









































Pa
ge

 
1



Pa
ge

 
5

American Journal of  Environmental
Economics (AJEE) 

Water Resources, Pollution, Integrated Management and Practices in Nigeria – An Overview
Godspower Oke Omokaro1*, Vivian Idama2, Edmond Osemwengie Airueghian3, Ikioukenigha Michael4

Volume 3 Issue 1, Year 2024
ISSN: 2833-7905 (Online)

DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v3i1.2593
https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Article Information ABSTRACT

Received: March 13, 2024

Accepted: April 06, 2024

Published: April 10, 2024

This paper provides a comprehensive overview of  Nigeria’s water landscape, focusing on 
its abundant surface and underground water sources and the agencies responsible for water 
resources development and management. Findings reveals that the country boasts vast 
freshwater reserves, encompassing surface and groundwater, intricate river drainage systems, 
numerous dams, and managed aquifer formations, primarily overseen by River Basin 
Development Authorities. Despite these resources, Nigeria faces severe pollution challenges, 
especially in the Niger Delta, resulting from oil-related activities and causing environmental 
degradation, health crises, and enduring ecosystem consequences. Approximately 13 million 
barrels of  oil spills have adversely impacted coastal wetlands, mangroves, and agricultural 
lands. Elevated levels of  heavy metal pollution, exceeding recommended guidelines, pose 
significant threats to public health, emphasizing the lasting impact of  persistent oil spillage 
on fishery production and aquatic organisms. River Basin Development Authorities have 
made substantial contributions, challenges persist in catchment management and the 
indiscriminate disposal of  hazardous substances. The absence of  effective environmental 
policies necessitates urgent, coordinated action from federal and state governments. Nigeria 
must prioritize integrated water management practices to strike a delicate balance between 
resource utilization and preservation for the benefit of  current and future generations. This 
manuscript relies on secondary sources, utilizing key search terms such as “water resources 
in Nigeria,” “water pollution in Nigeria,” “water supply and demand in Nigeria,” “water 
management in Nigeria,” and “integrated water practices in Nigeria.” Data were sourced 
from reputable institutions, including the Federal Ministry of  Water Resources, The World 
Bank, United Nations Environmental Protection (UNEP), USAID’s Sustainable Water 
Partnership, and various scientific publications, ensuring the reliability of  the presented data.

Keywords

Nigeria Water Resources, 
Integrated Water Management, 
Surface and Groundwater, Water 
Pollution, Water Availability

1 Institute of  Ecology, Peoples Friendship University of  Russia, Moscow, Russia
2 School of  Public Health, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
3 Department of  Soil Science and Land Management, University of  Benin, Benin City, Nigeria
4 Department of  Geography and Regional Planning, Igbinedion University, Okada, Edo State, Nigeria
* Corresponding author’s e-mail: omokaro.kelly@gmail.com

INTRODUCTION
Water resources are natural resources of  water that are 
potentially useful for humans, for example as a source of  
drinking water supply or irrigation water. It plays a major 
role in the development of  any nation most especially 
in socio-economic development, preservation, and 
protection of  the environment; therefore, its importance 
is generally well known. However, Nigeria as a nation is 
rich in natural resources which includes water resources, 
which is also an important source for its national and 
economic development. Nigeria as a country is faced with 
lots of  environmental challenges and water pollution is 
widely among them. It is known that problem of  water 
resources is of  three main types: namely too little water, 
too much water, and polluted water (Adebola, 2001). In 
Nigeria, the problem of  water resources is the availability 
of  good-quality (potable) water because of  environmental 
pollution and degradation (Efe, 2001); beside this, 
valuable man-hours and resources are spent traveling 
long distances fetching water of  doubtful quality. More 
so, previous studies have shown that water resources 
in Nigeria are easily contaminated from anthropogenic 
activities (Orisakwe et al., 2001; Nduka et al., 2009). 
Several publications have reported the unregulated 
discharge of  untreated effluents into natural receptors 

by industries in Nigeria (Egborge, 2000). The rapid 
urbanization and industrialization of  the Niger Delta 
Region of  Nigeria occasioned by huge crude oil and gas 
reserves has had its toll on the environment (Nduka et 
al. 2008) most especially on water resources in the entire 
region. The US Department of  Energy estimates that 
since 1960, there has been more than 4,000 oil spills, 
discharging several million barrels of  crude oil into the 
ponds, ditches, creeks, beaches, streams, and rivers of  
the Niger Delta (Amaize, 2007); hence there is need 
for stringent environmental laws and policy. Majority 
of  Nigeria’s environmental problems are because of  
the ineffective implementation of  environmental laws. 
These challenges range from lack of  governmental 
water supply (availability of  freshwater resources, such 
as rivers, lakes, groundwater, and reservoirs, that can be 
used for various purposes), infrastructure to properly 
implement environmental laws, high corruption/poor 
governance, and lack of  maintenance of  facilities that 
aids its implementation. However, the study seeks to 
explore Nigeria’s water resources, pollution sources and 
types, integrated management, and practices and provide 
possible suggestions relating to the water problem in 
Nigeria through secondary data.



Pa
ge

 
6

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Am. J. Environ Econ. 3(1) 5-18, 2024

LITERATURE REVIEW
Water Resources in Nigeria
Nigeria is located in Western Africa on the Gulf  of  
Guinea and has a total area of  923,768 km2 (356,669 sq 
mi), making it the world’s 32nd-largest country. Nigeria 
has 36 states, many of  which are so rich in water resources, 
and some of  these states were named after rivers. The 
land area is located within the tropics where its climate 
is semi-arid in the North gradually becoming humid in 
the South. However, apart from the surface water found 
in nearly every part of  the country, the country is also 
endowed with plenty of  underground water. With 215 
cubic kilometers a year of  surface water availability, this 
amount is much higher than many African countries 
especially those in the southern and northern regions 
of  the continent. The surface water resources potential 
of  the country is estimated at 267.3 billion cubic meters 
while the groundwater potential is 51.9 billion cubic 

meters (National Water Policy of  Federal Republic 
of  Nigeria, 2014). Three broad ecological zones are 
commonly distinguished in the country:

i) The northern Sudan Savannah,
ii) The Guinea Savannah zone or Middle Belt, and
iii) The southern rainforest zone.

Based on rainfall and temperature, the county is divided 
into eight agro-ecological zones (FAO, 2016). these zones 
are presented in a north-south succession, except the 
mountainous zone which is found at the border with 
Cameroon and the plateau zone in the center of  the 
country. The peculiar and variable nature of  Nigeria 
in location and climate has given rise to certain water 
resource issues in the country. These issues range from 
precipitation to management of  these resources. The 
annual precipitation ranges from 400mm in the North-
Eastern part to about 2000mm in the South-Eastern part 
of  the Country (Ishaku & Majid, 2010; FAO, 2016).

Table 1: Agro-ecological zones in Nigeria
Zone Description Percentage of  country area Annual rainfall (mm) Monthly Temperature 0C

Minimum Maximum
Semi-arid 4 400-600 13 40
Dry sub-humid 27 600-1000 12 45
Sub-humid 26 1000-1300 14 37
Humid 21 1100-1400 18 37
Very humid 14 1120-2000 21 37
Ultra humid (flood) 2 >2000 23 33
Mountainous 4 1400-2000 5 32
Plateau 2 1400-1500 14 36

(FAO, 2016)

Figure 1: Map of  Water Resources



Pa
ge

 
7

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Am. J. Environ Econ. 3(1) 5-18, 2024

METHODOLOGY
The data and information presented in this manuscript were 
sourced from secondary sources, including various scientific 
publications and reputable research institutions. Key search 
terms and phrases employed to identify these resources 
encompassed “water resources in Nigeria,” “water pollution 
in Nigeria,” “water supply and demand in Nigeria,” “water 
management in Nigeria,” and “integrated water practices 
in Nigeria.” The majority of  the data were acquired from 
sources such as the Federal Ministry of  Water Resources of  
the Federal Republic of  Nigeria, The World Bank, United 
Nations Environmental Protection (UNEP), and USAID’s 
Sustainable Water Partnership, among others. Subsequently, 
the sourced materials were downloaded, thoroughly 
examined, and appropriately cited.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Surface Water Resources In Nigeria
Nigeria’s surface waters primarily drain through the 
Niger and Lake Chad Basin, in addition to several smaller 
coastal river basins (Adelodun & Choi, 2018). However, 
according to Federal Ministry of  Water Resources on 
National Water Resources Policy (2016), Nigeria organizes 
its basins into eight Hydrological Areas (HA) The Niger 
North, Niger Central, Niger South, Upper Benue, and 
Lower Benue HAs formed the lower reaches of  the Niger 
Basin. Nigeria is divided into eight hydrological areas for 
the purpose of  water resources management, considering 
hydrological and topographical conditions, as shown 
below.

Table 2: The Eight Hydrological Areas
Hydrological Area Area (103km3) Mainly related RBDAs Mainly related states
HA-1 Niger North 135.1 Sokoto-Rima Katsina, Zamfara, Sokoto, Kebbi
HA-2 Niger Central 154.6 Upper Niger, Lower Niger Niger, Kwara, Kaduna, Kogi, FCT
HA-3 Upper Benue 156.5 Upper Benue Adamawa, Taraba, Gombe, Bauchi
HA-4 Lower Benue 74.5 Lower Benue Plateau, Nasarawa, Benue, Kogi
HA-5 Niger South 53.9 Anambra-Imo, Niger Delta Bayelsa, Delta, Edo, Kogi, Anambra, Rivers
HA-6 Western Littoral 99.3 Ogun-Osun, Benin-Owena Lagos, Ogun, Oyo, Osun, Ondo, Edo, 

Ekiti
HA-7 Eastern Littoral 57.4 Cross River Abia, Anambra, Imo, Enugu, Ebonyi, 

Cross River, Akwa Ibom, Rivers
HA-8 Lake Chad 178.5 Hadejia-Jama’are, Chad Kano, Jigawa, Yobe, Borno, Bauchi, 

Adamawa, Plateau
Adopted from Ibrahim et al. (2021)

Collectively, they drain almost two-thirds of  the country 
and account for about 60 percent of  total runoff  (Idu, 
2015). The Niger River originates in Guinea and outlets 
to the Gulf  of  Guinea through the Niger Delta, which is 
the third largest delta in the world covering 70,000 km2 
and containing seven percent of  the world’s mangroves 
(Linden and Palsson, 2013; FAO, 2020) The Benue 
River is the largest and most important tributary of  the 
Niger River in Nigeria. The North-eastern Lake Chad 
HA drains the western limits of  the Lake Chad Basin, 
which spans eight countries and forms Lake Chad along 
the border between Nigeria, Chad, and Cameroon. The 
largest river in the Chad Basin HA is the Komadougou 
Yobe which has a number of  seasonal tributaries, 
including the Hadejia, Jama’are, and Komadougou Gena 
((FAO Aquastat, 2016). Water availability in the Lake 
Chad HA has declined due to the recession of  Lake Chad 
because of  drought and overexploitation. In the 1960s, 
Lake Chad spanned 25,000 km2 and had roughly one-
quarter of  its surface within Nigeria. During this time, 
demand for water increased significantly from agricultural 
communities around the lake Joint Environmental Audit, 
2015; Vivekananda et al., 2019). Major Sahelian droughts 
reduced Lake Chad’s coverage by 90 percent to 2,000 km2, 
however, the lake’s coverage has somewhat recovered to 

14,000 km2. The Western Littoral HA has relatively low 
runoff, whereas the Eastern Littoral HA, which includes 
the Cross and Imo Rivers, has high precipitation and 
generates about 30 percent of  national runoff  (Idu, 2015; 
Pharm-Duc et al., 2020).

Groundwater Resources
Groundwater resources are controlled by hydrogeology 
of  the country and follow the pattern of  occurrence of  
the aquifers, aquitards or aquicludes (Idu, 2015). There 
are four major aquifers in Nigeria according to Adelena, 
(2012) reports, these are;

Basement Aquifers
These consist of  crystalline and coarse-grained rocks 
and argillaceous meta-sedimentary rocks. Generally, have 
low yields. Thickness varies from 10 to 25 m; with water 
table depth varying from about 5 to 15m. Depending on 
local conditions, boreholes tend to be drilled to depths 
between 10 and 70m.

Sedimentary Aquifers
They generally consist of  thick sequences of  sediments 
with yields between 2 and 60l/s; water table depth 
between 10 and 40m; and borehole depths from 20m to 



Pa
ge

 
8

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Am. J. Environ Econ. 3(1) 5-18, 2024

150m. Coastal sedimentary basins have borehole depths 
between 10m and 800m and yields between 2 and 60l/s.

Volcanic Plateau
It is found around Jos plateau and Bauchi State of  Nigeria. 
The rock types are mainly olivine basalts, coriaceous lavas 
and tuffs. These rocks form typically unconfined aquifers 
with low to moderate yields, usually below 3l/s. Aquifer 
thickness varies substantially. Water table depth is less 
than 5m. Borehole depths of  15 to 50m are common.

River Alluvium Aquifers
It occur along the valleys of  major rivers and streams 
ranging from the thin discontinuous sands occurring in 
the smallest streams to the thick alluvial deposits of  rivers 
Niger and Benue. They may occupy strips of  country up 
to 15km wide on each side of  the river. They are thickest 
(15-30m thick) along the rivers Niger and Benue and are 
largely unconfined with shallow water tables.
However, most of  Nigeria’s groundwater exists in 
basement complexes or sedimentary basins. Alluvium 
aquifers are less common but are the most productive 
groundwater systems. Groundwater recharge rates 

are lowest in the northwest (estimates from 4-28mm/ 
year) and highest in the southeast (estimates from 281- 
1,047mm/year) (Adelana, 2012). Basement complexes 
cover 60 percent of  Nigeria and are located throughout 
the southwest, in the central region, and along the eastern 
border with Cameroon. Most of  these groundwater 
systems have shallow depths to the water table (5-15m) 
and low to moderate well yields (FAO Aquastat, 2016). 
Sedimentary aquifers underlay most of  the northeast 
and northwest, and along the upper reaches of  the Niger 
and Benue Rivers. The best-yielding aquifers are in the 
northwest, northeast, and central regions. Aquifers in the 
northern sedimentary basin typically have both confined 
and unconfined layers. Unconfined aquifer depths range 
between 15-75m in the northwest and 30-100m in the 
Northeast. Alluvium aquifers broadly follow the paths of  
the Niger and Benue Rivers in relatively narrow bands 
and underlie most of  the Niger Delta. In these aquifers, 
groundwater can be easily accessed at shallowest depths 
(0-10m) with high yields (FAO Aquastat, 2016; Earthwise 
accessed 2024). Nigerian groundwater can be best 
divided into three hydro-meteorological areas based on 
its availability (Idu, 2015) and presented in Table 3;

Table 3: Hydro-meteorological Areas of  Nigeria’s Groundwater
Hydro-meteorological Areas Related River Basins Characteristics

1 Sahel zone Sokoto, Hadejia-Jama’are-Yobe and the 
South-East Chad

Low annual precipitation of  
500-750mm

2 Guinea savannah zone Kaduna, Benue (upper and lower), and 
the Niger (Upper and lower)

Mean annual precipitation of  
1000-1250 mm

3 Tropical rain forest zone Anambra, Cross River, Kwa-Iboe, Niger 
Delta and the Southwestern Coastal

Heavy precipitation from 
1250mm-4000mm

Source: Idu, (2015)

However, around three-quarters of  all irrigation 
withdrawals are from groundwater through traditional, 
dry-season flood plain irrigation known as fadama 
(National et al. Plan, 2013). Groundwater is also the main 
domestic water source for approximately 60 percent 
of  the population in rural and urban areas. However, 
data on groundwater use and sustainability is limited 
and requires more systematic monitoring. Average 
water levels in shallow aquifers in the northeast have 
declined over 13 meters (Gronwall et al., 2010; Yusuf  et 
al., 2018 and Cobbing, 2020). Groundwater is generally 
available at lower depths; however, deeper wells are more 
expensive (Adelana, 2012; Adeyeye, 2020). Recharge rates 
have declined significantly as dams have reduced the 
extent of  wet season inundation of  flood plains (Joint 
Environmental Audit, 2015). Research and systematic 
monitoring of  groundwater levels throughout southern 
Nigeria is lacking, although there is some indication that 
over- pumping is contributing to subsidence (land sinking) 
in coastal cities such as Lagos. Additionally, groundwater 
demand is high in the northern Kano region, which is 
home to one-third of  the total population. Despite above 
average precipitation in recent years, groundwater levels 

across the Kano metropolitan area are declining, largely 
due to over-abstraction and urbanization which reduce 
recharge (Abdulhamid et al., 2014; Mahmud et al., 2016; 
Tukur et al., 2018).

Climatic Condition and Water Resources in Nigeria
Nigeria is characterized by three distinct climate zones, a 
tropical monsoon climate in the south, a tropical savannah 
climate for most of  the central regions, and a Sahelian hot 
and semi-arid climate in the north of  the country. This 
leads to a gradient of  declining precipitation amounts 
from south to north. The southern regions experience 
strong rainfall events during the rainy season from March 
to October, with annual rainfall amounts usually above 
2,000 mm and can reach 4,000 mm and more in the Niger 
Delta. The central regions are governed by a well-defined 
single rainy season (April to September) and dry season 
(December to March). The Harmattan wind from Sahara 
influences the dry season. Coastal areas experience a 
short, drier season, with most rain occurring from March 
to October. Annual rainfall can reach up to about 1200 
mm. In the north, rain only falls from June to September 
in the range of  500 mm to 750 mm. The rest of  the 



Pa
ge

 
9

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Am. J. Environ Econ. 3(1) 5-18, 2024

year is hot and dry. Northern areas have a high degree 
of  annual variation in its rainfall regime, which results 
in flooding and droughts (World Bank Group Climate 
Change Knowledge Portal, 2020).
Most of  Nigeria experiences distinct wet and dry seasons, 
which are known to cause high seasonal variability in 
water supply. The wet season is shorter (May- September) 
in the north compared to the south where it lasts at least 
9 months (March-November). Climate change has caused 
average temperatures to increase by 0.8°C between 1960 
and 2006, with a particularly steep increase since 1980, 
while annual precipitation has decreased (USAID, 2019; 
Butu and Emeribe, 2019). Between 1971 and 2012, heat 
waves have increased in the Guinea and Sahel regions. 
Dry seasons have become longer, and wet season rainfall 
variability has increased. Droughts are also more frequent 
and affect larger areas, while extreme flooding has 
increased. In northern Nigeria, rainfall has declined by 25 
percent in the past 30 years. Climate change is projected 
to further increase temperatures by 1.9-3.7°C, while total 
precipitation may increase slightly. Total water availability 
is projected to decrease due to increased evaporation 
(Abatan et al., 2016; Elisha et al., 2017; Shiru et al., 2018; 
Haider, 2019). Sea levels may rise between 1.5- 3 feet, 
potentially submerging more than 11,000 square miles, 
where many of  the most densely populated cities and 
towns are located, including Lagos (King, 2017).
Reports has it that an estimated 20 percent of  the 
population face flood risks. However, flood risks are 
highest in riverine communities in the downstream reaches 
of  the Niger, Benue, and Cross Rivers, and Lagos State. 

The lower basin states throughout southern Nigeria have 
experienced a 20 percent increase in recorded volumes of  
torrential rains in the past 40 years. This has accelerated 
gully erosion in the southeast where many riverbanks have 
collapsed. In 2012, widespread flooding affected almost 
every Nigerian state, damaging, or destroying 600,000 
houses, displacing over 2 million people, and causing 
almost USD $17 billion in losses to the economy (Relief  
Web, 2012; Cirella and Iyalombe, 2018; UNFCCC, 2020; 
Njoku et al., 2020). Climate change will continue to lower 
rainfall in northern Nigeria and increase the frequency 
of  severe droughts. Desertification will worsen these 
risks. In addition to drought, desertification is driven by 
poor water resources management and land use changes, 
overgrazing, and deforestation. Between 50-75 percent 
of  the land in the 11 northernmost states are impacted by 
desertification. Desertification is progressing southward 
at a rate of  0.6 kilometers per year and has contributed to 
the loss of  nearly half  the vegetation in the northernmost 
states between 1984 and 2016 (Toye, 2002; Haider, 2019; 
Nwilo et al., 2020). A growing number of  sand dunes have 
threatened oases and buried water points, and significantly 
reduced wetland coverage (Adepelumi et al., 2009).

Water Availability and Regulation: Supply, Demand 
and Management
The Federal Ministry of  Water Resources (FMWR) is 
the foremost agency for water, sanitation, and hygiene 
(WASH) activities in Nigeria. The ministry works with 
the National Task Group on Sanitation (NTGS), and 
development partners on sanitation and hygiene issues. 

Table 4: Statutory Bodies for Water Regulation in Nigeria
No. Statutory body Key provision
1. The Oil in Navigable Waters Act, 1968 Prohibits water pollution by oil spillage
2. The Petroleum Act, 1969 Covers prevention of  pollution by inland waters, rivers,  

lakes, and watercourses
3. The River Basin Development Authority 

(RBDA) Decree 25 of  1976 (repealed by No. 
87 of  1979 and also latter by the RBDA Act, 
Decree 35 of  1987, i.e. Cap 396)

In its present form Cap. 396 spells out diverse functions 
and objectives for these authorities to ensure a Pan-Nigerian 
programme for water resources development

4. The Environmental Impact Assessment 
(EIA) Decree, No. 86 of  1992

This law seeks to protect the physical and aquatic environment

5. Water Resources Decree, No. 101 of  1993 Vests the right to use and control all surface waters and 
groundwater and of  all water in any watercourse affecting 
more than one state in the Federal Government, with 
provisions that any person may take water without charge 
for his domestic or livestock watering purposes (in any 
watercourse to which the public has free access)

6. The 1999 Constitution of  the Federal 
Republic of  Nigeria

The Constitution puts in the Exclusive Legislative List (ELL) 
shipping and navigation on the River Niger and its affluent 
and on any such other inland waterway as may be designated 
by the National Assembly to be an interna tional waterway 
or to be an interstate waterway. The ELL also includes 
water from such sources as may be declared by the National 
Assembly to be sources affecting more than one state

Adopted from Balogun and Redina (2019)



Pa
ge

 
10

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Am. J. Environ Econ. 3(1) 5-18, 2024

The national standards and targets being followed are 
as stated in the 2010 Water Sector Road Map, Vision 
20:2020, the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), 
and the African Water Vision (WHO, 2013).
The state and local governments under the umbrella of  
the State’s Water Corporation are primarily responsible 
for the provision of  municipal and domestic water 
supply. However, the Federal Government often 
intervenes to increase access to meet these targets. Even 
though monitoring and evaluation of  water supply and 
regulation are not taken seriously enough, some agencies 
monitor activities in the WASH sector. However, effective 
legislation could not be made to ascertain the quality of  
water supply and management. In compensation with the 
lack of  insufficient quality water supply to the citizen, 
Alternative market of  water production by the private 
owners (traditional well water and borehole) took over 
the supply of  water in the country. Furthermore, there are 
three major level of  government that share responsibility 

for the delivery of  water supply services which are the 
federal, state, and local government. In some rural area 
or rural communities’ water and sanitation committees 
(WASCOs) are formed to operate and maintain water 
facilities. These committees are tasked with the duty 
of  collecting water tariffs from inhabitants of  these 
communities. Donors such as the African Development 
Bank have set a requirement that at least 30% of  members 
of  WASCOs must be women (African Development 
Bank, 2012). In 1993 the government committed itself  
to reinforce community participation in rural water 
supply in a policy document which as of  the year 2000 
but the policy had not been dispersed or administered in 
all government or donor-financed programs. Individual 
water supply services also known as alternative water 
supply system; mostly everywhere in the country, the 
residents practice or are engaged in this part of  water 
supply service due to the shortcoming of  water supply 
from the governmental water supply services.

Table 5: List of  other Regulations bearing on Water Resources in Nigeria
No. Statutory body Key provision
1. National Policy on Environment 1989 Protection of  the environment
2. National Guidelines and Standards for Environ- 

mental Pollution Control in Nigeria 1991
Pollution control in watercourses as part of  the 
environment

3. National Effluent Limitation Regulation 1991 Control of  discharge of  industrial waste and sewage into 
watercourses

4. Pollution Abatement in Industries and Facilities 
Generating Wastes Regulation 1991

Control of  industrial pollution

5. Waste Management Regulation 1991 Waste management
Adopted from Balogun and Redina (2019)

Figure 2: Major water supply sources in Nigeria
Source: Balogun and Redina (2019)

Nigeria’s 2013 National Water Resources Master plan 
projects that total surface water demand will more than 
triple by 2030. The largest increases will be in the Upper 
Benue, Lake Chad, and Western Littoral HAs due to 
growing demand for irrigation. Municipal demand is 
concentrated in the Niger Central and Western Littoral 
HAs whereas agricultural demand is concentrated in the 
Lake Chad and Niger North Has. Nigeria also has over 
200 dams (Adelodun & Choi, 2018). The Kainji, Shiroro, 
and Jebba Dams in the Niger Basin account for 70 percent 
of  Nigeria’s total dam storage capacity (JICA, 2014). 

Around 70 percent of  all livestock is in northeastern 
Nigeria. Major droughts in the 1970s killed 13 percent 
of  the region’s livestock and cut the agriculture sector’s 
contribution to the GDP by more than half  (Eze, 2018; 
Adeyeye, 2020). Key dams on the Hadejia and Komadugu-
Yobe River have significantly reduced the coverage of  key 
wetlands, especially Hadejia-Nguru wetlands and reduced 
Lake Chad’s coverage and surrounding pastures (Pearce 
2018; World et al. al., 2020).
Lake Chad has high inter-annual and inter-seasonal 
rainfall variability. As a shallow lake, its coverage 



Pa
ge

 
11

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Am. J. Environ Econ. 3(1) 5-18, 2024

fluctuates greatly with rainfall patterns, affecting the 
extent and viability of  pastures, croplands, and fisheries 
(Pearce, 2018; Vivekananda et al., 2019). High poverty 
rates and unequal access to land and water resources 
amplify existing socio-economic tensions among ethnic 
and religious groups (Anderson, 2019; Adeyeye, 2020). 
Food and water insecurity in northern Nigeria have been 
important factors in helping Boko Haram recruit fighters 
while violent clashes between pastoralists and farmers 
are partly attributed to water scarcity and desertification 
(Audu, 2014; Muhammed et al., 2015; Piesse, 2017). 
Approximately 30 percent of  Local Government Areas 
(LGAs) have medium to high flood risk. The highest 
risks are around the Niger Delta, along the Niger, Benue, 
and Cross Rivers, and in Lagos State (Njoku et al., 2020). 
Poor urban planning and enforcement of  existing 
zoning regulations has led to uncontrolled development 
in coastal zones and flood plains. Lagos City is one of  
the largest and fastest growing cities in the world, and 
over two-thirds of  its population reside in low lying 
flood plains (Stark & Terasawa, 2013; Raji et al., 2014). 
Stormwater infrastructure and drainage systems cover 
less than half  of  Lagos, and most are not maintained. 
Further, many drainage systems are uncovered channels 
and are commonly used as dump sites for solid waste, 
which increases surface water contamination and health 
risks during floods (Lucas, 2021).

Water Pollution in Nigeria
Water pollution is a change caused in the chemical, 
physical or biological properties of  the water that has 
the capacity of  hurting the living organism. However, 
water pollution is another key aspect of  environmental 
pollution and the main type of  water pollution in Nigeria 
especially in the riverine areas as oil pollution (Astegbua, 
2003). In relation to this, Owa (2013) stated that water is 
polluted if  some substances or conditions are present to 
such a degree that the water cannot be used for specific 
purpose. Damilola (2012) also defines water pollution 
as the contamination or change in the quality of  water 
that has a harmful effect on any living thing that drinks, 
uses, or lives in it. Abimbola (1999) also posits that as a 
result of  oil losses, vast tracks of  agriculture have been 
laid waste, thus becoming unproductive, and surface 
water and river courses are invariably contaminated 
and polluted, rendering the water undrinkable. The 
result is great hardship for the inhabitants who become 
impoverished and deprived.
Nigeria is the 10th largest oil producer in the world due to 
the rich oil deposits in the Niger Delta (Imoobe & Tanshi, 
2009). Oil spills have discharged an estimated 13 million 
barrels of  crude oil into the environment and destroyed 
coastal wetlands and mangroves, degraded agricultural 
lands, and created widespread public health crises (King, 
2017). Oil spills have contributed to high concentrations 
of  heavy metals such as cadmium, chromium, and lead in 
numerous watercourses, particularly in Rivers and Delta 
States. Pollution from cadmium and lead is the most severe, 

with their maximum concentrations found over 100 times 
the WHO guideline values for drinking water (Nduka 
& Orisakwe, 2011; WHO, 2017). While environmental 
and social impact assessments are required in Nigeria, 
local compliance and enforcement of  environmental 
regulations are often lacking (Imoobe & Tanshi, 2009). 
The impacts of  these spills threaten public health and can 
devastate ecosystems and biodiversity. Fishery production 
and populations of  key aquatic organisms are declining 
in the Niger Delta due to oil spillage. Despite cleanup 
efforts, contaminants from an oil spill from over 40 years 
ago have persisted in the Ogoniland area, demonstrating 
the long-term consequences that these events can have 
(UNEP, 2011; Osuagwu & Olaifa, 2011; Oguntade & 
Olaifa, 2018).
More so, in Nigeria, less than 10 percent of  industrial 
effluent is treated, thereby leading to contamination 
from heavy metal pollution, mostly lead and chromium, 
in addition to oil and grease, high turbidity, and high 
biological/chemical oxygen demand (BOD/COD) are 
widespread (Idu, 2015). High BOD/COD levels can kill 
aquatic species and disrupt ecosystems. Water quality risks 
from industry are especially high in the southwest near 
the Lagos and in the north near Kano (Wakawa & Kagbu, 
2008; Taiwo et al., 2012; Lohdip & Gongden, 2013). Apart 
from Abuja and Lagos, functional wastewater treatment 
plants are limited. Additionally, excess fertilizer use, poor 
land use planning, and dams are increasing eutrophication 
in rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, destroying ecosystems 
and inhibiting recreational use of  surface waters. Algal 
blooms have been observed in Rumuji Lake in the Niger 
Delta region (Nweze, 2010; Megbo, 2010; Erhumwunse 
et al., 2013 and Kayode et al., 2018).
Research has shown that, naturally high fluoride levels 
contribute to widespread fluorosis in some parts of  
Nigeria. Fluoride concentrations are higher in central and 
northern Nigeria, with one national survey showing that 
30 percent of  groundwater sources exceed the WHO 
guideline value for drinking water for fluoride (Lar et 
al., 2014; Malago, 2017; Cobbing, 2020). Heavy metals 
such as lead, cadmium, arsenic, and selenium have been 
detected in groundwater in the southwestern city of  
Ibadan, although contamination from antimony is highest 
and most widespread and likely derives from natural and 
anthropogenic sources (Etim, 2017; Ganiyu et al., 2021). 
Similarly, lead pollution from industrial and municipal 
waste is widespread in shallow and deep wells in Lagos. 
Additionally, inadequate sanitation systems in many cities, 
including Lagos, have led to high concentrations of  E. 
Coli and nitrates in shallow wells (Yahaya et al., 2020; Healy 
et al., 2020). Groundwater resources used for drinking 
supply in the coastal area of  Lagos and in communities 
in Delta State and in Ondo State have been affected by 
saltwater intrusion. Groundwater monitoring wells are 
lacking in Lagos, although some studies have found saline 
intrusion in wells as far as 3km inland (Oteri & Atolagbe, 
2003; Adepelumi et al., 2009; Aladejana et al., 2021). Rising 
sea levels from climate change and land subsidence in 



Pa
ge

 
12

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Am. J. Environ Econ. 3(1) 5-18, 2024

coastal cities will increase saline intrusion. Groundwater 
sampled in areas with a history of  oil spillage have shown 
high turbidity, low pH, and low dissolved oxygen at 
levels that may not be suitable for human consumption. 
In Ogoniland, one water quality study closes to an oil 
pipeline found an 8 cm layer of  refined oil floating on 
the groundwater table which serves community wells 
(UNEP, 2011; Nwachukwu & Osuagwu, 2014).
The nation’s water sources are under serious threat  from 
inadequate catchment management and widespread 
pollution, including the indiscriminate disposal of  
hazardous substances. The oil-producing region of  Nige- 
ria, the Niger Delta, suffers a lot from the improper 
implementation of  environmental policies and activities 
associated with petroleum exploration, development, and 
production. They have been experiencing a wide range of  
environmental degradation and pollution and are at high 
risk of  health hazards and socio-economic problems (Ite 
et al., 2016). These regions often must deal with oil spillage 
in their rivers from oil and gas industries thereby causing 
serious damage to aquatic life and plant as well. Since the 
environmental policies in Nigeria are not very effective, 
these communities must deal with these situations by 
themselves most of  the time.
Consuming water and plants contaminated with oil 
is dangerous to health. Over the years, threats to the 
nation’s water resources are because of  poor and 
uncoordinated management of  the resource. Federal 
and state governments have a much bigger role in the 
overall management of  the nation’s water resources. In 
most cases, stakeholders are not consulted or otherwise 
involved in planning, development and management of  
the nation’s water resources (Adegoroye, 1994).

Integrated Water Management System in Nigeria
Historically, beginning from colonial Nigeria, the 
Water Works Acts, 1915 is the only pan Nigerian law 
passed specially to keep water from being polluted. 
It bans the pollution of  water works in Nigeria by 
noxious or harmful matter or substances. However, 
in 2017, a comprehensive national water resources 
bill was proposed to consolidate and clarify existing 

laws, centralize water resources management through a 
national council, and establish a regulatory framework for 
water resources. The bill has been controversial due to 
its provisions for privatization of  water service delivery 
and consolidation of  water management responsibilities 
within the central government. Approval of  the law 
remains pending (Ogunmupe, 2020). Further, technical 
capacity is often low; and one assessment of  the Cross 
River Basin Development Agency highlighted the lack 
of  key technical staff, including geographic information 
system and remote sensing expertise, hydrologists, and 
water resources managers (Ngene et al., 2019). Capacity 
issues are compounded by inadequate data, and poor 
data management systems. NESREA struggles to fulfill 
its mandates due to technical capacity constraints, in 
addition to a lack of  transparency and autonomy from 
political interests, fragmented environmental laws, lack of  
public participation, and limited enforcement of  permits 
(Cobbing, 2020; Stewart, 2011).
Presently, the Federal Ministry of  Water Resource 
(FMWR) is responsible for large water resources 
development projects and water allocation between 
states (Idu, 2015). FMWR has sixteen (16) parastatals and 
agencies made up of  twelve (12) River Basin Development 
Authorities (RBDAs), Nigeria Hydrological Services 
Agency (NIHSA), Nigeria Integrated Water Resources 
Management Commission (NIWRMC), Gurara Water 
Management Authority (GWMA), and the National 
Water Resources Institute (NWRI).
The first two RBDAs - Chad Basin Development 
Authority (CBDA) and Sokoto-Rima River Basin 
Development Authority (SRRBDA) were created in 1973, 
through the Decree Nos. 32 and 33 of  1976. In 1976, 
based on the Decree No. 25 of  1976, nine (9) additional 
RBDAs were established, and as a result, the number of  
RBDAs becomes 11. In 1984, with separation of  Niger 
River Basin Development Authority into two RBDAs – 
such as Upper Niger River Basin Development Authority 
(UNRBDA) and Lower Niger River Basin Development 
Authority (LNRBDA), the number of  RBDA became 12 
and these RBDAs long continue with the operation to 
date (JICA, 2014).

Table 6: River Basin Development Authority
S/N RBDA Area of  Operation Office
1 Anambra-Imo River Basin 

Development Authority (AIRBDA)
Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo States Oweri

2 Benin Owena River Basin Development 
Authority (BORBDA)

The regions of  River Benin and Owena and a 
senatorial district in Delta State

Benin-City

3 Chad Basin Development Authority 
(CBDA)

Borno, Yobe State and northern part of  
Adamawa State

Maiduguri

4 Cross River Basin Development 
Authority (CRBDA)

Akwa Ibom and Cross River States Calabar

5 Hadejia Jama’ are River Basin 
Development Authority (HJRBDA)

Kano, Jigawa States and North and central parts 
of  Bauchi Sate

Kano

6 Lower Benue River Basin Development 
Authority (LBRBDA)

The catchment states of  Benue, Plateau, Nassarawa 
States and Kogi State East of  the River Niger

Makurdi



Pa
ge

 
13

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Am. J. Environ Econ. 3(1) 5-18, 2024

7 Lower Niger River Basin Development 
Authority (LNRBDA)

Entire geographical boundaries of  Kwara State 
and a part of  Kogi State, West of  the River Niger

Ilorin

8 Niger Delta Basin Development 
Authority (NDBDA)

Delta and Bayelsa States Port-Harcourt

9 Ogun-Osun River Basin Development 
Authority (OORBDA)

Lagos, Ogun, Oyo and Osun States Abeokuta

10 Sokoto-Rima River Basin Development 
Authority (SRRBDA)

Katsina, Zamfara, Sokoto and Kebbi States Sokoto

11 Upper Benue River Basin Development 
Authority (UBRBDA)

Gombe, Taraba, two senatorial districts of  Adamawa 
State and one senatorial district of  Bauchi State

Yola

12 Upper Niger River Basin Development 
Authority (UNRBDA)

Niger, Kaduna States and the FCT Minna

Source: Federal Ministry of  Water Resource (FMWR)

The Federal Ministry of  Water Resources (FMWR) has 
authority over all the formulation of  national policy 
and strategy advice for the public provision of  water. 
However, it is up to each state to adopt and implement 
national legislation and policy and decide on the 
institutional framework for delivering services. While the 
local governments water sectors take all formulations of  
policies on managements from their state governments. 
The National Council on Water Resources (NCWR) is the 
highest water resources policy formulating body, overseen 
by the FMWR and with representatives from the Federal 

Ministry of  Environment and all commissioners for 
state governments. State Ministries of  Water Resources 
are responsible for policy, regulation, and monitoring 
which are passed down to control the local governments 
even though not all states have a stand-alone ministry of  
water resources (e.g., the Rivers State Ministry of  Water 
Resources and Rural Development – RSWRRD – in 
Rivers State). Thus, while certain structures and policies 
related to water supply prevail throughout the country, 
there is a great deal of  variation in the management and 
provision of  water across jurisdictions (WHO, 2013).

Table 7: Key Laws, Policies, and Plans
Name Year Purpose
National Water 
Resources Policy

2016 Originally drafted in 2004, the National Water Policy was approved in 2016. 
The policy establishes that all water is a national asset and defines planning and 
development through an integrated water resources management framework.

Water Resources 
Master Plan

2013 Assesses water resources supply and demand from2010 to 2030 and defines basin 
development priorities and risks.

Minerals and Mining 
Act

2007 Grants Ministry of  Mines and Steel Development (MMSD) water use permitting 
rights when they concern mining exploration and operation.

The National Inland 
Waterways Authority 
(NIWA) Act

1997 Established NIWA and defines its responsibilities towards river navigability, 
riverbank stabilization, and dam development.

Water Resources Act 1993 Established the Federal Ministry of  Water Resources as the lead institution in charge 
of  water resources development, licensing, planning, and use.

River Basins 
Development 
Authority Act

1990 Established 12 River Basin Development Agencies (RBDA) that are responsible for 
developing surface and groundwater resources, prioritizing water use for domestic 
and agricultural purposes. The act was originally enacted in 1976 but has been 
revised several times.

Adopted from USAID's Sustainable Water Partnership

Water management responsibilities do not consistently 
follow hydrological or administrative boundaries. This 
leads to overlapping responsibilities between institutions 
and undermines basin management approaches. For 
example, RBDAs follow state administrative, rather 
than hydrological, boundaries. RBDAs within the same 
basin and HA often do not coordinate and instead 
prioritize irrigation expansion within their administrative 

jurisdiction. This can impact water availability and water 
quality for downstream states (Irokalibe, 2008). Within the 
Niger Basin, there is limited coordination between the six 
RBDAs responsible for planning, design, and operation of  
key hydraulic infrastructure (Gana, 2019). The NBA lacks 
funding and commitment from member states. Inflows 
to Nigeria’s Kainji Reservoir have been decreasing for 
decades, possibly from over abstraction in upper basin 



Pa
ge

 
14

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Am. J. Environ Econ. 3(1) 5-18, 2024

states. Uncontrolled and uncoordinated management in 
the Lake Chad Basin leads to over-exploitation of  Lake 
Chad and has reduced lake coverage and pastures in 
Nigeria. Poor management of  Cameroon’s Lagdo Dam 

has led to reduced flows on the Benue River, and Nigeria 
claims that uncoordinated floodgate releases have caused 
major flooding in downstream villages (Golitzen et al., 
2005; Joint et al. al., 2015 and Ewepu, 2019).

Table 8: Water Resources Management Entities
Mandate Institution Roles and Responsibilities
Transboundary Niger Basin Authority (NBA) Commissioned in 1980, the NBA’s nine member states are 

Niger, Benin, Chad, Guinea, Côte d’Ivoire, Mali, Nigeria, 
Cameroon, and Burkina Faso. Supports integrated basin 
development related to energy, water resources, agriculture, 
animal husbandry, fisheries, forestry, and transportation.

Lake Chad Basin Commission 
(LCBC)

Established in 1964, members include Cameroon, Niger, 
Nigeria, Chad, the Republic of  Central Africa, and Libya to 
coordinate the sustainable development and equitable use of  
Lake Chad, regional peace and security, and environmental 
conservation.

National Federal Ministry of  Water 
Resources (FMWR)

Lead governmental entity in charge of  water management and 
allocation between states. Oversees all 12 RBDAs, in addition 
to other water sector entities such as the Nigeria Hydrological 
Services Agency (NIHSA), the Nigeria Integrated Water 
Resources Management Commission (NIWRMC), and the 
National Water Resources Institute (NWRI).

Nigeria Integrated Water Resources 
Management Commission 
(NIWRMC)

Overseen by the FMWR, the NIWRMC is the central 
coordinating body for Catchment Management Offices 
(CMO). Manages water use regulations and licensing, 
strengthens CMO capacity, and formulates Catchment 
Management Plans based on stakeholder consultation.

National Environmental Standards 
and Regulations Enforcement 
Agency (NESREA)

Housed within the Federal Ministry of  the Environment, 
NESREA is responsible for issuing environmental permits, 
including for effluent discharge, and monitoring compliance 
of  permit holders.

National Council on Water 
Resources (NCWR)

Formulates and approves water sector policy, laws, strategy, 
master plans, and the development and implementation of  
large infrastructure.

Sub-national River Basin Development 
Authorities (RBDA)

USAID's Sustainable Water Partnership

Federal Government
The Nigeria Federal Ministry of  Water Resources, was part 
of  the Ministry of  Agriculture until 2010, is responsible 
for large water resources development projects and water 
allocation between states of  the federation. There are 12 
River Basin Development Authorities under this Ministry, 
responsible for planning and developing water resources, 
irrigation work, the collection of  hydrological and hydro-
geological data, and providing water in bulk to cities from 
dams (The World Bank Group, 2000).

State Government
Responsibility for portable water supply is entrusted to 
State Water Agencies (SWAs) or state water departments 
in the 36 Nigerian states. The SWAs are responsible 
to their state governments, generally through a State 
Ministry of  Water Resources. SWAs are responsible for 

urban water supply, they are also responsible for rural 
water supply. As of  2000, 22 states had separate state-
maintained rural water and sanitation agencies, mostly set 
up to implement a UNICEF program (The World Bank 
Group, 2000).

Local Governments
The country’s Local Government Authorities (LGAs), 
of  which there are 774, are responsible for the provision 
of  rural water supplies and sanitation facilities in their 
areas although only a few have the resources and skills 
to handle the problem. Only few LGAs have rural water 
supply divisions.

Water Pollution Mitigation Proposal in Nigeria
CMOs (Catchment Management Offices) are broadly 
responsible for monitoring water quality within their 



Pa
ge

 
15

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Am. J. Environ Econ. 3(1) 5-18, 2024

respective HAs and maintaining databases for all 
hydrological and hydrogeological information (Federal 
Ministry of  Water Resources, 2016). The Federal 
Ministry of  Health (FMoH) and the FMWR (through its 
Department of  Water Quality Control and Sanitation) 
are responsible for monitoring drinking water quality, 
but they both lack funding and technical capacity, and 
there is a lack of  coordination (SON, 2015). Most surface 
and groundwater quality studies have been carried out 
by researchers at universities, research institutes, and 
government institutes (Taiwo et al., 2012; Standard 
Organization of  Nigeria, 2015 American Chemical 
Society, 2015).

• The most effective way to reduce water pollution is 
to treat some of  the water before it is reintroduced into 
the waterways. 

• This is a highly effective solution because wastewater 
treatment facilities can remove nearly all pollutants in 
wastewater via a chemical, physical, or biological process.

•  Water resources law and environmental management 
strategy must be backed by effective regulation, 
enforcement, and implementation in the field. 

• Laws and regulations should be put in place to 
prevent, reduce, and control pollution emanating from 
exploration and production of  oil in the Niger Delta Area 
of  Nigeria.

• Pollution of  the water in the coastal areas should be 
viewed as crime against humanity, therefore a violation 
of  human rights; this is because people living in the 
coastal areas depend on the waters for drinking, bathing, 
and fishing which is their major source of  livelihood. 
Therefore, companies and individuals should be held 
liable for water pollution.

• An active oil industry bill is required to protect and 
improve Nigeria’s coastal waters and the environment as 
stipulated under Section 20 of  the Constitution of  the 
Federal Republic of  Nigeria. This provision should be 
made justiciable. 

• The legislature, judiciary, and the various agencies 
charged with safeguarding the environment must be ready 
to do all that is required to enhance sustainable practices 
and manage the environment today and for the future.

Water Supply Mitigation Problem in Nigeria
• Regular updates of  water regulation laws and policies 

should be in place;
• Provision of  constant water supply;
• Provision of  standard infrastructure and water 

treatment facilities;
• Incorporating a standard method of  water treatment 

using the international treatment guidelines;
• Enforcing strict compliance to environmental law;
• Implementation of  new law to reduce the amount of  

alternate water supply (Balogun and Redina, 2019)

CONCLUSION
The provided overview offers a comprehensive depiction 
of  Nigeria’s water landscape. Abundant water resources, 

including surface and groundwater, are distributed 
across diverse ecological zones. The country boasts large 
freshwater reserves, featuring four river drainage systems, 
numerous dams, and four major aquifer formations 
spread across eight hydrological areas spanning the thirty-
six states. Although River Basin Development Authorities 
have contributed to water resource development, 
catchment management inadequacies and indiscriminate 
disposal of  hazardous substances persist as significant 
challenges. Problems of  flooding in the Middle Belt, 
inadequate water distribution and supply to rural areas, 
most especially in the Northern region, and pollution in 
the Niger Delta have been major problems in Nigeria. 
Addressing these issues requires crucial stakeholder 
involvement and consultation in planning, development, 
and water resource management. Coordinated efforts are 
imperative to protect the environment, ensure sustainable 
practices, and safeguard communities’ health and socio-
economic well-being. In navigating these challenges, 
Nigeria must prioritize integrated water management 
practices, striking a balance between resource utilization 
and preservation for both current and future generations.

REFERENCES
Abatan, A. A., Abiodun, B. J., Lawal, K. A., & Gutowski, 

W. J. (2016). Trends in Extreme Temperature over 
Nigeria from Percentile-Based Threshold Indices. 
International Journal of  Climatology, 36(6), 2527–2540. 
https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.4510

Adebola, K. D. (2001). Groundwater quality in Ilorin 
Township: An Environmental Review. African Journal 
of  Environmental Studies, 2(2), 4–6.

Adegoroye, A. (1994). The challenges of  environmental 
enforcement in Africa: The Nigerian experience. 
In Proceedings of  the Third International Conference on 
Environmental Enforcement, Oaxaca, México (pp. 43–54).

Adelana, S. M. A. (2012). Nigeria. In P. Pavelic, M. 
Giordano, B. Keraita, V. Ramesh, T. Rao (Eds.), 
Groundwater Availability & Use in Subsaharan Africa: 
A Review of  15 Countries (p. 274). International 
Water Management Institute (IWMI): Colombo, Sri 
Lanka.

Adelena, M. (2012). Groundwater availability & use in sub-
Saharan Africa: Nigeria. In P. Pavelic, M. Giordano, 
B. Keraita, V. Ramesh, T. Rao (Eds.), Groundwater 
availability & use in sub-Saharan Africa: A Review 
of  15 Countries (pp. 137–156). Colombo, Sri Lanka: 
International Water Management Institute, IWMI.

Adelodun, B., & Choi, K.-S. (2018). A Review of  the 
Evaluation of  Irrigation Practice in Nigeria: Past, 
Present & Future Prospects. African Journal of  
Agricultural Research, 13(40), 2087–2097.

Adepelumi, A. A., Ako, B. D., Ajayi, T. R., Afolabi, O., 
& Omotoso, E. J. (2009). Delineation of  Saltwater 
Intrusion into the Freshwater Aquifer of  Lekki 
Peninsula, Lagos, Nigeria. Environmental Geology, 56(5), 
927–933. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-008-
1194-3.



Pa
ge

 
16

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Am. J. Environ Econ. 3(1) 5-18, 2024

Adeyeye, P. (2020). Nigeria’s Poverty Crisis & the Nigerian 
Living Standards Survey. https://www.dataphyte.
com/latest-reports/development/nigerias-poverty-
crisis-and-the-nigerian-living-standards-survey/ 
(Accessed February 19, 2024).

African Development Bank. (2012). The African 
Development Bank in Action. Activities in the 
Water & Sanitation Sector in the Federal Republic of  
Nigeria.

Aladejana, J. A., Kalin, R. M., Sentenac, P., & Hassan, 
I. (2021). Groundwater Quality Index as a 
Hydrochemical Tool for Monitoring Saltwater 
Intrusion into Coastal Freshwater Aquifer of  Eastern 
Dahomey Basin, Southwestern Nigeria. Groundwater for 
Sustainable Development, 13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
gsd.2021.100568.

Amaize, E. (2007). Crises from the Creeks. Saturday 
Vanguard Newspapers, March 17, pp. 11-13.

American Chemical Society. (2015). White Paper on 
Proposed Capacity Development for Water Quality 
Assessment & Management in Nigeria.

Anderson, Z. K. (2019). Water Scarcity & Violent Conflict 
in Nigeria. Naval Postgraduate School.

Audu, S. D. (2014). Freshwater Scarcity: A Threat 
to Peaceful Co-Existence between Farmers & 
Pastoralists in Northern Nigeria. International Journal 
of  Development & Sustainability, 3, 242–251.

Balogun, O. R., & Redina, M. M. (2019). Water supply 
regulation in Nigeria: Problems, challenges, solutions 
& benefits. RUDN Journal of  Ecology & Life Safety, 
27(1), 65–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.22363/2313-
2310-2019-27-1-65-81

Butu, A. W., & Emeribe, C. N. (2019). Spatial Patterns 
of  Climatic Variability & Water Budget over Sudan 
Savannah Region of  Nigeria. African Journal of  
Environmental Science & Technology, 13(21), 465–481. 
https://doi.org/10.5897/AJEST2019.2726

Cirella, G., & Iyalomhe, F. O. (2018). Flooding Conceptual 
Review: Sustainability-Focalized Best Practices in 
Nigeria. Applied Science, 8(9). https://www.mdpi.
com/2076-3417/8/9/1558/htm#

Doro, K. O., Ehosioke, S., & Aizebeokhai, A. P. (2020). 
Sustainable Soil & Water Resources Management 
in Nigeria: The Need for a Data-Driven Policy 
Approach. Sustainability, 12(10).

Earthwise. Hydrogeology of  Nigeria. http://
earthwise.bgs.ac.uk/index.php/Hydrogeology_of_
Nigeria#:~:text=Nigeria (accessed 2024-02-20).

Egborge, A. B. M. (2000). Government, Oil companies, 
the peoples & the Niger-delta environment: 4th 
convocation lecture of  Delta State University, Abraka, 
Nigeria.

Elisha, I., Sawa, B. A., & Lawrence, E. U. (2017). Evidence 
of  Climate Change & Adaptation Strategies among 
Grain Farmers in Sokoto State, Nigeria. IOSR Journal 
of  Environmental Science, Toxicology & Food Technology, 
11(3), 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/2402-
1103020107

Enete, I. C. (2014). Impacts of  climate change on 
agricultural production in Enugu State, Nigeria. 
Journal of  Earth Science & Climatic Change, 5(9), 234. 
https://doi.org/10.4172/2157-7617.1000234

Erhunmwunse, N. O., Dirisu, A. R., & Ogbeibu, A. E. 
(2013). Managing eutrophication in Nigeria inland 
waters. Journal of  Water Resource and Protection, 5(07), 
743.

Etim, E. U. (2017). Occurrence & Distribution of  Arsenic, 
Antimony, & Selenium in Shallow Groundwater 
Systems of  Ibadan Metropolis, Southwestern 
Nigerian. Journal of  Health Pollution, 7(13), 32–41. 
https://doi.org/10.5696/2156-9614-7-13.32

Ewepu, G. (2019). More flooding to hit Nigeria from 
Lagdo Dam in Cameroon — NIHSA. More flooding 
to hit Nigeria from Lagdo Dam in Cameroon — 
NIHSA (accessed 2024-02-14).

Eze, J. N. (2018). Drought Occurrences & Its Implications 
on the Households in Yobe State, Nigeria. 
Geoenvironmental Disasters, 5(18).

FAO. (2020). The State of  the World’s Forests 2020. 
Forests, Biodiversity & People. Rome. https://doi.
org/10.4060/ca8642en

Federal Ministry of  Environment Special Climate Change 
Unit. (2011). National Adaptation Strategy & Plan 
of  Action on Climate Change for Nigeria (NASPA-
CCN).

Federal Ministry of  Environment. (2020). Third National 
Communication (TNC) of  the Federal Republic 
of  Nigeria under the United Nations Framework 
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

Federal Ministry of  Water Resources (FMWR). (2016). 
National Water Resources Policy.

Food & Agricultural Organization (FAO). (2016). 
AQUASTAT Country profile- Nigeria (Food & 
Agricultural Organization of  the United Nations). 
Rome, Italy, 17p.

Gana, B. A., Abdulkadir, I. F., Musa, H., & Garba, T. 
(2019). A Conceptual Framework for Organization of  
River Basin Development & Management in Nigeria. 
European Journal of  Engineering Research & Science, 4(6).

Ganiyu, S. A., Oyadeyi, A. T., & Adeyemi, A. A. (2021). 
Assessment of  Heavy Metals Contamination & Associated 
Risks in Shallow Groundwater Sources from Three 
Different Residential Areas within Ibadan Metropolis, 
Southwest Nigeria. Applied Water Science, 11(81).

Golitzen, K. G., Andersen, I., Dione, O., & Jarosewich-
Holder, M. (2005). The Niger River Basin: A Vision for 
Sustainable Management; World Bank Publications, 
The World Bank.

Haider, H. (2019). Climate Change in Nigeria: Impacts 
& Responses. Knowledge, evidence, & learning for 
development.

Healy, A., Upton, K., Capstick, S., Bristow, G., Tijani, M., 
MacDonald, A., Goni, I., Bukar, Y., Whitmarsh, L., & 
Theis, S. (2020). Domestic Groundwater Abstraction 
in Lagos, Nigeria: A Disjuncture in the Science-Policy-
Practice Interface? Environmental Research Letters, 15(4).



Pa
ge

 
17

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Am. J. Environ Econ. 3(1) 5-18, 2024

Ibrahim, U. A., Alkali, A. N., Sanyaolu B. O., & Usman B. 
(2021). Nigerian Water Resources Management – An 
Overview. Arid Zone Journal of  Engineering, Technology 
& Environment, 18(1), 23-30.

Idu, A. J. (2015). Threats to Water Resources Development 
in Nigeria. Journal of  Geology & Geophysics, 4(3). 
https://doi.org/10.4172/2329-6755.1000205.

Imoobe, T., & Tanshi, I. (2009). Ecological Restoration 
of  Oil Spill Sites in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. Journal 
of  Sustainable Development in Africa, 11(2).

Irokalibe, I. J. G. (2008). Water Management in Federal 
& Federal-Type Countries: Nigerian Perspectives. In 
Expo Zaragoza 2008.

Ishaku, H. T., & Majid, M. R. (2010). X-Raying Rainfall 
Pattern & Variability in Northeastern Nigeria: Impacts 
on Access to Water Supply. Journal of  Water Resource & 
Protection, 2, 952–959.

Ite, A. E., Ufot, U. F., Ite, M. U., Isaac, I. O., & Ibok, U. J. 
(2016). Petroleum Industry in Nigeria: Environmental 
Issues, National Environmental Legislation & 
Implementation of  International Environmental Law. 
American Journal of  Environmental Protection, 4(1), 21–37.

Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). (2014). 
The Project for Review & Update of  Nigeria National 
Water Resources Master Plan, Volume 1. Federal 
Ministry of  Water Resources. Abuja, Nigeria, 34p.

Joint Environmental Audit. (2015). Joint Environmental 
Audit on the Drying up of  Lake Chad.

Kayode, O. F., Luethi, C., & Rene, E. R. (2018). 
Management Recommendations for Improving 
Decentralized Wastewater Treatment by the Food 
& Beverage Industries in Nigeria. Environments, 5(3). 
https://doi.org/10.3390/environments5030041.

King, M. (2017). Water Stress, Instability, & Violent 
Extremism in Nigeria. In Water, Security, & U.S. 
Foreign Policy, edited by D. Reed. Routledge: New 
York.

Lar, U., Dibal, H., & Krzysztof, S. (2014). Fluoride in 
Groundwater in Nigeria: Origin & Health Impact. 
American Journal of  Environmental Protection, 3, 66–69. 
https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajep.s.2014030602.19.

Lindén, O., & Pålsson, J. (2013). Oil Contamination in 
Ogoniland, Niger Delta. Ambio, 42(6), 685–701. 
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-013-0412-8.

Lohdip, Y. N., & Gongden, J. J. (2013). Nigerian 
water bodies in jeopardy: the need for sustainable 
management and security. WIT Trans Ecol Environ, 17, 
11-22. https://doi.org/10.2495/WRM130021.

Lucas, B. (2021). Urban Flood Risks, Impacts, & 
Management in Nigeria. Knowledge, evidence & 
learning for development.

Malago, J. (2017). Fluoride Levels in Surface & 
Groundwater in Africa: A Review. American Journal 
of  Water Science & Engineering, 3(1). https://doi.
org/10.11648/j.ajwse.20170301.11.

Megbo, B. C. (2010). Effects of  Eutrophication on Fish 
Populations in the Vicinity of  Rumuji Lake in the 
Niger Delta Region of  Nigeria. International Journal of  

Science and Engineering Research, 1(1).
Muhammed, I., Ismaila, A. B., & Bibi, U. M. (2015). An 

Assessment of  Farmer-Pastoralist Conflict in Nigeria 
Using GIS. International Journal of  Engineering Science 
Invention, 4(7), 23–33.

National Water Policy of  Federal Republic of  Nigeria. 
(2004). P. 3. Retrieved from ex-twprlegs1.fao.
org›docs/pdf/nig158231.pdf.

Nduka, J. K., Orisakwe, O. E., & Ezenwa, T. E. 
(2009). Effect of  effluents from Warri refinery and 
petrochemical company on water and soil qualities 
of  contiguous host and impacted on communities 
of  Delta State, Nigeria. The Open Environmental and 
Toxicology Journal, 1, 11–17.

Nwilo, P. C., Olayinka, D. N., Okolie, C. J., Emmanuel, 
E. I., Orji, M. J., & Daramola, O. E. (2020). Impacts 
of  Land Cover Changes on Desertification in 
Northern Nigeria and Implications on the Lake Chad 
Basin. Journal of  Arid Environments, 181. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2020.104190.

Ogunmupe, B. (2020). Implications of  Water Resources 
Bill 2020. The Guardian.

Oguntade, O. R., Oketoyi, O. T., Ukenye, E. A., Usman, 
B. A., & Adelke, M. T. (2014). Survey of  the Present 
and Fast Disappearing Fish Species Along Two Rivers 
in the Niger Delta. Journal of  Fish and Aquatic Science, 
9(5), 352–358.

Orisakwe, O. E., Asomugha, R., Obi, E., Afonne, O. J., 
Dioka, C. E., & Akumka, D., Ilondu, N. A. (2001). 
Ecotoxicological study of  the Niger-Delta area of  
River Niger. Bulletin of  Environmental Contamination and 
Toxicology, 66(4), 548–552.

Osuagwu, E. S., & Olaifa, E. (2018). Effects of  Oil Spills 
on Fish Production in the Niger Delta. PLoS One. 
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205114.

Oteri, A. U., & Atolagbe, F. P. (2003). Saltwater Intrusion 
into Coastal Aquifers in Nigeria; Mérida, Yucatán, 
México.

Pearce, F. (2018). When the Rivers Run Dry: The Global 
Water Crisis and How to Solve It. Granta Books: 
London.

Pham-Duc, B., Sylvestre, F., Papa, F., Frappart, F., 
Bouchez, C., & Cretaux, J.-F. (2020). The Lake Chad 
Hydrology under Current Climate Change. Scientific 
Reports, 10(5498).

Piesse, M. (2017). Boko Haram: Exacerbating and 
Benefiting From Food and Water Insecurity in the 
Lake Chad Basin.

Raji, A., Olufemi, A. P., & Shakirudeen, O. (2014). 
Multicriteria Flood Risk Analysis of  Lower Ogun 
River Basin. Journal of  Environment and Earth Science, 
4(13).

ReliefWeb. (2012). Nigeria: Floods - Jul 2012. Retrieved 
from https://reliefweb.int/disaster/fl-2012-000138-
nga.

Shiru, M. S., Shahid, S., Alias, N., & Chung, E.-S. (2018). 
Trend Analysis of  Droughts during Crop Growing 
Seasons of  Nigeria. Sustainability, 10(3), 871. https://



Pa
ge

 
18

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Am. J. Environ Econ. 3(1) 5-18, 2024

doi.org/10.3390/su10030871.
Standards Organization of  Nigeria. (2015). Nigerian 

Standard for Drinking Water Quality.
Stark, J., & Terasawa, K. (2013). Climate Change and 

Conflict in West African Cities: A Policy Brief  on 
Findings From Lagos, Nigeria and Accra, Ghana; 
USAID.

Stewart, N. (2011). A Roadmap for the Effective 
Enforcement of  Environmental Laws in Nigeria. 
National Environmental Law Review, 2.

Taiwo, A. M., Olujimi, O. O., Bamgbose, O., & Arowolo, 
T. A. (2012). Surface Water Quality Monitoring in 
Nigeria: Situational Analysis and Future Management 
Strategy. In K. Voudouris & D. Voutsa (Eds.), Water 
Quality Monitoring and Assessment. InTech: Rijeka, 
Croatia.

The World Bank Group. (2024). Nigeria Water Supply, 
Sanitation, and Hygiene Poverty Diagnostic. The 
Governance Approach of  the World Bank in Nigeria 
Performance Assessment of  the State Water Agencies. 
Retrieved from www.worldbank.org/water.

Toye, O. (2002). Desertification Threatens Economy, 
Food Security. Retrieved from http://www.ipsnews.
net/2002/08/environment-nigeria-desertification-
threatens-economy-food-security/.

UNEP. (2011). Environmental Assessment of  Ogoniland. 
Nairobi.

USAID. (2019). Climate Risk Profile: Nigeria, Fact Sheet.
Vivekananda, J., Wall, M., Sylvestre, F., Nagarajan, C., & 

Brown, O. (2019). Shoring Up Stability: Addressing 
Climate and Fragility Risks in the Lake Chad Region; 
Berlin.

Wakawa, R., & Kagbu, J. (2008). Impact Assessment of  
Effluent Discharge on Physico-Chemical Parameters 
and Some Heavy Metal Concentrations in Surface 
Water of  River Challawa Kano, Nigeria. African Journal 
of  Pure and Applied Chemistry, 2, 100–106.

World Health Organization (WHO). (2013). Nigeria 
sanitation, drinking water and hygiene status 
overview. Retrieved from https://cdn.who.int/
media/docs/default-source/wash-documents/glaas/
glaas-2013-14/glaas-2013-14-country-highlights/
nigeria.pdf?sfvrsn=dabd6ba2_8.

World Health Organization (WHO). (2017). Guidelines 
for Drinking-Water Quality: Fourth Edition 
Incorporating the First Addendum. WHO: Geneva.

World Bank Group. (2024). Nigeria. Historical. Retrieved 
from https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.
org/country/nigeria/climate-data-historical.

World Wildlife Fund. (2020). Lake Chad Flooded 
Savanna. World Wildlife Fund. June 2020.

Yahaya, T. O., Oladele, E. O., Fatodu, I. A., Abdulazeez, 
A., & Yeldu, Y. I. (2020). The Concentration and 
Health Risk Assessment of  Heavy Metals and 
Microorganisms in the Groundwater of  Lagos, 
Southwest Nigeria. Journal of  Advanced Environmental 
Health Research, 8, 234–242. https://doi.org/10.22102/
jaehr.245629.1183.


