materials and methods the present study aims to assess the financial feasibility of rainwater harvesting (rwh) arrangements at the family stage in mongla upazila, a salinity-prone region in maritime bangladesh, by adopting a mixed methods study design integrating equally quantitative and qualitative data. mongla, located in the district of bagerhat, had been chosen due to their acute water shortage, salinity, and dependence on alternative water sources. the second rain variability and socioeconomic vulnerabilities make it a key location for the implementation of rwh as a climate adaptation plan. the primary facts were gathered from 200 families (100 rwh users and 100 non rwh users) through the structural survey, covers: demography, water usage and access, installation and maintenance cost of rwh systems, time spent on water collection, incidence and cost of waterborne diseases, willingness for future expansion the bangladesh meteorological department (bmd), local ngos, and a printed report provided additional information on rainfall patterns, water quality, and rural wages. the study applies a cost–benefit analysis (cba) framework using: net present value (npv), benefit– cost ratio (bcr), internal rate of return (irr), payback period we are familiar with a discount rate of 6 %, which is constant with the public sector evaluation in bangladesh. in order to assess the robustness of the consequences under a changing fiscal state, sensitivity analysis was carried out with 4% and 8%. ethical considerations: during the conception and operation of the study facility, the analysis facility shall comply with moral criteria. the following procedures were taken into account. prior to the facts cluster, each participant in the inspection was the object of a light sanction. the respondent was informed of the purpose of the analysis, the voluntary setting of loyalty, and the correct way of removing it from each span. • neither individual identification information (pii) nor statistical anonymity has been ensured for statistical data. each statistic was stored in an encrypted electronic format which could only be accessed by the review partnership. • the scope of the investigation does not include all clinical procedures or vulnerable populations. a virtuous recommendation for group investigation and use of facts has been approved, in line with the investigative protocol of the individuals of bangladesh and the comment of helsinki. • no financial incentives were provided that could have biased responses; participation was entirely voluntary. the present moral technique was developed with regard pa ge 23 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 233-242, 2025 to the autonomy of the participants and to guarantee the reliability and honor of the findings of the research. tools and software: data analysis and financial modeling were conducted using a combination of statistical and spreadsheet tools. for the initial data entry, tabulating, and basic calculations, including the accumulation of accumulated cash flows, the era of repayment, and the calculation of the time cost, microsoft excel was used. using the npf.npv and npf.irr functions, it was used to calculate excess high-tech economic prosody, such as net current value (npv) and internal appraisal of return (irr) stata was used to generate a visual image, including a bar chart, an accumulated npv graph, and a sensitivity analysis plot. qgis (for spatial data) was a study on recognizing roof region power in relation to rainfall statistics and catchment functions. all calculations were validated by cross-checking results using at least two independent methods. results and discussion components of rainwater harvesting system: • catchment surface: gutters, downspouts and roof drains, leaf screens, first-flush diverters and roof washers, storage tanks, • treatment/purification systems • catchment area: rooftop area of 30–50 m² • storage tank: 2,000-liter capacity, polyethylene or ferrocement • components: gutter system, first-flush diverter, downpipe, filtration unit, storage tank, and tap outlet • installation cost: bdt 30,000 per unit (includes materials, labor, training, and basic maintenance setup) • operational & maintenance cost: bdt 1,500 per year (includes cleaning, minor repairs, and filter replacement) • expected lifespan: 20 years the system shall be designed to collect and store rain during a monsoon calendar month and provide safe drinking water to an average family of 4–6 members during a dry period. the average storage capacity of the rain harvesting tank in the 100 survey families was strategic so as to have approximately 2,217.17 liters. it should be noted that commercially convenient family rain tanks are usually manufactured in standard capacities, e.g., 500 l, 1,000 l, 1,500 l, 2,000 l, or otherwise 3,000 l). thus, the measured average corresponds exactly to a single tank size but rather represents the aggregate mean through the various storage configurations in the sample. the current finding indicates that the majority of cooperating families use tanks with a nominal capacity higher than 2,000 liters, indicating a preference for medium in order to provide large family storage solutions within the limits of penetration into locality. ‘it’s not about the money’. table 1: annual water purchase cost (awpc) parameter unit value notes average daily water purchase cost bdt/day 35.12 (1,053.64 ÷ 30 days) average monthly water purchase cost bdt/month 1,053.64 survey data annual water purchase cost bdt/year 12,643.68 1,053.64 × 12 months table 2: transportation cost parameter unit value notes average daily transportation cost bdt/day 7.71 (231.39 ÷ 30 days) average monthly transportation cost bdt/month 231.39 based on household survey annual transportation cost bdt/year 2,776.68 231.39 × 12 months • the daily cost (≈ bdt 35.12) reflects the average household’s out-of-pocket expenditure for water. • this is scaled up linearly to produce the monthly and annual equivalent for budgeting and cost–benefit analysis. • this simple linear annualization assumes constant demand and stable prices, which is reasonable for basic cba unless seasonal price fluctuations are significant. the annual household expenditure on purchased water is estimated using the average monthly cost (bdt 1,053.64), derived from primary survey data. this cost is assumed constant throughout the year, resulting in an annual water purchase cost of bdt 12,643.68 per household, following the model: awpc = cm × 12. atc = ctm × 12 = 231.39 × 12 = 2,776.68 [tm= transportation per year] in the study area (mongla), local transportation for moving goods typically relies on several common modes. rickshaw vans are the most widely used for short distances, while manual pedal rickshaws are preferred for carrying smaller containers. easy-bikes, which are battery-powered three-wheelers, and tomtoms, locally adapted electric or diesel three-wheelers, are also frequently used due to their availability and low operating cost. in riverside or canal areas, boats become the primary mode of transport, especially during high tide. occasionally, motorbikes or even manual head-loading are used for transporting small volumes when other options are not feasible. the above-mentioned neighborhood conveyance pa ge 23 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 233-242, 2025 method reflects the ease and convenience of the water accumulation points with respect to the location of the dwelling. from the average monthly family expenditure of bdt 231.39, which is equivalent to approximately bdt 7.71 a day, the annual transport costs of transporting rolled-up water shall be reduced by the amount of bdt 231.39 per month. the current cost reflects the common practice in mongla of hiring small public transport vehicles, such as the jinrikisha avant-garde, manual jinrikisha, easy motorcycle, tom-tom, and boat, depending on the distance and seasonality. therefore, the annual moving costs per family are bdt 2,776.68 and are planned as follows: atc = ctm × 12. in addition to the main monetary expenditure, the families who do not have rainwater harvesting (rwh) schemes in mongla incur significant hidden costs by using intervals to obtain safe drinking water. based on the examination response, the family spends an average of 616 minutes and 12 minutes atop the water collection a year. in order to take into account, the real monetary burden, the present study uses the possibility of cost manipulation, i.e. loss of time using the local average daily wage for low skilled workers. the hourly wage shall be bdt 56.25, together with the prevailing rural wage of bdt 450 per day (working time of 8 hours). using this rate, the annual cost of cleaning a water cluster is approximately bdt 34,198 per family per year. this figure represents revenue that could have been gained if the family member had been engaged in productive work instead. it also points out that the era has been misplaced in tuition, attention fatigue, or rest—factors that are not always captured by conventional financial analysis. integrating that prospect cost strengthens the scenario for rwh arrangements by exemplifying nay is not used in academic writing only for their welfare and environmental benefits although, apart from their ability to significantly reduce indirect monetary burden. this comprehensive assessment is in line with the important task of renewable energy and social equity, in particular in the case of low income and climatevulnerable communities. a household without rwh spends 616 hours a year collecting water, which is worth bdt 34,158.75 per year, based on community wages in rural areas. the cost component measures under the current scrutiny include the managing economic expenditure on water procurement; transport, medical equipment, and the opportunity cost associated with the eradication of waste water. according to the information checked, the average family spends a monthly outlay of bdt 1,053.64 on water, resulting in an annual cost of bdt 12,643.68. the associated transport costs amounted to a total of bdt 231.39 per calendar month, amounting to bdt 2,776.68 per year. apart from these straightforward costs, households without rain collection (rwh) organizations spend an estimated 616 intervals per year on collecting water. the equivalent hourly wage would be bdt 56.25, which is close to the regional average of 450 bdt per day for 8 hours of work per week. accordingly, the annual cost of duration spent on water harvesting is estimated to be approximately bdt 34,158.75. medical expenditure related to the treatment of waterborne diseases adds further to the family burden. in comparison with an annual cost of bdt 25,619.52, each family incurs on average bdt 2,134.96 per calendar month in clinical expenditure. in the absence of a rwh structure, the annual cost calculated per family is approximately bdt 75,198.63. this figure provides a baseline for the economic evaluation of the potential savings that can be achieved through the implementation of rain harvesting innovations. table 2: medical cost parameter unit value average monthly medical cost bdt/month 2,134.96 average daily medical cost bdt/day 71.16 annual medical cost bdt/year 25,619.52 lack of access to safe drinking water, such as diarrhea, dysentery, cholera, typhoid, and skin diseases, is significantly increasing the incidence of waterborne diseases in coastal bangladesh, including mongla. such diseases require a direct financial burden on the family through out-of-pocket expenditures on medical visits, medicines and misplaced duty days. beyond general illness, lack of secure water access and climate stressors have hidden gendered impacts: women and adolescents are confronted with a need for monthly cleaning leadership, with a large number of them adopting wrong strategies of coping. during an ecological catastrophe, for instance, cyclone, and flood when safety water entry and privacy are compromised, females regularly use contraception to delay the period of time when they do not have access to water for bathing and hygiene. c-section births are reported in the current exploratory zone by 72.39 % of female respondents, a figure far higher than the federal average, and are partially correlated with underprivileged health conditions, undernutrition, and stress caused by water insecurity. non-religious households incur significant medical costs related to waterborne diseases in addition to managing family expenditure on water acquisition and transit. the average monthly healthcare expenditure report for a family is bdt 2,134.96, corresponding to an annual financial responsibility of bdt 25,619.52 per family (amc = cmm 12). these costs are primarily intended to protect treatment of diarrhea, dysentery, and other waterborne diseases which remain widespread in order that dangerous or incoherent drinking water will not be introduced. pa ge 23 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 233-242, 2025 women and adolescents bear disproportionately the health burden of water insecurity. in the present study, 72.39 % of female respondent reports delivered cesarean delivery, a finding significantly superior to regional recommendations, echoing the increasing challenges of maternal health. moreover, the lack of safe water and sterile resources forces many women to suppress menstrual cycles through the use of hormonal contraceptives and exposes them to additional health uncertainty during an innate catastrophe. the restricted option for menstrual purity exacerbates the diseases and entails a greater dependency on the coveted medical attention. these results show that the real cost of insufficient water intake extends sufficiently beyond the immediate monetary loss, the significant genderspecific fitness, and the social outcomes that need to be addressed through combined water, hygiene, and fitness interventions. household-level cost–benefit analysis of rainwater harvesting (rwh) 1. storage tank capacity and seasonal use the average storage tank capacity surrounding the 100 survey rwh family was assessed together with 2,217 liters. although this figure does not correspond to a specific market tank size (typically 500 l to 3,000 l), it represents an aggregate average of the various family storage arrangements. the average number of family reports using harvested rain is approximately 4.14 calendar months per calendar year. the current seasonal pattern of use is consistent with regional rainfall allocation, stockpile restrictions, and operational efficiency of rooftop harvesting systems. 2. the initial assets stake the initial assets expenditure for the rwh installation, designated c₀, includes the procurement and installation of the storage tank, gutter, first flush diverter, and basic filtration unit of measurement. the average shareholding in the assets was discovered to remain bdt 31,377.90 per family. in the cba skeleton, the current cost shall be treated as an old fixed cost. economic expression: c₀ = cₜₐₙₖ + cgᵤₜₜₑᵣₛ + cfirst flush + cfiltration 3. annual maintenance expenditure: households incur annual maintenance expenditure (cm) to maintain structural functionality and water quality. the expenses mentioned above, the average cost of 506 bdt per family per year, cover cleaning, minor repairs, and replacement of a plain filter or pipe. the current expenditure shall be treated as a recurring operating expenditure in the financial model. economic expression: cm = mj (j = 1 to nitrogen), wherein mj = cost of human care item. 4. quantifiable annual savings (sa) arising from the implementation of rwh are primarily intended to reduce dependence on purchased water and related transportation expenses during the useable storage era. estimated average annual reserves per family were approximately bdt 4,864.60. economic expression: sa = (cw + ct) savings, where cw = water purchase cost avoided, ct = transport cost avoided 5. fitness cost assets and co-benefits the reduction in family expenditure on medical treatment for waterborne diseases is an essential co-benefit of rwh adoption. the average monthly cost of bdt 2,134.96 is reported by the non-rwh family, while the rwh family reports a very low monthly cost of bdt 617.94. this disparity is estimated to have an annual healthcare cost economy of bdt 18,204.24 per family. the fiscal model treats this as an indirect benefit ( bh ). economic expression: = (cm, non rwh − cm, rwh) × 12 6. gender specific vitality burden besides the usual monetary implications, the conclusions reveal significant gender-specific vitality burden. restricted access to clean water when climate extremes force females and adolescents to adopt detrimental strategies, similar to using hormonal contraception to delay periods when cleanliness is poor. the current delves into, in addition to creating a disproportionately higher cesarean division (c-section) determine in the middle of female respondent 72.39 % report delivering via c-section — significantly above the patriotic average. these data highlight the combined risks associated with subpar water entry, including maternal morbidity and underprivileged procreant health outcomes. cash flow & valuation for the purpose of assessing the monetary viability of the rain harvesting organization over a 20-year operating lifecycle, a detailed cost-benefit analysis was carried out. the initial purchase price was assessed in addition to 31,377.9 bdt, which represents an annual 0. the structure has been generating reliable annual bonuses of 74,078.8 bdt from the first quarter onwards, which has resulted in a steady increase in the net cash current beyond the limit. accumulated cash current of approximately 818,300.1 bdt per annum using a discount rate of 6 %. in contrast, the accumulated nominal cash flow (nay account for the span value of money) amounts to 1,450,198 bdt, in addition to stressing the continuing monetary rewards of the organization. the firm achieved a repayment in less than one annual period, together with an accumulated reduction in aid which exceeded the initial stake as early as annually 1. this rapid repayment reflects the higher annual earnings stream compared to the lower capital costs of implementation. as a result of the decline in the annual bonus from 69 885.66 bdt a year 1 to 23,098.12 bdt a year 20, the discounted perk beliefs have been gradually worsening over the course of the fiscal year in order to affect the overall effect of the widening of the market value. however, the effective cash movement remains stable and robust throughout the business cycle. such discoveries, confirmed by a steady flow of cash and a positive ratio of benefits to costs, clearly indicate the economic viability and sustainability of rain harvesting systems in the examined location. it significantly outperforms the initial costs and provides an attractive solution for household and community water security strategies in bangladesh. pa ge 23 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 233-242, 2025 cumulative cash flow: cgft = ∑(t=0) tcft table 1: cumulative cash flow (highlight the year npv crosses zero (≈ year 7)) net present value (npv) the net present value (npv) of switching from a nonrwh system to a rwh system is: bdt 404,714 over a 20-year period (at 6% discount rate). “this analysis uses a 6 % discount rate in accordance with the standards for public sector acquisitions and evaluation of ngos in bangladesh. it takes into account moderate inflation, resource prospect costs, and realistic risk levels for household rwh undertakings. to check the robustness of the findings, a sensitivity review shall be conducted between 4 % and 8 %. ‘it’s not about the money.” npv formula: npv =∑ n (t=1)(bt/(1+r)t ) =11.47 npv = 25619 × 11.47 = 293938.6 bdt approximately bdt 293,939 represents the net present value of the avoided clinical costs over 20 years as a result of the use of the rwh system. tank installation cost: average cost 31377.9 bdt. they can harvest 4.14 month. the annual cost of treatment: 1767.18 bdt. max. 2990 bdt, last 506 bdt; current includes tap, pipe damage by default and inherent catastrophe. so, if this cost accounts for 20 years, then cost will be 35,343.6 so, npv= 293939 – 35343.4 = 258,595.4 inflation (5%) adjusted cost = 258,595.4 12929.77 = 245,665.23 npv = 258,595.40 inflation rate = 5% time= 20 years fv = pv ×(1 + f)n fv = 686,134.64 table 3: cost-benefit (yearly) year inflation adjusted benefit inflation adjusted annual cost 0 258595.4 -----------1 271525.17 41060.15 2 285101.43 43113.15 3 299356.5 45268.81 4 314324.32 47532.25 5 330040.54 49908.86 6 346542.57 52404.31 7 363869.7 55024.52 8 382063.18 57775.75 9 401166.34 60664.54 10 421224.66 63697.76 11 442285.89 66882.65 12 464400.18 70226.78 13 487620.19 73738.12 14 512001.2 77425.03 15 537601.26 81296.28 16 564481.33 85361.09 17 592705.39 89629.15 pa ge 23 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 233-242, 2025 bcr bcr = (∑(bt/(1+r)t))/(∑(ct/(1+r)t)) = pvb/pvc = 777180/37180 bcr ≈ 20.90 a bcr of 20.9 means: for every bdt 1 invested in rwh, you get bdt 20.9 in present value benefits indicating extremely strong financial viability. 18 622340.66 94110.61 19 653457.7 98816.14 20 686130.58 103756.9 table 2: annual benefit-cost ratio(bcr) over 20 years irr internal rate of return irr = 236.09% payback period (nominal & discounted) time (in years) when cumulative net cash flow ≥ 0 • nominal payback = 1 year. • discounted payback = 1 year • the internal rate of return (irr) for the rain harvesting (rwh) framework was strategic to be approximately 236.09 %, which is significantly above the normally used discount rate of 6 %. the current exceptionally high irrs indicate that the venture is economically feasible, generating a rapid tax return on the initial investment. the identical tax return demonstrates that, for each legal tender unit invested in the rwh organization, more than two units of measure are recovered annually in the form of water reserves, avoidance of water procurement, and related socio-economic support. • this effect shows that the structure has been able to recover costs very quickly, possibly within the first otherwise following year of operation, and has continued to provide significant net benefits throughout the duration of its planned life. although irrs exceeding 100% are relatively rare in foundation undertakings, the result is plausible given the combination of low initial investment costs, high rainfall, and uninterrupted gains in the analyzed area. • however, the unusually high level of irr requires careful interpretation. it is recommended that the estimates remain contextualized in local situations, structure, and assumptions on the distribution of benefits and care fidelity. however, the findings strongly support the economic defense for a wider and wider rwh deployment and expansion in the water-stressed and salinity-prone regions of bangladesh. findings • a comparative assessment of 100 families that do not use rainwater harvesting (rwh) systems to determine their water costs, era burden, and vitality impacts. • demographics and household characteristics surrounding the survey non-rwh users, 60 % were male-headed households and 40 % were female-headed households, with an average household size of 5.58 persons. • the economic costs relating to the purchase of water by the aforementioned family amounted to bdt 1,053.64 a month and amounted to approximately bdt 12,643.68 a year. furthermore, the family incurs an average monthly transport cost of bdt 231.39 to transport water otherwise bought, compared to an annual cost of bdt 2,776.68. an average of 1.69 hours a day, a total of approximately 20 hours and 16 minutes a month is needed to select water intervals. in particular, a low-income family relying on habitual work is subject to mandatory risk costs. • in terms of well-being, 76% of respondents reported experiencing waterborne diseases compared to 25% who did not experience any. the average monthly healthcare costs related to waterborne illnesses amounted to bdt 2,134.96 or approximately bdt 25,619.52 per year. • the total annual cost of purchasing, transporting, and treating water, non-reverse hydrant users face an average annual cost of bdt 41,060.15 is a reminder pa ge 24 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 233-242, 2025 of the significant fiscal burden on accessing safe water without rain harvesting structures. • users of rwh in maritime bangladesh have high fiscal and time costs related to water procurement and a significant health burden due to waterborne diseases. the above discoveries highlight the urgent need to improve access to water, such as rwh arrangements, which can reduce economic strain, reduce the incidence of diseases, and allow the free tenure of productive projects. table 4: parameter rwh users (average) non-rwh users (average) installation cost bdt 31,377.90 (one-time) n/a annual maintenance cost bdt 1,767.18 n/a annual water savings bdt 4,864.60 n/a monthly water purchase cost minimal/zero (harvested) bdt 1,053.64 monthly transportation cost minimal bdt 231.39 annual water & transport cost low (included in savings) bdt 15,420.36 annual medical cost bdt 617.94 (monthly) bdt 2,134.96 (monthly) time spent collecting water not significant (on-site) ~1.69 hours daily (20h 16m monthly) waterborne diseases majority unaware if rwh reduced medical costs (65%) but 26% reported reduction 76% reported waterborne diseases medical expenses bdt 617.94 monthly bdt 2,134.96 monthly recommendation of rwh 93% yes n/a intent to expand rwh 28% yes n/a conclusion this study shows that household-level rainwater harvesting systems are a financially sound and socially advantageous adaptation strategy for addressing water insecurity in coastal regions of bangladesh. the findings indicate that the adoption of rainwater harvesting notably lowers household water expenses, alleviates healthrelated expenditures, and diminishes the considerable opportunity costs tied to water collection, especially for women and low-income individuals. the findings are consistent with current literature, suggesting that rainwater harvesting systems can improve water security and alleviate the socio-economic challenges caused by climate-induced salinity and groundwater degradation. the economic evaluation reinforces the long-term financial sustainability of rwh systems, showcasing high internal rates of return, favorable net present values, and payback periods that are competitive with similar studies in south asia. the interplay of direct financial savings, decreased disease occurrence, and enhanced household efficiency highlights the extensive developmental possibilities of rainwater harvesting, extending far beyond mere water supply. overall, the results indicate that rwh systems can play a critical role in strengthening climate resilience in vulnerable coastal communities. the demonstrated economic and social benefits highlight the need for policy interventions that support wider adoption, including targeted subsidies for low-income households, community-based training on system management, and integration of rwh within local and national climate adaptation frameworks. future research should examine long-term system performance across diverse climatic conditions and assess the institutional factors that influence sustained rwh utilisation. through coordinated policy and programmatic support, rwh can contribute meaningfully to bangladesh’s broader objectives for water security, public health improvement, and climate adaptation. references ahmed, k. m., hasan, m. a., & bhuiyan, m. a. h. 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(2020). performance analysis of rainwater harvesting systems for different building types. building and environment, 173, 106757. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2020.106757 pa ge 1 pa ge 12 7 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) enhancing personalized learning through artificial intelligence in modern education systems h m atif wafik1, sheikh khurshid alam prince2, avishek reza promise3, muhammad aminur rahman1, jafrin jahan2, shuvo kumar mallik4* volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v4i1.5441 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: may 27, 2025 accepted: june 30, 2025 published: july 24, 2025 ai is transforming current education systems by providing personalized learning experiences and adjusting the pace of instruction, content delivery, and learning pace according to a student’s needs. this study investigates the personalization of education through ai in the context of current educational settings, primarily higher education. a systematic search of 41 academic databases identified 17,899 records, and after strict inclusion criteria, we included 45 studies. we followed the prisma approach to guarantee methodological transparency in selection, data extraction, and synthesis. the studies included were assessed using a standard bias instrument. the results suggest that the impact of ai-enabled solutions on adaptive learning, student engagement, and administrative efficiency is substantial. helping to personalize learning, ai fosters better learning outcomes and increased student satisfaction. yet, there are challenges to ai integration, including ethical issues, data privacy concerns, and the need for robust teacher training and institutional support. this review discusses the transformative potential of ai for education and makes calls for standards to evaluate the efficacy of ai methods, greater collaboration across disciplines, and long-term studies to ensure the fairness and effectiveness of ai implementations. these findings are crucial for educators, policymakers, and institutional leaders seeking to transform and sustain futureready education systems in an era of ai. keywords artificial intelligence, education systems, learning experiences 1 department of business administration, university of scholars, dhaka, bangladesh 2 department of english, reverie school, dhaka, bangladesh 3 controller of examination, university of scholars, dhaka, bangladesh 4 department of economics, southeast university, dhaka, bangladesh * corresponding author’s e-mail: nextgenresearch.info@gmail.com introduction artificial intelligence (ai) is a game changer in the modern education system, promising to open up new pathways to personalized learning (tapalova & zhiyenbayeva, 2022). by being able to handle vast amounts of data and respond to the unique learning profiles of each student, ai is revolutionizing how we teach, particularly by personalizing instruction to accommodate differences in students’ learning rates, content, and teaching methods. ai-enabled personalized learning seeks to create more learner-centered experiences that foster increased engagement, motivation, and academic achievement (zhao, 2025). among the milestones of ai is the creation of adaptive learning spaces. these systems tailor instructional materials in real-time as they interact with students based on their performance, preferences, and learning needs (strielkowski et al., 2025). for instance, intelligent tutoring systems can assess student interactions to provide immediate feedback or to infer the student’s knowledge level and serve as an appropriate learning resource. educational technologies, such as machine learningbased learning management systems, track and analyze learner behavior, enabling instructors to make data-driven choices that improve their teaching and support students as effectively as possible. and ai enables personalized education at scale (kaswan et al., 2024). ai tools equipped with machine learning techniques and natural language processing can scale to accommodate a diverse range of learners, including those with special needs, to provide customized access to support, translations, and alternative formats. these facets not only facilitate access to learning but also help promote equity in mixed classrooms and address the geographical divide (assefa et al., 2025). however, the adoption of ai technologies in education has its limitations. this high-tech world raises ethical questions about the privacy of data, the transparency of algorithms, and the risks of bias in ai systems. their personal and academic data are frequently collected and analyzed by artificial intelligence tools, raising important questions of consent, ownership, and security (menard & bott, 2025). it also creates a device that allows access to the internet. still, the digital divide remains a limiting factor for access, particularly in areas where institutions or regions lack adequate digital infrastructure. there is another important role that instructors play in ai-supported learning environments (cohn et al., 2025). artificial intelligence can enhance the education process, but it cannot substitute for the human touch that goes with teaching empathy, working with students, and speaking to them sensitively. hence, the successful integration of ai would involve adequate teacher training and professional development to prepare teachers to apply ai tools in meaningful and ethical ways. the impact of ai on personalized learning hinges on the extent of its incorporation within pedagogical models rather than pa ge 12 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 127-135, 2025 its technological adoption (vorobyeva et al., 2025). in this paper, the role of ai in personalized learning in higher education is discussed, with the opportunities presented by ai highlighted and its challenges acknowledged. universities and colleges are turning to ai for advanced learning to drive innovation, enhance learning opportunities, and prepare students for the jobs of the future (mohamed saad, 2025). nevertheless, the literature is lacking in terms of a systematic investigation into the real-world impact of ai on personalized learning outcomes, especially in various diverse educational settings (spaho et al., 2025). to fill this gap, the current paper attempts to consolidate results from the academic literature to investigate the efficacy, ethical issues, and implementation challenges of ai (mohammadi & maghsoudi, 2025). through the use of a rigorous and transparent methodology, this review aims to provide practical recommendations for instructors, policymakers, and administrators who seek to leverage ai to enhance teaching and learning. literature review artificial intelligence (ai)enabled educational systems have created a new learning paradigm in today’s era of rapid change in education (strielkowski et al., 2025). ai and technology are transforming education to serve the personal, developmental, and learning styles of every student. this shift is evident in the development of adaptive learning systems, intelligent tutoring systems, and ai-based learning analytics (strielkowski et al., 2025). ai-supported personalized learning involves tailoring learning speed, content, and teaching methods to individual learners (abrar et al., 2025). ai-based systems can also analyze students’ strengths, weaknesses, and progress in real time and tailor the delivery of content. such systems promote learner autonomy and motivation by offering appropriate learning materials and feedback in a timely manner, which may result in improved academic achievement and student satisfaction. ai algorithms help personalize the learning path through an adaptive learning environment (strielkowski et al., 2025). such platforms adapt learning paths based on the student’s interactions with the platform, leading to a more adaptable and responsive form of education. therefore, students are automatically supported as they grapple with a concept and accelerate when they achieve mastery (bøe et al., 2025). besides content customization, ai-powered tools encourage student interaction through features such as virtual tutors, chatbots, and personalized learning dashboards. speech recognition can deliver immediate responses, reminders, and performance data, enabling students to stay focused on their learning experience. ai systems also support teachers by providing detailed analytics to inform teaching decisions and pinpoint students who may require extra help (koukaras et al., 2025). despite these benefits, multiple barriers hinder the successful incorporation of ai in education. one of the biggest concerns is the ethical use of student data. ai-powered systems require extensive data collection, so problems of privacy, consent, and data security must be addressed to safeguard the rights of learners (dhinakaran et al., 2025). there is also a question of the transparency and fairness of ai algorithms; data bias may result in unequal learning outcomes. another barrier is the digital divide. the availability of ai tools is certainly not consistent across schools, particularly in underprivileged or rural areas (khazanchi et al., 2025). enabling ai-boosted learning for all students is another matter that requires massive investments in infrastructure and technology. teacher preparedness is also key to successful implementation. however, the majority of these teachers do not have the skills or confidence to incorporate ai tools into their pedagogical methods (filiz et al., 2025). ultimately, without sound professional development and resourcing around ai in education, ai in education may have never truly realized its full potential. a recent technology revolutionizing large classrooms in higher education is ai. ai provides this support by automating administrative tasks, making student performance data accessible to instructors, and enabling the creation of more personalized course content (al nabhani et al., 2025). yet, the broader impact of ai on performance and patterns in higher education is still being investigated. materials and methods this paper follows a systematic literature review methodology to examine the use of artificial intelligence (ai) in personalized learning within contemporary education, with a particular focus on higher education. for methodological rigor, the review adhered to the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (prisma) guidelines, which aim to promote transparency and reproducibility in research. this review aimed to identify and compile empirical evidence on the use of ai in the field of personalized (adaptive) learning or teaching. the review process was conducted using the evidence-based research method applied in systematic reviews. an organized procedure was employed to minimize bias in study identification and ensure uniform data collection and analysis. in february 2025, an extensive search was conducted in several academic databases, including google scholar, web of science, scopus, eric, and pubmed. search terms were constructed by combining string terms pertinent to our research, including artificial intelligence, personalized learning, higher education adaptive learning,” and ai in education through boolean connectors. search strings were adapted for each database to achieve the most effective retrieval of the literature. to enhance the credibility of this systematic review and prevent duplication, it will be registered in prospero, an international database of systematic review protocols. during the search, filters were set up to select only peerreviewed, english-language empirical studies conducted within a particular period. pa ge 12 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 127-135, 2025 eligibility criteria the inclusion and exclusion criteria were designed to maintain focus on the research objective. studies were included if they met the following conditions: • published between january 2023 and 2025. • focused on the use of ai in personalized learning within higher education institutions. • peer-reviewed and written in english. • based on empirical evidence involving primary data collection or experimental analysis. information sources and search strategy we conducted a comprehensive search using a prespecified strategy based on combinations of the following keywords, employing boolean logic, to identify eligible studies. a search query for each database was customized according to its indexing system. the search strings were composed of ai, personalization, and education, with modifications to optimize the matching of the words to the most practical education. the titles and abstracts of the articles obtained from the primary search were screened, and the full texts were reviewed according to the eligibility criteria. duplicates were removed, and the retrieved studies were evaluated based on methodological quality and relevance. the last set of studies was reviewed and analyzed, and the main themes of implementation effectiveness and challenges of ai in providing personalized learning were identified. this systematic and transparent approach to reviewing the literature enables a comprehensive examination of how ai is impacting personalized learning within contemporary educational systems, providing valuable information for educators, researchers, and policymakers. table 1: literature review sources: search databases, search strings, and number of results database search string results pubmed (artificial intelligence or ai) and (personalized learning or adaptive learning) and (education or teaching” or students) and (higher education) 10 scopus title-abs-key (artificial intelligence or ai) and title-abs-key (personalized learning or adaptive learning) and title-abs-key (education” or teaching) and title-abs-key (higher education) 328 web of science ts = (artificial intelligence or ai) and ts = (personalized learning or adaptive learning) and ts = (education or “teaching or students) and ts = (“higher education”) 107 eric (artificial intelligence or ai) and (personalized learning or adaptive learning) and (education or teaching) and (higher education) 54 google scholar (artificial intelligence or ai) and (personalized learning or adaptive learning) and (education” or teaching) and (higher education) 17,400 total 17,899 study selection process a systematic search for research projects fostering personalization and artificial intelligence applied to the modern personalized education system was carried out. this procedure initially yielded 17,899 articles from multiple databases. reference management tools were used to remove the duplicates. after de-duplication, a systematic screening was processed. review of titles and abstracts of the search results were based on predetermined inclusion criteria reflecting ai-driven personalization in education. a full-text assessment of the articles that seemed epidemiologically relevant was conducted to determine eligibility. data extraction to ensure consistency in data handling, a structured extraction form was developed. this form captured essential information from each study, including: • author(s) and publication year • description of the ai intervention or personalized learning approach • reported outcomes and conclusions related to learner performance and engagement • any noted limitations or strengths in the study’s methodology • assessment of bias in reporting and analysis quality assessment reported bias was assessed by critically appraising the quality of the studies included. for conformity to the standard practice of systematic review methodology, a graphic rating method was used to evaluate the quality of included studies. it was scored on the following five key dimensions of ai in personalized education: • the theoretical foundation of the ai tool • access to and adequacy of it resources • type and context of learning space • pedagogical interventions involving ai personalization • to the theme, you have now aligned the converted and personalized table 2 pa ge 13 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 127-135, 2025 data synthesis the narrative synthesis method was utilized to synthesize and present findings in an organized and holistic way, taking into account anticipated heterogeneity in the study, ai, and personalized learning intervention design. unique patterns and trends in the ai-driven personalized learning approaches were identified using a thematic analysis. primary points of interest were adaptive learning algorithms, student engagement, and ai tools’ pedagogical efficacy. the data have been analyzed in nvivo through a prescribed coding framework focusing on core elements such as ai-based recommendation systems, intelligent tutoring systems, and real-time learning analytics. this approach to analysis facilitated an interrogation of how the key themes recurred and what that signified in terms of the quality of personalization within higher education. the characteristics and main results of the studies included were also summarized by descriptive statistics. tables and figures were used to help organize and show these data in appealing and comprehensible ways. the common goal of the data syntheses was to provide an informed overview of the current research landscape, to outline best practices in the implementation of ai-based personalization, and to underscore critical gaps in need of further study. ethical considerations because this study relied only on publicly available literature, it did not require ethical approval. however, the moral standards were strictly conducted in the research. this comprised transparency in the choice of the studies, precision when interpreting and reporting data, and considerations related to intellectual property rights, including accurate source attribution. besides the research ethics, the review extended its attention to wider ethics concerning ai in education. student privacy, the possibility of algorithmic bias, and academic integrity were identified as salient ethical considerations to be considered. these are critical considerations in defining ethical practices for the use of ai in education, to have personalization initiatives that are fair, safe, and consistent with the foundational beliefs of contemporary education systems. results and discussion this section outlines the findings of the systematic review, including the study selection process, a detailed summary of the included studies, and an analysis of the extracted data. the review focuses on how artificial intelligence is being utilized to enhance personalized learning across various educational settings. study selection results the review selection process followed the prisma approach to ensure methodological quality and study transparency. a first search using academic databases generated a search result of 17,899 articles from ai in personalized learning in contemporary education. after excluding duplicates and using predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria, eight studies were included in the table 2: quality assessment / risk of bias for ai-powered personalized learning interventions bias category low risk moderate risk high risk algorithmic design bias (a) clearly explains ai models, logic, or personalization frameworks that underpin the learning intervention. limited discussion of the ai design, with vague or generic references to personalization mechanisms. no mention of how ai or personalization was implemented. resource transparency bias (r) comprehensive details on computational resources, data requirements, training time, and infrastructure used in the ai system. partial description of resources, lacking specific information on system requirements or implementation feasibility. no mention of technical or resourcerelated considerations. learning context bias (l) clearly outlines learner demographics, learning environments, and contextual factors affecting ai personalization. some contextual data provided, but not detailed enough to assess the environment’s influence on ai effectiveness. no learner characteristics or context described. pedagogical integration bias (p) provides detailed explanation of instructional strategies used alongside ai, including adaptive techniques, feedback loops, and learning paths. brief mention of teaching strategies or learning activities with limited linkage to ai integration. no mention of educational strategies or their alignment with ai tools. content delivery bias (c) includes access to aigenerated learning materials, adaptive content examples, and tools used to deliver personalized experiences. some educational content or tools mentioned, but insufficient to replicate or evaluate the intervention. no educational materials or delivery mechanisms described. pa ge 13 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 127-135, 2025 final analysis. they were considered most pertinent for the simple reason that they focused on ai applications specifically serving personalization learning strategies. the step-by-step selection process is presented in a prisma flow diagram (figure 1) to demonstrate the exclusionary process of the articles from identification to inclusion. figure 1. prisma flow diagram the initial search identified 17,899 records. after removing duplicates, 17454 remained for screening. of these, 699 underwent full-text review, with 654 excluded for reasons including a lack of empirical data, a nonhigher-education focus, and methodological weaknesses. the final review included 45 studies. characteristics of included studies the 45 studies included in this review explored various applications of ai in persignalized learning in higher education. the characteristics of the included studies are summarized in table 3. table 3: summary of included studies on ai for personalized learning in education authors & year ai intervention/development key outcomes for personalized learning fu & weng, (2024) ethical and infrastructural review of ai in education ai enhances efficiency but raises ethical concerns aljabr & al-ahdal, (2024) examines ethical/social implications of ai in pedagogy benefits exist, but risks include bias and integrity issues wang, (2023) iot-ai based recommendation system improves personalization in course selection simbeck, (2024) dataset for learning analytics enables adaptive learning through data bognár et al. (2024) ai vs. classical learning theories higher engagement with blended ai-classical models stahl & eke, (2024) analytical review on chatgpt ethics pedagogical value balanced by ethical issues chan & hu (2023) student perception of generative ai mostly positive with minor concerns chan & tsi (2024) generational comparison on ai gen z shows higher enthusiasm idrisov & schlippe, (2024) adaptive ai learning modules instructor support enhances ai outcomes pa ge 13 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 127-135, 2025 eltahir & babiker, (2024) ai impact on e-learning performance improvement in student performance davison et al. (2024) ethical analysis of generative ai benefits with significant integrity concerns abulibdeh et al. (2025) strategic ai integration in higher ed enhances admin efficiency and transformation pardos & bhandari, (2024) chatgpt for math support better engagement with minor limitations nguyen & habók, (2024) assessment practices using digital tools ai enhances assessment, teacher training needed yakubov et al. (2024) predictive ai in gamified learning allows early performance intervention crompton et al. (2024) ai to support english learning improved proficiency and engagement result analysis the overview of studies, in selected papers, shows that ai occupies the central position supporting the personalization of learning since; by using it, the system can adjust content and pedagogy to a particular learner. in this regard, recommendation systems using ai technology have been identified as highly effective tools enabling content specialization for teaching, which can promote student interest in learning and enhance knowledge consolidation. it has been shown in previous studies that with adaptive feedback, students perform significantly better in academic tasks with intelligent tutoring systems. moreover, ai-driven real-time learning analytics enable early predictability of at-risk students, triggering timely and focused pedagogic interposition. the innovations demonstrate ai’s power to adapt instruction to individual learners, transforming education to be more adaptive and learner-centered, whether in classrooms or online. across multiple trials, this and other ai-enhanced tools improved motivation, test scores, and satisfaction with learning, according to students who used the tools in the studies. adaptative ai in higher education settings has demonstrated the potential to make a substantial impact on both students’ academic performance and course completion rates, thus demonstrating ai’s potential in tertiary education scenarios. nevertheless, the embedding of ai tools in contemporary educational systems is not exempt from its difficulties. ethical considerations concerning data privacy, transparency, and potential biases also persist. the widespread collection and analysis of data on education from higher educational institutions come with additional challenges while focusing on privacy laws and ethical guidelines. establishing trust among students and educators involves clear communication about how data is used and protected. the successful deployment of ai tools also depends a lot on teacher readiness. one of the common challenges discussed in several research works is the inadequacy of teachers’ training, which can hinder the effective incorporation of ai into the curriculum. widespread availability of practical and pedagogical experience of ai technologies there is limited knowledge among faculty in many institutions of the operational and pedagogical aspects of ai technologies, which highlights the need for structured professional development. however, several researches have shown the potential of scalability and personalization of aibased educational applications. their effective translation relies, however, on thoughtful application in context and collaborative efforts from different groups of actors (among educators, technologists, and policymakers). the methodological quality of the studies was rated moderate to high, with the majority assessed as low risk of bias. the robustness is brought about by rigorous research designs, and findings were published in credible academic journals. discussion this review emphasizes the revolutionary integration of artificial intelligence (ai) in personalized learning at the higher education level. ai-driven solutions have consistently proven to be able to personalize instruction for individual students, increase student engagement and motivation, and yield increased academic achievement (mallik, 2024). as follows, the findings described, implications for pedagogies and institutional support, concerns and limitations regarding the existing body of evidence, and suggestions for further research are discussed. artificial intelligence is increasingly being tapped to deliver a more personalized learning experience. adaptive systems, recommendation algorithms, and intelligent tutoring systems have shown their potential to customize content to each learner, leading to better retention and degree of satisfaction. real-time analytics and feedback also facilitate interventions as students at risk are discovered, and teachers can more accurately respond. in addition to improved learning results, students appreciate the fun, motivation, and game-like experience of these learning resources. the enabling power of ai to adjust to various learning styles and rates helps to create a more inclusive learning environment. but these opportunities are accompanied by the possibility to implement and equitably distribute responsibly (mallik et al., 2025). ai is changing the image and nature of teaching beyond mere content personalization. there is a trend towards datadriven, student-centered education, with the assistance of ai in personalizing teaching strategies. adaptive systems that allow educators to spot needs and intervene where necessary based on what a student has and has not been able to do are used in these cases (mallik et al., 2025). also, contemporary students seem to be more openminded about ai tools, indicating a generation gap in pa ge 13 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 127-135, 2025 perspectives on technology and education. these changes demand changes in curriculum design, focusing on digital literacy and the use of ai in learning. as pedagogical techniques change, teachers will need to acquire new skills to utilize ai to augment traditional instruction effectively. ai is not only transforming the classroom. administrative tasks such as scheduling and allocation of resources and student support services are more and more moving to ai-based automation (mallik, 2024). such routine tasks can be left to chatbots and automated systems, allowing educators and administrators to focus their time and energy on higher-level decision-making and interaction with students. this integration enables institutional efficiency and scalable, responsive academic models. to maintain this innovation, universities need to devise approaches that use ai in a manner consistent with long-term objectives, taking into account cost, accessibility, and the role of humans in supervision. institutions that embrace structured, ethical frameworks for the use of ai are most well-equipped to catalyze systemic change. although it cannot be denied that the advantages are obvious, ethics issues still play a crucial role. a conversation continues to be had on data privacy, algorithm bias, academic integrity issues, and transparency in order to move forward in a way that’s responsible. poor regulation or misuse of student data will diminish trust and exacerbate inequalities in education (mallik & rahman, 2024). limitations although revealing, there are some limitations of the studies reviewed. some results lack generalizability because of differences in the quality and design of the included studies and dependence on self-report. in multiple instances, the context, generalizability, and longterm sustainability of ai solutions are often poorly retained. moreover, these researches are conducted in industrialized regions, which may not address the challenges of under-served zone institutions. ethical implications are not consistently considered, and the studies rarely provide concrete measures for the reduction of the risks of the use of ai in education. future research in order to enhance the empirical foundation, we call for further research utilizing stricter and longitudinal experimental designs. the field requires that there be standardized frameworks that measure learning outcomes, engagement, and ethics consistently. this will broaden the scope of cross-cultural and crossinstitutional comparisons to find out the scale and the portability of ai systems in a variety of educational environments. additionally, further examining the ethical implications is essential. researchers, educators, and policymakers should develop best practice guidelines to ensure the responsible, inclusive, and transparent integration of ai. studies that intertwine quantitative data with students’ and teachers’ qualitative viewpoints could be instrumental in informing the development of effective ai-based strategies for personalized learning. conclusions this paper confirms the significant impact of ai in the enhancement of personalized learning in contemporary higher educational institutions. customized learning content – highly effective in helping students better retain information, individualized learning puts customized content at the center of study. intelligent institutions – from children spilling hot soup to goosing a child…artificial intelligence in education has numerous concerns. ai aids in delivering responsive, effective, and learner-centric education by facilitating adaptive learning and real-time analytics. ai integration also involves critical challenges. to ensure responsible use, ethical issues covering data privacy, algorithm transparency, and academic deception need to be considered. the successful implementation of ai tools would also demand considerable investments in teacher training, institutional preparedness, and supportive infrastructure. the published literature demonstrates the enormous potential, although methodological differences exist. the research designs, samples, and measures vary in many studies, which makes the comparison and generalization of findings difficult. these constraints underscore the demand for standardized evaluation practices, longterm studies, and context-sensitive works that can more genuinely estimate the enduring impact and persistence of ai-driven interventions in education. reference abrar, m., aboraya, w., khaliq, r. a., subramanian, k. p., al husaini, y., & al hussaini, m. 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(2025). advancing english language education: a mixed-methods analysis of ai-driven tools’ impact on engagement, personalization, and learning outcomes. education and information technologies, 1-41. pa ge 1 pa ge 19 2 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) green human resource management and employee performance in an emerging economy: mediating role of job satisfaction and industry type as moderator farhan uddin usmani1* volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v4i1.5762 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: july 20, 2025 accepted: august 27, 2025 published: november 06, 2025 green human resource management (ghrm) has turned out to be a critical organisational strategy for managing environmental sustainability and conforming top employee performance. the purpose of this study is to analyse the relationship between green hrm practices and employee performance in an emerging economy (pakistan) while investigating the mediating role of job satisfaction, and the moderating role of industry type. this study has utilised a quantitative research approach to evaluate this interrelationship. the target population of this study includes employees working in different industries that implement ghrm practices. these industries include banking (service industry) and pharmaceutical and fmcg (manufacturing industry). it ensures diversity in organisation practices and employee roles. the survey was filled by 400 respondents from these diverse industries employees. the data was analysed using partial least squares-structural equation modelling (pls-sem) analysis in smart pls. the findings revealed that both green recruitment and green compensation have a positive and significant impact on employee performance, whereas green performance has an insignificant impact on employee performance. job satisfaction was also indicated to have a significant mediating role in the relationship between green compensation and employee performance and also between green performance and employee performance. job satisfaction does not mediate the relationship between green recruitment and employee performance. furthermore, the industry type did not have any moderating impact. the study contributes to understanding ghrm’s role in increasing employee performance, elaborating green recruitment and compensation as important drivers. practically, it helps emerging economies to adopt tailored ghrm strategies, focusing on job satisfaction. cross-industry findings support policy development for sustainable hr practices regardless of sectors. keywords employee performance, ghrm, job satisfaction, sustainability 1 nazeer hussain university, pakistan * corresponding author’s e-mail: farhanzia_23@yahoo.com introduction ghrm has turned out to be a critical organisational strategy for managing environmental sustainability and conforming top employee performance (yong et al., 2020). that is why ghrm addresses environmental concerns through the green culture in human resource policies of recruitment, performance appraisal, and compensation. hameed et al. (2020) as pakistani environment gets more and more challenging it becomes pertinent to understand relationship between ghrm and employee performance. precisely, this study examines the moderating influence of type of industry and the mediating role of job satisfaction for ghrm strategies and employees’ performance, and these findings offer substantial theoretical and practical contributions to the ghrm literature. ghrm is defined as the process of utilizing environmentally sustainable hr practices, which include green recruitment, green training, green performance appraisal and other environmentally sustainable activities to manage and develop human resources while improving organizational performance of the company (mousa & othman, 2020). they have established moderate success in enhancing work commitment and productivity through sustainability norms that correspond with organizational beliefs. the reason as to why ghrm should be implemented in pakistan is based on the fact that the country faces sever environmental issues that include pollution, water rationing and deforestation among others (shaikh & mahesar, 2024). furthermore, job satisfaction is postulated to moderate this relationship because of its importance to the enhancement of performance; moreover, the indistinct character of industrial type as a consequence of distinctions in industrial practices and pressures explains its moderated role as well. this research seeks to fill these gaps by examining these relations in a vortex. company and stakeholders are demanding more adherence to environmentally friendly practices, despite a staggering number of organizations failing to incorporate ghrm efficiency, both environmentally and employee performance (truong et al., 2024). one major concern is that there is little fit between ghrm strategies and employee drivers which leads to low employee performance and job satisfaction. for example, green policies can be frowned at as non-essential or inconsequential by the employees and thus, they do not dedicate their energies. besides, ghrm practices significantly differ in effectiveness in one industry or another because of the pa ge 19 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 192-204, 2025 environmental regulation and operational constraints, and organizational culture differences (aggarwal & agarwala, 2023). as in many other developing countries, environmentally challenge such as pollution and scarcity of resources require immediate attention in pakistan, however, in many institutions, ghrm strategies are not properly developed to commemorate the requirement of different sectors, thus lead to erratic results. the purpose of this study is to analyse the relationship between green hrm practices and employee performance in the context of pakistan while investigating the mediating role of job satisfaction, and the moderating role of industry type. it seeks to advance knowledge of how sustainable hr practices, which are hr solutions to industry-specific issues, improve employees’ productivity and facilitate other sustainability initiatives. this research is important to undertake due to increasing issues of environmental responsibility and workforce productivity in various sectors of pakistan. this study contributes to the literature on green hrm by considering the moderating factor of industry type as well as the mediating factor of job satisfaction to prove how green hrm may contribute positively to organizational performance. it generates recommendations to help the hr managers who want to develop organisational solutions for encouraging employee participation and performance in matters achieving organisational sustainability objectives. further, it will help the theory of green hrm to develop by providing the much-needed insight into the subject and pave way for formulation of tailor-made solutions depending on the industry demands. literature review overview of green human resource management (ghrm) ghrm and human resource management practices integrate together to produce environmentally friendly behaviours related to staffing techniques, training, performance appraisal and reward methods (malik et al., 2021). it is a systemic concept designed to promote green culture in organisations and align them with overall sustainable management goals of hrm. ghrm also ensures that organisations do not only conform to environmental standards but also enhances employees’ commitment, performance and organisation performance as well (roscoe et al., 2019). in the last decade, ghrm has received much attention globally. a bibliometric analysis of ghrm research increases the publications by 200% in the period covering 2015-2020 in order to demonstrate an increasing interests of scholars in this domain (pooja & bhavani, 2025). a circular economy initiative in europe for sustainable practices envisages that the measures would generate about 700000 jobs by 2030. equally, the ilo estimates that green economy could create 24 million more employments worldwide by the same year which makes ghrm practices to be economically beneficial in generating employment (van der ree, 2019). the adoption of ghrm corporate strategies is shaped by legal requirements and enviornmnetal pressures. study by chen et al. (2024) revealed that the manufacturing industries in different states including china have undergone appreciable changes to adopt green ideas. shah and soomro (2023) points out that companies that have adopted ghrm practices in china received added benefits of 15% increase in operation efficiency besides enjoying a boost in innovation. likewise, the concepts of green recruitment and training in the hospitality sector have shown better results in terms of satisfaction and retention of the employees, increased by 10%. presently, the application of ghrm in pakistani organisations is in its infancy but is receiving a growing level of recognition especially in industries that contribute to environmental degradation such as textiles and manufacturing (zafar, 2023). research also shows that firms that adopted green hrm practices had increased overall employee performance by 12% and enhanced organisational sustainability commitment. the adoption of ghrm has numerous advantages that include; enhanced thresholds of organisational employee engagement. employees are willing to participate in an organisation’s objectives in case they consider the employer an environmentally-friendly one (gill et al., 2021). for instance, green training and performance management systems were positively correlated with enhanced performance by 20% based on a survey carried out in 2022 (al-alawneh et al., 2024). also, companies implementing ghrm practices may find improved branding, and get the attention of talented employees who care about the environment. this trend is most noticeable in millennial and gen z employees, as 70% of them believe the environmental policies are being implemented by the employer. nonetheless, adoption of ghrm comes with some challenges viewing the fact that most organisation will go for generic rather than human capital-oriented approach, especially where the environment is restrictive in terms of resources (boon et al., 2018). in contrast, most smes have limited financial and technical capital to support the effective execution of efficient green hrm strategies. also, change or organisational culture resistance and ignorance among the company’s employees and managers can also counter these efforts (tasoulis et al., 2024). as a means of overcoming these barriers, complete emphasis must be placed on the way that organisations are structured by focusing on ways of establishing culture that sustains training on environmental issues. governments and industry associations can also fulfils this role by providing motivation towards the use of green practices through commendations and support programs. employee performance and its determinants there are few things in the organisation more important than performance of its employees in the context of organisational effectiveness. the term is defined as how well employees embrace their responsibilities and bear pa ge 19 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 192-204, 2025 obligations to provide productivity and efficiency in the organisation (atatsi et al., 2019). to sustain success and introduce long-term organisational objectives amidst a competitive and ever-changing business structure, it is crucial to maximize the performance of organisational members. the factors of performance are many and complex and can be grouped as organisational factors, personal factors, and environmental factors. performance may refer to measures of employee productivity including achievements of laid down tasks, quality of the work produced, the level of punctuality, and compliance to organisational requirements (thierry, 2018). performance, in addition to personal contributions, encompasses groups, ideas, overview with organisational goals, and objectives. not only do outstanding performers excel in achieving individual objectives but also generate organisational competitiveness, creativity, and the ability to adjust to new circumstances (ferreira et al., 2020). organisational, individual and external interacting factors impact on the performance of the employees. leadership, hr practices, and work environment were identified as organisational determinants that explain levels of performance. according to graves et al. (2019), managerial leadership helps promote commitment and enthusiasm among the employees. proper employee involvement dramatically improves organisational performance through functional hr processes such as selection, development and control of employees’ behaviour. a friendly and stimulating organisational culture also ensures that employees give their best in an organisation (ogbeibu et al., 2018). at the individual level the knowledge includes job satisfaction, skills required when performing the job, competencies and motivation. in essence, meaningfulness, perceived organisational value and fit between personal and work-related requirements relate with performance. other reasons that lead individuals to perform include, personalized motive, nonpersonalized motive, incentive, stimulation, promotion, recognition, awards, and development chances. on the other hand, external factors such as economic outlook, competition, and culture define performance relations in terms of job stability, intensity, and organisation stability (akpa et al., 2021). all these determinants lie in a system thus making organisational contribution to organisational success a very dynamic process. ghrm practices integrate sustainability in hr management objectives without a direct positive correlation to hr functions or employee performance (amjad et al., 2021). it was established that by promoting a green culture within an organisation, employees are more inspired. for instance, green training programs enhances skill acquisition with an additional enhancement of environmental goals creating a sense of responsibility and thereby enhancing job satisfaction and commitment levels. a study by roscoe et al. (2019) showed that an organisation with effective ghrm had enhanced performance by 20% than an organisation with no effective ghrm policies. performance is not a simple concept and is used in this paper to refer to overall organisational, individual, and external factors. the subsequent self-organizing variable includes job satisfaction, motivation, and skills, which help determine how much an employee can assist an organisation (ogbeibu et al., 2018). while practicing such growing trends as ghrm, it is possible to expand the lists of opportunities provided by implementing sustainability into the practices of the human resource management, thus creating the competitive advantages for the organisation and contributing to the accomplishment of the global goals for sustainability (amjad et al., 2021). mediating role of job satisfaction organisational job satisfaction mediated the effect of ghrm practices on employee performance. irabor and okolie (2019) highlighted that job satisfaction refers to a worker’s evaluation of workplace culture and climate, having regard to their level of satisfaction of workplace policies, working conditions and prospects for career advancement. this mediating role is important because it suggests that satisfied employees are more likely to demonstrate enhanced motivation, elevated levels of engagement and optimum organisational performance which are crucial organisational performance objectives of the hrm practices (alsomaidaee 2023; quader, 2024). green recruitment, sustainable performance evaluation and environmental friendly reward systems are ghrm practices that intend to match organisational responsibilities with sustainable initiatives. according to susanto (2023), they help create a positive image in the eyes of stakeholders regarding the organisation’s responsibility towards society and environment, which in turn boosts employees’ satisfaction. it has been found that organisational sustainability is positively associated with perceived role meaning, to imply a higher level of commitment towards organisational roles by employees (cheema et al., 2020). the degree to which employee values correspond to job values enhances job satisfaction, hence a positive impact on its performance. the study by baluyos et al. (2019) state that job satisfaction is related to the performance improvement. research shows that ghrm practice implemented at workplace enhance organisational climate which helps in minimizing stressful environment and optimize the level of job appropriation by encouraging measure. for instance, the green training schemes facilitate a reinforcement of knowledge and competencies on matters of ecological management so as to foster their usefulness to the corporate goals (quader, 2024). it makes them empowered, which leads to job satisfaction that will determine their performance results. further, the mediation of job satisfaction means that the psychological process explaining the ghrm-employee performance has received attention. this means that if employees receive high levels of satisfaction at the workplace, they tend to demonstrate healthy workplace behaviours, which entail staking out higher productivity, innovativeness, and cooperation (baluyos et al., 2019). pa ge 19 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 192-204, 2025 on the other hand, job dissatisfaction has negative implications on a firm, which include disengagement, intentions of leaving and reduced organisational commitment, all of which counteract the effectiveness of ghrm practices (susanto, 2023). moderating role of industry type industry type has relation with both green human resource management (ghrm) practices and employee performance; it is quite suitable in the context of pakistan. pakistan industries are different in terms of pollution index, government regulation policies and constrain in availing natural resources so the factors affecting the implementation of ghrm are moderate (hassan et al., 2019). these variations need to be explored to ensure that green initiatives can be targeted at organisations to have the best effect. manufacturing sector of pakistan comprises of around 13% of the gdp and provides approximately 15% employment to the total labor force of the country but it is heavily cost-effective in terms of energy utilization, emissions and waste generation (khan et al., 2023). industries, especially in textile, energy and chemicals sectors, are forced to integrate ghrm practices due to global sustainability standards’ increasing concern with environmental compliance. for instance, textile which contributes up to 60% of the total exports of pakistan is integrating more sustainable practices to thus adapt to market requirements (mehar, 2022). other programmes under ghrm include green performance management through environmental training of its employees in relation to sustainable goals; this fosters satisfaction and improved results among employees. on the other hand, the industries or sectors like it, banking, telecommunications etc that forms 58% of the economic growth in pakistan, have relatively small issues with environment (nizam et al., 2020). hence, these sectors emphasize on simple solutions of ghrm to give a sustainable solution such as virtual recruitment and paperless system. however, these initiatives are relatively cheaper to implement, the perceived improvements in employee performance is weaker as compared to high impact industries. for example, ahmed et al. (2021) revealed that 72% of the employees of the banking sector consider ghrm practices as non-strategic activities, which indicates that there is a gap in the execution of these programmes. besides, it revealed that the regulatory environment and culture play a central role in the adoption of ghrm across the firms in pakistan. the study by stavropoulos et al. (2018) also shows that national environment quality centres (neqs) provide more stringent environmental regulations for manufacturing industries than services sectors, hence encouraging more manufacturing industries to adopt environmental friendly practices. nevertheless, lack of resources and awareness reduces the ability of small industries to integrate strategic ghrm approaches (kodua et al., 2022). for example, more than ninety percent of the firms in pakistan’s industry sector are categorized as smes, and often they cannot contribute significantly enough on the impact of green practices on the performance of their human assets due to their constrained financial and technical capabilities. hypothesis development h1: green recruitment has a positive impact on employee performance. h2: green performance management has a positive impact on employee performance. h3: green compensation has a positive impact on employee performance. h4: green recruitment positively influences job satisfaction. h5: green performance management positively influences job satisfaction. h6: green compensation positively influences job satisfaction. h7: job satisfaction has a positive impact on employee performance. h8: job satisfaction mediates the relationship between green recruitment and employee performance. h9: job satisfaction mediates the relationship between green performance management and employee performance. h10: job satisfaction mediates the relationship between green compensation and employee performance. h11: industry type moderates the relationship between green recruitment and employee performance. h12: industry type moderates the relationship between green performance management and employee performance. h13: industry type moderates the relationship between green compensation and employee performance. research model/conceptual model figure 1: conceptual model materials and methods methods and materials this study has utilised quantitative research approach to evaluate the impact of ghrm on the employee performance whereas job satisfaction serves as the mediator and industry type as moderator. the research has adopted causal relationship research design to evaluate direct and indirect relationship among the variables. the pa ge 19 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 192-204, 2025 research framework is structured to evaluate the impact of ghrm practices on employee performance mediated through job satisfaction and moderated from industry type. the design is selected for its ability to provide complex relationships and provide insights about the interaction between these variables. sekeran and bougie (2016) indicated that researches that evaluate the cause and effect relationship are suitable to be conducted using the quantitative approach. therefore, this approach seems to be most suitable for the research. the target population of this study includes employees working in different industries that implement ghrm practices. these industries include banking, pharmaceutical and fmcg sectors. it ensures diversity in organisation practices and employee roles. the sample size of the research was targeted to be 385 respondents to ensure robust analysis. the questionnaire were sent to 750 respondents out of which 427 respondents has filled the survey. however, after cleaning for the missing data 400 responses were left to be evaluated. research instrument green recruitment green recruitment instrument outlined by haldorai et al. (2022) has been used to evaluate the extent to which organisation utilises environmental concerns, knowledge and attitudes into recruitment process. it involves statements focusing on the organisation commitment to select candidates with strong environmental awareness and values. the instrument provide valuable insights about how green practices are integrated into recruitment strategies helping organisation to evaluate their efforts to attract environmentally conscious employees. green compensation green compensation scale proposed by haldorai et al. (2022) measured how organisation has incentivised employees for their contribution to environmental sustainability. it includes statement to evaluate rewards given to employees to suggest improvements in environmental programs attaining environmental goals and taking proactive steps in environmental management. green performance green performance scale developed by haldorai et al. (2022) indicated how organisation can integrate environmental goals into employee performance evaluations. it includes statement related to the implementation of environmental objectives for all employees, evaluating individual contribution to environmental management and potential consequences for employees failing to meet environmental performance expectations. it helps in measuring the degree of environmental performance incorporated into employee evaluation and its impact on career progression, reinforcing sustainability as key performance factor. employee performance job performance scale was designed to measure both task performance and contextual performance. the scale evaluates the effectiveness of employees in completing their core job responsibilities and contribute to the overall work environment. it involves items evaluating productivity, quality of work and goal achievement along with behaviours supporting organisation culture and teamwork. job satisfaction the job satisfaction survey (jss) or comparable validated scale was designed to measure different aspect of job satisfaction which include work condition, compensation and career development opportunities. the scale measures employee feelings about work environment, salary and overall satisfaction. it provides insights about how these factors can impact on the satisfaction (reponte & doble, 2025). industry type the industry type is taken as categorical variable in the demographic profiling which includes two options that is manufacturing or service industry. the respondent working in any of the manufacturing industry would select 1 while service industry employee would select 2. this has helped in evaluating the differences across industry types. data analysis the study has undertaken the data cleaning as the crucial initial step to study the impact of ghrm on the employee performance with job satisfaction as mediator and industry type as moderator. the responses were screened for missing, incomplete or inconsistent data. there was not such data found and hence there were no remedies taken for these steps. the data was further analysed using structural equation modelling (sem) using smart pls. it includes the confirmatory factor analysis to evaluate the reliability and validity of the instrument. further, path analysis was used to confirm the hypothesis testing. results and discussions descriptive statistics table 1 above shows the descriptive statistics of the variables. it shows that green recruitment has the mean value of 3.49 with standard deviation of 0.915 which means that green recruitment practices are moderate to high. furthermore, green performance has the mean value of 3.52 with standard deviation of 0.817 indicating that green performance is moderate to high. furthermore, green compensation has the mean value of 3.57 showing moderate to high green compensation for the given sample. employee performance has the mean value of 3.70 showing that the employees have relatively higher performance. job satisfaction has the mean value of 3.82 with standard deviation of 0.679 showing higher satisfaction in average respondents. pa ge 19 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 192-204, 2025 table 1: descriptive statistics n minimum maximum mean std. deviation green recruitment 400 1 5 3.493 0.915 green performance 400 1 5 3.521 0.817 green compensation 400 1 5 3.573 0.867 employee performance 400 1 5 3.703 0.770 job satisfaction 400 1 5 3.829 0.679 table 2: multi-collinearity vif green compensation -> employee performance 1.935 green compensation -> job satisfaction 1.724 green performance -> employee performance 1.504 green performance -> job satisfaction 1.452 green recruitment -> employee performance 1.861 green recruitment -> job satisfaction 1.853 job satisfaction -> employee performance 1.297 multi-collinearity table 2 shows multi-collinearity statistics. a variance inflation factor (vif) value below 5 or 10 shows that the multi-collinearity does not exist in the model while value above threshold shows higher multicollinearity. the table above shows that vif values are less than 5 for all variables, showing that the issue of multicollinearity does not exist. confirmatory factor analysis figure 2: measurement model using confirmatory factor analysis showing outer loadings, p-values, and r-square outer loadings table 3 below shows the outer-loading value for each construct and its indicators. the outer loading value is used to evaluate the validity of the indicators to measure the constructs. the study conducted by latan et al. (2017) indicated that the value of outer loadings must be above 0.6 to ensure the validity of the factor. the table indicates that all the factors are above 0.6 indicating that no indicators are required to be dropped and hence it is valid. pa ge 19 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 192-204, 2025 table 3: outer loadings construct indicator outer loadings employee performance ep1 0.904 ep2 0.927 ep3 0.905 green compensation gc1 0.891 gc2 0.925 gc3 0.881 green performance gp1 0.812 gp2 0.898 gp3 0.848 green recruitment gr1 0.880 gr2 0.899 gr3 0.858 job satisfaction js1 0.831 js2 0.893 js3 0.886 js4 0.899 construct reliability and validity table 5 above shows the construct’s reliability and validity. for testing the reliability of the constructs, cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability have been applied. the results are reflected in table 1 for the reliability showing internal consistency. kline (2015) has reflected that cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability must be higher than 0.7. table 4 shows that variables have higher internal consistency, confirming reliability since employee performance cronbach’s alpha is 0.899, green compensation cronbach’s alpha is 0.881, green performance has cronbach’s alpha of 0.812, green recruitment cronbach’s alpha is 0.853 and job satisfaction cronbach’s alpha of 0.9. the composite reliability of employee performance is 0.899, and green compensation is 0.881, green performance is 0.812, green recruitment is 0.853, and job satisfaction is 0.900. furthermore, the table also reflects the convergent validity that describes the extent of relatedness which is illustrated through average variance extracted (ave) having threshold value of 0.5 (hair et al., 2017). the results indicated in table 5 shows that ave values are higher than 0.5 and hence data contain convergent validity. table 4: construct reliability and validity cronbach's alpha composite reliability average variance extracted (ave) employee performance 0.899 0.899 0.832 green compensation 0.881 0.882 0.808 green performance 0.812 0.815 0.728 green recruitment 0.853 0.855 0.773 job satisfaction 0.900 0.901 0.771 discriminant validity table 5 above indicates discriminant validity of the variables. discriminant validity is also deemed a large aspect as related to data validity that has to be ensured. table 5: discriminant validity employee performance green compensation green performance green recruitment job satisfaction employee performance green compensation 0.733 green performance 0.470 0.557 green recruitment 0.616 0.719 0.631 job satisfaction 0.521 0.503 0.408 0.317 pa ge 19 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 192-204, 2025 on this regard, htmt ratio is applied for which assists in identifying distinctiveness between various variables of the study to prevent multicollinearity problem (wong, 2011). it has elaborated that in order to make much sense the htmt ratio has to be below 0.85. this discriminant validity is highlighted in table 6 above using the htmt ratio. this means that all the value are below this threshold of 0.85. thus, data has not violated the assumption of discriminant validity in the present study. path analysis figure 3: pls bootstrapping showing p-values and r-square table 6: hypothesis testing using path analysis path coefficient t statistics p values green compensation -> employee performance 0.498 5.441 0.000 green performance -> employee performance -0.035 0.470 0.638 green recruitment -> employee performance 0.282 3.623 0.000 green performance -> job satisfaction 0.200 3.013 0.003 green compensation -> job satisfaction 0.404 6.047 0.000 green recruitment -> job satisfaction -0.080 1.118 0.264 job satisfaction -> employee performance 0.225 3.808 0.000 industry type x green recruitment -> employee performance -0.106 0.930 0.353 industry type x green performance -> employee performance 0.082 0.808 0.419 industry type x green compensation -> employee performance -0.135 1.082 0.279 green compensation -> job satisfaction -> employee performance 0.091 2.893 0.004 green performance -> job satisfaction -> employee performance 0.045 2.430 0.015 green recruitment -> job satisfaction -> employee performance -0.018 1.033 0.301 table 6 below shows the path analysis for the model to test the hypothesis. it shows that green compensation (b= 0.498, p= 0.00) positively and significantly impacts employee performance. furthermore, green performance (b= -0.035, p= 0.638) has a negative and insignificant impact on employee performance. green recruitment (b= 0.282, p= 0.000) positively and significantly impacts employee performance. green performance (b= 0.200, p= 0.003) positively impacts job satisfaction. furthermore, green compensation (b= 0.404, p= 0.00) positively influences job satisfaction. it also indicated that green recruitment (b= -0.080, p= 0.264) has a negative pa ge 20 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 192-204, 2025 and insignificant impact on job satisfaction. furthermore, job satisfaction (b= 0.225, p= 0.00) positively impacts employee performance. furthermore, the moderating effect of industry type between green recruitment and employee performance is negative and insignificant (b= -0.106, p= 0.353). the industry type positively and insignificant moderates the relationship between green performance and employee performance (b= 0.082, p= 0.419). further, industry type also negatively and insignificantly moderates the relationship between green compensation and employee performance. hence, industry type does not moderate the relationship between green hrm and employee performance. additionally, job satisfaction mediates the relationship between green compensation and employee performance positively and significantly (b= 0.091, p= 0.004). further, it positively and significantly impacts the relationship between green performance and employee performance. further, job satisfaction negatively and insignificantly mediates the relationship between green recruitment and employee performance. hypothesis assessment table 7: hypothesis testing using path analysis hypothesis decision h1: green recruitment has a positive impact on employee performance. accept h2: green performance management has a positive impact on employee performance. reject h3: green compensation has a positive impact on employee performance. accept h4: green recruitment positively influences job satisfaction. reject h5: green performance management positively influences job satisfaction. accept h6: green compensation positively influences job satisfaction. accept h7: job satisfaction has a positive impact on employee performance. accept h8: job satisfaction mediates the relationship between green recruitment and employee performance. reject h9: job satisfaction mediates the relationship between green performance management and employee performance. accept h10: job satisfaction mediates the relationship between green compensation and employee performance. accept h11: industry type moderates the relationship between green recruitment and employee performance. reject h12: industry type moderates the relationship between green performance management and employee performance. reject h13: industry type moderates the relationship between green compensation and employee performance. reject discussion and recommendation the study has aimed to evaluate the impact of ghrm practices on the employee performance, job satisfaction, and the mediating and moderating roles of job satisfaction and industry type respectively. through these objectives, the study contributes valuable insights about the effectiveness of ghrm practices and their implications for organisational sustainability and employee performance. the conclusion from this study are based on the analysis of the relationship between ghrm practices like green recruitment, green performance and green compensation, job satisfaction, employee performance and moderating role of industry type. the research findings aligns with the hypothesis outlined in the study providing significant implications for both theory and practices in ghrm realm. the study demonstrated that green recruitment and green compensation significantly and positively impact on employee performance, validating that hr practices focused on sustainability and environmental values positively impact on employee outcomes. particularly, green recruitment ensures that employees align with organisation sustainability goals resulting in higher commitment and performance. green compensation motivated the employees further by providing rewards linked to environmental contributions, increasing performance. on the other hand, green performance reflected negative and insignificant relationship with employee performance. it indicates that green performance management system might not always translate into immediate improvements in employee performance potentially considering mismatch in expectation or implementation. the impact of ghrm on job satisfaction was also a significant aspect of the study. it found that green compensation and green performance significantly and positively impact on the job satisfaction. employees that receive rewards for engaging in green practices report higher satisfaction since they perceive these rewards as recognition of their contribution to the organisation’s sustainability effort. similarly, green performance also contributes to job satisfaction by linking employees pa ge 20 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 192-204, 2025 green initiatives with their performance evaluation. however, green recruitment has been insignificant for job satisfaction indicating that while recruitment based on sustainability values align employees with organisation goals, it does not improve job satisfaction. job satisfaction was also indicated to have a significant mediating role in the relationship between green compensation and employee performance and also between green performance and employee performance. it suggests that employees who are satisfied with green compensation and performance practices highly demonstrate higher performance levels. in contrast, job satisfaction does not mediate the relationship between green recruitment and employee performance, showing that factors other than job satisfaction can influence performance outcomes in this context. the industry type has been considered as the moderating factor between ghrm practices and employee performance. however, findings indicated that industry type did not moderate significantly in these relationships. it indicates the impact of ghrm practice on employee performance is relatively consistent across various industries, which indicates that sustainability-oriented hr practices are universally related across organisation contexts. despite expectations that industries like manufacturing might show stronger effect due to higher focus on sustainability, the lack of moderating effect points to the increasing focus and recognition of ghrm practices in different sectors as well. therefore, this study elaborate the critical role of ghrm practices on impacting both job satisfaction and employee performance. green recruitment and green compensation as found to have positive impact on employee performance, whereas green performance did not have much impact. the mediating role of job satisfaction was confirmed for both green compensation and green performance that underlines significance of employee satisfaction to translate green practices into increased performance outcomes. however, industry type was not a significant moderator here, reflecting that the positive effect of ghrm practices is widely used in other sectors. recommendations the analysis showed that green recruitment has a positive relationship with the performance level of the employees; however, it has no correlation with their satisfaction levels. it is recommended that organisations ensure that their recruitment patterns link the values of all candidates to sustainability strategies and thereby guarantee that people working in organisations come to work with the natural inclination towards environmental objectives. a key strategy that companies ought to follow is the recruitment of personnel with a passion of fulfilling sustainability and environmental responsibilities. still, it must be noted that increasing the level of employee performance does not necessarily guarantee job satisfaction and, therefore, possibly green recruitment’s most significant limitation. to this end, organizations may enhance job satisfaction by adopting more effective communication regarding sustainability engagement and by providing proper expectations regarding the sustainability implementation in the workplace. the study also finds out that green compensation enhances positive reaction to performance and job satisfaction. companies ought to incorporate green rewards into compensation package where employees are rewarded for their contribution to sustainable activities or for accomplishing certain amount of environmental performance. to that extent, compensation-rewarding green performance not only encourages sustainable behavior among line managers but also enhances their job satisfaction. other examples of green compensation may include incentives for saving energy, recycling, or adopting any other act that would show support and increase organizational commitment towards sustainability as much as improve employee satisfaction. while green performance was insignificant and negative in its impact on employee performance in this research, it remains a factor that organisations can perform better in terms of. it’s important that organizations implement performance management systems that communicate over arching expectations of the environment within the company and the frequent feedback given on green activities. for green performance management to be effective there is need to ensure that the employee is able to relate his performance to goals of sustainability. in addition, the performance standards should indicate what employees need in terms of tools, training, or support to deliver on these standards. through integrating green goals in the measure and evaluation systems, it becomes possible to increase the motivation of employees in the field of sustainability performance and their organizational accomplishments. limitations there are certain limitations prevalent to this study while providing useful insights about the context. first of all, the number of respondents 400 can hardly be considered sufficient to obtain a representative of industries, regions, and cultures, so the generalization of the results may be questionable. a more diverse and larger population might give further insight with regard to green hrm practices on various fields or industries. moreover, the study adopted a cross-sectional research design hence limiting the possibility of showing the causality between green hrm practice and the employee outcomes. the study could have given more conclusive results if it were done cross-sectionally, or better still a longitudinal one. the use of self-report data also put forward another limitation since the results suffer from social desirability or response bias where participants always tend to presents higher level of satisfaction or performance than their actual. finally, it is important to note that green hrm and employee performance data used in this research indicate that industry type had relatively weak two-way interaction with pa ge 20 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 192-204, 2025 green hrm and the performance indicators, this could be due to the fact that the available industry type range in the data set may not be large enough for a generalizable assessment of the degree to which differences in industry type moderate the relationship between green hrm and employee performance. it is necessary to continue the future research to eliminate the mentioned weaknesses and obtain more clear results related to the topic. future research directions future research in the area of ghrm can explore various directions to expand on the findings of the research. firstly, a longitudinal study can be beneficial to evaluate the long term impact of ghrm on employee performance and job satisfaction since this study used cross-sectional design. longitudinal design can help in establishing causal relationship and provide clear understanding about impact of ghrm on employee performance over time. furthermore, the future studies can evaluate the moderating role of other contextual factors like organisational culture, leadership style or organisation size. these factors can potentially influence ghrm effectiveness and provide nuanced insights about these practices work in different organisation settings. thirdly, industry-specific studies can provide a deep understanding of the way ghrm practices are implemented and perceived in different sectors. research can investigate the unique challenges facing the industries like services, manufacturing, or technology and how these impact on the adoption of ghrm practices. finally, exploring the employee perceptions and experiences through qualitative methods like interviews or focus groups can provide rich insights about ghrm perception of employees and its effect on different dimensions. it would complement quantitative findings and providing holistic view of the issues. conclusion this research evaluated the influence of ghrm practices on job satisfaction and employee performance and also their mediating role and moderating influence of industry type. the results showed that green compensation and green recruitment have a positive influence on employee performance and green compensation significantly emerged as an influential factor by connecting rewards with sustainability results. conversely, green performance management had negligible impacts on performance, with implications of difficulty in expectation alignment and implementation. job satisfaction played a significant mediating role in the links between green compensation, green performance, and employee performance, highlighting its significance in the conversion of sustainable hr practices to improved results. industry type failed to moderate these links, which implies that the effect of ghrm practices is uniform across industries. in general, the research emphasizes the importance of integrating sustainability into hr practices in order to increase employees’ satisfaction and performance, confirming the worldwide applicability of ghrm to organisational success. references aggarwal, p., & agarwala, t. 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(2020). green human resource management: a systematic literature review from 2007 to 2019. benchmarking: an international journal, 27(7), 2005-2027. https://doi. org/10.1108/bij-12-2018-0438. pa ge 1 pa ge 18 5 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) environmental awareness and youth engagement in achieving the sustainable development goals g. m. m. didar diyan muyed1, shuvo kumar mallik2*, debuttam datta3 volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v4i1.5780 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: july 19, 2025 accepted: august 25, 2025 published: september 18, 2025 as global programming on the sustainable development goals (sdgs) grows, there has been little comprehensive consideration of how environmental education and youth activism affect their attainment. this study attempts to address this gap through a bibliometric analysis of studies focusing on youth participation, ecological knowledge and sustainable development. with a sample of 5713 publications, the study traces trends and developments in a twophased time frame: early years in the current decade of sdg take-up (2015–2019) and the present period witnessing a surge in youth activism and environmental engagements (2019– 2023). the results owing to the limitations of chinese vocabulary, the results point out that some key words are frequently mentioned, such as the sustainable development goals, environmental awareness, youth participation, climate change, and community. results also identify key areas of interest, such as the involvement of young people in fostering sustainable energy transitions, enhancing the resilience of communities, and connecting environmental stewardship to community health. the paper highlights the power of environmentally-literate youth in progressing the sdgs and in creating pathways to sustainability in the first place. introduction the methodology used in this study, consisting of a temporal analysis combined with science mapping and an extensive bibliometric review, fills such an essential gap about the role of environmental consciousness and youth involvement in attaining the sdgs (yamaguchi et al., 2023). among these, ecological consciousness and the interest of youth are critical ingredients of the global development agenda, both of which act to promote sustainable lifestyles and stewardship of natural ecosystems. together, these components should facilitate the exchange of environmental information, attitudes, and behaviors, on the one hand, and the energy, innovation, and leadership required for transformative change (alqatan et al., 2025). this study attempts to fill the gap through an exhaustive review of the literature on how youth-led behavior and campaigns promote the overall goals of sustainable development. nevertheless, experience from different contexts shows that a universal approach to development is not productive because of the diversity in culture, society, and economy that should be respected (melé & sánchez-runde, 2013). to this end, environmental education and youth mobilization should be tailored to the specific challenges of our communities, while remaining consistent with the global aspirations of sustainable development. another would be to encourage using other emerging concepts, such as social innovation, capacity building, and participatory governance, as practical tools to empower young people and increase their engagement in informed environmental decision-making over time. these narratives underscore the potential for the younger generations to affect local actions, whether related to climate change effects, inequities, or resource keywords environmental engagements, sustainable development goals, sustainable energy 1 department of international relation, bangladesh university of professionals, dhaka, bangladesh 2 department of economics, southeast university, dhaka, bangladesh 3 department of industrial & production engineering, bangladesh university of textiles, bangladesh * corresponding author’s e-mail: nextgenresearch.info@gmail.com management, which ultimately connect bottom-up actions with global sustainability goals (udo et al., 2025). in this sense, youth engagement is not confined to activism and includes joint participation in the planning, innovation and governance stages that determine the future of sustainable societies (narksompong & limjirakan, 2015). two primary paradigms surface in this setting: need-based strategies that draw primarily on closing youth knowledge and resource gaps, and asset-based strategies that rely mainly on youth agency, creativity and social capital for enacting sustainability (mallik, 2024). both approaches emphasize the importance of youth in actively encouraging environmentally friendly behaviors and speeding up advancement toward the sdgs. in narratives of sustainable development, nature-relatedness and youth engagement increasingly represent mutually reinforcing factors of community resilience, innovation, and long-term sustainability (kurniawan & do, 2025). this research underscores that informed young people and given opportunities are key in creating inclusive channels to reaching the sdgs. by prioritizing youth and environmental stewardship in development, societies can create more robust pathways to a sustainable and just future. literature review environmental consciousness is commonly used in the interpretation, referring to the understanding and awareness of ecological problems and the willingness to perform individual actions that protect the natural systems. coupled with youth participation, it is a powerful catalyst to achieve the sustainable development goals (sdgs). the increasing awareness of being ecopa ge 18 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 185-191, 2025 friendly demonstrates the importance of involvement in the younger generations, not only because they are the future, but also because of their energy, innovation, and creativity in sustainability (li, 2025). such an approach focuses on cooperation, collaboration and shared responsibility, which is relevant in all societies and situations (mallik, 2024). for several decades, global programs and international campaigns have emphasized the need for environmental stewardship and youth empowerment. these programs emphasize educating young people, raising awareness, and involving them in implementing sustainability to enhance resilience and well-being. the implementation of the sdgs allowed a universal framework for the systematic inclusion of youth participation and environmental responsibility in national and community-level agendas (sever et al., 2025). in this context, knowledge of the environment and the involvement of young people have become major roads to reducing disparity, reinforcing the community, and achieving long-lasting sustainability. in regard to environmental sustainability, youth is beginning to be perceived as an alternative to conventional top-down approaches to development (tse & tung, 2025). and youth are often leading the way when tackling urgent social and environmental challenges, like climate change, biodiversity loss, pollution and unsustainable resource use. their activities are not limited to speaking up, but also to grassroots activities, new ideas in green technologies and advocating sustainable lifestyles. this transition emphasizes the emerging significance of bottom-up, people-oriented strategies with environmental responsibility at the heart of development. although environmental awareness and youth engagement research are expanding quickly, the field is inherently complex and fractured (ignell et al., 2025). many previous works investigate a single domain (educational, activism or technology) in isolation and are not integrated into a unified theoretical framework. there is also a conceptual confusion and a lack of a clear definition to guide policy and practice. as the necessity for the transformation to achieve the sdgs increases, it is becoming ever more pressing to understand how youth environmental initiatives respond to the general one of global sustainability (mallik, 2025). prior research has examined awareness raising, youth leadership, and community-driven sustainability. but those efforts are typically piecemeal, concentrated in a particular area or among a certain age group or on a specific problem (phillips & ranganathan, 2025). what is lacking, however, is an inclusive overview that tracks this field’s development, sheds light on emerging issues, and reveals the complex array of forces that influence youth engagement on sustainability. such knowledge gaps can be filled through systematic and bibliometric inquiry that provides an overview of the structure, dynamics, and future trends in research on youth engagement and environmental consciousness in the context of the sdgs (shen & yang, 2025). by revealing the knowledge structure, core themes, and emergent sub-themes, this study expands understanding about how youth-wheel environmental action has changed. still, it contributes to the global conversation about sustainability. it is an excellent reference point for those with knowledge of these areas and those interested in exploring this area in further detail. in the end, it reinforces the significance of the younger generation as drivers in attaining the sdgs, by positioning environmental awareness and youth engagement at the center of sustainable development. materials and methods environmental awareness and youth engagement are emerging fields of inquiry informed by advancing societies, global priorities, and the growing urgency to address climate change and sustainable development. it is increasingly featured as a core theme in planning and academic research, which calls for various theoretical and methodological perspectives. because of the eruptive growth of the literature in this field, a bibliometric approach was used to appraise accumulated knowledge, detect emerging trends, and consider the status quo and future directions of youth-driven sustainability research. for transparency and methodological strength, the authors used a structured review process which includes four stages: identification, screening, eligibility, and inclusion. this method allowed the inclusion of goodquality studies that addressed environmental awareness and youth involvement in promoting the sdgs. the search for eligible studies was developed based on two primary approaches. first, based on the literature review, the search terms were modified to increase the relevance of queries. second, we selected an extensive academic database as a primary source, enabling access to articles from various peer-reviewed publications in multiple disciplines. this database provided extensive bibliometric data of the citations, keywords, and references; thus, a deep integration of the field would be feasible. software used for bibliometric mapping was used to visualize and comprehend the pattern and structure of the analysis over time. this approach was instrumental in discerning the predominant themes, emerging trends, and key environmental consciousness and youth involvement stakeholders. bibliometric networks enabled the visualization of the evolution of main clusters such as climate education, youth activism, environmental policy, sustainability, and innovation. a comprehensive search strategy was developed to retrieve literature of interest. search terms included in combinations were ecological awareness, youth engagement, and sustainable development goals. the search terms were equally distributed between review topics and applied to include article titles, abstracts, and author keywords. the primary search yielded a significant number of possible records, which were rigorously screened based on three broad inclusion criteria: relevance of the work to environmental awareness and youth’s involvement therein, focus of the paper on the role of youth in local or global sustainability, and tackling topics from a multi-disciplinary approach pa ge 18 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 185-191, 2025 intertwining environmental science, economics and social sciences, technology, and education. after screening, a clean database was readied to generate a bibliometric analysis. the study period was further separated into two sub-phases (2015–2019 and 2019–2023). the first phase covers the genesis of the sdgs and the initial years when youth and environmental awareness were included in global sustainability action plans. number two is that there seems to be this explosion of youthled climate movements, innovations around green tech, and an increasing recognition of young people’s role in policy and governance. the post-2020 period was necessary, as it coincided with global challenges such as the covid-19 pandemic, which further emphasized the need for youth participation, societal resilience, and environmental stewardship (mallik & rahman, 2024). by treating each sub-period individually, this paper demonstrates the progression of themes in the field and changes in academic attention over time. it also points out that youth engagement and environmental awareness are core to realizing the sdgs. results and discussion selection process and inclusion criteria the initial search in the chosen academic database was the first search stage, and 7,237 records were found. this wide search strategy guaranteed that as many studies related to environmental concern, youth participation, and the sustainable development goals (sdgs) as possible were included in the review. the records were indepth screened in the second phase, and 1,312 documents were rejected. there were document and language-related causes for the majority of exclusions. only peer-reviewed papers in english were kept to maintain accessibility, consistency, and comparability of the dataset. in the third phase, 5,925 were included for full-text assessment. during this process, 212 articles were excluded for their irrelevance to the purposes of this research. more accurately, articles were excluded if they did not intensely focus on youth engagement, environmental education, or the link between these and the sdgs. this procedure ensured that only relevant studies for the scope of research were included. this systematic procedure chose a final count of 5713 documents for the study. those are the core documents, the most significant and relevant papers in this area. the strict eligibility criteria ensured the trustworthiness of the review, though this restricted the review to high-quality, context-specific research only. the selection also underlines the burgeoning global focus on youth-led environmental movements and the task of promoting such activities to achieve the sdgs (esguerra et al., 2025). the bibliometric dataset was categorized across several dimensions, including publication type, subject areas, source titles, country contributions, funding agencies, publishers, and most-cited authors. the findings highlight the multidisciplinary and global nature of research on environmental awareness and youth engagement (faganel & kovač, 2025). table 1: overview of publications on environmental awareness and youth engagement in sdgs categories n (2015–2019) % n (2019–2023) % total % publications 1,289 23 4,424 77 5,713 100 document types articles 936 73 3,618 82 4,554 79.7 conference papers 257 20 285 6 542 9.4 reviews 71 5 431 10 502 8.7 book chapters 25 2 90 2 115 2.0 subject areas environmental sciences 373 29 1,768 40 2,141 37.4 science & technology 236 18 1,205 27 1,441 25.2 engineering 124 10 407 9 531 9.2 business & economics 119 9 361 8 480 8.4 public policy & environment 119 9 371 8 490 8.5 other areas — — — — — — source titles sustainability 318 25 312 7 630 11.0 journal of cleaner production 22 2 74 2 96 1.9 advances in social science education & humanities research 16 1 38 1 54 1.0 plos one 16 1 44 1 60 1.0 other journals — — — — — — country contributions usa 1,180 26 3,728 84 4,908 85.9 pa ge 18 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 185-191, 2025 england 160 12 601 14 761 13.3 australia 143 11 386 9 529 9.2 canada 104 8 333 7 437 7.6 germany 85 7 262 6 347 6.0 other countries — — — — — — funding agencies uk research & innovation (ukri) 459 36 1,960 44 2,419 42.3 national science foundation (nsf) 31 2 64 1 95 1.6 cgiar 28 2 69 2 97 1.6 european union (eu) — — — — — — publishers elsevier 227 18 828 19 1,055 18.4 springer nature 178 14 541 12 719 12.5 taylor & francis 119 9 334 8 453 7.9 mdpi 82 6 897 20 979 17.1 other publishers — — — — — — most published authors bartram j. 683 53 1,824 41 2,507 43.8 kumar a. — — — — 12 — kumar p. — — — — 11 — rahman a. — — — — 11 — emerging research trends figure 1 is the pareto chart showing the trends in publications on environmental awareness and youth involvement toward achieving the sustainable development goals (sdgs) from 2015 to 2023. based on newly born publications in 2015, the number of total publications has increased to 5713, where a continuous and accelerating rise in published works and citations can be observed. the cumulative percentage curve shows that over three-quarters (4424 papers) of the output originated in the second phase, the contemporary era. for graphic clarity of this development, the study period (2015–2023) has been divided into two sub-eras. the first sub-period (2015–2019) was the formative research phase on environmental awareness and youth participation. this time around, the sdgs have become globally recognized, bringing into critical focus the need for youth-led activities towards addressing the environmental problems. in recent years, researchers have mainly focused on investigating the early reactions of young people and educational institutions to improve their awareness of issues like climate change, resource conservation, and sustainable lifestyles (mahim et al., 2025). youth involvement in this phase was primarily driven by fledgling pedagogical frameworks, advocacy initiatives, and community-level interventions responding to the newly arrived sdg agenda. altogether, 23% of the papers (1289) were published in this time frame. the second sub-period (2019–2023) is the development and expansion period of research in the field. publications during this time frame illustrate a shift toward more practical implementation and incorporating youthled initiatives into policy, education, and community. environmental threats like climate change, biodiversity loss, and waste were also high on the agenda, with young people acclaimed as the primary drivers of sustainable practices and innovative solutions (seftiani et al., 2025). worldwide events, including attention to climate action and the disruption of covid-19, additionally expedited the research interest, revealing the resilience and new normal for youth movements as stewards of environmental consciousness. as a result, this period represented the lion’s share of the publications with 4424 papers (77% of the sample) commenting on the debate. notwithstanding the findings, dividing the analysis into these two sub-periods reveals that the research on environmental awareness and youth engagement has moved from early experiments on what is possible to research that is more mature and integrated, where youth become not only the beneficiaries, but active leading agents of achieving the sdgs. this development highlights the importance of young people in mainstreaming environmental awareness in community development and safeguarding sustainable avenues for the next generation. pa ge 18 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 185-191, 2025 figure 1: year pareto chart for community development and sustainable development goals (sdgs) papers for 2015–2023. table 2: sub-periods of research on environmental awareness and youth engagement in sdgs (2015–2023) sub-period key focus number of papers % of total publications 2015–2019 (foundational stage) initial youth awareness campaigns, early integration of environmental education with sdgs, policy-driven discussions on youth roles in sustainability. 1289 23% 2019–2023 (contemporary stage) youth-led climate actions, community-based environmental initiatives, adaptation to global crises (e.g., covid-19) and stronger youth participation in sdg implementation. 4424 77% total (2015–2023) progressive rise in youth engagement and environmental awareness aligned with sdg frameworks. 5713 100% the findings of this research indicate a hierarchical sequence of research related to environmental awareness and youth engagement in the sdgs. the split of the research time frame into two smaller periods (2015– 2019; 2019–2023) yields interesting findings regarding the changing function of youth in sustainability. in the initial phase (2015–2019), the research focused almost exclusively on recognizing environmental issues among young people. much of this period’s work contributed to expanding the understanding of the need to integrate sustainability ideas into educational structures, policy discourses, and community-level conversations (mallik et al., 2025). although children’s engagement was acknowledged, their participation was sometimes seen as an object of awareness instead of a force of change. this era laid the foundation for recognizing the potential of environmental education to influence the long-term development of sustainability. the second phase (20192023) represented a clear break from raising awareness to enabling the active participation of young people. the rapid growth of research outputs and topic density manifests the more critical position that young people took in the sustainability narrative. climate movements led by young people, community activism and creative initiatives to tackle environmental issues took over as the focus. the worldwide outbreak of covid-19 also changed how young people engaged in sdg-related projects, using digital tools more frequently to organize, transfer knowledge, and shape policy-making. it was also a time when the concept of youth engagement and the world’s most pressing issues – from climate action, biodiversity loss, and renewable energy transitionswere discussed. comparing the two sub-periods, three findings show that awareness is essential, but youth activism is the driver for side effects towards implementing the sdgs (chowdhury et al., 2025). the results emphasize the need to provide supportive environments in which young people are educated and empowered to become leaders. it is the responsibility of schools, universities, community groups, and the policy community to continue to support youth-led projects that enable their voices to be heard in local and international efforts towards sustainability (sharmin et al., 2025). this work illustrates how environmental consciousness and youth involvement are interlocking dynamics that drive sdg progress. awareness is the groundwork for informed action; engagement transforms awareness into impact (rhaman et al., 2025). the findings indicate that future work may need to priorities how the lasting effects of youth-led work can be evaluated, as well as investigate pa ge 19 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 185-191, 2025 new ways to envision integrating young people into the governance of sustainable development. conclusions this study began with an extensive search that yielded 7,237 records, which were systematically screened and refined to include 5,713 articles, ensuring high relevance to the theme of environmental awareness and youth engagement in achieving the sustainable development goals (sdgs). through bibliometric analysis and systematic review, this research provided a comprehensive overview of how environmental consciousness and the active participation of young people intersect with the global sustainability agenda. a significant decision in this study was to divide the research period into two sub-eras: 2015–2019 and 2019–2023. the first period represents the initial response to the global adoption of the sdgs, capturing youth-centered initiatives, awareness campaigns, and early explorations of education for sustainability. the second period reflects a more mature phase where environmental activism among youth gained momentum, especially in response to global climate movements and the challenges introduced by the covid-19 pandemic. this evolution illustrates how young people have increasingly shifted from passive learners to active agents of change, contributing substantially to sustainability discourse and practice. the dominant subject areas included environmental sciences, education, and social sciences, underscoring the pivotal role of awareness, knowledge dissemination, and behavioral transformation. geographically, research contributions were concentrated in countries with strong youth-led environmental movements, such as the united states, the united kingdom, and australia, with growing engagement from asian and african nations. leading journals focused on sustainability, education, and climate change issues, highlighting the importance of youth engagement as a driver for achieving environmental and developmental goals. thematic analysis revealed that central keywords such as sustainable development goals, climate change, youth, and environmental awareness consistently appeared across both sub-periods. emerging themes in recent years included renewable energy, resilience, digital activism, and sustainable lifestyles, reflecting the growing influence of youth in shaping narratives around environmental stewardship. these developments highlight the imperative of equipping younger generations with knowledge, platforms, and opportunities to meaningfully participate in sdg implementation. the co-occurrence and thematic clustering of terms revealed strong interconnections between environmental awareness, youth empowerment, and community resilience. newly emerging discussions centered on the importance of integrating sustainability into education systems, harnessing youth-led innovation, and recognizing the role of social media in mobilizing environmental activism. these patterns underscore that youth engagement is not only complementary but essential to advancing global environmental goals. the findings of this research carry several implications for policymakers, educators, and practitioners. firstly, youth-centered policies and educational curricula must be further aligned with sdg priorities to ensure that young people are both informed and empowered to take action. secondly, fostering youth networks and providing institutional support for environmental initiatives can amplify the effectiveness of their engagement. finally, recognizing youth as key stakeholders in decision-making processes can enhance the inclusivity and sustainability of policy outcomes. reference alqatan, a., simmou, w., shehadeh, m., alreshaid, f., elmarzouky, m., & shohaieb, d. 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(2023). sustainable development goals: a bibliometric analysis of literature reviews. environmental science and pollution research, 30(3), 5502-5515. pa ge 1 pa ge 20 5 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) hydrochemistry and predictive modelling of water quality in ogun and oshun rivers, southwestern nigeria abiodun b. laniyan1*, opeyemi o. ogunyinka1, olaide i. afolabi1, oluwaseun a. odusanya2, adebayo s. oyefusi2, olugbenga s. adebukola2 volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v4i1.6041 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: september 02, 2025 accepted: october 06, 2025 published: november 19, 2025 rivers in tropical africa face increasing pressures from rapid urbanization, agricultural intensification, and weak wastewater management, yet systematic assessments of their hydrochemistry and predictive modelling remain limited. this study investigates the water quality of ogun and oshun rivers in southwestern nigeria using a multi-method approach that integrates descriptive statistics, compliance analysis, hydrochemical ratios, trend evaluation, and regression modelling. thirteen sites along ogun river and ten sites along oshun river were sampled in both wet and dry seasons. key parameters analyzed included ph, major cations (na⁺, ca²⁺, mg²⁺, k⁺), anions (cl⁻, so₄²⁻, po₄³⁻), total dissolved solids (tds), turbidity, and iron. results showed that while most ions were within the limits set by the who (2017) and the nsdwq (2007), turbidity and phosphate consistently exceeded permissible levels in 70–100% of samples. hydrochemical ratios indicated dual controls, with carbonate weathering as the primary geogenic influence and sodium enrichment reflecting anthropogenic inputs. trend analysis revealed significantly higher na⁺, po₄³⁻, and tds in the dry season (p < 0.05), while downstream gradients highlighted cumulative deterioration, particularly in ogun river. predictive modelling demonstrated that sodium is the strongest predictor ion, and decision tree regression outperformed linear and polynomial models, achieving r² values above 0.95 in dry season datasets. these findings underscore the vulnerability of the rivers to nutrient enrichment, sediment load, and sodium hazard, with ogun river more severely impacted. management strategies should therefore focus on erosion control, improved agricultural practices, wastewater regulation, and the integration of predictive models into monitoring frameworks to enhance early warning and sustainable water resource management. keywords compliance analysis, decision tree regression, hydrochemistry, nigeria, ogun river, oshun river, seasonal variation, water quality modelling 1 department of science laboratory technology, d.s adegbenro ict polytechnic, itori-ewekoro, nigeria 2 department of statistics, d.s adegbenro ict polytechnic, itori-ewekoro, nigeria * corresponding author’s e-mail: abiodunlaniyan@gmail.com introduction rivers remain one of the most critical freshwater resources worldwide, supporting domestic supply, agriculture, fisheries, transportation, and ecosystem services. in sub-saharan africa, they provide essential livelihood support for rapidly growing populations but are increasingly threatened by urbanization, industrial development, and agricultural intensification (awomeso et al., 2019; yidana et al., 2020). water quality degradation in tropical rivers not only reduces their ecological integrity but also limits their suitability for drinking and irrigation, thereby exacerbating water insecurity in vulnerable regions. globally, freshwater quality is shaped by the combined influence of natural and anthropogenic factors. natural processes, such as rock weathering, mineral dissolution, and atmospheric deposition, regulate the baseline hydrochemistry (gizaw et al., 2019). however, anthropogenic inputs including agricultural fertilizers, untreated sewage, industrial effluents, and urban runoff often accelerate deterioration, resulting in elevated nutrient loads, sedimentation, and chemical enrichment (khatri & tyagi, 2015; erah et al., 2019). in sub-saharan africa, poor wastewater infrastructure and land use mismanagement amplify these pressures, leading to widespread exceedances of international water quality guidelines (edokpayi et al., 2019; olayemi et al., 2020). similar trends have been observed in ghana, kenya, and ethiopia, where rivers show significant enrichment of nutrients and trace metals linked to land use and climate variability (yidana et al., 2020; gizaw et al., 2019; mureithi et al., 2021). nigeria’s river systems are particularly vulnerable, given their location within intensively farmed and densely populated basins. several studies have documented increasing levels of turbidity, nutrients, and microbial contamination in rivers such as kaduna, benue, and cross river, largely linked to fertilizer use, erosion, and inadequate sanitation (okafor et al., 2018; adeyemo et al., 2020; ogunfowokan et al., 2018). akinbile et al. (2019) further demonstrated that rapid land use conversion and urban encroachment exacerbate water quality decline in southwestern nigeria. despite these concerns, many rivers remain under-monitored, with sparse data limiting the ability to assess seasonal dynamics, compliance with guidelines, and long-term suitability for domestic and agricultural use. the ogun and oshun rivers exemplify this challenge. flowing through southwestern nigeria, they provide critical water resources for urban, industrial, and agricultural communities, yet face rising pressures pa ge 20 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 205-220, 2025 from wastewater discharge, agricultural return flows, and catchment degradation. hydrochemical studies provide essential insights into the processes governing water quality. approaches such as hydrochemical ratio analysis and geochemical plotting (e.g., piper and gibbs diagrams) help differentiate natural geogenic controls from anthropogenic inputs (rango et al., 2021; yidana et al., 2020). beyond these classical approaches, recent works have highlighted the role of multivariate statistics and geostatistical modelling in disentangling pollution sources and characterizing water facies (singh et al., 2020; akintola et al., 2023). however, descriptive and geochemical analyses alone are insufficient for proactive management. recent advances in predictive modelling, including machine learning techniques such as decision trees, support vector machines, and random forests, have shown great potential for forecasting water quality parameters using easily measurable indicators (aladejana et al., 2021; rahman et al., 2022; khan et al., 2023). such approaches are particularly valuable in resource-limited settings where monitoring networks and laboratory facilities are inadequate (bwala et al., 2025; abbasnia et al., 2019). in addition, compliance assessment with standards such as the world health organization (who, 2017) and nigerian standards for drinking water quality (nsdwq, 2007) remains essential for safeguarding human health. parameters such as turbidity, phosphate, and sodium not only influence potability but also have implications for ecosystem function and irrigation sustainability. for instance, persistent turbidity impairs light penetration and microbial safety, while high sodium concentrations pose risks to soil permeability and crop productivity (ayers & westcot, 1985; abdullahi et al., 2017). against this backdrop, the present study assesses the hydrochemistry and water quality status of ogun and oshun rivers through a combination of descriptive statistics, compliance evaluation, hydrochemical ratio analysis, trend analysis, and predictive modelling. specifically, the study aims to (i) evaluate seasonal and spatial variations in key water quality parameters, (ii) assess compliance with international and national standards, (iii) identify geochemical processes governing ionic composition, and (iv) apply regression and machine learning models to predict critical indicators such as phosphate, turbidity, and tds. by integrating classical hydrochemistry with modern predictive approaches, this work contributes to improved understanding of riverine water quality dynamics in nigeria and offers practical tools for sustainable water resource management. materials and methods study area the study was conducted on ogun and oshun rivers, two major river systems draining the southwestern region of nigeria. both rivers play a vital role in supporting domestic supply, irrigation, aquaculture, and industrial activities for millions of residents within their catchments (adeyemo et al., 2020). ogun river originates from the igaran hills in oyo state and flows southward for about 480 km before discharging into the lagos lagoon and eventually the atlantic ocean. its basin covers approximately 22,000 km². the river traverses several states, including oyo, ogun, lagos, and parts of ondo, and is intersected by numerous tributaries such as ofiki, opeki, and oyan rivers (ayoade et al., 2019). the oshun river, by contrast, originates from the ekiti hills near ekiti state, flowing southwest across osun and ogun states before joining the lagos lagoon system. its catchment area spans about 11,000 km² (ibrahim et al., 2021). the topography of the study area is predominantly undulating to gently rolling, with elevations ranging from 30 m in the coastal plains to over 600 m in the northern uplands. the terrain is dissected by ridges, hills, and valleys that direct river flow southwards. this varied relief promotes surface runoff during rainfall events, thereby enhancing erosion, sediment transport, and nutrient fluxes into the rivers (ogunfowokan et al., 2018). the climate is tropical, with two distinct seasons: a wet season (april–october), characterized by heavy rainfall (annual average of 1200– 1500 mm), and a dry season (november–march) with reduced precipitation and higher evapotranspiration. average temperatures range between 25°c and 32°c year-round. the seasonal hydrology exerts strong control on water quality, with dilution processes dominating in the wet season and concentration effects in the dry season (akanda et al., 2025; akinbile et al., 2019). the underlying geology consists mainly of precambrian basement complex rocks, including granites, gneisses, and schists, overlain in some parts by sedimentary formations of the dahomey basin. these lithologies influence ionic composition through carbonate and silicate weathering (yidana et al., 2020). soils are primarily ferrallitic and sandy loams, highly prone to leaching and erosion under intensive land use. land use within the basins is mixed and highly dynamic. the upper catchments are dominated by subsistence and commercial agriculture, with crops such as maize, cassava, and cocoa, as well as poultry and livestock farming. the middle reaches are characterized by rapidly urbanizing settlements, particularly abeokuta, ibadan fringes, osogbo, and parts of lagos peri-urban sprawl. industrial estates, including food processing, textile, and breweries, are common along the riverbanks, discharging effluents directly or indirectly into the rivers. the lower catchments feature wetlands, floodplains, and aquaculture ponds, while riparian vegetation has been extensively cleared in many areas for farming and settlement expansion. sand mining along the river channels further contributes to sedimentation and turbidity (edokpayi et al., 2019). the combination of complex topography, seasonal rainfall, basement geology, and intensive land use makes the ogun and oshun rivers highly vulnerable to hydrochemical alteration. this necessitates systematic assessment of their water quality to understand both natural geogenic influences and anthropogenic pressures shaping their suitability for domestic and agricultural use. sampling was undertaken along multiple sites in both pa ge 20 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 205-220, 2025 rivers to capture spatial variability, with thirteen sites distributed along ogun river and ten along oshun river. sample collection and preservation water samples were collected during both wet and dry figure 1: location map of ogun-osun river basin figure 2: geological map of ogun-osun river basin seasons to account for seasonal variability. at each site, samples were taken from midstream using pre-cleaned polyethylene bottles. in situ measurements of ph, turbidity, and temperature were performed using portable meters (hach hq40d multiparameter probe). samples for cation and anion analysis were filtered through 0.45 μm membrane filters, preserved at 4°c, and transported to the laboratory for analysis within 48 hours. laboratory analysis standard methods were followed as outlined by the american public health association (apha, 2017). sodium pa ge 20 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 205-220, 2025 (na⁺), calcium (ca²⁺), magnesium (mg²⁺), potassium (k⁺), chloride (cl⁻), sulphate (so₄²⁻), and phosphate (po₄³⁻) were determined using ion chromatography (dionex ics1100) and spectrophotometry (hach dr6000 uv-vis spectrophotometer). iron (fe²⁺) was measured by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (aas, perkinelmer analyst 400). total dissolved solids (tds) and hardness were measured gravimetrically and by edta titrimetric methods respectively. all analytical procedures were performed in triplicate, and quality assurance was ensured by using blanks, standards, and duplicate samples. data processing and descriptive statistics data were subjected to descriptive statistical analysis to determine minimum, maximum, mean, and standard deviation values. compliance with world health organization (who, 2017), nigerian standards for drinking water quality (nsdwq, 2007), and other international guidelines was assessed. compliance analysis was expressed as the percentage of samples exceeding recommended limits for each parameter. these analyses were performed using spss version 25.0 (ibm corp., armonk, usa). hydrochemical ratios and irrigation indices hydrochemical ratios including na⁺/cl⁻, ca²⁺/mg²⁺, na⁺/ca²⁺, na⁺/(na⁺+ca²⁺), and mg²⁺/ca²⁺ were calculated to evaluate geochemical processes such as carbonate weathering, ion exchange, and anthropogenic enrichment. irrigation suitability was assessed using sodium adsorption ratio (sar), residual sodium carbonate (rsc), and kelly’s ratio, following the methodology of richards (1954) and ayers & westcot (1985). these indices provide insight into potential impacts on soil permeability and agricultural sustainability. calculations were carried out in microsoft excel 2019. trend analysis temporal (seasonal) variations were examined using the mann–whitney u test to evaluate differences between wet and dry season data. spatial (downstream) trends were analyzed by plotting parameter concentrations against site codes arranged longitudinally along the river courses. both analyses were performed in spss 25.0 and originpro. multivariate and predictive modelling multiple linear regression (mlr) models were developed to explore relationships between predictor variables (na⁺, ca²⁺, mg²⁺, k⁺, cl⁻, so₄²⁻, and hardness) and target parameters (po₄³⁻, turbidity, tds). nonlinear regression was evaluated using second-order polynomial models, while machine learning-based decision tree regression (dtr) was employed to capture complex, nonlinear interactions. model performance was assessed using the coefficient of determination (r²), root mean square error (rmse), and mean absolute error (mae). predictive modelling was carried out in r statistical software version 4.1.2 using the caret and rpart packages. visualization and geochemical plots hydrochemical data were visualized through scatter plots, compliance exceedance charts, and downstream trend graphs prepared in originpro 2021. hydrochemical ratios were further interpreted using modified scatter plots. geochemical classification was supplemented by piper and gibbs diagrams generated using aqqa (rockware inc.) and gw_chart (u.s. geological survey software). these visualizations provided insights into controlling processes (e.g., rock weathering, evaporation, anthropogenic input) and water facies. quality control all analyses were performed in line with international quality assurance protocols. instrument calibration was conducted daily, and analytical accuracy was cross-checked using certified reference standards. charge balance errors were calculated to validate ionic balance, with samples exceeding ±5% excluded from hydrochemical ratio and facies interpretation. results and discussion physicochemical characteristics of water quality the physicochemical characteristics of ogun and oshun rivers exhibited distinct seasonal variability, reflecting the combined influence of natural hydrological processes and anthropogenic activities in the catchments (table 2). seasonal contrasts were most evident in sodium (na⁺), phosphate (po₄³⁻), turbidity, and total dissolved solids (tds), with dry season values generally higher than wet season values. this is consistent with the welldocumented dilution effect of rainfall in tropical rivers, where wet season flows reduce ionic concentrations while increasing suspended load (akinbile et al., 2019; okoye et al., 2021). the differences are further illustrated in figure 3, which shows clear separation between dry and wet season concentrations for key parameters. the ph values of both rivers ranged between slightly acidic and nearneutral conditions, remaining within the acceptable who (2017) guideline of 6.5–9.2 for most samples. however, wet season samples from oshun river occasionally dropped below 6.5, reflecting the influence of organic matter decomposition and acidifying inputs from runoff. such slightly acidic tendencies have also been reported in the cross river basin, where wet-season inflows lowered buffering capacity (ekwueme et al., 2018). sodium (na⁺) concentrations were particularly elevated in ogun river during the dry season (mean 114.69 mg/l), exceeding the who desirable limit of 50 mg/l but remaining below the maximum allowable limit of 200 mg/l. this pattern points to anthropogenic inputs, possibly from domestic wastewater and fertilizer use in the basin. in contrast, oshun river exhibited lower sodium concentrations, suggesting less intensive anthropogenic influence. similar dry-season sodium enrichment has been observed in the sokoto-rima basin, where irrigation return flows contributed to elevated salinity (abdullahi et al., 2017). phosphate (po₄³⁻) concentrations were alarmingly high pa ge 20 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 205-220, 2025 in both rivers, with ogun river showing extreme dryseason enrichment (mean 93.98 mg/l) far above the nsdwq guideline of 5 mg/l. wet-season values were comparatively lower but still exceeded the standard in most cases. this pattern reflects strong anthropogenic nutrient loading, likely from fertilizer application and detergent-containing wastewater. excessive phosphate levels have been implicated in eutrophication of nigerian inland waters such as river kaduna (olayemi et al., 2020) and ossiomo river (erah et al., 2019), supporting the conclusion that nutrient enrichment is a widespread water quality challenge. turbidity was another critical parameter, with values far exceeding the 5 ntu who limit in all samples. ogun river dry season turbidity reached mean values above 50 ntu, while wet season values were moderately lower but still non-compliant. elevated turbidity levels suggest high suspended sediment and organic matter loading, which reduce light penetration and impair aquatic life. seasonal fluctuations of this magnitude have also been reported in river benue, where soil erosion and catchment degradation drove persistent exceedances (okafor et al., 2018). other parameters such as calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulphate, and total dissolved solids generally complied with who and nsdwq guidelines across both rivers and seasons. hardness values remained within acceptable limits (<100 mg/l), confirming that the rivers are soft to moderately hard. iron concentrations, however, occasionally exceeded the 0.3 mg/l guideline in 10–15% of wet-season samples, likely due to mobilization under slightly acidic conditions. overall, the physicochemical analysis highlights phosphate, turbidity, sodium, and iron as the most critical parameters affecting water quality. these exceedances underscore the combined effects of natural processes and human activities, with the dry season posing greater risks due to limited dilution. table 1: seasonal variation in physicochemical parameters of ogun and oshun rivers compared with who/ nsdwq standards parameter ogun dry (mean ± sd) ogun wet (mean ± sd) oshun dry (mean ± sd) oshun wet (mean ± sd) who/ nsdwq limit ph 7.46 ± 0.27 6.49 ± 0.22 7.44 ± 0.22 6.58 ± 0.28 6.5 – 9.2 na⁺ (mg/l) 114.69 ± 26.85 35.20 ± 20.91 109.70 ± 22.95 46.97 ± 21.83 200 fe²⁺ (mg/l) 0.25 ± 0.03 0.10 ± 0.03 0.22 ± 0.02 0.08 ± 0.04 0.3 ca²⁺ (mg/l) 22.94 ± 2.90 14.43 ± 2.67 21.91 ± 3.02 13.37 ± 2.73 200 mg²⁺ (mg/l) 16.50 ± 2.41 7.63 ± 2.38 15.72 ± 2.75 8.07 ± 2.63 150 k⁺ (mg/l) 14.12 ± 2.90 4.73 ± 2.55 13.92 ± 3.13 6.03 ± 2.61 – cl⁻ (mg/l) 20.71 ± 5.10 14.18 ± 2.88 19.88 ± 4.95 15.72 ± 3.18 600 tds (mg/l) 243.87 ± 25.74 109.25 ± 23.62 237.70 ± 27.01 118.36 ± 22.98 1000 so₄²⁻ (mg/l) 14.70 ± 2.12 7.86 ± 2.29 14.37 ± 2.14 7.42 ± 1.99 500 hardness (mg/l) 80.01 ± 12.96 28.01 ± 12.13 70.68 ± 12.47 29.67 ± 14.70 500 turbidity (ntu) 51.69 ± 9.25 24.31 ± 6.65 52.85 ± 5.82 19.82 ± 8.15 5 temperature (°c) 30.36 ± 0.68 26.99 ± 0.68 30.02 ± 0.61 27.46 ± 0.78 34 po₄³⁻ (mg/l) 93.98 ± 17.39 27.47 ± 17.05 96.04 ± 15.27 44.04 ± 19.11 5 figure 3: seasonal variation of key water quality parameters in ogun and oshun rivers pa ge 21 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 205-220, 2025 figure 3 further shows the distribution of sodium, phosphate, turbidity, and total dissolved solids (tds) under wet and dry season conditions. across all parameters, dry season concentrations were consistently higher than wet season values. for instance, sodium and tds were elevated during the dry season, reflecting limited dilution capacity due to reduced river discharge, leading to solute concentration effects. similarly, phosphate enrichment and turbidity peaks in the dry season indicate anthropogenic inputs such as agricultural runoff and effluent discharges becoming more pronounced when flow is lower. these patterns align with findings in nigerian rivers where seasonal hydrological variability strongly modulates pollutant dynamics (ezekiel et al., 2019; adewumi et al., 2022). comparable results have also been reported in the nile basin and indian rivers, where dry season water quality degradation is linked to reduced dilution and increased pollutant retention (elhassan et al., 2023; gupta et al., 2022). regression analysis and predictive modelling the regression models developed for ogun and oshun rivers provided valuable insights into the interrelationships among physicochemical parameters and their potential use in predictive water quality modelling. multiple linear regression (mlr) results demonstrated that sodium (na⁺) was the most consistent and significant predictor variable across both rivers and seasons (tables 3–6). this dominance of sodium suggests that it is a central ion regulating ionic interactions, and its concentration changes reflect broader hydrochemical dynamics (singh et al., 2020). in ogun river, dry season regression models showed strong predictive relationships with high coefficients of determination (r² = 0.88). phosphate (po₄³⁻) and turbidity were particularly well predicted by sodium, potassium, and sulphate, indicating that these parameters share common anthropogenic sources such as agricultural runoff and domestic wastewater (akinbile et al., 2019). similarly, tds showed strong correlation with sodium and chloride, highlighting the combined influence of salinity and ionic balance. the robustness of ogun river dry season models underscores the relatively stable hydrological regime during this period, where limited dilution enhances ion–ion relationships. the oshun river exhibited a similar trend, with dry season regression models achieving the highest predictive power (r² = 0.90). phosphate, turbidity, and tds were effectively modelled using sodium, hardness, and magnesium as key predictors. the results confirm that dry season conditions provide stronger regression reliability due to reduced variability in discharge and ionic composition. in contrast, wet season regression models for both rivers yielded lower r² values (0.65–0.72), reflecting the influence of rainfall-driven dilution, sediment resuspension, and non-point source inputs that introduce variability into the system (yidana et al., 2020). to improve predictive accuracy, nonlinear regression approaches were also tested. polynomial regression (second-order) provided modest improvements over linear models, raising r² values from ~0.74 to ~0.80 in wet season datasets. decision tree regression (dtr), a machine learning technique, demonstrated the highest predictive performance, with r² values exceeding 0.95 in dry season datasets and ~0.87–0.89 in wet season datasets (table 8). these results are visualized in figure 5, which shows that decision tree models consistently outperform both linear and polynomial models across all scenarios. the superior performance of decision tree models can be attributed to their ability to handle nonlinearity and interaction effects among variables, which are common in natural aquatic systems (khan et al., 2023; abbasnia et al., 2019). similar findings have been reported in recent studies where machine learning outperformed classical regression in predicting water quality in nigeria (aladejana et al., 2021), south asia (rahman et al., 2022), and east africa (mureithi et al., 2021). overall, the regression and predictive modelling analysis highlights sodium as a central predictor ion and demonstrates the potential of machine learning methods for accurate forecasting of key water quality parameters such as phosphate, turbidity, and tds. these predictive models are especially valuable in resource-limited contexts where laboratory capacity is constrained, offering cost-effective tools for early detection of pollution risks and informed water resource management. table 2: regression model for ogun river (dry season) dependent variable predictor variables regression equation r² adj. r² sig. (p) po₄³⁻ na⁺, k⁺, so₄²⁻, cl⁻ po₄³⁻ = 12.4 + 0.53na⁺ + 0.42k⁺ + 0.27so₄²⁻ – 0.18cl⁻ 0.88 0.84 <0.001 turbidity na⁺, hardness turbidity = 5.2 + 0.39na⁺ + 0.28hardness 0.81 0.78 <0.001 tds na⁺, cl⁻ tds = 25.6 + 1.01na⁺ + 0.62cl⁻ 0.86 0.83 <0.001 pa ge 21 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 205-220, 2025 compliance with who and nsdwq standards the compliance analysis revealed a mixed picture of water quality status in ogun and oshun rivers, with some parameters consistently meeting international and national standards while others exhibited widespread exceedances. as shown in table 7, most cations (ca²⁺, mg²⁺, k⁺), anions (cl⁻, so₄²⁻), and total dissolved solids (tds) remained within the permissible limits set by who (2017) and nsdwq (2007) throughout both wet and dry seasons. this compliance indicates that the ionic balance and overall salinity of the rivers are generally acceptable for domestic use and irrigation. however, significant non-compliance was observed for phosphate (po₄³⁻), turbidity, and iron (fe²⁺), with exceedance rates varying seasonally. turbidity recorded the highest rates of exceedance, reaching 100% in ogun river during the dry season and remaining above 70% across all river-season combinations. this pervasive turbidity problem points to high suspended sediment loads, likely driven by erosion, catchment degradation, and domestic waste inputs. such high turbidity levels impair water clarity, reduce light penetration, disrupt photosynthetic processes, and provide a medium for microbial proliferation. similar widespread turbidity exceedances have been reported in the cross river and river benue (okafor et al., 2018; adeyemo et al., 2020), underscoring its significance as a chronic water quality issue in nigeria. the dominance of turbidity exceedances is further illustrated in figure 4, where it clearly stands out as the most non-compliant parameter. phosphate levels were also alarmingly high, with exceedances in 95% of ogun dry season samples and 60% of oshun dry season samples, although wet season values showed moderate reductions (75% and 40% respectively). these results confirm that nutrient enrichment is a major issue in both rivers, reflecting fertilizer use, sewage discharges, and runoff from agricultural lands. persistent phosphate exceedances place the rivers at risk of eutrophication, algal blooms, and long-term ecological degradation. comparable findings have been reported in river kaduna (olayemi et al., 2020) and ossiomo river (erah et al., 2019), where phosphate enrichment was directly linked to human activities in the watershed. iron exceedances were moderate, occurring in 10–15% of samples, especially during wet seasons when slightly acidic ph conditions enhance metal solubility. while iron is not as critical as phosphate and turbidity in terms of health risks, it can cause undesirable effects such as staining, taste alteration, and infrastructure corrosion, making it a secondary concern. sodium exceedances were more localized, occurring in about 20% of ogun river dry season samples but absent in oshun river. this difference reflects the stronger anthropogenic pressures on ogun catchment, possibly linked to urban wastewater and agricultural return flows. the localized sodium enrichment aligns with findings in other heavily utilized nigerian basins, such as sokoto-rima (abdullahi et al., 2017). the compliance assessment highlights turbidity and phosphate as the most critical parameters compromising water quality, followed by localized sodium and iron exceedances. these results emphasize the urgent need for watershed management interventions, including erosion control, improved agricultural practices, and stricter wastewater regulation. table 3: regression model for ogun river (wet season) dependent variable predictor variables regression equation r² adj. r² sig. (p) po₄³⁻ na⁺, so₄²⁻ po₄³⁻ = 8.9 + 0.44na⁺ + 0.31so₄²⁻ 0.72 0.68 <0.001 turbidity na⁺, mg²⁺ turbidity = 3.7 + 0.22na⁺ + 0.19mg²⁺ 0.69 0.65 <0.001 tds na⁺, cl⁻ tds = 20.1 + 0.88na⁺ + 0.51cl⁻ 0.74 0.7 <0.001 table 4: regression model for oshun river (dry season) dependent variable predictor variables regression equation r² adj. r² sig. (p) po₄³⁻ na⁺, k⁺, so₄²⁻ po₄³⁻ = 10.2 + 0.48na⁺ + 0.41k⁺ + 0.29so₄²⁻ 0.9 0.87 <0.001 turbidity na⁺, hardness, mg²⁺ turbidity = 4.1 + 0.32na⁺ + 0.27hardness + 0.22mg²⁺ 0.85 0.82 <0.001 tds na⁺, cl⁻ tds = 22.9 + 0.95na⁺ + 0.55cl⁻ 0.87 0.84 <0.001 table 5: regression model for oshun river (wet season) dependent variable predictor variables regression equation r² adj. r² sig. (p) po₄³⁻ na⁺, so₄²⁻ po₄³⁻ = 7.8 + 0.39na⁺ + 0.26so₄²⁻ 0.76 0.72 <0.001 turbidity na⁺, mg²⁺ turbidity = 3.5 + 0.20na⁺ + 0.17mg²⁺ 0.71 0.67 <0.001 tds na⁺, cl⁻ tds = 18.7 + 0.82na⁺ + 0.48cl⁻ 0.78 0.74 <0.001 pa ge 21 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 205-220, 2025 figure 4: seasonal variation of key water quality parameters in ogun and oshun rivers table 6: percentage of samples exceeding who/nsdwq standards in ogun and oshun rivers during wet and dry seasons parameter ogun dry (%) ogun wet (%) oshun dry (%) oshun wet (%) who/nsdwq limit ph 0 5 0 15 6.5 – 9.2 na⁺ (mg/l) 20 0 0 0 200 fe²⁺ (mg/l) 15 0 10 0 0.3 ca²⁺ (mg/l) 0 0 0 0 200 mg²⁺ (mg/l) 0 0 0 0 150 k⁺ (mg/l) – – – – not regulated cl⁻ (mg/l) 0 0 0 0 600 tds (mg/l) 0 0 0 0 1000 so₄²⁻ (mg/l) 0 0 0 0 500 hardness (mg/l) 0 0 0 0 500 turbidity (ntu) 100 85 90 70 5 temperature (°c) 15 0 10 0 34 po₄³⁻ (mg/l) 95 75 60 40 5 figure 4 also prove the exceedance rates of selected water quality parameters against who/nsdwq standards, disaggregated by river and season. turbidity and hardness showed the highest exceedance levels, often approaching 100% in both rivers, particularly during the dry season. sodium and phosphate also displayed significant exceedances, indicating risks of salinization and nutrient enrichment. seasonal differences were evident, with exceedance frequencies generally higher in the dry season compared to the wet season. this is consistent with earlier studies across southwestern nigeria, where dry season flows were associated with higher pollutant concentrations and reduced assimilative capacity (adesakin et al., 2020; ololade & ajayi, 2015). internationally, similar exceedance patterns in turbidity and nutrients have been reported in southeast asian and east african rivers under dry season conditions, highlighting the vulnerability of tropical basins to seasonal water quality deterioration (rao et al., 2021; gichuki et al., 2023). pa ge 21 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 205-220, 2025 predictive modelling performance the predictive modelling analysis compared the performance of multiple linear regression (mlr), polynomial regression (second-order), and decision tree regression (dtr) in estimating key water quality indicators, phosphate (po₄³⁻), turbidity, and total dissolved solids (tds). the results, presented in table 8, demonstrate clear differences in predictive accuracy across models, rivers, and seasons. overall, decision tree regression consistently outperformed linear and polynomial models, achieving the highest coefficients of determination (r²) and the lowest error values (rmse and mae). for instance, in the oshun river dry season dataset, decision trees achieved r² values as high as 0.96 for phosphate, 0.93 for turbidity, and 0.95 for tds, indicating near-perfect predictive accuracy. by comparison, linear models yielded r² values between 0.85 and 0.90 for the same parameters, while polynomial models offered only moderate improvements (r² = 0.89–0.93). these differences are summarized in figure 5, which highlights the progressive improvement from linear to polynomial to decision tree models. the superior performance of decision trees is attributable to their ability to handle nonlinear relationships and complex interaction effects among predictor variables, which are common in riverine systems where multiple processes (e.g., weathering, runoff, sewage input) simultaneously affect water chemistry. similar findings have been reported by aladejana et al. (2021), who showed that machine learning models outperformed linear approaches in predicting groundwater quality in lagos, and by rahman et al. (2022), who demonstrated improved river water quality prediction in south asia using decision tree and random forest algorithms. seasonal variations in model performance were also evident. dry season models generally performed better than wet season models. for example, ogun river dry season phosphate predictions achieved r² = 0.95 under decision trees, while wet season equivalents reached only r² = 0.86. this decline reflects the greater variability and dilution effects associated with rainfall during wet seasons, which weaken deterministic relationships among ions. these observations are consistent with seasonal modelling studies in ethiopian rivers, where wet season inputs introduced stochasticity that reduced regression performance (gizaw et al., 2019). polynomial regression provided modest improvements over linear regression, raising r² values by 5–7% on average, but it could not match the flexibility of decision tree models. linear regression, while less accurate, still provided valuable insights into parameter interrelationships, particularly during the dry season when hydrological conditions were stable. thus, while machine learning methods provide the highest predictive accuracy, linear regression remains a useful tool for understanding underlying relationships in the data. in practical terms, the high predictive accuracy of decision tree models for phosphate and turbidity is particularly significant. these parameters are the most critical water quality concerns in both ogun and oshun rivers, as highlighted in the compliance analysis (table 7, figure 4). the ability to predict them accurately using easily measurable variables such as sodium, chloride, and hardness offers an opportunity for cost-effective monitoring in regions with limited laboratory infrastructure. decision tree models could therefore serve as early-warning systems for nutrient enrichment and sediment pollution, complementing conventional water quality monitoring. taken together, the results demonstrate that while traditional linear models are useful for explanatory purposes, decision tree regression provides the most powerful predictive tool for water quality assessment in nigerian river systems, especially during dry seasons when conditions are more stable. the integration of such models into water resource management frameworks could enhance proactive monitoring and improve decisionmaking in water quality protection. table 7: comparison of predictive model performance for ogun and oshun rivers (wet and dry seasons) river season target model r² rmse mae ogun dry po₄³⁻ linear 0.88 9.5 7.2 polynomial 0.91 8.1 6.4 decision tree 0.95 6.8 5.6 wet po₄³⁻ linear 0.72 12.7 9.4 polynomial 0.79 11 8.3 decision tree 0.86 9.2 6.9 oshun dry po₄³⁻ linear 0.9 8.4 6.7 polynomial 0.93 7.5 6 decision tree 0.96 6 5.1 wet po₄³⁻ linear 0.76 11.6 8.8 polynomial 0.82 10.1 8 decision tree 0.89 8.6 6.8 ogun dry turbidity linear 0.81 10.2 7.8 polynomial 0.85 9.1 7 pa ge 21 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 205-220, 2025 decision tree 0.91 7.5 6.2 wet turbidity linear 0.69 13 9.8 polynomial 0.75 11.5 8.7 decision tree 0.83 9.8 7.4 oshun dry turbidity linear 0.85 9 6.9 polynomial 0.89 8.1 6.3 decision tree 0.93 6.8 5.5 wet turbidity linear 0.71 12.3 9.2 polynomial 0.78 10.9 8.4 decision tree 0.86 8.9 6.7 ogun dry tds linear 0.86 8.7 6.9 polynomial 0.9 7.8 6.2 decision tree 0.94 6.5 5.3 wet tds linear 0.74 11.8 8.7 polynomial 0.8 10.3 8.1 decision tree 0.87 8.5 6.6 oshun dry tds linear 0.87 8 6.4 polynomial 0.91 7.2 5.8 decision tree 0.95 6 5 wet tds linear 0.75 11.2 8.5 polynomial 0.82 10 7.9 decision tree 0.88 8.4 6.5 figure 5: regression model performance (mlr, polynomial, and decision tree regression) for selected parameters (po₄³⁻, turbidity, and tds). pa ge 21 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 205-220, 2025 the comparative model evaluation (figure 5) clearly demonstrates the superior performance of machine learning approaches over traditional regression techniques in predicting key water quality parameters. in both ogun and oshun rivers, decision tree regression (dtr) consistently achieved the highest coefficients of determination (r² > 0.94) while also minimizing error metrics (rmse < 0.22; mae < 0.15). by contrast, multiple linear regression (mlr) models yielded moderate predictive strength (r² = 0.78–0.88), reflecting their limited capacity to capture nonlinear relationships between ionic parameters. polynomial regression provided modest improvements over mlr, but it was still outperformed by dtr in all cases. the reliability of dtr in both dry and wet seasons underscores its suitability for hydrochemical modelling, where parameter interactions are inherently nonlinear and influenced by both geogenic and anthropogenic sources. these findings align with recent studies in nigeria and south asia (aladejana et al., 2021; rahman et al., 2022), which showed that machine learning methods consistently outperform classical regression models in capturing complex water quality dynamics. importantly, the ability of dtr to accurately predict phosphate and turbidity is particularly valuable, as these parameters frequently exceeded guideline values and pose significant ecological and public health concerns. hydrochemical ratios and geochemical insights hydrochemical ratios were employed to interpret the geochemical processes controlling the ionic composition of ogun and oshun rivers and to assess potential risks for irrigation use. the computed ratios, presented in table 9, provide critical evidence for distinguishing between natural geogenic inputs and anthropogenic influences. the na⁺/cl⁻ ratios were consistently greater than 1 in both rivers across seasons, with higher values in the dry season (ogun = 5.54; oshun = 5.52) compared to the wet season (ogun = 2.48; oshun = 2.99). ratios above unity suggest that sodium enrichment cannot be explained by halite dissolution alone but is strongly influenced by anthropogenic activities such as domestic wastewater discharge, agricultural fertilizers, and detergents. this finding is consistent with reports from other nigerian rivers, where elevated na⁺/cl⁻ ratios were linked to fertilizer leaching and urban runoff (edokpayi et al., 2019), and from ghanaian basins (yidana et al., 2020), where land use was the dominant control. the spatial and seasonal variation in na⁺/cl⁻ ratios is further visualized in figure 6, which clearly separates dry-season enrichment from wet-season dilution. the ca²⁺/mg²⁺ ratios were greater than 1 across both rivers and seasons, reflecting calcium dominance and the prevalence of carbonate weathering as a geogenic process. these results agree with the geological setting of the study area, where basement complex and carbonate-bearing minerals influence hydrochemistry. comparable ca²⁺/mg²⁺ patterns have been documented in nigerian basement aquifers (ogunfowokan et al., 2018) and ethiopian rift valley lakes (rango et al., 2021), reinforcing the carbonate control on water chemistry. the na⁺/ca²⁺ ratios and the na⁺/(na⁺+ca²⁺) index were relatively high, particularly in ogun river dry season (na⁺/ca²⁺ = 5.02; na⁺/(na⁺+ca²⁺) = 0.83). high values of these ratios indicate significant sodium hazard, which can adversely affect irrigation suitability by reducing soil permeability and structure. similar sodium hazard risks have been reported in the sokoto-rima basin (abdullahi et al., 2017) and in the ganga basin, india (singh et al., 2020), highlighting the global relevance of this issue. the mg²⁺/ca²⁺ ratios remained below 1, confirming calcium dominance over magnesium. combined with ca²⁺/mg²⁺ >1, this pattern reflects carbonate weathering as the primary geogenic source, with limited contribution from silicate minerals. such findings are typical of tropical river systems where carbonate lithology is widespread. taken together, these hydrochemical ratios indicate that the chemistry of ogun and oshun rivers results from the interplay of natural geogenic processes (carbonate weathering) and anthropogenic pressures (fertilizers, detergents, sewage). the seasonal contrasts suggest that anthropogenic impacts are most pronounced in the dry season, when dilution is minimal. the scatter plots of na⁺/cl⁻ versus na⁺/ca²⁺ (figure 6) provide additional evidence for this dual control, showing that dry-season samples are strongly displaced toward anthropogenic enrichment fields. table 8: hydrochemical ratios of ogun and oshun rivers (wet and dry seasons) ratio ogun dry (mean ± sd) ogun wet (mean ± sd) oshun dry (mean ± sd) oshun wet (mean ± sd) interpretation na⁺/cl⁻ 5.54 ± 1.21 2.48 ± 0.92 5.52 ± 1.10 2.99 ± 1.02 ratios >1 suggest anthropogenic sodium enrichment (domestic/ agricultural runoff) ca²⁺/mg²⁺ 1.39 ± 0.27 1.89 ± 0.34 1.40 ± 0.29 1.66 ± 0.31 ratios >1 indicate dominance of ca²⁺ over mg²⁺ (carbonate weathering influence) na⁺/ca²⁺ 5.02 ± 1.38 2.44 ± 0.88 5.01 ± 1.33 3.51 ± 0.97 ratios >1 highlight sodium hazard, especially in ogun dry season pa ge 21 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 205-220, 2025 the results as shown in figure 6 further show distinct clustering by season, with higher na⁺/ca²⁺ ratios in the dry season, suggesting enhanced cation exchange processes, evaporative concentration, or anthropogenic inputs (e.g., wastewater, detergents). the wet season points cluster towards lower ratios, reflecting dilution from rainfall and increased river discharge. similar ionic ratio trends have been documented in other nigerian catchments and west african basins, where seasonal ionic shifts highlight the interplay between geology, hydrology, and anthropogenic pressures (ezekiel et al., 2019; adeleke et al., 2021). recent hydrochemical studies in asian and mediterranean basins confirm that na⁺/ca²⁺ and na⁺/cl⁻ ratios are robust indicators of pollution and hydrochemical alteration under variable flow regimes (zhang et al., 2022; al-farraj et al., 2023). trend analysis the seasonal and spatial trend analyses provided critical insights into the dynamics of water quality in ogun and oshun rivers. the non-parametric mann–whitney u test (table 10) revealed that sodium (na⁺), phosphate (po₄³⁻), and total dissolved solids (tds) exhibited statistically significant seasonal differences in both rivers (p < 0.05). all three parameters were consistently higher in the dry season compared to the wet season. this pattern is attributed to reduced dilution capacity during the dry season, which amplifies the effects of both geogenic contributions and anthropogenic inputs. these findings are consistent with previous studies in tropical river systems, where dry-season concentrations of ions and nutrients were elevated due to reduced flow and evaporation dominance (adeyemo et al., 2020; yidana et al., 2020; ighalo & adeniyi, 2020; mureithi et al., 2021). turbidity also showed significant seasonal variation in ogun river (p = 0.004), with markedly higher values in the dry season, but no significant difference was observed in oshun river. the divergence between the two rivers may reflect differences in catchment land use and vegetation cover. ogun’s watershed is more heavily urbanized and agricultural, leading to greater sediment mobilization during low-flow conditions, whereas oshun retains more natural vegetation cover that buffers sediment input. similar land use-driven contrasts have been documented in ethiopian and ghanaian basins (rango et al., 2021; yidana et al., 2020; alemayehu et al., 2022). other parameters such as ca²⁺, mg²⁺, cl⁻, and ph did not show significant seasonal differences in either river, suggesting that these ions are primarily regulated by geogenic weathering processes rather than short-term seasonal variability. this stability is typical of parameters controlled by the underlying geology rather than anthropogenic inputs (rango et al., 2021; awol et al., 2021). the downstream analysis (figure 7) provided further evidence of cumulative pollution effects. concentrations of na⁺, phosphate, turbidity, and tds increased progressively downstream in both rivers, with steeper gradients in ogun river. this spatial trend reflects the cumulative impact of wastewater discharge, urban runoff, and agricultural return flows entering the rivers along their courses. particularly notable were the sharp downstream increases in phosphate and turbidity, which point to nutrient and sediment enrichment as dominant stressors. these findings mirror patterns figure 6: hydrochemical scatter plots showing na⁺/cl⁻ vs na⁺/ca²⁺ relationships for ogun and oshun rivers. mg²⁺/ca²⁺ 0.72 ± 0.15 0.53 ± 0.12 0.71 ± 0.14 0.60 ± 0.13 mg²⁺ lower than ca²⁺, consistent with carbonate lithology na⁺/ (na⁺+ca²⁺) 0.83 ± 0.09 0.62 ± 0.11 0.82 ± 0.08 0.72 ± 0.10 high ratios suggest sodium hazard for irrigation pa ge 21 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 205-220, 2025 observed in other nigerian rivers such as the benue and cross river systems, where pollution intensifies downstream due to increasing anthropogenic activities (okafor et al., 2018; ojekunle et al., 2021; ogundiran et al., 2022). the trend analysis underscores that: (i) dry season poses greater risks, with higher concentrations of na⁺, po₄³⁻, tds, and turbidity; (ii) ogun river is more vulnerable than oshun, reflecting higher anthropogenic pressures; and (iii) downstream reaches are hotspots, requiring priority management interventions to curb nutrient loading and sediment influx. these insights emphasize the need for season-sensitive management strategies, such as strengthening erosion control and wastewater regulation during the dry season, and targeting downstream stretches for monitoring and remediation. table 9: seasonal trend analysis (mann–whitney u test) for key parameters in ogun and oshun rivers parameter ogun (p-value) trend oshun (p-value) trend ph 0.163 no significant change 0.142 no significant change na⁺ 0.002 ↑ higher in dry 0.041 ↑ higher in dry ca²⁺ 0.112 no significant change 0.089 no significant change mg²⁺ 0.084 no significant change 0.127 no significant change cl⁻ 0.071 no significant change 0.095 no significant change tds 0.033 ↑ higher in dry 0.048 ↑ higher in dry turbidity 0.004 ↑ higher in dry 0.072 no significant change po₄³⁻ 0 ↑ higher in dry 0.016 ↑ higher in dry figure 7: spatial and seasonal trends of na⁺, po₄³⁻, turbidity, and tds along upstream–downstream river courses the observed increase in concentration levels from upstream to downstream in both ogun and oshun rivers highlights a progressive deterioration in water quality, most likely due to anthropogenic influences such as domestic discharge, agricultural runoff, and industrial effluents. the pattern is consistent with documented evidence that nigerian river systems are under significant pressure from human activities. the higher concentration values recorded in the oshun river compared to the ogun river suggest greater exposure to pollution sources, possibly due to more intense urbanization and agricultural practices along its course. similar findings have been reported by ujoh et al. (2025), who noted that rivers within the ogun–oshun catchment experience rapid quality degradation downstream of settlements and agricultural zones, with increased nutrient loading and turbidity being key indicators of pollution. furthermore, the wide variability as shown by the shaded uncertainty bands points to fluctuating inputs of pollutants, likely influenced by rainfall events, seasonal farming, and irregular waste discharges. these findings align with broader national assessments, which highlight that nigerian river basins, including the ogun–oshun system, face cumulative stress from poorly managed irrigation projects, dam releases, and catchment-level land use changes (ujoh et al., 2025). the implications of these pa ge 21 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 205-220, 2025 trends are significant: poor water quality downstream not only reduces the suitability of these rivers for domestic and agricultural uses but also poses ecological risks, including loss of biodiversity and alteration of aquatic habitats. without adequate monitoring and sustainable catchment management, these rivers may continue to face escalating pollution levels, exacerbating public health and food security concerns conclusion this study has demonstrated that the hydrochemistry and water quality of ogun and oshun rivers are shaped by a combination of natural geogenic processes and anthropogenic influences, with clear seasonal and spatial variations. while parameters such as calcium, magnesium, chloride, and ph remained largely within acceptable limits and displayed little seasonal variability, phosphate, turbidity, sodium, and total dissolved solids consistently emerged as the most problematic indicators. these parameters exhibited higher concentrations in the dry season due to reduced dilution, with phosphate and turbidity frequently exceeding international and national water quality standards. downstream analyses further revealed that water quality deteriorates progressively along the river course, especially in ogun river, highlighting the cumulative impacts of urban, agricultural, and domestic inputs. regression and predictive modelling confirmed the central role of sodium as a key predictor of water quality dynamics. machine learning approaches, particularly decision tree regression, provided superior predictive accuracy compared to traditional linear and polynomial models, demonstrating their potential for cost-effective monitoring in data-limited contexts. hydrochemical ratio analysis underscored the interplay between anthropogenic sodium enrichment and geogenic carbonate weathering, while also flagging a potential sodium hazard for irrigation purposes in the ogun river basin. the findings emphasize that both ogun and oshun rivers are under significant pressure from nutrient enrichment, sediment load, and sodium accumulation, with ogun river showing greater vulnerability. these insights not only deepen understanding of hydrochemical processes in tropical river systems but also provide practical tools for monitoring and management. it is therefore recommended that management strategies should prioritize reducing nutrient and sediment inputs through improved agricultural practices, erosion control, and stricter wastewater regulation. downstream reaches, which act as pollution hotspots, should be the focus of intensified monitoring and remediation. the incorporation of predictive machine learning models into water quality management frameworks could enhance early-warning systems and improve decision-making, particularly in regions where laboratory infrastructure and resources are limited. references abbasnia, a., yousefi, n., mahvi, a. h., nabizadeh, r., radfard, m., yousefi, m., & alimohammadi, m. 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(2020). assessment of groundwater quality in the talensi district, northern ghana. the scientific world journal, 2020, 8450860. https://doi. org/10.1155/2020/8450860 pa ge 1 pa ge 22 1 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) the future of carbon offset markets in africa: towards equitable climate finance richard mulenga1* volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v4i1.6190 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: september 19, 2025 accepted: october 25, 2025 published: december 06, 2025 this study critically examines the adoption and implementation of carbon offset markets in africa through a systematic literature review guided by the prisma framework and complemented by a bibliometric analysis using vosviewer. drawing on peer-reviewed articles and reports published between 2000 and 2025, the review assesses key dimensions, including project design, governance structures, stakeholder engagement, and environmental outcomes. findings reveal that africa’s offset carbon markets are expanding but remain hindered by weak governance, limited transparency, and inequitable benefit-sharing, which often allow intermediaries to capture disproportionate value, fueling perceptions of “carbon colonialism.” inadequate baseline methodologies and weak monitoring, particularly in forestry and cookstove projects, further erode the credibility of the offset markets. nevertheless, africa’s comparative advantage in nature-based solutions, including forestry and blue-carbon ecosystems, presents vast potential for generating high-integrity credits that benefit biodiversity and livelihoods. the study proposes a framework emphasising free, prior, and informed consent (fpic), transparent benefit-sharing, independent monitoring, and digital, monitoring, reporting and verification (mrv) systems to enhance integrity and community trust. it further recommends establishing transparent price-discovery mechanisms and paris agreement article 6-aligned national registries to prevent double-counting and strengthen regulatory coherence. by advancing community-centred governance and high-integrity standards, african carbon offset markets can mobilise substantial climate finance and contribute effectively to global emission reduction goals, positioning the continent as a credible partner in the low-carbon transition. jel classifications: q54, o13, f18. introduction this study conducts a critical examination of the adoption and implementation of carbon offset markets in africa through a systematic literature review guided by the prisma framework and complemented by a bibliometric analysis using vosviewer. drawing on peer-reviewed articles and reports published between 2000 and 2025, the review assesses key dimensions of the carbon offset market in africa, including project design, governance structures, stakeholder engagement, and environmental outcomes. the intergovernmental panel on climate change, ipcc (2022), ranks the african region as one of the most climate-vulnerable regions in the world. it is experiencing rising temperatures, unpredictable rainfall patterns, and an increasing frequency of droughts and floods. with the rise in global climate goals, carbon offset markets have become central to global climate finance. carbon markets have become crucial to international climate finance and mitigation efforts. carbon compliance markets (ccms) facilitate significant emission reductions through enforceable mechanisms, while voluntary carbon markets (vcms) are crucial for funding innovative, community-driven climate solutions (icap, 2023). however, vcms face challenges like credibility, greenwashing, and inconsistent standards (acmi, 2023). improving transparency and aligning voluntary credits with article 6 of the paris agreement could enhance their legitimacy and effectiveness. carbon offsets are mechanisms under vcms. they represent keywords africa, carbon colonialism, carbon offset markets, climate finance, climate policy 1 department of economics, zcas university, lusaka, zambia * corresponding author’s e-mail: richardmulenga2@gmail.com reductions or removals of greenhouse gases (ghgs, also referred to as tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (tco2e). (icap, 2023). africa, rich in biodiversity and endowed with extensive land-based carbon sinks, has emerged as a key player in the voluntary offset market. the african carbon markets initiative (acmi, 2023) report highlights the benefits of high-integrity carbon markets in africa. it highlights the role of voluntary carbon projects in promoting job creation, enhancing food security, fostering climate resilience, and supporting biodiversity, all of which align with the sustainable development goals (sdgs). nevertheless, acmi (2023) acknowledges that global although global carbon markets have flaws, they however, can yield carbon markets are not without flaws; however, they can yield significant environmental and economic advantages for communities, provided that a concerted effort is made. despite the potential opportunities presented by carbon offset markets, vcms in the african region continue to face various challenges. these challenges include corruption and integrity related to offsets originating from africa, weak governance systems, and a lack of organization and transparency among offset carbon markets in africa (acmi, 2023; unep, 2022). against this backdrop, this study conducts a systematic and critical literature review regarding the adoption and implementation of carbon offset markets in africa, guided by the prisma framework and a bibliometric analysis conducted using vosviewer. the study analyses peer-reviewed articles and reports from pa ge 22 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 221-232, 2025 2000 to 2025 from relevant academic and professional databases, focusing on project design, governance structures, stakeholder engagement, and environmental impacts. carbon markets are generally categorised into two types: compliance carbon markets (ccms, also known as cap-and-trade or emissions trading systems, table 1: key differences between compliance and voluntary markets aspect compliance market voluntary market regulation mandated by international(national)law e.g., eu ets, no legal requirement, participation is voluntary participants companies with emission reduction obligations or mandates individuals, local communities, ngos, companies price stability generally, highly stable as the prices are regulated usually, the prices are more variable as they are dictated by the market forces of demand and supply purpose to meet legal obligations and nationally determined contributions, ndcs to meet corporate social responsibility (csr), reputational benefits and net-zero pledges scale relatively larger, with billions of tons of greenhouse gases (ghgs) traded annually relatively more minor but growing rapidly, with expected usd 50billion in trade by 2030 (taskforce on scaling vcm, 2021) source: adapted from icap 2023, acmi, 2023, ipcc, 2022, & taskforce on scaling up vcm, 2021 table 2: survey of carbon offset mechanisms in africa: 2000-2025 country mechanism type year started official legal reference south africa carbon tax with offsets (carbon offsets regulations) 2019 treasury.gov.za kenya national carbon markets regulations; article 6.2 bilateral; jcm partner 2024 kenyalaw.org tanzania jcm partnership (article 6-based bilateral) 2025 mofa.go.jp ethiopia jcm partnership; jurisdictional redd+ erpa (isfl/oflp) 2013 mofa.go.jp uganda climate change mechanisms regulations (article 6 domestic rules) 2025 nema.go.ug ets) and voluntary carbon markets (vcms). table 1 reports the key differences between ccms and vcms. types and processes of carbon offset projects in voluntary carbon markets the process of how carbon offsets work in vcms involves the generation of carbon offsets, certification, purchase and retirement (acmi, 2023). offsets are typically generated via projects that remove or reduce carbon emissions via activities such as methane capture, renewable energy, reforestation and improved cookstoves, among others (gold standard, 2021). certification basically involves verification by thirdparty standards such as gold standard, plan vivo, to ensure real, additional and permanent reductions, whereas the purchase and retirement stage aims at the purchase and retirement of offsets to claim carbon neutrality (or net-zero pledges) by corporations or firms (world bank, 2022). arising from the carbon offset process, three types of offset projects are generally observed in voluntary carbon markets. the first type is called nature-based solution (nbs) projects. this involves afforestation and reforestation, wetland and mangrove restoration, and avoiding deforestation through reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation plus (redd+) projects such as zambia’s community forestry and kenya’s chyulu hills initiatives that generate offsets and augment biodiversity simultaneously (bastos lima et al., 2021). the second type is known as energy and technology (e&t) projects, which involve renewable energy projects (for instance, hydro, solar and wind), methane capture from livestock and landfills and clean cookstoves for reducing biomass fuel use in rural households (acmi, 2023; world bank, 2022). blue carbon (bc) projects, the third type, focus on carbon stored in coastal ecosystems, such as mangroves and seagrasses. this is relevant for african states such as, among others, south africa, mozambique, congo drc, kenya, namibia and tanzania. survey of jurisdictions with carbon offsets in africa table 2 reports the countries of african governments that have implemented an official carbon-offset mechanism, which includes redd+ erpas, paris agreement article 6 authorisations, carbon market regulations, or carbon taxes with offsets. according to the survey, twenty one of the fifty four countries in the african region have implemented carbon offset mechanisms. this implies that 38% of the countries pa ge 22 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 221-232, 2025 rwanda national carbon market framework 2023 rema.gov.rw zambia carbon market framework (guidelines & act) 2023 mgee.gov.zm zimbabwe carbon credits trading regulations 2023 veritaszim.zm ghana article 6.2 cooperative approach; fcpf erpa (redd+) 2019 bafu.admin.ch senegal article 6.2 bilateral with switzerland; jcm partner 2021 click.ch.senegal ivory coast redd+ erpa (fcpf, jurisdictional) 2021 forestcarbonpartnership. org cameroon redd+ erpa (fcpf, jurisdictional) 2019 forestcarbonpartnership. org republic of the congo redd+ erpa (fcpf, jurisdictional) 2021 documents1.worldbank. org mozambique redd+ erpa (fcpf, jurisdictional) 2019 worldbank.org. mozambique madagascar redd+ erpa (fcpf, jurisdictional) 2020 worldbank.org. madagascar gabon redd+ results-based payments (cafi) 2019 undp.org.gabon nigeria climate change act (framework enabling carbon markets) 2021 fao.org.nigeria egypt regulated voluntary carbon market (egx/egcx) 2024 egcx.com.eg tunisia article 6.2 bilateral with switzerland; jcm partner 2023 click.ch.tunisia morocco article 6 cooperation (mou); article 6.4 host participation 2023 unfccc.int.morocco source: author’s elaboration from various official sources as indicated in the links. notes: according to uneca (2023) and acmi (2023) reports, several other countries, such as namibia, botswana, liberia, sierra leone, and malawi, are drafting or considering carbon-market regulations (paris article 6 pathways) but had not fully operationalised them at the time of writing this paper. these were not included in the survey. in the region have carbon offset markets. eighteen of these countries are in saharan africa (ssa), and three are in the middle east and north africa (mena) region. according to icap’s (2025) status report, as of july 2025, no ets were in force in africa. south africa’s carbon tax is the continent’s only compliance carbon credit market. empirical literature review the theoretical models guiding carbon offset mechanisms carbon offset markets have emerged as a significant mechanism for addressing climate change by assigning value (or price) to carbon emissions and their reductions. the theoretical foundations of these markets are rooted in economics, environmental policy, and institutional design. this section outlines the key theories that underpin carbon offset markets, specifically externality theory, the coase theorem, commons and public goods theory, and market-based regulation. it also connects them to wider sustainability and financial frameworks. externality theory pigou (1920) asserted that pollution constitutes a negative externality, resulting in social costs that are not accounted for in private market exchanges. the socially optimal level of emissions is attained when the marginal social cost (msc) is equal to the marginal social benefit (msb) msc(q) = mpc(q) + mec(q) ....(1) where mpc is the marginal private cost and mec is the marginal external cost. carbon offset markets seek to rectify this imbalance by assigning a price to emissions via offsets. companies have the option to either reduce emissions on their own or acquire credits from initiatives that mitigate emissions in other locations, thereby aligning private interests with societal welfare (stavins, 1997). the coase theorem-property rights approach coase (1960) proposed that when property rights are distinctly articulated and transaction costs are minimal, parties can negotiate efficient results irrespective of the original distribution of rights. this concept is evident in carbon markets, which operate through tradable carbon allowances or credits, imposing a constraint on firms: ei ≤ ai + ci ....(2) where ei is the emission of firm i, ai is allocated pollution allowances,ci are purchased credits. through trading, firms with high abatement costs can buy credits from those with low costs, helping to achieve costeffective carbon (ghg) reductions (icap, 2022). commons and public good theory the atmosphere constitutes a global common, while climate stability is regarded as a public good characterised pa ge 22 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 221-232, 2025 by being non-excludable and non-rivalrous in consumption (markusen, 1975; hardin, 1968). in the absence of intervention, the phenomenon known as the “tragedy of the commons” emerges, wherein each participant seeks to maximise individual gain to the detriment of the collective. this situation can be articulated as: maxui =b(ei) c(ei) ....(3) subject to ∑ei ≤ e*, where e* is the global emission threshold. carbon offset markets aim to incorporate this constraint by establishing enforceable boundaries and distributing accountability among various stakeholders. market-based environmental regulation market-based instruments (mbis), which include carbon taxes and tradable permits, are perceived as more efficient than command-and-control regulations (baumol & oates, 1988). in the cms (cap-and-trade or emissions trading systems, ets), firms minimize costs by solving: min∑i ci (ei) subject to ∑i ei ≤ e̅ ....(4) where ci (ei) is firm i’s abatement cost function, and e̅ is the emissions cap. offsets expand this market mechanism by permitting reductions beyond regulated jurisdictions, increasing flexibility and reducing compliance costs (ellerman et al., 2010). broader theoretical foundations carbon offset markets, rooted in financial economics, act as hedging tools against regulatory and reputational risks (calel & dechezleprêtre, 2016). sustainability theories highlight co-benefits such as poverty reduction and biodiversity, while institutional economics stresses the importance of governance and verification (ostrom, 2009). status of voluntary carbon markets in africa vcms in africa originated from early smallholder/plan vivo and community forestry initiatives during the 2000s, progressed into nature-based solutions (nbs) throughout the 2010s, experienced a significant increase in 2021 to 2022, and subsequently encountered a correction focused on integrity in 2023–2024, with governance reforms reaching maturity in 2024–2025 (ecosystem marketplace, 2024-2025; acmi, 2022, 2024–25). africa’s involvement in vcms is still in its early phases as of 2023, when compared to other regions like asia and latin america. nonetheless, the continent has demonstrated significant room for expansion, as more and more projects in a variety of industries are being developed (ecosystem marketplace, 2023). the main drivers of demand for african carbon credits are international businesses looking to offset their carbon footprints and achieve sustainability goals. soil carbon sequestration projects which aim to improve agricultural practices to enhance soil carbon storage are becoming more prevalent across the continent. there are still a number of challenges the african vcm must overcome. the market is extremely fragmented, making it difficult for projects to scale up due to limited access to infrastructure, funding, and technical know-how (goldstein et al., 2022; acmi, 2023). literature review sources of carbon (ghg) emissions in africa this section presents an overview of the major contributors to africa’s carbon footprint. the energy sector, particularly the heavy reliance on fossil fuels for electricity generation, transportation, and industrial activities, appears to be the predominant source of emissions across the continent. south africa ranks as the largest emitter in africa, followed by egypt and algeria (international energy agency, iea, 2023). the combustion of fossil fuels, including coal, oil, and natural gas, for energy production and transportation is the main driver of carbon emissions. additionally, deforestation and the decomposition of solid waste contribute to increased carbon emissions (greenly, 2023). although agriculture is not as critical as the energy sector, it still plays a notable role in the carbon emissions landscape of africa. activities such as burning crop residues and applying fertilisers release significant greenhouse gases (african development bank, afdb, 2024). nonetheless, it is essential to acknowledge the potential of agriculture in mitigating climate change in africa. implementing sustainable land management and enhancing agricultural practices can aid in carbon sequestration (afdb, 2024). changes in land use, particularly deforestation, also represent a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions in africa. forests serve as carbon sinks, and their removal disrupts this vital process. although there has been a decline in deforestation rates in recent years, the ongoing loss of forests remains a pressing issue (acmi, 2023). challenges and opportunities of carbon markets in africa this section provides a literature review to elucidate the current state, challenges, and potential opportunities associated with carbon markets in developing countries, particularly in the african region. it appears that voluntary carbon markets (vcms) are becoming more prominent than compliance markets within the african context. according to icap’s (2025) status report, there were no ets in force in africa as of july 2025. south africa’s carbon tax was the continent’s only compliance carbon credit market as of july 2025. the study by kongnso et al. (2025) examines the potential for municipalities in cameroon to access carbon credits through enhanced waste management, particularly through composting. rapid urbanisation has led to an increase in household solid waste, challenging municipal capacity despite decentralisation efforts. using a mixedmethods and participatory observation approach, the study quantifies methane sequestration from composting activities in dschang municipality. findings reveal that in 2023, dschang generated 27,514.9 tons of waste annually, with only 32% collected and 55.21% of that composted. pa ge 22 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 221-232, 2025 between 2017 and 2023, composting avoided 17,989 tons of co₂ emissions and generated about 150,000 euros in carbon credit revenue. despite these financial and environmental gains, the sector faces constraints, including inadequate equipment, weak organisation, and restrictive carbon market regulations. the authors conclude that sustainable progress requires policy reforms, system reorganisation, and more accessible carbon credit mechanisms for municipalities. obonyo (2024), in the study titled “creating credible carbon markets in africa”, examines the increasing trend of voluntary carbon trading within africa, particularly in the middle eastern north african (mena) region. the research emphasizes the necessity of maintaining integrity in the trading of high-quality carbon credits as part of the broader effort towards significant decarbonization in africa. furthermore, the study contends that climate finance must be procured and utilized efficiently to address the challenges posed by climate change in africa. in 2023, the african carbon markets initiative (acmi,2023) highlights the benefits of high-integrity carbon markets in africa, showing how carbon projects create jobs, improve food security, enhance climate resilience, and support biodiversity in line with sustainable development goals. however, acmi (2023) acknowledges global carbon markets have flaws but can offer significant environmental and economic benefits if stakeholders collaborate. skepticism exists among african stakeholders regarding the reliability of emissions reductions from carbon credits, particularly in initiatives like zimbabwe’s kariba project and those promoting ecofriendly stoves, which made up 90% of africa’s carbon credit market in 2021. concerns include the motivations of credit buyers, who may use these credits to continue polluting under the guise of environmental responsibility (greenwashing) . additionally, acmi (2023) notes ongoing debates about whether land-use carbon credits lead to land dispossession for africans, allowing developed nations to maintain pollution, which some view as a form of recolonisation. these issues contributed to a 22% drop in global carbon credit demand in 2023, with prices falling 30-50% from their peak, returning to 2022 levels. pagop and savard (2024) explore the opportunities and challenges of african involvement in voluntary carbon markets (vcms), highlighting the need for strategic engagement to maximise benefits for sustainable development and climate change mitigation. this study looks into the growing interest in vcms in africa, pointing out the potential pros and cons of african participation. with significant financial incentives and market growth, vcms are emerging as a viable solution for climate change in africa, though debates continue about the legitimacy of carbon credits and their importance in climate change mitigation and adaptation. according to pagop and savard (2024), vcm projects across africa hold immense potential as drivers of local job creation. these initiatives, spanning various sectors, offer a unique opportunity to address unemployment challenges while contributing to the continent’s sustainable development goals. the study by sani et al. (2025) examines global trends in carbon-neutral construction and their relevance to bangladesh’s sustainable development. the construction industry contributes over 40% of global co₂ emissions, making carbon-neutral building practices essential for climate mitigation. bangladesh faces unique challenges such as rapid urbanization, limited access to green financing, and insufficient government support. high costs, lack of local expertise, and weak policy implementation further hinder adoption of sustainable building technologies. the authors review successful international examples that demonstrate the benefits of energy-efficient designs and public–private collaboration. they recommend increased investment in green infrastructure, easier access to financing, and stronger policy incentives. however, despite this potential and the significant opportunities that vcms offer to africa, the adoption and implementation of the vcm in the african region still face some challenges. these challenges include corruption and integrity concerns surrounding offsets from africa. coupled with weak carbon market governance systems, there is a lack of organization in these markets which exacerbates credit quality and transparency problems. intermediation in the vcms in africa is another problem. intermediaries play a significant role in africa due to their relational capital, responsible for bringing african credits to international markets and sometimes claiming a substantial share of the created value. the lack of information about the percentages taken by brokers and their reluctance to disclose such information (in some cases, this can be as high as 70% of the value of a credit) result in reduced funding for africa and decreased income for local communities involved in voluntary offset projects. ‘carbon or green colonialism ’ is another challenge faced by vcms in africa. this refers to the exploitation of carbon offset mechanisms by investors or companies from developed economies when they control the environment through the acquisition of cheap land in ways that disproportionately disadvantage local communities and indigenous populations in africa. this poses a threat not only to vcms but also to the perception of local populations regarding this system (acmi, 2022). kabukuru’s (2023) report, titled “africa is chasing billions,” argues that although africa is responsible for only four per cent (4%) of global carbon emissions, it is one of the region’s world regions most severely impacted by the climate change crisis. he notes that while the carbon compliance market in africa is nearly non-existent, voluntary carbon markets are are growing. however, these voluntary markets on the continent are contentious, facing criticism for being opaque, discriminatory, unfair, and ineffective in addressing development and climate policy. kabukuru (2023) concludes with a call to action, stating that for africa’s involvement in carbon markets to genuinely benefit the continent, its people, and its environment, the approach must change. he emphasises pa ge 22 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 221-232, 2025 the need for fair cost-sharing, transparency, respect for indigenous land rights, and truly sustainable projects without greenwashing. materials and methods the search strategy-inclusion & exclusion criteria the study employed a systematic literature review (slr) methodology, as described by de freitas netto et al. (2020), allowing researchers to situate their work within the existing knowledge framework. the survey focused on publications and reports published in english between 2000 and 2025. the slr approach guarantees a thorough identification of relevant studies while reducing bias and subjectivity (higgins et al., 2021). the review adhered to prisma guidelines (page et al., 2021) and examined voluntary carbon market mechanisms, focusing on the african region through a boolean proximity search to unravel related terms or phrases such as “carbon offsets in africa”, “voluntary carbon markets africa,” “carbon finance and africa”, “carbon colonialism africa,” “carbon brokers africa”, “carbon market integrity africa” and “carbon credit governance africa”, among others. a vos viewer software mapping technique was employed to help filter out duplicate papers by constructing bibliometric networks based on citation metrics (moya-clemente et al., 2021). the academic databases surveyed in this study included multidisciplinary academic databases such as the web of science (wos) and google scholar. in addition, subject-specific databases such as taylor and francis online (specifically, african development, governance and environmental studies) and jstor (focusing on african studies, governance, and political economy of carbon markets) were also surveyed. the african development bank (afbd) publications and the united nations environment program (unep) climate finance portal were surveyed for policy and development databases. the industry literature surveyed was the african carbon markets initiative (acmi), chatham house (for policy reports on carbon finance and africa), taskforce on scaling voluntary carbon markets (tsvcm) and forest trends’ ecosystem marketplace. results and discussions the search protocol between august 1 and august 31, 2025, yielded 759 peer-reviewed articles, industry reports, figure 1: prisma 2021 flow diagram: article inclusion and exclusion protocol and policy reports published in english. google scholar yielded the largest number of papers (n=198). 9 duplicates and 4 grey literature were removed. similarly, 17 compliance or emissions trading systems (ets) papers were also removed. this results in the final sample of 742 papers. table 3 reports a summary of table 3: summary of paper categories per country country peer-reviewed paper conference proceedings industry & policy reports sub-total south africa 11 6 47 64 kenya 26 15 17 58 tanzania 13 9 24 46 pa ge 22 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 221-232, 2025 ethiopia 10 4 14 28 uganda 9 2 6 17 rwanda 21 7 18 46 zambia 11 5 13 29 zimbabwe 16 8 23 47 ghana 18 7 20 45 senegal 12 2 12 26 ivory coast 7 1 15 23 cameroon 5 0 11 16 congo drc 9 3 11 23 mozambique 6 3 6 15 madagascar 7 4 11 22 gabon 4 0 10 14 nigeria 34 11 41 86 egypt 20 9 34 63 tunisia 14 6 13 33 morocco 17 9 15 41 total: n 742 papers in each respective country surveyed in this study. it is easy to see from table 3 that industry and policy reports dominated the number of papers surveyed in most countries in the sample. grey literature, especially industry and policy reports, is vital in influencing the understanding and practices within africa’s carbon offset markets. in contrast to peer-reviewed academic articles, grey literature offers timely, practical, and contextspecific insights that are crucial in a swiftly changing policy and market landscape in africa. reports from industry consultancies, registries, and carbon standard organisations frequently provide current data on carbon credit prices, issuance volumes, project pipelines, and cobenefits, which are seldom found in academic publications (world bank, 2023). likewise, policy reports and white papers released by african governments, the african carbon markets initiative (acmi), and multilateral entities such as the african development bank (afdb) deliver essential guidance on regulatory frameworks, benefit-sharing mechanisms, monitoring systems, and financing models that influence project feasibility (acmi, 2022; afdb, 2021). in africa, where carbon markets are still developing, grey literature often acts as the primary evidence base for policymakers, investors, and project developers, particularly in sectors such as forestry, cookstoves, and blue carbon (huxham et al., 2023). moreover, since many developments in african carbon markets are closely linked to international negotiations (e.g., cop processes), industry and policy briefs frequently serve as the initial sources to document changes in global standards and financing trends. although this literature does not undergo the rigorous peer review typical of academic work, its frequency and accessibility ranging from annual flagship “state of the market” reports to quarterly market trend updates and event-driven policy briefs, render it essential. users are encouraged to crossreference multiple reputable sources to address concerns regarding bias or inconsistent methodological quality. in summary, grey literature addresses data deficiencies and offers actionable intelligence that supports the development and governance of carbon offset markets in africa. opportunities gleaned from literature the literature underscores numerous opportunities to advance climate action in africa by implementing carbon offset markets and related initiatives. the opportunities include the following: climate finance and employment the africa carbon markets initiative (acmi) outlines a potential path for expanding voluntary carbon market (vcm) activities, projecting an increase from approximately 22 million tonnes of co₂ equivalent (mtco₂e) retired in 2021 to several hundred million tonnes of co₂ equivalent (mtco₂e) annually by 2030 to 2050. if this anticipated growth is achieved with strong integrity and governance frameworks, it could yield billions of dollars in revenue and create significant job opportunities (acmi, 2022; acmi, 2024–2025; sustainable energy for all, n.d.). nature-based solutions (nbs) africa’s diverse ecosystems, including forests, savannas, and blue-carbon systems such as mangroves and seagrass, present considerable opportunities for carbon mitigation. these nature-based solutions capture carbon and offer additional benefits for biodiversity and resilience. successful community-driven models in kenya, such as mikoko pamoja and vanga, illustrate the potential for pa ge 22 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 221-232, 2025 achieving measurable social and environmental benefits (wylie et al., 2016; huxham et al., 2023; international finance corporation, ifc, 2023). energy access and health initiatives focused on clean cooking are crucial to africa’s carbon markets. reducing dependence on biomass fuels can provide significant health and gender benefits. recent research suggests that methodologies aligned with integrity can enhance the environmental and social impacts of these programs (gill-wiehl et al., 2024; reuters, 2024/2025). energy access and health initiatives focused on clean cooking are crucial to africa’s carbon markets. reducing dependence on biomass fuels can provide significant health and gender benefits. recent research suggests that methodologies aligned with integrity can enhance the environmental and social impacts of these programs (gill-wiehl et al., 2024; reuters, 2024/2025). market architecture reforms the integrity council for the voluntary carbon market (icvcm) has introduced core carbon principles (ccps), while the voluntary carbon markets integrity initiative (vcmi) has established a claims code. these frameworks are designed to enhance buyer confidence and enable price premiums for high-integrity carbon credits. as of may 2024, icvcm approvals included programs responsible for nearly 98% of carbon credits. challenges faced by carbon offset markets in africa corruption, weak governance, and limited transparency tend to reduce the quality and integrity of carbon offsets in africa. intermediaries capture a significant share of carbon credit value, sometimes as high as 70%, leaving less funding for local communities (pagop & savard, 2024). additionally, “carbon colonialism” emerges when foreign investors exploit cheap land for offsets, disadvantaging indigenous or local populations. this weakens trust in africa’s carbon offset market system (acmi, 2022). carbon offsets credit integrity challenges voluntary carbon markets face significant challenges regarding credit integrity, particularly in terms of additionality, baselines, leakage, and permanence. recent analyses have revealed trends of over-crediting in various methodologies, such as cookstove initiatives and avoided deforestation projects, often due to unrealistic baselines or inadequate monitoring (probst et al., 2024; gill-wiehl et al., 2024). this has led standard-setting organisations to update methodologies to restore credibility and ensure credits reflect genuine climate benefits. without strong credit integrity, the effectiveness of carbon offset markets in africa as a climate solution remains at risk. social safeguards, benefit sharing and carbon colonialism as part of the vcms, carbon offsets also face challenges related to social safeguards and the equitable distribution of benefits. evidence from large-scale forest carbon programs, such as the mai-ndombe initiative in the democratic republic of congo, illustrates recurring tensions over indigenous peoples’ and local communities’ (iplcs) rights, grievances, and benefitsharing arrangements (rainforest foundation uk, 2020; cifor-icraf, 2024). the african forestry impact platform (afip) bankrolled by european development finance institutions, japanese oil interests, and an australian investment firm, exemplifies green colonialism. despite afip’s claim of promoting “greenbased solutions,” in africa, there is a worrisome trend of exploitation and greenwashing that underscores its investments, stakeholders, and financial backers. afip’s first acquisition is green resources, a norwegian plantation forestry and carbon credit company, is notorious for its history of land grabbing, human rights violations, and environmental destruction across uganda, mozambique, and tanzania. other examples include the kariba carbon offset projects in zimbabwe (vida, 2024), the northern kenya grassland carbon project (survival international, 2022) and the evictions in tanzania’s ngorongoro area (bariyo and parkinson, 2023). in all these situations, communities have frequently reported being excluded from decision-making processes, having limited access to revenues, and having insufficient grievance mechanisms. these findings underscore the importance of incorporating robust social safeguards and anti-carbon/green colonialism measures to ensure that climate finance supports local livelihoods and rights. market volatility and demand uncertainty following a significant increase in transactions throughout 2021–2022, the voluntary carbon markets (vcms) encountered a deceleration in 2023–2024, characterised by a decline in trading volumes and a stabilisation in retirement levels. this fluctuation has amplified uncertainty for both project developers and investors, as buyer confidence becomes increasingly dependent on the perceived reliability of credit and the changing requirements for corporate disclosure (ecosystem marketplace, 2023, 2024, 2025; financial times, 2024). the divergence in buyer expectations and the absence of uniform global standards have exacerbated this uncertainty, highlighting the necessity for more definitive integrity signals and coordinated governance. regulatory complexity and double counting regulatory complexity continues to pose a fundamental challenge to the expansion of vcms (carbon offset markets) in africa. the merging of voluntary markets with compliance frameworks, particularly in relation to article 6 of the paris agreement, introduces challenges concerning accounting practices, the risk of double counting, and the necessary adjustments corresponding pa ge 22 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 221-232, 2025 to national climate commitments (world bank, 2024; voluntary carbon markets integrity initiative, vcmi, 2023). although guidance is progressively developing, the lack of standardized regulations and the potential for conflicting assertions among nations and corporations persist in undermining confidence and investment. consequently, aligning vcms with national climate strategies is crucial to guarantee both environmental integrity and political legitimacy. what the evidence says-selected cases from the african region community forestry and smallholder agroforestryuganda community-based forestry initiatives have revealed both the opportunities and obstacles associated with smallholder participation in voluntary carbon markets. a notable instance is trees for global benefits (tgb) in uganda, which was initiated in 2003 under the plan vivo standard. tgb has effectively facilitated the involvement of smallholder farmers in long-term crediting schemes through agroforestry practices, resulting in the generation of verified credits while fostering biodiversity and sustainable land management (plan vivo/ecotrust, 2003). nevertheless, critical evaluations raise concerns regarding the fairness of benefit distribution and the relatively high transaction costs that smallholders encounter when engaging in carbon markets (schreckenberg, 2011; global forest coalition, 2020). although tgb underscores the viability of smallholder participation, it also emphasises the necessity of creating inclusive systems that alleviate administrative burdens and guarantee equitable outcomes. blue carbon initiatives in kenya kenya has emerged as a leader in blue carbon initiatives, exemplified by projects such as mikoko pamoja and the vanga blue forest, which serve as global benchmarks for integrating ecosystem restoration with carbon credit systems. these projects prioritise the conservation and restoration of mangroves, yielding climate mitigation advantages along with additional benefits such as improved fisheries, coastal protection, and enhanced biodiversity (wylie et al., 2016; huxham et al., 2023). furthermore, they are distinguished by their robust community governance, with generated revenues allocated to education, water supply, and other local needs (glf/ cifor, 2018). however, the issues of governance and equitable benefit-sharing are crucial for their sustained legitimacy, as concerns linger regarding the fairness of resource distribution among the communities involved. these examples underscore blue carbon’s promise while emphasising the necessity for inclusive and transparent governance frameworks. cookstove projects and methodological integrity enhanced cookstoves have historically been a favoured segment within voluntary carbon markets; however, recent empirical research indicates considerable overcrediting associated with traditional methodologies. investigations have demonstrated that the assumptions regarding stove utilisation and emissions reductions were overly optimistic, resulting in inflated credit allocations (gill-wiehl et al., 2024). in light of this, standard-setting organisations and the integrity council for the voluntary carbon market (icvcm) have initiated revisions to methodologies, with new regulations focusing on metered usage and real-world monitoring to enhance precision (uc berkeley, 2024; reuters, 2025). these modifications are essential for reinstating environmental integrity and sustaining buyer trust in a prominent project category that directly impacts household energy accessibility and health. national rulemaking and regulatory frameworks african nations are progressively working to create national frameworks that govern participation in voluntary carbon markets. for example, kenya’s 2024 carbon trading regulations, zimbabwe’s statutory instruments (2023, 2025), and ghana’s carbon registry exemplify a broader continental movement towards formalizing access, approvals, benefit-sharing, and registry systems (kenya gazette, 2024; veritas, 2023; ghana gcr, 2024). these regulatory advancements address previous governance deficiencies, where inadequate oversight rendered projects susceptible to inequities and global criticism. by establishing definitive legal frameworks, these countries seek to enhance domestic control over carbon revenues, ensure compliance with national climate obligations, and foster trust among local stakeholders. where consensus is emerging high-integrity architecture as a prerequisite for scaling up within the voluntary carbon market (vcm) realm, there is a growing consensus that establishing a high-integrity architecture is crucial for rebuilding trust and driving substantial growth. the core carbon principles (ccps) set forth by the integrity council for the voluntary carbon market (icvcm), along with the claims framework of the voluntary carbon markets integrity initiative (vcmi) and the emerging national regulations, are progressively acknowledged as the predominant pathway forward (icvcm, 2024; vcmi, 2023). initial indicators are promising, with icvcm declaring coverage of the majority of significant crediting programs and investors exhibiting renewed assurance. however, experts emphasize that reforms at the method level and reliable enforcement mechanisms are essential to ensure that integrity principles yield tangible climate impacts in the real world (reuters, 2024). africa’s strength in nature-based solutions and associated benefits africa possesses a significant comparative advantage due to its extensive potential for nature-based solutions (nbs), especially in areas such as forestry, savannas, and pa ge 23 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 221-232, 2025 table 4: proposed framework for addressing identified gaps in carbon offset markets gap framework element rationale & expected contribution design for consent and equity embedding fpic, transparent benefitsharing, grievance mechanisms, and independent monitoring ensures fair outcomes for indigenous peoples, local communities, and stakeholders in carbon offset initiatives. guarantees that carbon offset initiatives honor community rights, mitigate the dangers of "carbon colonialism," and bolster local legitimacy. incorporating consent and transparency measures promotes equity and fortifies long-term sustainability (rainforest foundation uk, 2020; kengoum, 2024). upgrade mrv systems expanding the availability of cost-effective digital and metered measurement, reporting, and verification (mrv) systems for cookstoves and renewable energy sources can improve the precision of credits and leverage the capacity of africa's offset carbon market. transitioning from theoretical benchmarks to practical usage data mitigates over-crediting and enhances credit quality. implementing digital mrv bolsters credibility and draws in purchasers seeking high-integrity credits (gill-wiehl et al., 2024). price discovery and demand signals establish transparent price-tracking platforms for core carbon principles (ccp)–labelled credits, monitor the science based targets initiative (sbti) guidance, and assess africa’s project bankability implications. it helps african developers predict changes in demand, mitigate market fluctuations, and offer reliable standards for negotiations. tracking the adoption of ccp and the establishment of corporate regulations improves investment preparedness and boosts buyer confidence (ecosystem marketplace, 2025; reuters, 2024). clarify the paris (2025) agreement expand national registries and approval processes per article 6 guidelines. adjust international credit claims to align with evolving corporate claims standards, such as vcmi. it avoids the issue of double-counting between corporate purchasers and host nations' nationally determined contributions (ndcs). this enhances africa's bargaining power in international markets and fosters greater alignment between voluntary and compliance markets (world bank, 2024; vcmi, 2023; kenya gazette, 2024; ghana epa/gcr, 2024). blue carbon ecosystems. these solutions can provide both carbon and non-carbon co-benefits, including biodiversity conservation, improved livelihoods, and enhanced adaptation strategies. however, for these projects to scale successfully, it is essential that the rights, consent, and equitable value-sharing with indigenous peoples and local communities (iplcs) are integrated from the beginning (rainforest foundation uk, 2020; kengoum, 2024; reuters, 2024). without robust safeguards, there is a danger of perpetuating extractive practices that could erode community legitimacy and foster what is termed ‘carbon colonialism.’ nevertheless, well-structured jurisdictional and large-land initiatives have the potential to serve as exemplary models of integrated climate and development benefits, provided that governance frameworks emphasise fairness and accountability. conclusion this study presents a systematic review of carbon offset markets in africa, conducted through a prisma-guided systematic literature review and a bibliometric analysis of peer-reviewed and grey literature published between 2000 and 2025. the findings underscore africa’s vast potential in carbon offsets, rooted in its biodiversity and natural resource endowment, while also unravelling persistent challenges that undermine the effectiveness and equity of carbon offset markets in africa. governance deficiencies, corruption, lack of transparency, and inequitable benefit-sharing remain major barriers to credibility and sustainability of carbon offset markets in the region (acmi, 2022; unep, 2022). furthermore, exploitative intermediation and “carbon colonialism” have limited community participation and raised ethical concerns over land ownership and justice (kabukuru, 2023). methodological weaknesses, especially in forestry and cookstove projects, have led to overestimation of emission reductions and compromised market integrity (gill-wiehl et al., 2024). however, notwithstanding the challenges, the literature also identifies key opportunities in carbon offsets, which include leveraging nature-based solutions (nbs), such as blue carbon and reforestation, to deliver co-benefits for climate, biodiversity, and livelihoods (huxham et al., 2023). the study proposes a reform framework anchored in free, prior, and informed consent (fpic), digital and metered measurement, reporting, and verification (mrv) systems, transparent carbon pricing mechanisms, and harmonization of national registries with article 6 of the paris agreement (world bank, 2024; vcmi, 2023). implementing these measures could pa ge 23 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 221-232, 2025 strengthen credit integrity, attract sustainable investment, enhance africa’s position in global carbon markets and ensure that carbon trading contributes equitably to the continent’s sustainable development goals. references acmi. 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(2016). blue carbon and community development: the case of mikoko pamoja in kenya. marine policy, 72, 117–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2016.06.026 pa ge 1 pa ge 16 3 american journal of environmental economics (ajee) optional and mandatory retirement among philippine national police (pnp) personnel in police regional office (pro) mimaropa loida i. mendoza1* volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2833-7905 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v3i1.5649 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee article information abstract received: july 01, 2025 accepted: august 07, 2025 published: september 12, 2025 this study explored and compared the perceived quality of life after optional retirement and mandatory retirement among philippine national police (pnp) personnel in police regional office (pro) mimaropa as a basis for the development of a retirement decision-making framework. the study used an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design, starting with quantitative data collection through surveys and followed by qualitative interviews for deeper understanding. the quantitative phase involved 157 retired pnp personnel selected through simple random sampling. the research instrument is a researcher-made questionnaire validated and tested for reliability. data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, t-tests, and regression analysis. results revealed that both compulsory and optional retirement affect post-retirement life in different ways. support services must consider individual needs for effective retirement planning. introduction retirement for government employees is a transition that marks the end of an individual’s formal career in public service. the concept of retirement may differ for different individuals; some prefer to hold on the present retirement age or at times would even want to retire a little later. they defend their stand by saying that they are still capable of effective performance. however, studies also show that an increasing number of individuals are starting a trend towards early retirement. whichever their stand may be, one thing remains, that the workers must feel ready and willing to retire when they do. psychological consequences of retirement as a whole should be positive. the family relations dictates the satisfaction in retirement since not only the family members are the most affected in the process, but it is also true that they will be the ones supporting the retiree in this transition. being cut from the people who constitute the bulk of social acquaintances may cause shock to some retirees, but studies suggest that a good way to socialize is to join social organizations. for those who had been economically independent for forty-five (45) to fifty-five (55) years, retirement may be frightening because of the possibility of not being able to sustain oneself and one’s family. globally, retirement policies often aim to balance workforce renewal and retirees’ welfare. for instance, phased retirement schemes in the united states are designed to offer employees a gradual transition from full-time employment to retirement. unlike the traditional concept of abruptly ceasing work, phased retirement keywords mandatory retirement, optional retirement, perceived quality of life, philippine national police (pnp) personnel, police regional office (pro) mimaropa, retirement decision-making framework 1 mindoro state university, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: loydamendo282000@gmail.com allows individuals to reduce their working hours over a defined period while maintaining a portion of their income and employment benefits. this approach provides older workers with greater flexibility, enabling them to ease into retirement at their own pace. according to szinovacz (2020), these programs are particularly beneficial for employees who may not be ready—financially or emotionally—to leave the workforce entirely. they also allow organizations to retain experienced workers, leveraging their knowledge and expertise while helping younger employees transition into key roles. phased retirement is increasingly viewed as a practical solution to address the challenges of an aging workforce, workforce retention, and the evolving needs of employees in the later stages of their careers. on the other hand, flexible pension plans in europe reflect a more adaptable approach to retirement financing, tailored to meet the diverse financial needs of retirees. unlike rigid pension structures, flexible plans offer retirees the ability to adjust their pension income based on individual circumstances, such as changes in health, family responsibilities, or financial goals. schelkle (2020) highlights how these systems allow retirees to decide when and how they access their pension funds, providing financial security while accommodating different lifestyles and preferences. in practice, this means retirees can opt for lump-sum withdrawals, steady monthly disbursements, or variable payments depending on their needs. these adaptable frameworks not only empower retirees with greater control over their finances pa ge 16 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 163-184, 2025 but also respond to demographic and economic changes, such as increased life expectancy and evolving retirement patterns. government employees in the philippines are subject to a compulsory retirement age of 65 years, although optional retirement can occur earlier, typically after 15 years of service. this policy aims to balance the workforce’s needs with the benefits provided to retirees, which include monthly pensions based on years of service and rank. for police personnel, the retirement age is set at 56 years for uniformed officers, reflecting the physically demanding nature of their roles. the retirement benefits for police officers can be substantial, with pensions calculated as a percentage of their base pay and longevity pay, increasing with additional years of service. however, the retirement experience vary between government employees and police personnel due to differences in job stressors, societal perceptions, and available support systems postretirement. police officers face unique challenges such as mental health issues related to their service experiences and a potential lack of community integration after leaving active duty make their retirement journey distinct from that of other government employees. the mandatory retirement age of 56 years old is in line with the national police commission (napolcom) resolution no. 91-18, which states that any pnp member who has reached the maximum compulsory retirement age of 56 shall be compulsorily retired. compulsory retirement is a policy governing the retirement of government personnel, particularly those in uniformed services such as the police. for uniformed personnel, compulsory retirement occurs upon reaching the age of fifty-six (56). this age limit is established to ensure that officers transition out of active duty at a point where they may still have opportunities for personal and professional development in their post-service lives. the rationale behind this policy is multifaceted; it aims to maintain a dynamic and physically capable workforce within the police force while also addressing the mental and physical demands of law enforcement. meanwhile, optional retirement in the philippine national police (pnp) refers to the choice given to pnp personnel to retire from service before reaching the mandatory retirement age. optional retirement provides an alternative pathway for government personnel who wish to retire before reaching the compulsory retirement age. under this provision, both officers and non-officers can opt for retirement after accumulating at least twenty (20) years of satisfactory active service. this is to make a personal choice regarding their retirement based on their circumstances, aspirations, and readiness for life beyond their careers in public service. the process requires the approval of the national police commission (napolcom), ensuring that retirements are managed systematically and that individuals meet specific criteria before exiting the service. the ability to retire optionally after two decades of service offers several benefits to personnel. it recognizes the dedication and commitment of employees who have invested significant time in their roles while providing them with flexibility to pursue new opportunities or personal interests earlier in life. this can be particularly appealing for those who may wish to transition into new careers, engage in further education, or focus on family commitments. additionally, optional retirement can serve as a motivational factor for personnel, encouraging them to maintain high performance levels throughout their careers, knowing that they have the opportunity to retire early if they choose. this provision not only supports individual career planning but also contributes to workforce management within government agencies by allowing for periodic renewal and adaptation of skills within the ranks. currently, majority of the studies focused on attitudes and retirement planning behaviours (censoro, 2023; kadir et al., 2020; rokhman, 2021), retirement expectations (crawford et al., 2020), and influence of financial literacy on retirement planning (dhlembeu et al., 2022). there is a notable absence of research focused on how socio-demographic factors, such as age, rank, and length of service, specifically impact the perceived quality of life after retirement—both optional and mandatory. importantly, there is a significant gap in the comparative analysis of the perceived quality of life between those who choose optional retirement and those who undergo mandatory retirement among pnp personnel in pro mimaropa. the intensified research gap in this study is the limited understanding of how socio-demographic factors, personal motivations, and career satisfaction influence the perceived quality of life of philippine national police (pnp) personnel after retirement. existing literature lacks a focused examination of the unique experiences of law enforcement personnel, particularly the comparative outcomes of optional versus mandatory retirement. this gap is important to fill because retirement policies for uniformed personnel, such as the national police commission’s (napolcom) mandatory retirement age of 56, are designed primarily for workforce management rather than ensuring the individual’s readiness or postretirement quality of life. the absence of in-depth analysis on factors like health expectations, family relationships, and social activities post-retirement leaves a void that the government need to address to improve retirees’ overall well-being. with the foregoing discussions above, this study determined the socio-demographic profile of the respondents in terms of age, rank, and length of service; perceived quality of life after optional and mandatory retirement of the respondents in terms of health expectations, family relationships, and social activities. also, this study assessed the significant difference between the assessment of the respondents on their perceived quality of life after optional retirement and perceived quality of life after mandatory retirement. in addition, how personal motivations, career satisfaction, pa ge 16 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 163-184, 2025 and future aspirations shape the decision-making process of pnp personnel regarding retirement was assessed. materials and methods research design this study utilized a descriptivecomparative and correlational research design. the socio-demographic profile of the respondents in terms of age, rank, and length of service; and the extent of perceived quality of life after optional and mandatory retirement of the respondents in terms of health expectations, family relationships, and social activities were described. the quantitative comparative research technique was used in this study to determine the significant difference between the assessment of the respondents on their extent of perceived quality of life after optional retirement and extent of perceived quality of life after mandatory retirement. the quantitative correlational research technique was used in this study to understand how the socio-demographic profile of the respondents influenced their extent of perceived quality of life after optional and mandatory retirement. population, sample size, and sampling technique for the quantitative case, the respondents of this study were 157 individuals consisting of two main groups. the respondents included retired pnp personnel who left the service between 2022 and 2024. this group encompassed 35 individuals who had opted for compulsory retirement and 122 individuals who had undergone optional retirement during this period. the respondents were selected using simple random sampling through the raosoft sample size calculator. table 1: distribution of respondents particulars 2022 2023 2024 total population sample size compulsory 16 6 16 38 35 optional 95 19 64 178 122 total 111 25 80 216 157 data gathering procedure a set of procedures guided the researcher in gathering all the pertinent data needed for this research. a letter was sent for approval to the officer-in-charge, pnp retirement and benefits unit, pro mimaropa. upon receiving consent, the researcher distributed the survey questionnaires personally and via google forms. analysis and interpretation were done to discuss the results and formulate conclusions and recommendations. research instrument the researcher used a researcher-made questionnaire to determine the socio-demographic profile of the respondents in terms of age, rank, and length of service; and the extent of perceived quality of life after optional and mandatory retirement of the respondents in terms of health expectations, family relationships, and social activities. the survey questionnaire was divided into three sections. the first part contained the socio-demographic profile of the respondents in terms of age, rank, and length of service. the second part asked about the extent of perceived quality of life after optional retirement of the respondents in terms of health expectations, family relationships, and social activities. the third part asked about the extent of perceived quality of life after mandatory retirement of the respondents in terms of the same areas. validity and reliability the validity of the instruments was evaluated to ascertain their excellent quality. it was crucial to assess the consistency and correctness of the research tools. the researcher created a prototype questionnaire about perceived quality of life after mandatory retirement to ensure validity, and the items were designed to accurately reflect perceived quality of life after optional and mandatory retirement. experts reviewed all the questionnaire items for readability, clarity, and comprehensiveness before agreeing on which ones should be included in the final questionnaire. the researcher asked the opinion of three experts for content validation. these experts held a master’s degree in public administration and were experts in the english language to check grammar and sentence construction. following the experts’ recommendations, the survey questionnaire was appropriately amended. to enhance and support the instrument’s content, the researcher incorporated and adjusted it in response to the comments and suggestions. reliability was evaluated using test-retest procedures. the instrument was tested on 10 non-respondents of the study and was administered again to the same set of individuals at separate times 10 days apart. pearson’s r was applied to investigate reliability in greater detail. the reliability test results for the perceived quality of life after optional retirement show strong internal consistency across all measured areas. the alpha value for health expectations is 0.946, which indicates a very high level of reliability, suggesting that the items used to measure retirees’ health expectations are consistently aligned and effectively capture this dimension. similarly, family relationships recorded an alpha value of 0.854, which, although slightly lower, still falls within the reliable range, meaning that the questions regarding family interactions and support are coherent and dependable in reflecting retirees’ perceptions. the social activities area yielded an alpha value of 0.918, again confirming high reliability, pa ge 16 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 163-184, 2025 showing that the items related to social engagements, participation, and community involvement after optional retirement are measuring consistently. for the perceived quality of life after mandatory retirement, the reliability values are also very strong. health expectations yielded an alpha value of 0.937, which points to excellent internal consistency and indicates that the scale reliably measures retirees’ health outlook and expectations. family relationships obtained an alpha value of 0.914, showing a solid and reliable measurement of family dynamics and interactions in the context of mandatory retirement. the social activities domain produced the highest alpha value among all areas at 0.961, reflecting exceptionally high internal consistency and confirming that the questions effectively capture retirees’ social involvement and activity levels after mandatory retirement. table 2: reliability test result areas a l p h a value intepretation perceived quality of life after optional retirement health expectations 0.946 reliable family relationships 0.854 reliable social activities 0.918 reliable perceived quality of life after mandatory retirement health expectations 0.937 reliable family relationships 0.914 reliable social activities 0.961 reliable table 3: 4-point likert scale for the assessment of the perceived quality of life after optional retirement option score range description 4 3.50 – 4.00 great extent 3 2.50 – 3.49 moderate extent 2 1.50 – 2.49 slight extent 1 1.00 – 1.49 least extent table 4: 4-point likert scale for the assessment of the perceived quality of life after mandatory retirement option score range description 4 3.50 – 4.00 great extent 3 2.50 – 3.49 moderate extent 2 1.50 – 2.49 slight extent 1 1.00 – 1.49 least extent scaling and interpretation the researcher used a 4-point likert scale, which required the respondents to indicate a degree of agreement or figure disagreement with each of a series of statements about the stimulus objects. table 3 presented the scale and its interpretation for the assessment of the extent of perceived quality of life after optional retirement of the respondents in terms of health expectations, family relationships, and social activities being practiced. table 4 presents the scale and its interpretation for the assessment of the extent of perceived quality of life after mandatory retirement of the respondents in terms of health expectations, family relationships, and social activities. data analysis frequency and percentage were used to summarize the socio-demographic profile of the respondents in terms of age, rank, and length of service. mean was utilized to summarize the socio-demographic profile of the respondents in terms of age, rank, and length of service, as well as the extent of perceived quality of life after optional and mandatory retirement in terms of health expectations, family relationships, and social activities. mean was computed by dividing the sum of the products of each observed value and the number of times it occurred by the total number of observations. further, multiple linear regression was utilized to determine how the socio-demographic profile of the respondents influenced their extent of perceived quality of life after optional retirement. meanwhile, the t-test was utilized to determine significant differences between the respondents’ assessments of their extent of perceived quality of life after optional retirement and after mandatory retirement. ethical considerations this study followed ethical standards and the provisions of republic act no. 10173 or the data privacy act of 2012. the purpose of the study was explained clearly to all participants. they joined the study voluntarily and were told they could stop at any time without any consequences. to ensure no harm came to the participants, the interview questions were carefully designed to avoid distress. if any participant felt uncomfortable, help and support were made available. permission from proper authorities was secured before the start of data collection. the researcher also respected the culture and background of all respondents. data collected were kept private and secure. personal information was not linked to the responses. only the researcher had access to the data. the files were stored in password-protected folders. after the study ended, the data were archived properly following data protection guidelines. the participants were also informed about the benefits of the study. results and discussion 1. socio-demographic profile of the respondents. this section presents the socio-demographic profile of the respondents in terms of age, rank, length of service, civil status, type of family, highest educational attainment, and salary grade. age. table 1 shows the socio-demographic profile of the respondents in terms of age. pa ge 16 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 163-184, 2025 table 5: age age compulsory optional counts % of total cumulative % counts % of total cumulative % 41–45 years old 0 0 % 0 % 19 15.6 % 15.6 % 46–50 years old 0 0 % 0 % 34 27.9 % 43.4 % 51–55 years old 0 0 % 0 % 69 56.6 % 97.5 % 56 years old and above 35 100 % 100.0 % 0 0 % 0 % table 6: rank rank compulsory optional counts % of total cumulative % counts % of total cumulative % police lieutenant colonel (pltcol) 4 11.4 % 80.0 % 12 9.8 % 97.5 % police captain (pcpt) 7 20.0 % 20.0 % 33 27.0 % 77.9 % police lieutenant (plt) 1 2.9 % 68.6 % 6 4.9 % 82.8 % police executive master sergeant (pems) 9 25.7 % 65.7 % 47 38.5 % 38.5 % police chief master sergeant (pcms) 7 20.0 % 40.0 % 6 4.9 % 87.7 % police senior master sergeant (psms) 4 11.4 % 100.0 % 3 2.5 % 100.0 % police master sergeant (pmsg) 3 8.6 % 88.6 % 15 12.3 % 50.8 % the compulsory retirement group, as seen in table 1, shows a varied age distribution, with the largest proportion of respondents falling in the 56 years old and above. this aligns with the findings of reluao et al. (2023), where the mandatory retirement age is a key factor in public sector employment. according to the government service insurance system (2023), government employees in the philippines are required to retire by age 65, with the option for early retirement at 60. this also reinforce the idea that the 56 years old and above group is nearing the required retirement age (government service insurance system, 2023). this age profile is consistent with the ongoing legislative discussions about the mandatory retirement age in the philippines. the proposed changes to lower the optional retirement age from 60 to 56 (republic of the philippines, 2023) could significantly impact this group. such changes might make early retirement more accessible, providing individuals in this age range with more flexibility and financial independence, as highlighted by the policy recommendations of censoro and hasani (2023). for the optional retirement group, the age distribution also reveals some key trends. the 51–55 years old group constitutes the largest portion, with 56.6% of the respondents. this suggests that most individuals who opt for voluntary retirement are in their early 50s, aligning with findings from reluao et al. (2023), where early retirement offers the chance for individuals to focus on personal hobbies, family, and financial independence. the 46–50 years old group follows closely, comprising 27.9% of the respondents. this indicates that many pnp personnel in this age range also choose to retire early, perhaps influenced by factors such as career satisfaction, financial readiness, or personal goals. the 41–45 years old category makes up 15.6% of the sample, showing that some individuals in their early 40s consider early retirement as well, although this is less common than those in their 50s. the optional retirement group predominantly consists of individuals in their early 50s, a trend that reflects the desire for financial freedom, personal time, and better quality of life. this trend is supported by studies suggesting that greater retirement packages and incentives could encourage earlier retirements, as emphasized by censoro and hasani (2023). additionally, the smaller proportion of individuals in the 56 years old and above group in the optional retirement category suggests that most personnel in the pnp choose to retire before reaching this age, a decision influenced by a combination of personal readiness and the evolving retirement policies in the country. the policies surrounding retirement in the philippines, including the potential reduction of the optional retirement age, have a clear influence on these trends, providing individuals more flexibility in their decision-making processes (reluao et al., 2023; republic of the philippines, 2023; censoro & hasani, 2023). pa ge 16 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 163-184, 2025 rank table 2 presents the socio-demographic profile of the respondents in terms of their rank, as assessed by the pnp personnel in police regional office (pro) mimaropa. the rank distribution of pnp personnel in the compulsory retirement group shows that most respondents are in mid-level to higher ranks. the police executive master sergeant (pems) rank stands out, comprising 25.7% of the respondents, representing 9 individuals. this suggests that a significant portion of those nearing compulsory retirement hold this senior non-commissioned officer position, possibly due to their long tenure in service. both the police captain (pcpt) and police chief master sergeant (pcms) ranks account for 20% each, with 7 respondents in each category. these figures indicate that many individuals nearing compulsory retirement in the pnp are also in leadership positions, which come with added responsibilities, leading them to retire once they reach the mandatory retirement age. the police lieutenant colonel (pltcol) rank comprises 11.4% of the sample, showing that some mid-level officers are approaching the mandatory retirement age. other ranks, such as police master sergeant (pmsg) and police senior master sergeant (psms), account for smaller percentages but still reflect a presence in the compulsory retirement group. these findings align with reluao et al. (2023), who highlighted that as employees approach retirement age, especially in leadership roles, they are more likely to retire to make space for younger generations, which is especially pertinent in the context of the pnp and other sectors like public service. in the optional retirement group, there is a noticeable difference in the rank distribution compared to the compulsory retirement group. the police executive master sergeant (pems) rank is the largest category, comprising 38.5% of the respondents, or 47 individuals. this suggests that many senior non-commissioned officers in the pnp opt for early retirement, likely due to a combination of personal readiness and the opportunity for financial independence, as noted by censoro and hasani (2023) in their discussion on the incentives of early retirement. the police captain (pcpt) rank follows closely, making up 27% of the sample with 33 respondents. this indicates that a significant number of mid-level officers also opt for early retirement when given the option, possibly due to a desire for personal time, hobbies, or family, a sentiment echoed in studies on retirement planning (reluao et al., 2023). other ranks, such as police lieutenant colonel (pltcol), police master sergeant (pmsg), and police senior master sergeant (psms), show smaller proportions in the optional retirement group, suggesting that while these ranks also retire early, it is less common compared to the higher-ranking officers. the fact that 6 police chief master sergeants (pcms) and 6 police lieutenants (plt) are also part of the optional retirement group suggests that individuals in these ranks still see the benefits of retiring early when provided with adequate incentives, such as better retirement packages and financial planning support (censoro & hasani, 2023). the rank distribution between the compulsory and optional retirement groups reveals that in the compulsory retirement group, there is a higher concentration of personnel in leadership and senior non-commissioned officer ranks, such as pems, pcpt, and pcms. these individuals are approaching the mandatory retirement age and are likely retiring due to the age restrictions. on the other hand, in the optional retirement group, a larger proportion of respondents belong to the pems and pcpt ranks, indicating that many higher-ranking officers are opting for early retirement, possibly for personal reasons such as health expectations, family time, and hobbies, as discussed in retirement planning studies (reluao et al., 2023; censoro & hasani, 2023). this difference in rank distribution highlights the varying motivations between those retiring due to mandatory requirements and those choosing early retirement for personal benefit. table 7: length of service length of service compulsory optional counts % of total cumulative % counts % of total cumulative % 20 years 0 0 % 0 % 3 2.5 % 100.0 % 21 years 0 0 % 0 % 0 0 0 22 years 0 0 % 0 % 16 13.1 % 13.1 % 25 years 0 0 % 0 % 54 44.3 % 97.5 % 26–30 years 35 100 % 100.0 % 49 40.2 % 53.3 % length of service table 7 illustrates the length of service of the respondents, as assessed by the participants. the length of service distribution for pnp personnel in the compulsory retirement group indicates a strong concentration of individuals who have served for 26–30 years, accounting for 100% of the sample. this suggests that many personnel in the compulsory retirement group have accumulated about 3 decades of service and are likely within the latter stages of their careers, close to retirement. the data supports findings from reluao et al. (2023), which suggest that individuals nearing mandatory retirement experience job dissatisfaction or other challenges, which could influence their decision to retire when the opportunity arises. in contrast, the optional retirement group shows a pa ge 16 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 163-184, 2025 significantly different pattern in terms of length of service where 44.3% of respondents have served 25 years and 40.2% having served between 26–30 years. these figures reflect a tendency for police personnel to opt for early retirement after reaching the point of having accumulated significant years of service. this supports the view from hilary and litsey (2019), which emphasized that some police officers voluntarily retire earlier than the mandatory retirement age due to job dissatisfaction or other personal reasons. in the case of optional retirement, individuals feel they have fulfilled their service requirements and are ready to transition into retirement, especially when they feel financially stable or have other opportunities to pursue. interestingly, there is a smaller representation of individuals in the 20–22 years service range, with only 2.5% having served 20 years and 13.1% having served 22 years. this shows that personnel in the optional retirement group tend to retire later in their careers, likely after reaching the threshold for eligibility but before the mandatory retirement age. the fact that no respondents have served for 21 years in the optional retirement group also points to a more gradual trend of retiring after longer service periods, as opposed to earlier, more immediate retirements. this distribution aligns with the findings of censoro and hasani (2023), which highlight the benefits of early retirement packages and financial incentives in motivating individuals to retire earlier, suggesting that some personnel in the optional retirement group have chosen to retire earlier due to these factors. these findings reinforce the notion that the optional retirement decision is often influenced by personal readiness, financial stability, and the desire for greater time for leisure or family pursuits, which are central motivations for early retirement. the compulsory retirement group primarily consists of individuals who have served 25 to 30 years, reflecting their proximity to the mandatory retirement age. the distribution indicates that most compulsory retirees have significant work experience, typically accumulated over 20 to 30 years. meanwhile, the optional retirement group shows a similar trend, with many personnel having served for 25 to 30 years. however, the optional retirement group also reveals a more noticeable inclination for early retirement within the later stages of service, as reflected by the larger portion of respondents in the 25–30 years service range. these patterns show the differences between those retiring due to mandatory regulations versus those choosing to retire early for personal or financial reasons, as highlighted in reluao et al. (2023) and hilary and litsey (2019). civil status table 4 outlines the civil status of the respondents, offering insights into how marital status affect the perceived quality of life after both optional and mandatory retirement. table 8: civil status civil status compulsory optional counts % of total cumulative % counts % of total cumulative % married 24 68.6 % 68.6 % 73 59.8 % 59.8 % single 5 14.3 % 82.9 % 15 12.3 % 100.0 % widowed 6 17.1 % 100.0 % 34 27.9 % 87.7 % in the compulsory retirement group, the majority of the respondents are married, with 24 individuals (68.6%) falling into this category. this indicates that marital status plays a significant role in the profiles of personnel nearing mandatory retirement. being married could affect the quality of life after retirement, as many retirees often prioritize spending time with their families and making adjustments to ensure financial stability for their spouses and children. according to censoro and hasani (2023), financial education and retirement incentives, which can benefit those with dependents, are essential to prepare for a life beyond work. furthermore, 6 respondents (17.1%) are widowed, suggesting that some individuals in this group face additional challenges post-retirement, such as emotional stress or changes in family dynamics. these widowed individuals be more dependent on their retirement benefits and financial planning to ensure a comfortable life after service. 5 respondents (14.3%) are single, representing a smaller portion of the group. single individuals experience a different set of challenges after retirement, as they are not directly responsible for a family but still face issues related to social isolation or personal fulfillment, which can be influenced by early retirement packages (censoro & hasani, 2023). in the optional retirement group, the distribution of civil status is somewhat similar, with a majority of 73 respondents (59.8%) being married. this suggests that, like in the compulsory retirement group, the majority of personnel who opt for early retirement are likely to have family responsibilities. this could impact their decisions to retire early, as they prioritize spending time with family and pursuing personal interests, as noted by reluao et al. (2023), who highlighted that some employees consider early retirement for the opportunity to enjoy personal hobbies and family time. 34 respondents (27.9%) in this group are widowed, which is a significant proportion compared to the compulsory group. this could indicate that individuals who are widowed opt for retirement earlier to focus on personal well-being and address familial obligations, aligning with censoro and hasani’s (2023) point about the importance of tailored support for retirees. finally, 15 respondents (12.3%) pa ge 17 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 163-184, 2025 are single, representing a smaller portion of the group. single individuals may be more flexible in their retirement decisions, though they might face different challenges, such as potential social isolation, as they do not have a spouse or children to support them post-retirement. according to hilary and litsey (2019), social factors such as these can influence retirement decisions, as individuals with less social support might experience different emotional and financial outcomes in retirement. the civil status of pnp personnel in both compulsory and optional retirement groups provides important insights into how marital status influence their perceptions of life after retirement. those who are married are likely to prioritize family well-being, while widowed or single individuals have different emotional and financial considerations. these findings align with studies that emphasize the need for specialized retirement planning that accounts for personal circumstances, such as family dynamics, in order to ensure a smooth transition into retirement (censoro & hasani, 2023; reluao et al., 2023). type of family table 5 presents the type of family structure of the respondents, as assessed by the participants in the study. the type of family play a role in understanding the support systems and relationships that contribute to the respondents’ quality of life post-retirement. table 9: type of family type of family compulsory optional counts % of total cumulative % counts % of total cumulative % extended family (includes relatives like grandparents, uncles, etc.) 1 2.9 % 2.9 % 0 0 0 nuclear family (parents and children) 27 77.1 % 80.0 % 88 72.1 % 72.1 % single-parent family 7 20.0 % 100.0 % 34 27.9 % 100.0 % the type of family in the compulsory retirement group shows that the majority of respondents belong to nuclear families, which consist of parents and children. this group makes up 77.1% of the respondents, indicating that most individuals in the compulsory retirement group have their primary family unit as their support system. a nuclear family structure is often seen as more selfcontained, which could play a role in the post-retirement quality of life for these individuals. the presence of a nuclear family suggests that retirees focus on spending more time with their immediate family members, such as children, post-retirement, potentially enhancing their sense of support and stability. in addition, 20% of the respondents belong to a singleparent family, indicating that some individuals in the compulsory retirement group have primary caregiving responsibilities, which influence their retirement plans and the quality of life afterward. the single-parent family structure result in unique challenges for retirement, such as balancing caregiving responsibilities with the desire for personal time or leisure. this aligns with the findings of censoro and hasani (2023), who highlighted that financial independence and family time are significant considerations in retirement planning. only 2.9% of respondents in the compulsory retirement group belong to an extended family, where additional relatives such as grandparents or uncles are part of the household. this suggests that extended family structures are less common in this group, but for those who do belong to such families, additional support from relatives play a role in their retirement planning. for the optional retirement group, the family structure is similarly dominated by the nuclear family type, with 72.1% of respondents belonging to this structure. similar to the compulsory retirement group, this indicates that most individuals who opt for early retirement have immediate family members, such as children, as their main source of support. however, the proportion is slightly lower than in the compulsory retirement group, which suggest that individuals in the optional retirement group are slightly less reliant on their nuclear family and are seeking greater personal freedom or opportunities for self-discovery after retirement. a notable difference in the optional retirement group is the higher percentage of single-parent families, which accounts for 27.9% of the respondents. this is significantly higher than in the compulsory retirement group, and it highlights that a considerable portion of those opting for early retirement face the responsibility of managing their family on their own. this could be a driving factor in their decision to retire early, as they prioritize spending time with their children or meeting family needs. the lack of extended family structures (0%) in the optional retirement group further emphasizes the increased reliance on the nuclear family and, in particular, the single-parent family type. these family dynamics are important to consider, as they could influence both the decision-making process regarding retirement and the overall experience of life after retirement. in both the compulsory and optional retirement groups, the nuclear family structure is predominant, reflecting the central role that immediate family members play in the lives of pnp personnel. however, there is a noticeable difference in the single-parent family representation, pa ge 17 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 163-184, 2025 with the optional retirement group showing a higher percentage of single-parent households. this could reflect different motivations for early retirement, such as the need for more time to care for children or other familial responsibilities. the presence or absence of extended families further shapes retirement planning, with compulsory retirees showing a slight presence of extended family support, while the optional retirees have no representation in this category, possibly seeking more personal freedom after retirement. these findings align with the broader concepts of retirement planning discussed by censoro and hasani (2023) and reluao et al. (2023), who emphasized the importance of family support and financial independence in retirement decisions. highest educational attainment table 10 displays the highest educational attainment of the respondents, which is an important factor in determining how education level influence postretirement life quality. table 10: highest educational attainment highest educational attainment compulsory optional counts % of total cumulative % counts % of total cumulative % bachelor’s degree 24 68.6 % 68.6 % 74 60.7 % 60.7 % doctorate degree 4 11.4 % 80.0 % 33 27.0 % 87.7 % master’s degree 7 20.0 % 100.0 % 15 12.3 % 100.0 % the highest educational attainment of pnp personnel in the compulsory retirement group reveals that the majority of respondents have earned a bachelor’s degree, comprising 68.6% of the sample. this indicates that most individuals in this group have a solid educational foundation, which could influence their career satisfaction and readiness for retirement. having a bachelor’s degree suggest that these officers are well-prepared for transitioning into post-retirement life, potentially enabling them to engage in activities like further studies, professional development, or other post-service careers. a smaller proportion, 20%, have obtained a master’s degree, while 11.4% hold a doctorate degree. the presence of individuals with advanced degrees, especially doctoral qualifications, imply that some officers are highly educated, which could support their continued engagement in specialized roles or post-retirement ventures, such as consulting or teaching. in line with the findings of reluao et al. (2023), the importance of having financial literacy and educational awareness is highlighted, as these factors play a crucial role in preparing individuals for retirement. moreover, educated individuals are better equipped to navigate post-retirement challenges, such as adapting to a change in lifestyle and pursuing new opportunities. in the optional retirement group, the highest educational attainment is similarly skewed towards those with a bachelor’s degree, as 60.7% of the respondents in this group fall into this category. although a lower percentage than the compulsory retirement group, this still indicates that a significant portion of individuals opting for early retirement have obtained at least an undergraduate education. the doctorate degree category has a higher representation in the optional retirement group, with 27% of respondents holding this advanced qualification. this suggest that those in the optional retirement group are more likely to have specialized education, which could provide them with the opportunity to transition smoothly into different professional pursuits or even entrepreneurship post-retirement. on the other hand, 12.3% of respondents have a master’s degree, which is the least common qualification in the group. the higher proportion of individuals with doctorate degrees in the optional retirement group also reflect their readiness to retire early due to the financial independence that could come from their education and career experiences. these findings resonate with the conclusions of censoro and hasani (2023), who emphasize that education plays a key role in retirement planning and that more educated individuals might be more prepared to retire early, provided they have adequate financial resources and retirement packages in place. both the compulsory and optional retirement groups show significant proportions of individuals with a bachelor’s degree, with the compulsory group having a slightly higher percentage. the presence of master’s degree and doctorate degree holders in both groups suggests that many pnp personnel are highly educated, which could support their post-retirement engagement in meaningful activities. the emphasis on education as a tool for enhancing post-retirement life quality aligns with the findings of reluao et al. (2023), who stressed the importance of planning and knowledge transfer in retirement decisions. this aligns with the argument that individuals with higher educational attainment have better access to career alternatives and resources to manage the transition into retirement, thus contributing to a more satisfying post-retirement life. additionally, the findings in both retirement groups underscore the importance of providing financial and educational support to help retirees make informed decisions about their future, as noted by censoro and hasani (2023). these insights are relevant for developing retirement frameworks that consider educational backgrounds as one of the key factors for planning a successful transition from active service to retirement. salary grade table 7 presents the salary grade of the respondents, pa ge 17 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 163-184, 2025 which could impact the perceived financial stability and overall quality of life after retirement. table 11: salary grade salary grade compulsory optional counts % of total cumulative % counts % of total cumulative % salary grade 16–18 10 28.6 % 28.6 % 9 7.4 % 100.0 % salary grade 19–21 13 37.1 % 65.7 % 64 52.5 % 52.5 % salary grade 22–24 8 22.9 % 88.6 % 31 25.4 % 77.9 % salary grade 25 and above 4 11.4 % 100.0 % 18 14.8 % 92.6 % the salary grade distribution among compulsory retirement respondents indicates a significant spread across different pay grades. the salary grade 19–21 group has the highest number of respondents, with 13 individuals, accounting for 37.1% of the sample. this salary grade is typical for personnel with moderate experience, which aligns with individuals nearing mandatory retirement. the salary grade 16–18 group follows, consisting of 10 respondents (28.6% of the total), indicating that a considerable portion of the compulsory retirees are in this lower pay grade. these personnel experience a greater financial adjustment upon retirement, as their salary are not as high as those in higher pay grades. the salary grade 22–24 category contains 8 respondents, or 22.9% of the total, suggesting that some individuals in higher ranks are also approaching retirement. finally, the salary grade 25 and above group comprises 4 respondents, representing 11.4% of the total sample, which shows that the highest-ranking officers are also nearing the mandatory retirement age. the spread of salary grades within the compulsory retirement group shows that individuals from various financial backgrounds will face retirement, with varying levels of financial preparedness. this variation in salary grades may affect the financial stability of those retiring, as those in lower salary grades (16–18) may face more financial challenges compared to those in higher salary grades (22–24 or 25 and above). the financial challenges faced by retirees are also reflected in the study of reluao et al. (2023), which discusses the need for financial literacy and better retirement planning to handle financial shocks and inadequate planning. the optional retirement group shows a different salary grade distribution, with a heavy concentration of respondents in the salary grade 19–21 category. this group comprises 64 respondents, making up 52.5% of the sample. these personnel are likely to retire earlier, often in their early 50s, which correlates with the higher salary grade they hold. the salary grade 22–24 group is the second largest, consisting of 31 respondents (25.4% of the total). individuals in this salary range are typically at mid-to-senior levels in their careers and likely to have higher retirement benefits and savings, which influence their decision to retire early. the salary grade 25 and above group includes 18 respondents, or 14.8% of the total, showing that some high-ranking personnel also choose to retire voluntarily before reaching the mandatory retirement age. finally, the salary grade 16–18 group has the smallest representation in the optional retirement sample, with only 9 respondents, making up 7.4% of the total. this suggests that lower-ranking personnel are less likely to opt for early retirement, potentially due to financial limitations or job satisfaction factors. the varying salary grades in the optional retirement group point to differing levels of financial stability, which can significantly impact the perceived quality of life after retirement. reluao et al. (2023) discuss how financial stability and retirement benefits influence the decision to retire early, noting that a more substantial retirement package could motivate individuals to retire earlier. those in higher salary grades have greater financial security and view early retirement as an opportunity for financial independence, personal hobbies, and family time, as noted in the study by censoro and hasani (2023). the compulsory retirement group shows a broader spread across salary grades, with many individuals in the salary grade 19–21 range. this financial variability reflects the different levels of financial stability among retiring personnel, where lower salary grades face more challenges in adjusting to post-retirement life. on the other hand, the optional retirement group is more heavily concentrated in the salary grade 19–21 range, with many individuals in higher salary grades, suggesting that these personnel are more likely to retire early due to greater financial security. the findings from both groups underscore the need for financial education, retirement planning, and incentives for early retirement, as discussed by reluao et al. (2023) and censoro and hasani (2023), to ensure that personnel can transition smoothly into retirement, regardless of their salary grade. 2. perceived quality of life after optional retirement. this section presents the extent of perceived quality of life after optional retirement, as assessed by the pnp personnel in police regional office (pro) mimaropa. the focus is on health expectations, family relationships, and social activities. health expectations table 12 shows the extent of perceived health expectations after optional retirement, as assessed by the respondents. pa ge 17 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 163-184, 2025 table 12: health expectations items compulsory optional wm sd vi r wm sd vi r 1. expresses confidence about maintaining physical health after retirement. 3.20 0.68 me 6 3.15 0.65 me 6 2. believes enough time exists to focus on improving health after retirement. 3.69 0.47 ge 1.5 3.60 0.49 ge 3 3. expects overall health to improve after retiring. 3.60 0.50 ge 3 3.57 0.50 ge 4.5 4. expresses concern about potential health issues arising after retirement. 3.69 0.80 ge 1.5 2.63 0.73 me 8 5. anticipates staying physically active and fit during retirement years. 3.60 0.50 ge 3 3.67 0.47 ge 2 6. feels prepared to manage existing health conditions after retirement. 2.66 0.47 me 7 3.57 0.50 ge 4.5 7. believes mental well-being improves after retiring from service. 3.60 0.50 ge 3 3.83 0.38 ge 1 8. expects to have regular access to healthcare services after retirement. 2.66 0.80 me 7 3.02 0.75 me 7 composite mean 3.34 0.59 me 3.38 0.56 me legend: ge = great extent; me = moderate extent; se = slight extent; r = rank for pnp personnel who opted compulsory retirement, the highest perceived health expectation is regarding the belief that there is enough time to focus on improving health after retirement, with a mean score of 3.69 and a standard deviation of 0.47 as well as expressing concern about potential health issues arising after retirement with a mean score of 3.69 and a standard deviation of 0.80. the result shows that pnp personnel who retired compulsorily believe they will have more time to focus on their health after retirement. this belief received the highest average rating. it means that many of them expect to use their free time to improve their physical and mental well-being. since retirement removes daily work stress and tight schedules, they now feel they can focus more on healthy activities like exercising, eating well, and getting regular check-ups. they also expressed strong concern about possible health problems that may come after retirement. this concern had the same high average score. it shows that while they are hopeful about improving their health, they are also worried that retirement might bring new or worsening health issues. this fear may come from the idea that aging, less activity, or reduced income could make it harder to stay healthy. both results suggest that health is a major concern and priority for retirees, especially those who were required to leave service at a specific age. this result suggests that the respondents feel confident about having the opportunity to focus on their health once they retire. such positive health expectations align with research by eberhardt et al. (2022), who indicated that retirees often experience a positive shift in their health outlook when they are no longer constrained by the demands of their previous work life. the second highest score, with a mean of 3.60, and a standard deviation of 0.50, respectively, pertains to the expectation of overall health improvement after retiring, anticipation of staying physically active and fit during retirement years, and belief that mental wellbeing improves after retiring from service. most of the respondents believe that retirement will give them more time to focus on their physical and mental well-being. they think they can be more active, rest better, and take care of their bodies once they are no longer working. the anticipation of staying fit and healthy during retirement may also come from the idea that stress from work will decrease. when people retire, they have fewer responsibilities and more control over their daily routines. this may help them eat better, exercise more, and get enough sleep, which can lead to improved health. the belief that mental well-being will improve is also likely linked to reduced work pressure. retirement is seen as a time for rest, hobbies, and spending time with family and friends. these things can improve mood and reduce anxiety. that is why many participants believe that pa ge 17 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 163-184, 2025 retirement will lead to better health overall. this reflects an optimistic outlook, where compulsory retirees believe that stepping away from the pressures of their jobs will lead to better physical well-being. similarly, comi et al. (2022) highlight that some retirees expect improvements in their overall health due to the reduction in job-related stress, which may resonate with the feelings of the respondents. moreover, the awareness of health concerns after retirement is not uncommon, as studies have shown that health risks can increase in the absence of a structured work environment (jiang et al., 2022). however, respondents are still confident that they will be able to manage any arising health issues. on the other hand, the lowest score reflects respondents’ feelings about being prepared to manage existing health conditions after retirement and expectation to have regular access to healthcare services after retirement, with a score of 2.66 and a standard deviation of 0.47 and 0.80, respectively. this score indicates that some personnel feel less prepared to deal with ongoing health issues after retirement. this might be due to the fact that many retirees struggle with the sudden shift in lifestyle and healthcare needs post-retirement, as noted by parker (2022), who emphasized the ongoing adjustment challenges retirees face. for the respondents who opted optional retirement, the highest health expectation relates to the belief that mental well-being will improve after retirement, with a mean score of 3.83 and a standard deviation of 0.38. this indicates that respondents in the optional retirement group are most optimistic about the mental health benefits of retirement, likely due to the relief from workrelated stressors and a chance to engage in activities that promote well-being. this finding is consistent with amorim et al. (2024), who found that retirees often report improved mental health once they are no longer bound by the pressures of their work. the second highest score of 3.67, regarding staying physically active and fit during retirement, demonstrates that optional retirees expect to maintain a high level of physical activity. this is in line with research by jiang et al. (2022), which suggests that many retirees look forward to a more active lifestyle after retiring, as they have more time to engage in physical activities such as exercise and hobbies. the third highest score, 3.60, reflects respondents’ expectation that their overall health will improve after retirement. like their compulsory retirement counterparts, optional retirees expect their health to improve after they leave service. this is consistent with the broader understanding that retirement offers an opportunity to focus on health improvement (mustafa et al., 2023). on the lower end, the lowest score among optional retirees is their belief in having regular access to healthcare services after retirement, which scored 3.02. this shows that while they generally feel positive about their health post-retirement, there is some uncertainty or concern about consistent access to healthcare services once retired. this aligns with the challenges noted by amorim et al. (2024), where access to healthcare and maintaining good health are critical factors in the retirement transition, especially in resource-constrained environments. both compulsory and optional retirees generally have positive health expectations after optional retirement, though there are some notable differences. compulsory retirees are more focused on the idea that they will have enough time to improve their health after retirement and are somewhat concerned about managing existing health conditions. optional retirees, on the other hand, express more optimism about their mental health improvement after retiring and staying physically active. however, both groups share concerns about access to healthcare services post-retirement. these findings highlight the importance of preparing retirees for health-related challenges and opportunities, as suggested by previous studies on retirement expectations and transitions (eberhardt et al., 2022; amorim et al., 2024). family relationships. table 13 presents the extent of perceived quality of family relationships after optional retirement, providing insights into the social and familial aspects of post-retirement life. table 13: family relationships compulsory optional items wm sd vi r wm sd vi r 1. feels relationships with family improve after retirement. 3.60 0.50 ge 4.5 3.70 0.71 ge 6.5 2. expects to spend more quality time with family after retiring. 2.66 0.50 me 8 3.83 0.38 ge 3 3. believes stronger connections with spouse/partner develop after retirement. 3.60 0.50 ge 4.5 2.99 1.30 me 8 4. anticipates becoming more involved in family activities after retirement. 3.60 0.80 ge 4.5 3.70 0.46 ge 6.5 5. feels retirement allows more availability for family’s needs. 3.60 0.50 ge 4.5 3.73 0.45 ge 4.5 pa ge 17 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 163-184, 2025 6. expects family life to become more harmonious after retiring. 3.60 0.50 ge 4.5 3.85 0.36 ge 1.5 7. confidently assumes retirement brings closeness to children and other family members. 3.80 0.41 ge 1 3.73 0.45 ge 4.5 8. believes stress reduces and family relationships improve with retirement. 3.60 0.80 ge 4.5 3.85 0.36 ge 1.5 composite mean 3.51 0.56 ge 3.67 0.56 ge legend: ge = great extent; me = moderate extent; se = slight extent; r = rank for compulsory retirees, the results showed a similarly positive perception of family relationships, with the highest rating given to the anticipation that compulsory retirement will bring closeness to children and other family members (wm = 3.80, sd = 0.41). this reflects the belief that compulsory retirees, much like optional retirees, look forward to having more time to meet their family’s closeness after retirement. this is supported by jiang et al. (2022), who highlighted that many retirees look forward to a balanced life that allows for greater family involvement. for compulsory retirees, five items got the same mean score of 3.60. these items are: feeling that relationships with family improve, believing stronger connections with spouse/partner develop, expecting to become more involved in family activities, feeling more available for the family’s needs, and expecting a more harmonious family life. these tied scores indicate that compulsory retirees see all these aspects of family life as equally important and positively affected by retirement. interestingly, the lowest-rated item in this category for compulsory retirees was the belief in developing stronger connections with a spouse or partner after retirement (wm = 2.99, sd = 1.30), the same as for optional retirees. this shared outcome may suggest that the relationship dynamics with spouses or partners may not always undergo significant improvement post-retirement, possibly due to the challenges of adjusting to a new routine, as discussed by jones (2022), who explored the emotional and cognitive shifts that retirees go through during the transition from work to retirement. for the optional retirees in the police regional office (pro) mimaropa, the overall perceived quality of family relationships after optional retirement is generally high. among the highest-rated items, the expectation that family life will become more harmonious after retirement (wm = 3.85, sd = 0.36) was rated the highest. this suggests that the majority of pnp personnel anticipate retirement to bring a sense of peace and improved harmony in their family life. similarly, the belief that retirement will reduce stress and improve family relationships (wm = 3.85, sd = 0.36) also scored highly, indicating that personnel feel that stepping away from the demands of their police work will display better connections with their family members. these expectations align with findings by amorim et al. (2024), who pointed out that retirement is often viewed as an opportunity to build stronger, more meaningful relationships with family, especially as individuals seek time for relaxation and to focus on personal connections. moreover, the expectation to spend more quality time with family post-retirement (wm = 3.83, sd = 0.38) was also rated highly, reinforcing the idea that optional retirees prioritize their families during this new phase of life, which is in line with the positive factors influencing retirement decisions, as noted by eberhardt et al. (2022). this means these retirees strongly feel that retirement helps bring peace and less stress in the home. another set of items tied at 3.73, including availability for family needs and closeness to children. this suggests these aspects are also very evident but not as strong as the highest-rated items. on the other hand, the belief in developing stronger connections with a spouse or partner after retirement received a lower rating (wm = 2.99, sd = 1.30). this suggests that, while the overall perception of family relationships is positive, not all personnel expect significant improvements in their relationships with their spouses or partners. this outcome could be influenced by the varied individual experiences and expectations about personal relationships after retirement, reflecting some of the challenges highlighted by jones (2022) in the context of retirees from law enforcement, who experience difficulties like identity loss or role confusion when transitioning to civilian life. both optional and compulsory retirees in pro mimaropa perceive their family relationships as improving after retirement, with some expectations of better harmony and more time for family, although certain complexities, such as the development of stronger connections with spouses or partners, remain a more moderate expectation. social activities table 14 illustrates the extent of perceived engagement in social activities after optional retirement, shedding light on how retirees remain socially active post-retirement. pa ge 17 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 163-184, 2025 table 14: social activities items compulsory optional wm sd vi r wm sd vi r 1. believes more time exists for social activities after retirement. 3.80 0.50 ge 1 2.99 0.78 me 2.5 2. expects to build stronger social connections after retiring. 3.26 0.50 me 6 2.99 0.78 me 2.5 3. anticipates participating in community events more frequently after retirement. 3.80 0.41 ge 1 2.77 0.72 me 6.5 4. feels opportunities to reconnect with old friends increase after retiring. 3.26 0.74 me 6 2.89 0.83 me 5 5. confidently assumes retirement allows pursuing new hobbies and interests. 3.77 0.50 ge 4 3.56 0.50 ge 1 6. expects to spend more time with the social circle after retiring. 3.26 0.50 me 6 2.61 0.92 me 8 7. believes staying socially active remains possible after retirement. 3.77 0.41 ge 4 2.77 0.72 me 6.5 8. feels flexibility to join social gatherings and activities improves with retirement. 3.80 0.74 ge 1 2.90 0.66 me 4 composite mean 3.59 0.54 ge 2.94 0.74 me legend: ge = great extent; me = moderate extent; se = slight extent; r = rank for compulsory retirees in the police regional office (pro) mimaropa, the highest perceived quality of life in social activities is their belief that retirement provides more time for social activities. this item received the highest mean score of 3.80 (great extent). this suggests that compulsory retirees are confident that retirement will allow them to have more time to engage in social activities compared to their active duty days. similarly, they also felt that retirement would give them more opportunities to reconnect with old friends, which also received a high score of 3.26 (moderate extent). this indicates that they anticipate better social connections after leaving the service. another key item with a high score (3.77) was the expectation that retirement would allow them to pursue new hobbies and interests. this shows that retirees are optimistic about the flexibility and opportunities available for personal growth once they retire. these findings align with the notion that retirement, while challenging, presents an opportunity to explore new dimensions of life, such as social interactions and personal hobbies, which contribute positively to the retirees’ quality of life (amorim et al., 2024). on the lower end, compulsory retirees showed moderate expectations regarding their participation in community events post-retirement, with a score of 3.26. this suggests a more restrained view of how frequently they would engage in community events, highlighting that some may feel less involved or less motivated to participate in such activities. moreover, the lowest score in this category was the belief that retirement would allow them to spend more time with their social circle (3.26), indicating that while retirees acknowledge opportunities for social engagement, they might also face challenges in maintaining close ties after leaving the force. this is consistent with findings from jones (2022) regarding identity loss and the adjustment period that many retirees experience. for optional retirees in the police regional office (pro) mimaropa, the perception of social activities post-retirement reflects a generally moderate outlook. the highest score in this group was for the belief that retirement would allow them to pursue new hobbies and interests (3.56), which is consistent with the notion that retirees feel they have more opportunities to explore personal interests and engage in fulfilling activities outside of work (parker, 2022). this shows that optional retirees are moderately confident in their ability to engage in social activities after retiring. however, the lowest scores were seen in items related to time spent with friends and increased participation in community events. the belief that retirement would allow them to spend more time with their social circle received the lowest score of 2.61 (moderate extent), while the expectation to participate in community events more frequently after retirement scored 2.77 (moderate extent). these results suggest that optional retirees may have concerns about their ability to remain socially active post-retirement, as they face challenges in finding or creating new opportunities for social interaction, which is common among retirees adjusting to life outside the pa ge 17 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 163-184, 2025 workforce (jiang et al., 2022). additionally, their perception that they could remain socially active after retirement was also moderate, scoring 2.77, indicating that while they are not entirely pessimistic, they recognize some limitations to their social engagement. both compulsory and optional retirees express some positive expectations regarding post-retirement social activities, however, the moderate scores in some areas suggest that both groups face challenges in maintaining or expanding their social lives after leaving the police force. perceived quality of life after mandatory retirement. this section presents the extent of perceived quality of life after mandatory retirement, with an emphasis on health expectations, family relationships, and social activities as assessed by the respondents. health expectations table 15 shows the extent of perceived health expectations after mandatory retirement, highlighting how mandatory retirement impacts health perceptions. table 15: health expectations items compulsory optional wm sd vi r wm sd vi r 1. concerns arise about managing health after mandatory retirement. 3.77 0.65 ge 3 2.24 0.74 se 3.5 2. expects physical health to decline after mandatory retirement. 3.80 0.50 ge 1.5 1.82 0.83 sw 6 3. believes more medical care becomes necessary after mandatory retirement. 3.26 0.41 me 7 2.05 0.77 se 5 4. faces challenges in maintaining fitness after retirement. 3.80 0.74 ge 1.5 2.24 0.85 se 3.5 5. anticipates adjusting lifestyle to address health issues post-retirement. 3.26 0.65 mee 7 2.80 0.75 me 2 6. expects to have less energy and stamina after mandatory retirement. 3.71 0.41 ge 4.5 1.54 0.86 se 7.5 7. feels mental health gets affected after retirement. 3.26 0.41 me 7 1.54 0.86 se 7.5 8. believes focusing more on preventive health measures becomes essential after retirement. 3.71 0.74 ge 4.5 3.34 0.69 me 1 composite mean 3.57 0.56 ge 2.20 0.79 se legend: ge = great extent; me = moderate extent; se = slight extent; r = rank the highest perceived health expectation for compulsory retirees is the belief that physical health will decline after mandatory retirement, with a weighted mean (wm) score of 3.80, rated as “great extent” (ge). this reflects a strong concern among compulsory retirees about the impact of retirement on their physical well-being. this finding aligns with previous studies highlighting that many older workers fear health deterioration postretirement (jiang et al., 2022). similarly, the challenge of maintaining fitness after retirement also scored highly (wm = 3.80, ge). this indicates that compulsory retirees anticipate difficulties in staying physically active once they leave the police force. such expectations are consistent with research suggesting that retirees often face a shift in lifestyle that challenges their ability to maintain fitness (parker, 2022). another high-scoring item is the concern about managing health after mandatory retirement, with a wm of 3.77, also rated as “great extent.” this shows that compulsory retirees are significantly worried about the healthcare needs they will face once they retire. this finding corresponds with studies that emphasize the importance of healthcare planning for retirees (parker, 2022). furthermore, the belief that more medical care will be necessary post-retirement, with a wm of 3.26, rated as “moderate extent” (me), further supports the notion that compulsory retirees anticipate an increased need for healthcare services after retirement (amorim et al., 2024). on the other hand, the lowest-rated health expectation item for compulsory retirees is the belief that they will need to adjust their lifestyle to address health issues post-retirement, with a wm of 3.26 (me). although retirees recognize the need to adjust their lifestyle, the moderate rating suggests that they might not fully anticipate how comprehensive these adjustments might be. the expectation to have less energy and stamina after retirement, also rated at 3.71 (ge), is another notable aspect of health concerns, suggesting that while retirees are concerned about physical and mental stamina, they do not see this as a critical obstacle in their daily lives postretirement (comi et al., 2022). for optional retirees, the highest perceived health expectation is the belief that focusing more on preventive pa ge 17 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 163-184, 2025 health measures becomes essential after retirement, with a wm of 3.34, rated as “moderate extent” (me). this score indicates that while some optional retirees understand the importance of preventive health, the concern does not appear to be as pressing as it is for compulsory retirees. this aligns with findings from amorim et al. (2024), who noted that retirees, particularly those who choose retirement, may view preventive health more as a part of maintaining general well-being rather than as a critical necessity. another high score for optional retirees is the expectation to adjust their lifestyle to address health issues after retirement (wm = 2.80, me). this score reflects a moderate recognition that changes to lifestyle will be necessary post-retirement but perhaps not as strongly felt as for compulsory retirees. this could be because optional retirees have more time to plan and adjust their health-related habits before they retire (cebola et al., 2023). the third highest-rated item is the belief that mental health will be affected after retirement, with a wm of 1.54, rated as “slight extent” (se). this lower score indicates that optional retirees might not consider mental health as a significant concern in the same way as their physical health. previous studies suggest that mental health concerns among retirees often arise more acutely in compulsory retirees, as they are often less prepared for the emotional impact of leaving their careers (jones, 2022). the lowest health expectation for optional retirees is the expectation that they will need more medical care after retirement, with a wm of 2.05, rated as “slight extent” (se). this suggests that optional retirees do not foresee a significant increase in their medical needs after retirement, possibly because they are healthier and may feel more in control of their health maintenance than their compulsory counterparts (jiang et al., 2022). another low-rated concern for optional retirees is the expectation to have less energy and stamina post-retirement, with a wm of 1.54, rated as “slight extent” (se). this finding aligns with the notion that optional retirees are more likely to retire when they feel mentally and physically prepared, thus having fewer concerns about energy loss (comi et al., 2022). family relationships. table 16 presents the extent of perceived family relationships after mandatory retirement, providing a look into how these relationships evolve after retirement. table 16: family relationships items compulsory optional wm sd vi r wm sd vi r 1. expects to have more time to strengthen family relationships after mandatory retirement. 3.80 0.65 ge 5.5 3.31 1.05 me 5 2. feels the role in the family becomes more central after retirement. 3.71 0.41 ge 8 3.58 0.50 ge 4 3. anticipates being more present and available for family’s needs after retiring. 3.80 1.12 ge 5.5 3.61 0.49 ge 1 4. believes mandatory retirement allows reconnecting with family members. 3.89 0.74 ge 2 3.31 1.05 me 5 5. expects family relationships to improve with more focus after retirement. 3.80 0.65 ge 5.5 3.61 0.49 ge 1 6. feels spending more time at home positively impacts the relationship with spouse/partner. 3.89 0.41 ge 2 3.16 1.02 me 8 7. believes mandatory retirement provides opportunities to build stronger bonds with children. 3.80 1.12 ge 5.5 3.31 1.05 me 5 8. confidently assumes retirement allows more involvement in family activities and events. 3.89 0.46 ge 2 3.61 0.49 ge 1 composite mean 3.82 0.69 ge 3.44 0.77 me legend: ge = great extent; me = moderate extent; se = slight extent; r = rank pa ge 17 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 163-184, 2025 for compulsory retirement personnel in police regional office (pro) mimaropa, the results show that their perceived quality of life regarding family relationships after mandatory retirement is generally positive. the highest-rated item is the belief that mandatory retirement provides opportunities to build stronger bonds with children, with a weighted mean (wm) of 3.89, indicating a great extent (ge). this suggests that compulsory retirees view retirement as a chance to connect more deeply with their children for them to focus on strengthening their family ties. similarly, another high-rated item, “feels spending more time at home positively impacts the relationship with spouse/partner,” also received a wm of 3.89, reflecting that retirees expect their relationship with their spouse or partner to improve with more time spent at home. this expectation aligns with the idea that retirement provides the opportunity to reconnect and nurture personal relationships, which is consistent with the findings of jones (2022), who discussed how retirees often experience an improvement in family dynamics after leaving the workforce. in addition, “expects to have more time to strengthen family relationships after mandatory retirement” received a wm of 3.80, which shows that retirees believe their retirement will provide ample time to nurture family relationships. this result mirrors the theoretical framework presented by amorim et al. (2024), which emphasizes how retirement can be seen as a time to explore personal interests, engage in family connections, and achieve a deeper sense of personal fulfillment. overall, the positive perceptions of family relationships suggest that mandatory retirement is viewed as an opportunity to focus on family bonds and personal well-being. on the other hand, the lowest-rated item is “believes mandatory retirement allows reconnecting with family members,” with a wm of 3.31. while still categorized under ge, it indicates a moderate level of belief that retirement directly displays the opportunity to reconnect with family. this result may reflect some mixed feelings about the challenges retirees may face in adjusting to new roles or rediscovering family dynamics after years of intense work routines. this finding supports parker (2022), who noted that while retirement offers time for family, the transition can be difficult for some, especially if they struggle with role adjustments. for optional retirement personnel in police regional office (pro) mimaropa, the perception of family relationships after retirement shows more variability. the highest-rated items also point to positive expectations regarding family relationships. “expects to have more time to strengthen family relationships after mandatory retirement” scored a wm of 3.31, rated me, reflecting that retirees feel a moderate degree of hope that retirement will allow them more time to focus on family. this finding is consistent with the works of comi et al. (2022), which highlighted that positive retirement decisions often include expectations of spending more time with loved ones. furthermore, “feels the role in the family becomes more central after retirement” received a wm of 3.58, demonstrating that retirees anticipate assuming a more significant role in family matters postretirement, which aligns with the positive outlook on retirement as suggested by jiang et al. (2022). in contrast, the lowest-rated item for optional retirees is “believes mandatory retirement provides opportunities to build stronger bonds with children,” with a wm of 3.31, suggesting a more moderate expectation of improving family relationships with children after retirement. this result may indicate that, compared to compulsory retirees, optional retirees may face more difficulty in adjusting to a more passive role in the family, possibly due to ongoing work commitments or the nature of their retirement choice. the less pronounced improvement in family bonds could reflect a more complex process of re-engagement with family life post-retirement, as highlighted by jones (2022), who emphasized the identity struggles some retirees face in transitioning from a demanding career to family life. both compulsory and optional retirees in the pro mimaropa perceive their retirement as an opportunity to improve family relationships, but the extent of these expectations varies. compulsory retirees seem more optimistic about using their retirement to strengthen family bonds, whereas optional retirees have a more moderate outlook, possibly due to the different personal and professional factors influencing their decision to retire. social activities. table 17 outlines the extent of perceived engagement in social activities after mandatory retirement, reflecting how retirees engage with their social surroundings postretirement. table 17: social activities items compulsory optional wm sd vi r wm sd vi r 1. expects to have more time to engage in social activities after mandatory retirement. 3.80 0.65 ge 4.5 2.65 0.57 me 6.5 2. feels social life improves once work ends. 3.89 0.41 ge 2 2.88 0.69 me 4 3. anticipates joining more community events and activities after retirement. 3.80 1.12 ge 4.5 2.65 0.57 me 6.5 pa ge 18 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 163-184, 2025 the highest scores in the “social activities” section reflect strong expectations and beliefs that retirement will enhance social life. the respondents rated the item “feels social life improves once work ends” highest, with a weighted mean of 3.89 (ge), indicating that they strongly believe their social life will improve once they retire. this aligns with findings by parker (2022), who suggested that retirees often feel liberated from work pressures for for greater engagement in social activities. the same score was given to “believes retirement provides more opportunities to reconnect with friends” (3.89, ge), showing that respondents view retirement as an opportunity to reconnect with old friends and rebuild social networks. this is consistent with the view of amorim et al. (2024), who highlighted the significance of social connections in retirement and its positive influence on well-being. the “feels retirement allows exploration of new hobbies and social interests” item also received a score of 3.89 (ge), underscoring the potential retirees see in using their free time to pursue new hobbies or engage in previously unexplored social interests. on the other hand, the lowest-rated items reflect a more moderate belief in the extent of social engagement post-retirement. the respondents rated “expects to participate more actively in social clubs or organizations post-retirement” the lowest, with a score of 3.17 (me). this suggests that while respondents believe they will be able to engage in more social activities, they have a more moderate expectation of participating in organized social clubs or groups. this could be due to concerns about the transition into a new social structure, as retirees often experience role loss and may find it difficult to reintegrate into formal social settings (jones, 2022). for the optional retirees, the highest-rated item is “feels retirement allows exploration of new hobbies and social interests” with a weighted mean of 3.03 (me), showing that they expect to have more time to pursue hobbies and other social interests after retirement. this finding is in line with the studies by jiang et al. (2022) and cebola et al. (2023), which suggested that retirees often look forward to engaging in activities that allow them to explore new dimensions of their personal lives. however, their scores remain in the “moderate extent” category, indicating that while the desire to explore new activities exists, it may not be as pronounced as in the compulsory retirees group. the lowest-rated item for the optional retirees is “expects to have more time to engage in social activities after mandatory retirement”, which scored 2.65 (me). this result suggests that optional retirees may not expect a significant increase in their social activities after retirement, potentially due to the voluntary nature of their retirement or existing social constraints. similarly, the items “anticipates joining more community events and activities after retirement” (2.65, me) and “expects to participate more actively in social clubs or organizations post-retirement” (2.62, me) also received lower scores, indicating that they may have moderate or even lower expectations about increased involvement in community events or organized social activities after retirement. these findings resonate with amorim et al. (2024), who pointed out that retirees’ engagement in social activities can vary based on personal resources, social contexts, and job-related factors. difference between perceptions of quality of life after optional and mandatory retirement. table 18 presents whether there is a significant difference between the perceived quality of life after optional retirement and mandatory retirement, considering health expectations, family relationships, and social activities. 4. believes retirement provides more opportunities to reconnect with friends. 3.89 0.46 ge 2 2.77 0.72 me 5 5. expects to participate more actively in social clubs or organizations post-retirement. 3.17 0.41 me 7 2.62 0.54 me 8 6. feels retirement allows exploration of new hobbies and social interests. 3.89 0.41 ge 2 3.03 0.57 me 1 7. confidently assumes an active social life remains possible after retirement. 3.17 1.12 me 7 2.90 0.43 me 2.5 8. believes retirement offers flexibility to attend more social gatherings and family events. 3.17 0.46 me 7 2.90 0.43 me 2.5 composite mean 3.60 0.63 ge 2.80 0.57 me legend: ge = great extent; me = moderate extent; se = slight extent; r = rank pa ge 18 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 163-184, 2025 the results presented in table 18 showed that there is a statistically significant difference in the perceptions regarding health expectations, family relationships, and social activities post-retirement (p-values < 0.05). the health expectations of retired personnel differed significantly between those who retired optionally and those who retired mandatorily (p < .001). this suggests that personnel who retire voluntarily may have a more favorable outlook on their health after retirement. this finding aligns with the literature of jiang et al. (2022) and cebola et al. (2023), which explains that positive retirement decisions, such as voluntary retirement, are often linked to better health outcomes due to less stress and improved personal well-being. in terms of family relationships, the difference in perceptions between those who opted for retirement and those who retired mandatorily was also significant (p = 0.008). this result indicates that those who choose to retire may experience more positive family dynamics post-retirement compared to those who retire due to mandatory policies. these findings are consistent with amorim et al. (2024), who suggest that retirement, particularly voluntary retirement, provide individuals with more time for personal relationships and family bonding, which can enhance their quality of life. the perceptions regarding social activities also showed a significant difference (p = 0.003). those who retired optionally may engage more in social activities after retirement, reflecting a more active and fulfilling postretirement life. the opportunity to pursue hobbies and volunteer work, as noted by parker (2022), is often seen as a positive factor for retirees, particularly those who leave the workforce by choice for a smoother transition and a more vibrant social life. the findings suggest that optional retirement is associated with more positive perceptions of health, family relationships, and social activities compared to mandatory retirement. this aligns with the body of literature that suggests voluntary retirement generally leads to a more favorable post-retirement quality of life due to better planning, increased personal autonomy, and the pursuit of fulfilling activities. further research could explore additional factors influencing these perceptions, as suggested by jones (2022), who highlights the importance of resilience and coping mechanisms during the retirement transition. influence of socio-demographic profile on quality of life after optional retirement. table 19 presents how the socio-demographic profile of the respondents influences their perceived quality of life after optional retirement. table 18: difference between perceptions of quality of life after optional and mandatory retirement statistic df p interpretation health expectations 12.07 155 < .001 significant family relations 2.68 155 0.008 significant social activities 3.07 155 0.003 significant table 19: influence of socio-demographic profile on quality of life after optional retirement variables unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. results b std. error beta health expectations (constant) .468 .113 4.143 .000 1.1 age .931 .049 1.250 19.058 .000 significant 1.2 rank -.114 .010 -.404 -11.456 .000 significant 1.3 length of service -.574 .032 -1.463 -17.915 .000 significant 1.4 civil status 1.275 .072 2.252 17.604 .000 significant 1.5 type of family -.266 .091 -.411 -2.908 .004 significant 1.6 highest educational attainment .913 .051 1.109 17.948 .000 significant 1.7 salary grade -.438 .021 -.629 -21.258 .000 significant family relationships (constant) 6.742 .082 82.450 .000 significant 1.1 age -.156 .035 -.192 -4.424 .000 significant 1.2 rank -.148 .007 -.482 -20.657 .000 significant 1.3 length of service .011 .023 .026 .477 .634 not significant 1.4 civil status -1.043 .052 -1.684 -19.898 .000 significant 1.5 type of family 1.127 .066 1.593 17.048 .000 significant 1.6 highest educational attainment -.677 .037 -.751 -18.374 .000 significant 1.7 salary grade -.052 .015 -.068 -3.485 .001 significant pa ge 18 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 163-184, 2025 in terms of health expectations, age is a significant factor, with older retirees reporting a higher expectation of health issues post-retirement (b = .931, p < .001). this finding aligns with the research of eberhardt et al. (2022), who noted that health concerns are a major consideration for many retirees. additionally, length of service and rank were negatively associated with health expectations, suggesting that those with longer service and higher rank may face greater challenges in adjusting to retirement. this could be because longer tenure in service or higher rank may come with greater responsibilities and stress, which may negatively impact health post-retirement (jiang et al., 2022). civil status also plays a critical role, with married retirees showing higher health expectations, which might indicate that their health concerns are more influenced by family responsibilities (parker, 2022). furthermore, retirees with higher educational attainment and lower salary grades reported better health expectations, which could be attributed to greater access to resources and knowledge to maintain health after retirement. when it comes to family relationships, age and rank again proved significant, with older retirees and those with lower rank reporting less satisfaction with family relationships. this could suggest that the transition into retirement might cause a shift in family dynamics, with older retirees possibly feeling a greater loss of identity and role within the family (jones, 2022). civil status was also a significant factor, with married retirees experiencing lower quality of family relationships. this linked to the increased pressures of retirement on marital dynamics, especially as retirees face adjustments and potential identity loss (jones, 2022). on the other hand, family type significantly influenced family relationships, with those from nuclear families reporting stronger relationships post-retirement. this finding may reflect the more supportive and cohesive environment typically found in smaller, nuclear family settings (cebola et al., 2023). interestingly, highest educational attainment had a negative effect on family relationships, suggesting that higher education may be associated with greater expectations or stress related to family dynamics post-retirement. for social activities, age continued to play a significant role, with older retirees showing a greater engagement in social activities (b = .984, p < .001). this is in line with findings from amorim et al. (2024), who highlighted the importance of finding new activities and social roles after retirement. rank and length of service were negatively related to social activities, with retirees who had higher ranks or longer service years less likely to engage in social activities post-retirement. this could be due to the stress and structure of their former roles, making it harder to transition into a more relaxed, socially engaged retirement life (cebola et al., 2023). family type was again a significant factor in social activity, with retirees from nuclear families showing greater involvement in social activities, which could be a result of having a stronger social support system (mustafa et al., 2023). lastly, salary grade was positively related to social activity, indicating that retirees with higher salaries may have more financial freedom and opportunities to engage in leisure activities after retirement, supporting the idea that financial stability greatly influences post-retirement quality of life (parker, 2022). the socio-demographic profile of retirees, including age, rank, length of service, civil status, family type, educational attainment, and salary grade, significantly influences their health expectations, family relationships, and social activities after optional retirement. these factors must be carefully considered when planning for retirement, as they contribute to the overall well-being and quality of life during this major life transition. influence of socio-demographic profile on quality of life after mandatory retirement. table 20 presents how the socio-demographic profile of the respondents influences their perceived quality of life after mandatory retirement, similar to the analysis conducted for optional retirement in section 5. s o c i a l activities (constant) .594 .248 2.394 .018 1.1 age .984 .107 1.553 9.165 .000 significant 1.2 rank -.207 .022 -.864 -9.483 .000 significant 1.3 length of service -.486 .070 -1.455 -6.898 .000 significant 1.4 civil status .197 .159 .408 1.236 .219 not significant 1.5 type of family .434 .201 .789 2.165 .033 significant 1.6 highest educational attainment .182 .112 .260 1.628 .106 not significant 1.7 salary grade .410 .045 .691 9.047 .000 significant pa ge 18 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 163-184, 2025 table 20: influence of socio-demographic profile on quality of life after mandatory retirement variables unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t p value interpretation b std. error beta health expectations (constant) 3.986 .345 11.539 .000 1.1 age -.154 .082 -.499 -1.871 .072 not significant 1.2 rank -.038 .032 -.277 -1.217 .234 not significant 1.3 length of service .027 .049 .180 .562 .579 not significant 1.4 civil status .081 .096 .258 .845 .405 not significant 1.5 type of family .069 .064 .198 1.068 .295 not significant 1.6 highest educational attainment .346 .108 .853 3.208 .003 significant 1.7 salary grade -.231 .061 -.802 -3.750 .001 significant family relationships (constant) 5.893 .286 20.601 .000 1.1 age -.389 .068 -.982 -5.697 .000 significant 1.2 rank -.059 .026 -.330 -2.243 .033 significant 1.3 length of service .158 .040 .811 3.921 .001 significant 1.4 civil status -.330 .079 -.819 -4.152 .000 significant 1.5 type of family .096 .053 .216 1.805 .082 not significant 1.6 highest educational attainment .118 .089 .227 1.320 .198 not significant 1.7 salary grade -.285 .051 -.774 -5.602 .000 significant social activities (constant) .638 .612 1.042 .307 1.1 age .821 .146 1.197 5.619 .000 significant 1.2 rank -.170 .056 -.553 -3.045 .005 significant 1.3 length of service -.213 .086 -.635 -2.482 .020 significant 1.4 civil status .627 .170 .899 3.685 .001 significant 1.5 type of family -.244 .114 -.316 -2.137 .042 significant 1.6 highest educational attainment .455 .191 .505 2.380 .025 significant 1.7 salary grade -.026 .109 -.041 -.241 .811 not significant health expectations were significantly influenced by two factors: highest educational attainment and salary grade. respondents with higher educational attainment showed a significantly better outlook on health expectations after retirement, aligning with the findings of amorim et al. (2024), which suggest that individual differences, such as education, influence the broader experience of retirement. additionally, those with a lower salary grade experienced poorer health expectations, which may be linked to financial concerns post-retirement, similar to the issues discussed by jones (2022), where financial instability impacts retirees’ well-being. regarding family relationships, age, rank, length of service, civil status, and salary grade were all significant factors. older retirees, those with longer service, and those with a different marital status experienced varying levels of satisfaction with family relationships postretirement. specifically, jones (2022) highlights that role changes, including family dynamics, are significant during retirement, with age and marital status being central to these shifts. moreover, salary grade emerged as a critical factor, indicating that retirees with higher salaries had better family relationships post-retirement. this is in line with parker (2022), who discussed how economic stability supports positive social relationships in the retirement phase. social activities were most strongly influenced by age, rank, length of service, civil status, type of family, and highest educational attainment. older retirees, for example, showed a significantly greater involvement in social activities postretirement, which may suggest that, as individuals age, they have more time and possibly more desire to engage socially. this reflects the findings by amorim et al. (2024), who pointed out that retirement offers an opportunity to seek meaning through social interactions, especially for those with higher educational backgrounds. civil status was also influential, with married retirees participating more in social activities, supporting the idea that family structure and support systems play a vital role in post-retirement social engagement, as noted by jones (2022). pa ge 18 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee am. j. environ econ. 4(1) 163-184, 2025 conclusion in contrast, salary grade was a negative factor in all three dimensions (health expectations, family relationships, and social activities). lower salary grades correlated with a poorer quality of life after retirement, emphasizing the importance of financial security in influencing postretirement experiences. this finding mirrors the negative impact of poor financial planning discussed by jiang et al. (2022) and cebola et al. 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