









































Pa
ge

 
1



Pa
ge

 
1

American Journal of  Environmental
Economics (AJEE) 

Economic Effects of  the Failure of  Kandesha Dam on Local 
Communities in Mumbwa District, Zambia

Bertha Mzyece1,  Manoah Muchanga1*

Volume 1 Issue 2, Year 2023
ISSN: 2833-7905 (Online)

DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v1i2.945
https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Article Information ABSTRACT

Received: November 14, 2022

Accepted: December 27, 2022

Published: January 08, 2023

Despite of  undoubtful economic contribution to the nation, sometimes dam causes sufferings 
due to uncertain breakage. The study investigated the economic effects of  the breakage of  
Kandesha Dam in the far West of  Lusaka Business District. It shows that the magnitude and 
intensity of  the impact of  dam breaking is dependent on the anthropogenic activities 
downstream of  the dams. The most notable effects of  the breaking of  Kandesha dam 
included loss of  income (24%), reduced working capitals among community members 
(14%), due to disturbed business activities resulting from the rampant flooding (12%). 
Generally, the findings showed diversity of  economic effects following the breaking of  the 
dams. The paper recommends regulation of  human activities on the immediate downstream 
in order to minimize the ultimate impact of  the dam breaking. Landscape-based assessment of  
catchment in order to understand the biophysical processes and human activities before siting 
and constructing dams would potentially reduce the risk of  future breaking of  dams and, could 
further immunize several economic losses on both government and community members part. 

Keywords

Dam Failure, Sedimentation, 
Socioeconomic, Water, Disaster

1 University of  Zambia, Zambia
* Corresponding author’s e-mail: mmuchanga@unza.zm

INTRODUCTION
Dams have been built for thousands of  years and 
served multiple purposes to harness water for 
hydropower, domestic use and industrial purposes 
(Warren  and Robin, 1993). Benefits of  dams include 
food security considerations, expansion of  roads and 
other infrastructure elements important for micro and 
macroeconomic developments. Reliance on dams in 
many places resulted in grouping of  industries, people 
and capital, increasing production intensification 
and population density. Although dam construction 
brings positive gains to the people, at the same time it 
brings some laudable environmental, economic and 
social challenges to the society. For instance, ecological 
problems such as changes in water quality, channel 
morphology, aquatic flora and fauna, growth of  aquatic 
weeds, spread of  waterborne diseases and resettlement 
of  people in river basins are rampant. Prior studies show 
that more than 250 communities annually lose their home 
and farmlands around the world due to dams breaking 
(Newswatch, 2001).
It is no mere exaggeration that dams contribute to the 
economic growth of  many nations. Dams built round 
the world have played an important role in helping 
communities and economies harness water resources 
for several uses. An estimated 30-40% of  irrigated land 
worldwide now relies on dams and those dams generate 
19% of  world electricity (World Commission on Dams, 
2000). Warren and Robin (1993) show that creation of  
large reservoirs inevitably brings a lot of  changes in 
its wake, such as agricultural innovations in the form 
of  modern large irrigation, improved fishing as well as 
infrastructural facilities such as health, roads, modern 
housing, electricity and water supply. 
The breaking of  the Kandesha Dam in Mumbwa District 
on the far west of  Lusaka disrupted over 700 families 

and over 4000 people in the area due to heavy rainfall 
that happened in December 2020 and early 2021 (Red 
Cross, 2021). The overarching research question was, 
what were the economic gains and losses from the failure 
of  the Kandesha Dam on communities living on the 
downstream? It is hoped that, the findings of  the study 
may be of  use to scholars around water education, dam 
management and water economists. The findings may also 
be used to establish a criterion for mitigation of  breaking 
of  dams, particularly those used for agriculture, fishing 
and irrigation. The study also brought out education 
issues that may inform environmental educators.

LITERATURE REVIEW
A case study of  Chalillo Dam located on the Macal 
River in Belize, Central America shows that as with all 
infrastructure development, the dam presents direct costs 
and benefits to the country of  Belize, while also placing 
externalized costs on the local communities supported 
by the Macal River and the surrounding environment. 
The environmental impact of  the dam post construction 
was analyzed more than economic impact. However, 
there is an information gap in the economic impact 
even in the Chalillo Dam based on the interpretation 
of  the communities on the downstream (The World 
Commission on Dams, 2000). This is attributed to Belize 
being a small country where funding limits the priority of  
economic impact. Economic impacts are not limited to 
assets in the inundation area, but extend to infrastructure 
and resources that serve a much broader area. In addition 
to direct damage from dam failure, economic impacts 
include the amount of  time required to repair or replace 
and reopen businesses, governmental and nonprofit 
making agencies, and industrial facilities damaged by the 
dam failure (Jansen (1999). The consequence assessment 
provided in the study accounts for a variety of  direct 

https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v1i2.945
https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee


Pa
ge

 
2

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Am. J. Environ Econ. 1(2) 1-5, 2023

and indirect economic consequences. Direct economic 
consequences include the costs of  repairing damage and 
replacing lost items. Indirect economic consequences 
include the loss of  jobs, the loss of  sales, and the cost 
of  securing alternative space for residential or business 
purposes (Jansen, 1999). Ekenberg, Brouwers and Vari 
(2003) carried out a study in Austria on the social impacts 
of  the dam failure. The finding was that social impacts 
of  the breaking of  the dam can range from emigration 
of  people who have lost jobs to immigration of  workers 
to help with repair and rebuilding. Social impacts include 
a shortage of  safe, affordable housing. On the other 
hand, it includes loss of  confidence in public officials, 
loss of  social cohesiveness, and loss of  recreational 
opportunities, decreased level of  government supported 
community services, and diminished quality of  life, as well 
as identification with new communities and discovery of  
new social opportunities. 
The study by Jansen (1999) in Brazil also identified 
potential social impacts of  breaking dams, including loss 
of  housing, jobs, social organizations, recreation, culture, 
mental and physical health, loss of  government service, 
and political climate. Thomas (2006) conducted research 
in the Netherlands to identify the environmental impacts 
of  a dam failure. Findings were drawn that it depends 
heavily on the information gathered regarding properties 
in the area and also the nature of  human activities 
especially on the downstream. 
In their respective studies in Nigeria and Cameroon 

(Dunning and Durden, 2009) also show that biophysical, 
engineering and human factors tend to affect dam 
breakage with several economic consequences similar 
to those earlier mentioned. A study carried out in South 
Africa by the Department of  Homeland Security (2011) 
on the Dams Sector: Estimating Economic Consequences 
for Dam Failure Scenarios showed similar trends. Federal 
Emergency Management Agency (2008) carried out 
research on Risk Prioritization Tool for Dams. In this 
approach, specific emphasis is laid on the treatment 
of  potentially high losses associated with dam breaks 
in Uganda. These losses occur rarely but bring heavy 
impacts in case of  dam break.  
Causes of  dam failure in Zambia include faulty design or 
construction, use of  substandard materials, over-topping 
due to surplus water, deliberate sabotage or because of  
severe shakings. In some cases, where the dam structure 
might remain intact, the neighboring hillsides crumble 
having the same effect as the dam collapsing. Sediment 
transport and sedimentation data in dams is widely 
documented by Sichingabula (1997); Muchanga (2011) in 
the Luangwa Catchment; Muchanga (2017), Muchanga et 
al. (2019), Mphande and Sichingabula (2019) in Mkushi 
District, Muchanga (2020); Hamatuli  and Muchanga 
(2021) in Central Province, Simweene  and Muchanga 
(2022) in Monze District. However, these and many other 
studies within Zambian context focus on the problem 
that may likely contribute to breaking of  the dams and, 
not necessarily the breaking and related consequences. 

Firgure 1: Map showing extend of  Flood inundation  

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Mumbwa District is located at latitude -14.987983 and 
longitude 27.069540° in Mumbwa District, far west of  
Lusaka Central Business District, at an elevation of  1200 
meters above sea level and with approximate catchment 
size of  11 Km2. The mean annual rainfall is between 
800-1000 mm. Dwellers in the catchment engage in 
both rain-fed and irrigated farming, fishing, gardening, 
small scale business activities of  different types, among 

others (DMMU, 2020). The study was methodologically 
informed by qualitative research methodology which 
involved getting opinions, views and feelings of  the 
parties involved. Specifically, a descriptive survey design 
concerned with a rich and clear description of  events 
relevant to the study (Bryman, 2008). In this study, the 
sample size comprised 130 people from surrounding 
communities downstream of  the Kandesha Dam, 40 
were fishermen, 60 were farmers and 30 were small scale 

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee


Pa
ge

 
3

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Am. J. Environ Econ. 1(2) 1-5, 2023

business personnel downstream of  the dam. The selection 
of  participants was done using the purposive sampling 
technique. In this case study, the researchers interviewed 
relevant and selected people using semi-structured 
interviews with the aid of  online google form. The 
qualitative data was analyzed using Descriptive statistics in 
form of  graphs and Narrative Analysis for qualitative data. 
This was done by transcribing the interviews, summarizing 
and highlighting the key themes in the narratives. 

RESULTS 
The study finding on type of  family to which participants 
belonged suggest that, extended family living could 
have been the most spatially distributed among the 
communities downstream of  the Kandesha Dam. This 
could be noticed from the earlier findings by Red Cross 
(2021) and had implications on the magnitude of  the impact 
of  dam breaking. 

Figure 2: Type of  family living to which participants 
belonged

Effects of  the breaking of  the dam
The study found that, the breaking of  the Kandesha 
Dam led to loss of  standard means of  livelihood such 
as fishing and market gardening which were dependent 
on the availability of  water in the Dam. Businesses were 
negatively affected by the breaking of  the dam. Some of  
the perspectives shared by the participants were as shown 
in Figure 3 and as illustrated in some verbatims.

“The breaking down of  the dam made the transaction 
levels in my business to go down as there is less cash 
circulation within the area now.”

“The mortality rate of  fish was very high hence, there 
was little or no fish for me to catch. Then there is this 
COVID-19, which has already stressed us because people 
cannot move frequently, so this has really affected us”

“We are flooded and I lost my goods, my livelihood 
depends on fishing. Breaking of  the dam has impacted 
my businesses negatively as this is my major source of  
income which helps me take my children to school and 
helps me to take care of  my family in general.” 

“My daily income has drastically reduced. My 
business in the doldrums, many people lost most of  
the businesses as they had plantations near the dam this 
really had a negative impact as many people could not 
buy as compared to the past thus, my business was slow 
in return not generating enough profits, hence making 
ordering costly.”

“I could not make as much income as I used to make 
before the dam was broken. It has affected my income 
since the yields have gone down as water has drained and 
has developed a mud near the torrential flowing river 
bordered by mud and sand that had been under water. 
I am unable to get the things I need for my business 
because I don’t have the capital anymore.”

Temporal coping strategies
Following the breaking of  the dam, the victims resolved 
to temporal alternative means of  livelihood such as small-
scale businesses namely, piece works, selling vegetables 
and opening grocery shops ‘tuntemba’; mobile money 
kiosk. Mobile money business seemed to have been the 
quickest means of  coping with the breaking of  the dam 
(Figure 4). 

Figure 3: Tabulated effects of  dam failure on local 
communities

Figure 3: Temporal coping strategies after the breaking 
of  the dam

RESULTS SYNTHESIS
The breaking of  dams comes with diverse challenges 
especially on families which are already socioeconomically 
disadvantaged. For most sedentary farmers, dams form 
the main plinth of  economic activities such that if  dams 
are removed, it is more like removing the very source 
of  income. Earlier studies By Sichingabula (1997); 
Muchanga (2017) show similar evidence from southern 
Zambia. The study from Kandesha Catchment clearly 
demonstrates that if  not well managed, dam breaking 
could have far reached consequences beyond torrential 

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee


Pa
ge

 
4

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Am. J. Environ Econ. 1(2) 1-5, 2023

flooding and high discharges to disruption of  school 
attendance, declining in profits and working capitals as 
well as poor circulation of  cash. The study was done at 
the pick of  COVID-19, which according to Muchanga 
et al. (2020) ravaged most of  the families in Zambia and 
also led to drastic loss of  income for many physical 
business-dependent rural families. The breaking of  the 
Kandesha dam worsened the mental stresses, which 
people were already going through. It was also noted that, 
many varieties of  fish species in the dam were carried 
away downstream such that some species died reducing 
the fishing activities in the area and eventually, family 
income and business activities. Whilst earlier cited case 
studies seem to focus on the large-scale infrastructure 
losses and engineering cost of  restoring dams (World 
Commission on Dams 2000; Ekenberg, Brouwers and 
Vari, 2003; Jansen 1999; Dunning  and Durden, 2009), 
the case study from Kandesha focused on how the 
poor and often excluded families were affected by the 
flood. The findings actually seem to suggest that, many 
of  the local communities may not be concerned about 
the economic and engineering costs of  the breaking of  
the dam on the government coffers, but rather on their 
own local wellbeing. This means that local people may 
need to be sensitized about the cost of  constructing such 
infrastructure and to discourage them from any activities 
that may punctuate dam breaking. High turbidity was also 
noted by the participants and significantly affected the 
quality of  water in flooded shallow wells and also streams.
The Red Cross and the DMMU played a significant role 
in the provision of  emergency help in food, clothes and 
beddings. They also played an evacuation role for affected 
families some of  which were made to stay on top of  the 
house roof  up to 24 hours before the arrival of  rescue 
team. These were the only supposed gains from the dam 
breakage. 
Having lost their sources of  income, many families 
resolved to alternative means of  livelihood as narrated by 
the participants, the most predominant being operating of  
mobile money kioskies. The contextual policy implication 
of  this study is that, the government must integrate precise 
spatial planning strategies in the siting and construction of  
dams in order to prevent and minimize the impact of  dam 
breakage downstream. As earlier study by Thomas (2006) 
shows, the magnitude and intensity of  dam breaking is 
mainly dependent on where humans and their activities 
are located. Meaning if  they are far away from the buffer 
zones of  the downstream, the impact would be moderate. 
The study perspective therefore disagrees with earlier 
suggestions by Sichingabula (1997) that such human 
activities as gardening must be downstream because in 
case of  dam breakage, there would be a large-scale loss 
of  means of  livelihood as was the case in Kandesha 
Catchment. Instead, they must settle downstream away 
from the banks of  the dams. Moreover, the government 
must ensure that, local people adopt permanent 
alternative means of  livelihood that would keep them 
away from the buffer zones of  the dams. As the Climatic 

changes are projected to worsen in the next half  century 
(Chisanga et al. 2022), there is also need to adopt whole 
landscape-based management of  catchments in order to 
have a clearer understanding of  biophysical and human 
dimensions in the management of  dams and prevention 
of  such disasters as the Kandesha Dam breakage, Chisola 
et. al. (2020) recommends this approach.
 
CONCLUSION
The study generally concludes that, the breaking of  the 
Kandesha Dam had detrimental economic effects on the 
economic standing of  the local people who lost means 
of  livelihoods. The most common challenge was loss of  
income, especially for those who were directly dependent 
on the dam. Going beyond this case study, the findings 
suggest that, human settlements must be discouraged on 
the immediate downstream of  the dams in order to reduce 
the risk of  loss of  life, property and means of  livelihood. 
The study was inherently limited by a small sample given 
that, by the time fieldwork was being conducted, there 
were COVID-19 restrictions such that many people could 
not be accessed. The study was inclined on qualitative 
dimension thus rendering it highly subjective, hence, the 
study epistemically suggests detailed quantitative studies 
on the cost-benefit analysis of  breaking of  dams among 
interested researchers locally and internationally.

REFERENCES
Bowles, D. (2007). Tolerable risk or dams: Dams Annual 

Conference. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Brown, C. A.,  and Wayne, J. G. (1998). Assessing the 

Threat to Life from Dam Failure. Water Resources 
Bulletin, 24(6), 1303.

Bryman, A. (2008). Social Research Method. New York: 
Oxford University Press.

Chisanga, C.B., Mubanga, K.H., Sichingabula, M. H., 
Banda, K., Muchanga, M., Ncube, L., van Niekerkd, 
Helena, J., Zhao, B., Mkonde, D.A. Amanda, R.,  and 
Sonwabile, K. (2022). Modelling climatic trends for 
the Zambezi and Orange River Basins: implications 
on water security. Journal of  Water and Climate Change, 
1-18.

Chisola, M. N.,  Vander Laan, M.,  and Bristow, K. L. 
(2020). A landscape hydrology approach to inform 
sustainable water resource management under a 
changing environment. A case study for the Kaleya 
River Catchment, Zambia. Journal of  Hydrology: Regional 
Studies, 32, 100762, 1-16.

Department of  Homeland Security. (2011). Dams Sector: 
Estimating Economic Consequences for Dam Failure 
Scenarios. Cape Town: South Africa. 

Disaster Management and Mitigation Unit (DMMU). 
(2020). A Report done in 2020. Lusaka. 

Dunning, M., and Durden, S. E. (2009). Factors in Corps of  
Engineers Water Resources Planning. Institute for Water 
Resources. Cameroun.

Ekenberg, L., Brouwers, L  and Vari, A, (2003). The social 
impacts of  the dam failure, Laxenburg. 

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee


Pa
ge

 
5

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

Am. J. Environ Econ. 1(2) 1-5, 2023

Federal Emergency Management Agency. (2008). Risk 
Prioritization Tool for Dams: User Manual. Kampala.

Hamatuli, M. and Muchanga, M. (2021). Social Perspectives 
on the Effects of  Buffer Zone Anthropogenic 
Activities on Mashili Reservoir of  Shibuyunji District, 
Central Province, Zambia. International Journal of  
Humanities and Social Sciences Education, 8(11), 102-109.

Jansen, R. (ed.) (1999). Advanced dam engineering for 
design, construction, and rehabilitation. New York: 
Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Mepham, J. and Mepham, R. (1987). Wetlands of  the 
Zambezi Basin and the Lowlands of  Mozambique. 
African wetlands and shallow water bodies.Institut 
Franḉais de Recherche Scientifique pour le Developpement en 
Cooperation, 211, 503-530.

Mphande, G. and Sichingabula, H.M. (2019). Effects of  
Sedimentation on Small Reservoirs in the Mushibemba 
Catchment, Mkushi Farm Block, Central Zambia. 
Journal of  Geography and Geology, 55-69. https://doi.
org/10.5539/jgg. v11n1p55.

Muchanga, M. (2011). Perception of  climate change 
adaptation and learning among residents of  selected 
areas of  Zambia’s Lusaka Province. Lusaka,University 
of  Zambia Library Dspace.

Muchanga, M. (2017). Understanding Sedimentation 
process in the Makoye reservoir of  southern Zambia. 
Journal of  Geography and Earth Sciences. 2334-2455.

Muchanga, M. (2020). Determination of  Sediment, 
Water Quantity and Quality for SWAT Modelling of  
Sedimentation in the Makoye Reservoir, Southern 
Province, Zambia. PhD Thesis, Department of  
Geography and Environmental Studies, University of  
Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia, 1-357.

Muchanga, M. and Sichingabula, H.M. (2021). Spatial and 
Seasonal Dynamics of  Total Suspended Sediment, 
Total Dissolved Solids and Turbidity of  a Lacustrine 
Reservoir in the Magoye Catchment, Southern 

Zambia. European Journal of  Environment and Earth 
Sciences, 43-48.  https://www.ej-geo.org/index.php/
ejgeo/article/view/227

Muchanga, M., Sichingabula, H.M., Obando, J., Chomba, 
I., Sikazwe, H. and Chisola, M. (2019). Bathymetry 
of  the Makoye Reservoir and its Implications on 
Water Security for Livestock within the Catchment. 
International Journal of  Geography and Geology, 8(3), 93-
109. 

Mwanza, A. R., Nyirenda, E. And Nchito, W. S. (2019). 
Determining the Surface Water Exchange between 
the Kafue River and Lukanga Swamps in the Central 
Province of  Zambia. Journal of  Geosciences, 145-156.

Patton, M.Q. (1999). Enhancing the Quality and 
Credibility of  a qualitative Analysis. HSR: Health      
Services Research.1198-1208.

Red Cross (2021). Final Report: Mumbwa Dam Spillage. 
Lusaka: Red Cross.

Sichingabula, H. M. (1997).  Problems of  sedimentation 
in small dams in Zambia.’  In:  D. E. Walling and 
J-L. Probst (eds.) Human Impact of  Erosion and 
Sedimentation, IAHS Publication, 245, 251-259. 

Simweene, E. and Muchanga, M. (2021). Socio-
hydrological learning for Integrated Siltation Control 
and Water Resources Management in a Small 
Reservoir of  Southern Zambia. American Journal of  
Humanities and Social Science, 29, 29-34. 

The Newswatch (2001). Nigerian Dams-affected call for 
Reparations. Lagos..

The World Commission on Dams (2000). Dams and 
Development: A New framework for Decision 
Making, Earthscan publications Ltd, London and 
Sterling, VA, 404.

Thomas, F. (2006). Identifying the environmental impacts 
of  a dam failure, Dordrecht. 

Warren, N. and Robin, N. (1993). Dams in Africa. 
London: Frank Cass and Company Ltd., 35-50.

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajee

