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 American Journal of  
Food Science and Technology (AJFST)

Nixtamalization and Fermentation as Treatments for Enhancing the Functional and 
Nutritional Properties of  Foods

Ndi Betrand Bongjo1*, Charles Chukwuma Ariahu2, Barnabas Aloo Ikyenge1

Volume 4 Issue 1, Year 2025
ISSN: 2834-0086 (Online)

DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajfst.v4i1.3916
https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajfst

Article Information ABSTRACT

Received: October 20, 2024

Accepted: November 27, 2024

Published: March 24, 2025

This study evaluated the impact of  nixtamalization and fermentation on the functional 
and nutritional properties of  selected flours (maize and Cassava). Maize and Cassava were 
subjected to nixtamalization and fermentation treatments respectively, and their functional 
properties, proximate composition, mineral content, and antinutrient levels were evaluated. 
The samples were as follows; Nixtamalized maize (NXM), Non-nixtamalized maize (NNM), 
Fermented Cassava (FC) and Non-fermented Cassava (NFC). Results revealed that both 
nixtamalization and fermentation significantly enhanced key functional properties, including 
water absorption capacity (1.69-2.19 g/g), oil absorption capacity (1.53-1.73 g/g), bulk 
density (0.57-0.62 g/mL) and swelling index (2.78-3.38 mL/g). The proximate composition 
showed notable enhancement in protein (3.74-16.27 %), fat (2.26-7.28 %), and fibre content 
(1.91-3.97 %), while mineral analysis demonstrated elevated levels of  essential micronutrients 
such as calcium (148.49-189.44 mg/100 g), Magnesium (83.44-125.32 mg/100 g), Potassium 
(149.63-186.32 mg/100 g), Sodium (43.83 49.44 mg/100 g) and Phosphorus (94.79-123.48 
mg/100 g). Furthermore, both treatments effectively reduced the antinutrient content, 
including phytates and tannins, contributing to improved nutrient bioavailability. Overall, 
nixtamalization and fermentation present promising methods for enhancing the nutritional 
and functional qualities of  flours, making them suitable for use in various food formulations 
like complementary food, fufu, bread making and many others.

Keywords

Fermentation, Food Formulation, 
Nixtamalization, Nutrient 
Bioavailability

1 Department of  Chemistry & Centre for Food Technology and Research, Benue State University, Makurdi, Nigeria
2 Department of  Food Science and Technology, College of  Food Technology and Human Ecology, Joseph Sarwuan Tarka 
  University, Makurdi, Nigeria
* Corresponding author’s e-mail: betrandbongjo@gmail.com

INTRODUCTION
Nutritional deficiencies affect people worldwide, with 
the heaviest burden falling on low-income populations. 
This is especially true in developing countries, where 
many individuals must not only reduce their food intake 
but also sacrifice nutritional quality due to financial 
constraints (Erokhin et al., 2021). Inadequate intake of  
essential nutrients - including proteins, carbohydrates, 
and vitamins - leads to malnutrition, which has been 
proven to both stunt cognitive development and diminish 
work productivity in adults (Erokhin et al., 2021). This 
is why there is a need for emphasis on pretreatments 
or treatments, as the case may be, that are applied to 
raw materials for proper optimization of  the quality 
of  foods. The food industry continuously searches for 
innovative methods to improve both the nutritional value 
and taste appeal of  its products. Among these methods 
employed, nixtamalization and fermentation stand out 
as time-honoured practices deeply rooted in the culinary 
traditions of  various cultures worldwide. 
Nixtamalization is an ancient method of  preparing corn 
by cooking and soaking it in lime water (a mixture of  
water and calcium hydroxide) (Matendo et al., 2023). It 
is a pretreatment given to maize kernel in the processing 
of  several maize-based products, including maize 
chips, tortillas, etc. (Hassan et al., 2023). This technique 
was invented and exploited by the Aztec and Mayan 
civilizations and it is still being used to date. Authors have 
reported that despite the growing popularity of  these 

maize products, little improvements have been made in 
the use of  this maize processing method (Hassan et al., 
2023). 
By taking into account people from Africa and Latin 
America, maize consumption ranges from about 15 % to 
56 %, even though it is an ancient practice in Mexico and 
other Latin American countries (Valderrama-Bravo et al., 
2017). This process is not yet ingrained in the culture of  the 
nations of  Sub-Saharan Africa that produce and consume 
maize. Numerous essential foods, such as tortillas, tortilla 
chips, and snacks, are created using nixtamalization. 
When it comes to food preparation, grains that have 
undergone the nixtamalization process have several 
advantages over untreated grains. Nixtamalized maize 
is easier to mill, has more nutritional content, has better 
flavor and aroma, and has a lower likelihood of  producing 
mycotoxins (Ocheme et al., 2010; Santiago-Ramos et al., 
2018). Improved protein quality, niacin availability, lysine 
availability, and higher calcium content are all notable 
advantages of  nixtamalization (Matendo et al., 2023; 
Santiago-Ramos et al., 2018). According to reports, the 
nixtamalization procedure has been shown to increase 
the calcium content in nixtamalized products (Offiah et 
al., 2016; Rojas et al., 2016; Sefa-Dedeh et al., 2003).
Fermentation is the process by which microorganisms 
break down complex food materials into simpler forms 
in their search for energy and carbon. It improves 
the safety, flavour and digestibility of  foods and also 
the bioavailability of  nutrients and shelf  life of  food 



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products under controlled environments (Oladeji et 
al., 2018). This bioprocess has been known to cultivate 
desired quality attributes in food products. These 
qualities encompass their appeal, utility, and functional 
value post-fermentation. Appeal pertains to the external 
characteristics, texture, aroma, and flavor of  food—
critical factors that are discernible by the senses and 
contribute to consumer satisfaction. Utility aspects 
entail a range of  advantages, including reducing bulk 
volume, minimizing cooking duration, prolonging shelf  
life, enhancing nutrient preservation, and capitalizing 
on the opportunity to transform by-products (“waste”) 
into appetizing value-added food items (Nout, 2005).  
This process involves chemical changes that occur in 
an organic substrate through the action of  enzymes 
produced by microorganisms (Erkmen & Bozoglu, 2016).
Nixtamalization and fermentation have each played 
pivotal roles in shaping the culinary heritage of  societies 
for centuries. Their significance, however, extends far 
beyond cultural heritage as they offer tangible benefits 
to modern food production, including improved 
nutritional value, flavor enhancement, and food safety. 
For context and in this study, maize was employed for 
the nixtamalization process while cassava was employed 
for the fermentation process. This piece of  work was 
therefore aimed at exploring the role of  nixtamalization 
and fermentation within the food industry, to enhance 
the functional and nutritional properties of  foods

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sample Collection 
About 10 kg of  white Maize (Zea mays) was gotten from 
the Wurukum market in Makurdi, Benue state, Nigeria. 
Freshly harvested sweet cultivar of  cassava (Manihot 
esculenta Crantz) was obtained from Wannune market 
in Benue State Makurdi. All of  these raw materials 

was sorted and cleaned before experiment use. Only 
analytical-grade reagents were used.

Sample Preparation
Nixtamalized maize flour was prepared by the method 
of  Offiah et al. (2016) as in Figure 1. Non-nixtamalized 
maize flour was prepared as described by Akubor (2019). 
Maize grains were sorted and cleaned from extraneous 
materials. These were further milled using a hammer mill 
and passed through a 40 mm mesh sieve. The flours were 
packaged in low-density polyethylene bags and stored for 
further analysis
Cassava flour (nonfermented) was prepared as shown 
in Figure 2 (Awolu et al., 2022). Matured and freshly 
harvested cassava tubers was sorted to remove extraneous 
materials like stones. It was then be peeled using a sharp 
kitchen knife and washed in clean water. The peeled and 
washed cassava were size-reduced by cutting it into small 
pieces. It was oven-dried at 65 oC for 48 h.
Cassava fermentation was done using the Back slopping 
fermentation method or accelerated natural fermentation 
as described by Offiah et al. (2016). A mixture was 
prepared by combining 50 g of  cassava flour with 150 
mL of  distilled water in a 500 mL glass beaker. The 
beaker was covered with aluminum foil and kept at room 
temperature (30 ± 2°C) for 24 hours. After this period, 
half  of  the fermented mixture was used to initiate a new 
fermentation batch. This back-slopping was repeated 
every 24 hours throughout the fermentation period. 
During fermentation, both pH and titratable acidity were 
measured to track lactic acid bacteria activity. The process 
was terminated when pH readings stabilized despite 
continued fermentation cycles. The final fermented 
product was then dried at 50°C in a hot air fan-driven 
electric oven for 24 hours, ground in a warring blender, 
and passed through a 40 mm mesh sieve.

Figure 1: Flow chart for the production of  nixtamalized 
maize flour
Source: (Offiah et al., 2016)

Figure 2: Flow chart for cassava flour production
Source: (Awolu et al., 2022)



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Physicochemical Analyses of  the Samples
Determination of  the Functional Properties
Water absorption capacity (WAC): The method described 
by the modified method of  (Massingue Júnior et al., 2023) 
was used. The sample was prepared by dispersing 1 g of  
flour in 10 mL of  water in a 15 mL centrifuge tube. The 
mixture was then agitated on a platform tube rocker for 
1 minute at room temperature. After letting it settle for 
30 minutes, the sample was centrifuged at 1200 x g for 30 
minutes. WAC was then calculated as follows:
WAC=(Amount of  water-free water)/(Weight of  sample) 
× density of  water × 100                 (1)

Oil Absorption Capacity (OAC)
The sample was prepared by dispersing 1 g of  flour in 
10 mL of  vegetable oil in a 15 mL centrifuge tube. The 
mixture was then agitated on a platform tube rocker for 
1 minute at room temperature. After letting it settle for 
30 minutes, the sample was centrifuged at 1200 x g for 30 
minutes (Onwuka, 2018).
OAC = (Amount of  oil-free oil)/(Weight of  sample) × 
density of  oil × 100               (2)

Bulk Density (BD)
The bulk density was determined by pouring 50 g of  
flour into a 100 mL measuring cylinder. The cylinder 
was tapped repeatedly until the flour volume remained 
constant. The bulk density (g/mL) was then calculated by 
dividing the flour weight by its final volume (mL) (Awolu 
et al., 2022).
BD = (Weight of  sample)/(Volume of  sample after 
tapping) × 100                (3)

Swelling Index (SI)
The test was conducted by mixing 1.0 g of  flour with 10 
mL distilled water in a centrifuge tube. The mixture was 
heated at 80 °C for 30 minutes with continuous agitation. 
Following heating, the suspension was centrifuged at 1000 
x g for 15 minutes. The supernatant was then removed 
and the paste weight was measured  (Awolu et al., 2022). 
The swelling power was calculated as follows:
SI(%) = (Weight of  sample paste)/(Weight of  dry flour) 
× 100                              (4)

Determination of  the Proximate Composition of  
Flours
The proximate parameters namely; moisture, ash, crude 
protein crude fat, and crude fibre) were determined 
by standard methods of  the Association of  Official 
Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 2012). Carbohydrate was 
calculated by difference as follows;
% Carbohydrate = 100 - [Protein(%) + Fat(%) + Ash(%) 
+ Fibre(%) + moisture (%)]              (5)

Determination of  the Mineral Content of  the Flours
The Magnesium, Calcium, Potassium, Sodium and 
Phosphorous contents of  samples were determined by the 
atomic absorption spectrophotometer method (AOAC, 

2012). A muffle furnace was used to ignite two grams of  
the dry samples at 600 °C. Ten milliliters of  5 M HCl were 
used to dissolve the ash. After the ash was acid-digested 
on a steam plate, the digested sample was carefully cleaned 
with distilled water, filtered using Whatman’s filter paper, 
and then diluted to volume in a 50 mL volumetric flask. 
The Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (Perkin-
Elmer Analyst 700 spectrophotometer (Norwalk, CT, 
USA) was then used to evaluate the samples and blanks 
for the various minerals.

Anti-Nutritional Analysis of  Samples
Determination of  Tannin Contents
The tannin content was determined using the Burn 
method (Krishnaiah et al., 2009). Five (5) g of  sample 
was treated with 50 mL methanol and kept for 24 
hours before filtration. Five (5 mL) of  freshly prepared 
vanalin hydrochloric acid was added and the solution was 
allowed to stand for 20 min for colour development. The 
absorbance was measured at 550 nm using Spectronic 20 
and the machine value was used in calculating the tannin 
content as follows:
C1=(C1C2)/V1 
% Tannic acid content=(C1 × 100)/(Weight of  sample) (6)
Where;
C1= Conc. of  tannic acid, C2=Conc. of  base, V1=Volume 
of  tannic acid, V2= Volume of  base

Determination of  Phytates Content
The method of  Young and Greaves with slight 
modification was used (Disseka et al., 2018). In a 250 
conical flask, precisely 2 g of  samples were soaked in 100 
mL of  20 % concentrated HCl for 3 hours. The samples 
were then filtered through filter paper, 50 mL of  the 
filtrate was put in a 250 beaker, and 100 mL of  distilled 
water was added. 10 mL of  0.3% ammonium thiocyanate 
solution was then added as an indicator, and titration was 
performed using standard Iron (III) Chloride (0.00915 g/
mL). After titrations, the phytate content was calculated 
as follows;
Phytates Acid = (titre value × 0.00195 × 1.19 × 100)/
(sample mass (g))                 (7)

Determination of  Cyanide
Alkaline picrate reagent was prepared by a modification 
of  the method described by Wasiams and Edwards (1980) 
as follows: Test tubes with 2mL of  2% KOH and 1 mL of  
picric acid: Na2CO3: H2O (1:5:200 v/w/v) was prepared 
(Nwokoro et al., 2010). Standard absorbance curves were 
created using three Whatman No. 1 filter papers, each 
measuring 8 × 1 cm. These papers were immersed in an 
alkaline picrate solution for 15 minutes. After removal, 
the picrate-treated papers were promptly used for cyanide 
analysis. Cyanide solutions (ranging from 50 to 200 μg 
KCN/mL) were prepared in glass containers, acidified 
with 20% HCl, heated to 80 °C, and immediately sealed 
with three picrate-treated papers. This setup was left to 
incubate at room temperature (28 ± 2 °C) for 24 hours. 



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The resulting red-coloured complex was then extracted 
with a 50 % ethanol solution for 30 minutes, and the 
absorbance of  the eluate was recorded at 510 nm using 
a spectrophotometer. Cyanide concentrations in the 
samples were determined by referencing the standard 
curve.

Determination of  Oxalate Content
This was determined by the standard method of  AOAC 
(2012). One gram (1 g) of  the sample was placed in a 250 
mL volumetric flask, to which 190 mL of  distilled water 
and 10 mL of  6 M HCl were added. The mixture was 
then heated in a water bath at 90 °C for 4 hours, followed 
by centrifugation of  the digested sample at 2000 rpm 
for 5 minutes. The resulting supernatant was diluted to 
a final volume of  250 mL. Three 50 mL portions of  the 
supernatant were evaporated to 25 mL, after which the 
brown precipitate was filtered and washed. The combined 
filtrate and washings were titrated by adding concentrated 
ammonia dropwise until the salmon-pink color of  methyl 
orange turned faint yellow. The solution was reheated to 
90 °C in a water bath, and oxalate was precipitated using 
10 mL of  a 5 % calcium chloride (CaCl2) solution. The 
mixture was left to stand overnight and then centrifuged. 
Each precipitate was then transferred into a beaker using 
hot 25 % sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄), diluted to 125 mL with 
distilled water, and after heating to 90 °C, it was titrated 
with 0.05 M potassium permanganate (KMnO₄) until 
a faint pink color persisted for at least 30 seconds. The 
oxalate content was calculated by taking;
1 mL of  0.05M KMnO4 = 2.2 mg oxalate              (8)

Statistical Analysis
Data were collected in triplicate and analyzed using SPSS 
(Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) Version 27. 
An Analysis of  Variance (ANOVA) test was conducted 
to assess significant differences between the means, and 
the Duncan Multiple Range Test was applied for mean 
comparison and separation. Statistical significance was set 
at p < 0.05.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Functional Properties of  the Maize and Cassava Flours 
as Influenced by Nixtamalization and Fermentation
Both nixtamalization and fermentation were seen to 
affect the functional properties of  the different flours, as 
shown in Table 1. 
Nixtamalization significantly enhanced the water 
absorption capacity from 1.69 % in non-nixtamalized 
maize flour to 2.14 % in nixtamalized maize flour. Water 
absorption capacity is the amount of  water or moisture 
that is taken up by a food or flour to achieve the desired 
consistency for quality food (Chandra et al., 2015). 
Nixtamalization has been known to increase the water 
activity of  maize flour as was observed in the study by Sefa-
Dedeh et al. (2004). They observed that nixtamalization 
increases water absorption capacity in maize, influenced 
by lime concentration and cooking time, enhancing 

hydration due to gelatinization and osmotic effects. 
This variation may be due to lime cooking, which causes 
gelatinization and thereby exposes the hydrophilic sites in 
starch. This process reveals a strong inverse relationship 
between gelatinization and water absorption capacity, 
meaning that as gelatinization increases in the flour, its 
water absorption capacity decreases. Several authors have 
reported that the improved water absorption capacity of  
the flours is desirable and crucial as water absorption leads 
to improved texture and handling properties (Ramírez-
Miranda et al., 2014; Rodríguez-Martínez et al., 2015). The 
oil absorption capacity was enhanced by nixtamalization; 
ranging from 1.61 in NN to 1.53 in NXM. Oil absorption 
capacity is a measure of  the rate at which protein binds 
to fat in food formulations. It has been attributed to 
the physical entrapment of  oil in a food sample. This 
has been known to act as a flavor retainer and increases 
the mouthfeel of  foods (Hasmadi et al., 2020). Results 
in this study agree and follow the same trend as those 
of  (Ocheme et al., 2010; Sefa-Dedeh et al., 2004) who 
reported a decrease in the oil absorption capacity of  
the flours with nixtamalization. The bulk density of  
the flours was observed to be significantly different 
between the nixtamalized and non-nixtamalized samples. 
Nixtamalization leads to gelatinization and therefore 
increase in water absorption or moisture uptake and 
consequently the bulk of  the food sample (Rodríguez-
Martínez et al., 2015). Bulk density refers to the mass 
of  numerous particles of  flour material divided by the 
overall volume they occupy. This total volume includes 
the volume of  the particles themselves, the internal pore 
volume, and the spaces between particles (inter-particle 
voids) (Awuchi et al., 2019). It is used to determine 
the packaging requirements of  flour as it measures 
the heaviness of  the flour (Hasmadi et al., 2020). The 
nixtamalized sample had a significantly higher swelling 
capacity compared to the non-nixtamalized sample. 
The swelling capacity of  a food product is a function 
and ability of  the product to rise while interacting with 
water. Several factors have been reported to influence the 
swelling capacity of  flour including crop species, size of  
flour particles, and processing method used (Awolu et al., 
2022). Nixtamalization with Ca(OH)2 was seen to enhance 
the swelling capacity of  flour by promoting protein 
unfolding and increasing the interaction with water. This 
could be due to the ionizing hydroxyl groups of  starch 
and proteins, which favour the formation of  weak non-
covalent bonds and electrostatic forces, resulting in 
strong entanglement and interaction with water (Rincón-
Aguirre et al., 2021). This may be attributed to the flour’s 
reduced fat content; research indicates that fats can 
form complexes with starch, which can restrict swelling. 
Additionally, the flour’s high water absorption capacity 
also contributes to this effect (Ocheme et al., 2010).
Fermentation on the other hand; as seen in Table 1 
significantly affected the functional properties of  the 
flour. It was observed that the water absorption capacity 
was significantly lower in the fermented sample compared 



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to the non-fermented sample. This is a deviation from 
the norm as observed by Feyera (2021) who reported 
that fermentation increases water absorption capacity 
in complementary food, with values ranging from 
163.81 to 180.50 for samples fermented for 24 and 36 
hours, respectively, compared to unfermented samples. 
This could be due to over-degradation of  starches and 
proteins, leading to the loss of  molecular structures that 
are responsible for trapping and holding water. Also, 
intense fermentation could break down polysaccharides 
and proteins exposing more hydrophobic ends or 
reducing the overall hydrophilic sites, thereby leading 
to a decrease in the water absorption capacity of  the 
flour. Fermentation in sorghum, pearl millet, and maize 
decreased water absorption capacity, as reported by Alka 
et al. (2012). The oil absorption capacity of  the fermented 
sample was significantly (p<0.05) higher than the non-
fermented sample. This agrees with this study wherein, 
African yam bean flour also was used in bread production. 
They also observed an increase in oil absorption capacity 
as affected by fermentation (Chinma et al., 2020). The 
bulk density of  the fermented sample (FC, 0.57 %) was 

significantly lower than the non-fermented sample (NFC, 
0.62 %). These results agree with those by Feyera, (2021) 
who observed that fermentation reduced the bulk density 
of  composite flour from 0.90 to 0.59 g/ml, indicating 
a substantial decrease in heaviness, which is crucial for 
improving the acceptability of  foods. This reduction could 
be attributed to the fact that during fermentation, the 
lactic acid bacteria break down complex polysaccharides 
and proteins into simpler and less heavy molecules, hence 
the reduction in the bulk density (Oladeji et al., 2018). 
The swelling capacity was seen to be significantly lower 
in the fermented sample (FC, 2.87) compared to the 
non-fermented sample (NFC, 3.06). While it has been 
reported that the protein and fat content of  flour can 
inhibit its swelling capacity (Feyera, 2021), it was observed 
in this study that fermentation led to a decrease in the 
swelling capacity of  the flour. The observed reduction in 
swelling power due to fermentation in this study aligns 
with previous findings, which reported a decrease in the 
swelling capacity of  pigeon pea flour after being subjected 
to various fermentation durations (Feyera, 2021).

Table 1: Functional Properties of  Maize and Cassava Flours as influenced by nixtamalization and fermentation
Parameter Sample

NXM NNM FC NFC
WAC (g/g) 2.14b±0.00 1.69d±0.01 1.72c±0.00 2.19a±0.01
OAC  (g/g) 1.53c±0.01 1.61b±0.01 1.73a±0.01 1.61b±0.02
BD (g/ml) 0.61b±0.00 0.59c±0.00 0.57d±0.00 0.62a±0.00
SI (mL/g) 3.38a±0.02 2.78d±0.02 2.87c±0.03 3.06b±0.06

Values are means±standard deviation of  triplicate determinations. Means across a row with different superscripts are significantly 
different at p<0.05

Proximate Composition of  Maize and Cassava Flours 
as Influenced by Nixtamalization and Fermentation
Table 2 presents the proximate composition of  the flours 
as influenced by nixtamalization and fermentation. The 
moisture content ranged from 10.18 in NXM to 11.51 
in NNM while it ranged from 11.75 in NFC to 10.48 
in FC. Nixtamalization was seen to significantly reduce 
(p<0.05) the moisture content of  the nixtamalized 
maize flour. This is consistent with previous studies 
that observed a decrease in the moisture content of  
nixtamalized products (Matendo et al., 2023). Results in 
this study however contrast with findings by Sunico et al. 
(2021) who observed an increase in the moisture content 
of  nixtamalized flour. This difference could be owed to 
difference in lime concentration as well as cooking time. 

Nixtamalization is known to affect the water absorption 
capacity and gelatinization (partial) of  maize starch. This 
modifies the starch structure, reducing its ability to retain 
water and in turn lowers the moisture content. It has 
also been reported that the calcium salts interfere with 
the sorptive or hydrophilic sites of  starch thereby making 
them unavailable for moisture absorption (Amador-
Rodríguez et al., 2019, 2020). Some researchers have 
further explained that the use of  Ca(OH)₂ breaks down 
the seed coat structure, allowing calcium ions to diffuse 
into the seed. This process enhances the interaction and 
absorption of  calcium with starch, pectins, and proteins 
(Santiago-Ramos et al., 2018). The ash content varied 
from 3.65% in NXM to 3.13% in NNM. Nixtamalization 
significantly increased the ash content of  the nixtamalized 
maize flour. This was expected as it has been reported that 
the alkaline treatment releases the bound minerals from 
antinutrients found mainly in the pericarp which is easily 
removed by the alkaline nature of  the medium (Sunico 
et al., 2021). The crude protein ranged significantly 
(p<0.05) from 14.02 % (NNM) to 16.27 % (NXM) 
demonstrating that nixtamalization greatly enhances 
and increases the protein content of  nixtamalized maize 
and its products. Similar reports have been advanced 
to enhance the protein content of  nixtamalized maize 

Key:
NXM-Nixtamalized maize, 
NNM-Non-Nixtamalized maize, 
FC-Fermented cassava, 
NFC-Non-Fermented cassava 
WAC-Water Absorption Capacity,
OAC-Oil Absorption Capacity, 
BD-Bulk Density, 
SI-Swelling index



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products. For example, Sunico et al. (2021) evaluated 
the effect of  nixtamalized maize flour as a substitute in 
Philippine salt bread. The protein content ranged from 
9.78 % in non-nixtamalized maize flour to 10.60 % in 
nixtamalized bread. Results obtained in this study are 
higher than those reported by Hassan et al. (2023) who 
observed the protein content to range from 9.71 to 12.88 
%, while optimizing the effect of  nixtamalization on the 
nutritional and antinutritional contents of  quality protein 
maize flour. Reporting a protein content ranging from 
7.48 to 11.6 %, Hassan et al. (2023) demonstrated the 
effect of  nixtamalization in increasing the protein content 
of  nixtamalized products. While assessing the impact of  
nixtamalization on the proximate, functional, and some 
anti-nutritional properties of  millet flour, ocheme et al. 
(2010) also found that millet flour cooked in lime had a 
higher protein content than millet flour soaked in water. 
Santiago-Ramos et al. (2018) and Ramírez-Jiménez et al. 
(2019) also observed similar results. 
The crude fibre content of  the nixtamalized maize 
flour was 3.97 % higher than observed in the non-
nixtamalized counterpart (3.30 %). Other reports have 
observed similar effects on nixtamalization for example 
Ocheme et al. (2010) observed a crude fibre content 
ranging from 4.05 to 6.23 % for millet flour. The findings 
of  this research exceeded those found in a comparable 
investigation by Hassan et al. (2023). In their research 
on how nixtamalization and heat processing affected 
nutrients in maize-soybean flour, Matendo et al. (2023) 
found lower fiber content between 0.23-1.86%, with 
nixtamalized maize showing the highest levels. This 
variation may be attributed to differences in processing 
techniques. Research has shown that nixtamalization 
enhances dietary fiber by increasing resistant starch levels 
in food items (Ekpa et al., 2019; Voss et al., 2017). When 
studying how nixtamalization affected dietary fiber, 
starch digestibility and antioxidant properties in blue 
maize tortilla, Bello-Pérez et al. (2015) documented fiber 
content between 10.13-14.11%. Gutiérrez-Cortez et al. 
(2010) noted that during traditional nixtamalization, the 
combined effect of  heat and alkaline conditions strongly 
impacts the outer pericarp layers, leading to partial removal 
of  hemicelluloses and some lignin from the fiber matrix 
of  the pericarp. Reports have it that fibre slows down 
glucsose release into the bloodstream and subsequent 
absorption (Olosunde et al., 2023), thereby very important 
in controlling blood glucose levels. The fat content of  
the maize flours ranged from 6.53 % (NXM) to 7.28 % 
(NNM). Nixtamalization was seen to significantly reduce 
the fat content of  the maize flour produced. The process 
alters the fatty acid profile, particularly reducing linoleic 

acid content due to saponification and the formation of  
amylose-lipid complexes (Bello-Pérez et al., 2015). This is 
consistent with numerous literatures that abound. Hassan 
et al. (2023) observed similar but lower results in the range of  
3.36 to 6.00 %. (Campechano Carrera et al., 2012) reported 
4.4–5.3 % of  fat content. The carbohydrate content ranged 
from 59.60 % in NXM to 60.76 % in NNM. In tortilla 
which is one of  the most popular food product produced 
by nixtamalization, carbohydrates are the main component. 
This has been corroborated in other published studies 
(Bello-Pérez et al., 2015; Matendo et al., 2023).
Researchers also examined how fermentation influenced 
the basic nutritional composition of  cassava flour. The 
flour’s moisture levels varied between 10.48 and 11.75%, 
where the fermented flour showed the lowest moisture 
content at 10.48 %. It has been reported that the 
fermentation process modifies starch granules, thereby 
making them more porous and susceptible to degradation 
(Prastiwi et al., 2024), which can lead to moisture loss hence 
a decrease in moisture content in fermented products 
as observed in this study The fermentation process 
modifies starch granules, making them more porous and 
susceptible to degradation, which can lead to moisture 
loss. These findings contradict those of  Chinma and 
colleagues (2020), who noted increased moisture levels in 
fermented African yam bean. The current study’s results 
are also lower than the 10.61-12.69% range reported by 
Fayemi and Ojokoh (2014) in their investigation of  how 
different fermentation methods affect fufu’s nutritional 
properties. The flour samples’ ash content varied from 
2.69% in non-fermented cassava (NFC) to 2.83% in 
fermented cassava (FC). Fermentation was found to 
significantly boost ash content, suggesting enhanced 
mineral levels - an observation that aligns with Chinma et 
al. (2020) and Ariahu et al. (1999) findings. Protein levels 
increased significantly through fermentation, ranging 
from 3.74% (NFC) to 5.19% (FC). While these results 
exceed Fayemi and Ojokoh’s (2014) findings of  1.87-2.32%, 
they align with Chinma et al.’s (2020) observations. This 
protein increase likely results from reduced carbon ratio in the 
total mass, as fermenting microorganisms use carbohydrates 
for energy, producing carbon dioxide and concentrating 
nitrogen content (Cui et al., 2012). Crude fiber decreased 
notably from 2.96% (NFC) to 2.26% (FC), possibly due to 
enzymatic breakdown during fermentation - a trend also 
noted by Fayemi and Ojokoh (2014). Carbohydrate content 
showed a slight reduction from 76.95% (NFC) to 76.39% 
(FC). This decrease likely occurred because microorganisms 
used carbohydrate compounds for energy, with increased 
α-amylase activity breaking down polysaccharides into 
glucose (Olukomaiya et al., 2020).

Table 2: Proximate composition of  Maize and Cassava Flours as influenced by nixtamalization and fermentation
Parameter Sample

NXM NNM NFC FC
Moisture content 10.18d±0.08 11.51b±0.03 11.75a±0.02 10.48b±0.02
Ash 3.65a±0.05 3.13b±0.09 2.69d±0.10 2.83c±0.02
Crude protein 16.27a±0.02 14.02b±0.05 3.74d±0.03 5.19c±0.05



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Am. J. Food. Sci. Technol. 4(1) 50-59, 2025

Mineral Composition of  Maize and Cassava Flours 
as Influenced by Nixtamalization and Fermentation
The effect of  nixtamalization on the mineral content of  
maize flour is presented in Table 3. The calcium content 
was significantly enhanced by nixtamalization with NXM 
having the highest content (189.44 mg/100 g) and NNM 
having the least (156.32 mg/100 g). Similar findings were 
reported by Matendo et al. (2023) in their study examining 
how nixtamalization of  maize and heat processing of  
soybean affected nutrients, antinutrients, and mycotoxins 
in maize-soybean composite flour. The increased calcium 
levels could be linked to higher alkalinity, as elevated 
pH helps remove seed pericarp, enabling better calcium 
interaction with maize endosperm (Rojas‐Molina et al., 
2007; Sunico et al., 2021). The maize flours’ magnesium 
content varied between 109.50 mg/100 g in non-
nixtamalized maize (NNM) and 125.32 mg/100 g in 
nixtamalized maize (NXM). These values were lower 
than Santiago-Ramos et al.’s (2018) findings of  134.70 to 
192.30 mg/100 g. Potassium levels ranged from 154.79 
mg/100 g (NNM) to 174.79 mg/100 g (NXM). Similar 
to other minerals, nixtamalization significantly enhanced 
potassium content due to calcium’s role in improving 
mineral bioavailability (Santiago-Ramos et al., 2018; 
Sunico et al., 2021). Sodium content was found to be 
between 45.63 and 48.78 mg/100 g. This is consistent 
with findings from (Santiago-Ramos et al., 2018) 
who observed a range of  13.26 to 24 mg/100 g. The 
phosphorus content of  the flours ranged from 119.84 
to 123.48 mg/100 g. This is lower than those reported 
by (Santiago-Ramos et al., 2018) who observed 301.04 to 
370.73 mg/100 g  of  phosphorus.
The effect of  fermentation on the mineral composition 
of  cassava flour is presented in Table 3. Fermentation 
has been generally known to increase the bioavailability 
and extractability of  minerals in flour by reducing phytate 

content and other antinutritional factors (Chinma et al., 
2020). The calcium content ranged from 148.49 mg/100 
g (NFC) to 152.33 mg/100 g (FC). The observance was 
that fermentation led to an increase in the contents of  
calcium. The findings from this study exceeded those 
reported by Fayemi and Ojokoh (2014), while showing 
agreement with but remaining below values reported by 
Mudau et al. (2022). Calcium, which is crucial for various 
cellular processes, plays vital structural roles including 
bone and teeth formation and nerve impulse conduction. 
Magnesium content varied from 83.44 mg/100 g in non-
fermented cassava (NFC) to 98.65 mg/100 g in fermented 
cassava (FC), with fermentation increasing levels. This 
aligns with previous research indicating fermentation 
enhances mineral and macromolecule bioavailability 
(Chinma et al., 2020; Mudau et al., 2022). Magnesium 
serves essential bodily functions, including muscle and 
nerve regulation, blood sugar and pressure control, 
and protein, bone, and DNA synthesis. Fermentation 
significantly decreased potassium content, with NFC 
showing the highest value (186.32 mg/100 g) and FC the 
lowest (149.63 mg/100 g). These results were lower than 
Mudau et al.’s (2022) findings and contradicted Chinma 
et al.’s (2020) observations of  increased potassium in 
fermented African yam bean. However, they aligned with 
Oladeji et al.’s (2018) findings of  reduced potassium in 
fermented maize. Potassium is essential for fluid balance 
and organ function, particularly in the brain, nerves, heart, 
and muscles. Sodium content decreased significantly 
with fermentation, from 49.44 mg/100 g (NFC) to 
43.83 mg/100 g (FC). These values differed from 
Fayemi and Ojokoh’s (2014) higher readings of  0.097-
0.555 mg/100 g and contradicted Mudau et al.’s (2022) 
observation of  increased sodium post-fermentation, 
possibly due to different fermentation methods. Sodium 
maintains blood osmotic pressure and assists in nerve 
impulse transmission. Phosphorus levels increased 
significantly with fermentation, reaching 118.85 mg/100 
g in fermented samples. These values exceeded Fayemi 
and Ojokoh’s (2014) findings of  0.057-0.152 mg/100 g, 
similar to observations in fermented African yam bean 
flour bread.

Crude fibre 3.97a±0.04 3.30b±0.07 1.91d±0.06 2.15c±0.05
Crude fat 6.53b±0.06 7.28a±0.06 2.26d±0.06 2.96c±0.05
Carbohydrate 59.40d±0.09 60.76c±0.03 77.60a±0.07 75.00b±0.07

Values are means±standard deviation of  triplicate determinations. Means across a row with different superscripts are significantly 
different at p<0.05

Table 3: Mineral Composition of  Maize and Cassava Flours as influenced by Nixtamalization and Fermentation
Parameter Sample

NXM NNM FC NFC
Calcium 189.44a±0.02 156.32b±0.02 152.33c±0.03 148.49d±0.01
Magnesium 125.32a±0.02 109.50b±0.02 98.65c±0.02 83.44d±0.02
Potassium 174.79b±0.01 154.79c±0.01 149.63d±0.03 186.32a±0.02
Sodium 48.78b±0.02 45.63c±0.03 43.83d±0.03 49.44a±0.02
Phosphorus 123.48a±0.02 119.84b±0.02 118.85c±0.05 94.79d±0.01

Key:
NXM-Nixtamalized maize, 
NNM-Non-Nixtamalized maize, 
FC-Fermented cassava, 
NFC-Non-Fermented cassava



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Am. J. Food. Sci. Technol. 4(1) 50-59, 2025

Antinutrient Composition of  Maize and Cassava Flours 
as Influenced by Nixtamalization and Fermentation
Table 4.4 presents the antinutrient levels in the produced 
flours. The analysis revealed that both processing 
methods - nixtamalization and fermentation - led to a 
statistically significant decrease (p<0.05) in all measured 
antinutritional compounds.Nixtamalization significantly 

reduces antinutrient levels, including phytic acid, in maize 
and composite flours, thereby improving their nutritional 
properties (Matendo et al., 2023; Santiago-Ramos et al., 
2018; Sunico et al., 2021). Fermentation on the other 
hand is known to significantly reduce phytic acid content 
in a number of  food products like in lupin flour, maize 
flour, sorghum flour and Phaseolus vulgaris (Chinma et 
al., 2020; Ocheme et al., 2010). Fermentation has also 
been seen to reduce the contents of  tannins, oxalates 
and other antinutritional factors in various flours like 
maize, sorghum and African breadfruit (Ojha et al., 2018; 
Ojokoh et al., 2013).

Values are means±standard deviation of  triplicate determinations. Values in the same row marked with different superscript letters 
indicate statistically significant differences at a 95% confidence level (p<0.05).
Key:
NXM-Nixtamalized maize, 
NNM-Non-Nixtamalized maize, 
FC-Fermented cassava, 
NFC-Non-Fermented cassava

Table 4: Antinutrient Composition of  Maize and Cassava Flours as Influenced by Nixtamalization and Fermentation
Antinutrient 
(mg/100 g)

Sample
NXM NNM FC NFC

Tannin 0.74b±0.00 0.82a±0.02 0.54c±0.02 0.73b±0.01
Phytate 1.18c±0.00 2.16a±0.00 1.08d±0.00 1.73b±0.03
Oxalate 0.78c±0.00 0.94a±0.00 0.61d±0.01 0.83b±0.03
Hydrogen cyanide 1.20c±0.00 1.25a±0.00 1.19d±0.01 1.23b±0.00

Values are means±standard deviation of  triplicate determinations. Means across a row with different superscripts are significantly 
different at p<0.05
Key:
NXM-Nixtamalized maize, 
NNM-Non-Nixtamalized maize, 
FM-Fermented cassava, 
NFC-Non-Fermented cassava

CONCLUSION
Flours were successfully produced by the employment 
of  the two treatment methods; nixtamalization and 
fermentation. The functional properties, which 
are essential for food product development, were 
significantly improved by both processing treatments. 
The basic nutritional composition of  the flours showed 
notable enhancement, particularly with an observed 
increase in protein content. The mineral contents 
analysed, especially calcium, magnesium, potassium, 
sodium and phosphorus were greatly enhanced by both 
nixtamalization and fermentation. The enhancement in 
the mineral content was a compliment to the decrease 
in the antinutrient content of  the flours as affected by 
nixtamalization and fermentation. The integration of  
nixtamalization and fermentation techniques represents a 
fascinating intersection of  tradition and innovation within 
the food industry. Through these age-old processes, food 
manufacturers and artisans alike can enhance not only 
the nutritional value and flavour profile of  their products 
but also their safety and shelf  life. Nixtamalization’s 
ability to improve the digestibility and bioavailability of  
essential nutrients in maize, coupled with fermentation’s 
capacity to unlock complex flavours and preserve foods, 
underscores the profound impact these methods have on 
both culinary practices and public health. 

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