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 American Journal of  
Food Science and Technology (AJFST)

Food Waste and Loss Management - Causes, Effects and Possible Solutions 
from A Nigeria Context

Eucharia Chisom Nnoli1, Ugochukwu Jones Ibeneme2, Godspower Oke Omokaro1*, Itohanosa Omolara Osarhiemen3

Paul Obokparo Ewubare4, Sarah Onosteike Aliyu4, Ndubuisi Louis James5

Volume 3 Issue 1, Year 2024
ISSN: 2834-0086 (Online)

DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajfst.v3i1.2744
https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajfst

Article Information ABSTRACT

Received: April 15, 2024

Accepted: May 13, 2024

Published: May 17, 2024

Food waste and loss present significant challenges globally, with Nigeria being particularly 
affected. This study comprehensively analyzes the causes, effects, and potential solutions to 
food waste within the Nigerian context. Drawing on extensive research and secondary data 
sources, the study highlights the pervasive nature of  food waste, focusing on key sectors 
such as tomato, onion, and chili production. It identifies critical factors contributing to food 
waste, including inadequate infrastructure, pests and diseases, transportation constraints, 
and policy gaps. The socioeconomic impacts of  food waste, such as increased food prices, 
exacerbated poverty, and environmental degradation, underscore the urgency of  addressing 
this issue. However, amidst these challenges lie opportunities for intervention. Nigeria can 
significantly reduce food waste, enhance food security, and promote economic development 
by implementing a holistic approach that encompasses infrastructure development, 
sustainable agricultural practices, and supportive policies. Additionally, individual actions, 
such as meal planning and supporting local farmers, play a crucial role in mitigating 
food waste at the grassroots level. Through collaborative efforts involving governments, 
businesses, civil society, and individuals, Nigeria can pave the way towards a more resilient 
and sustainable food system, ensuring equitable access to nutritious food while preserving 
the environment for future generations. The methodology employed in this study entailed 
data collection primarily from prior research and secondary sources such as published 
studies, newspapers, articles, and relevant materials. The study’s focal point centered on food 
waste and loss, with a specific focus on vegetable waste within the Nigerian context.

Keywords

Food Waste, Food Loss, Food 
Security, Nigeria, Vegetable 
Waste, Organic Waste

1 Institute of  Ecology, People Friendship University of  Russia, Moscow, Russia
2 Madonna University Nigeria, Akpugo Campus, Enugu State, Nigeria
3 School of  Public Health, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
4 University of  Benin, Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria
5 National Research University Higher School of  Economics, Moscow, Russia
* Corresponding author’s e-mail: omokaro.kelly@gmail.com

INTRODUCTION
Food wastage, both in Nigeria and worldwide, presents a 
significant challenge impacting economies, food security, 
and the environment. Food waste refers to the reduction 
in the quantity or quality of  food due to actions by food 
suppliers, including retailers, consumers, and food service 
providers (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2020). 
This wastage adversely affects the utilization of  crucial 
resources such as water, energy, climate, biodiversity, 
and land (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2013), 
resulting in widespread concern among the public, 
governments, educational institutions, companies, and 
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) due to 
its detrimental impact on environmental sustainability 
(Kummu et al., 2012; Licciardello, 2017). According to 
data from the Food Sustainability Index 2017, countries 
like Australia, the United States, Turkey, Spain, and Japan 
are the highest contributors to food waste generation, 
producing 361kg, 278kg, 168kg, 165kg, and 157kg per 
capita respectively. In contrast, Greece, China, India, 
Russia, and Colombia exhibit lower levels of  food waste 
creation, with figures ranging from 44kg to 63kg per 
capita (Magnet, 2018). Despite efforts to address this 
issue, the household sector remains the primary source 

of  food waste in the supply chain, accounting for 43%, 
followed by restaurants (18%), farms (16%), groceries 
and distribution (13%), institutional and food service 
(8%), and manufacturers (2%) as of  2015 (Gunders 
& Bloom, 2017). However, there has been a notable 
lack of  research focusing on the household segment’s 
contribution to food waste, with only limited attention 
paid to consumer-related factors such as packaging, as 
highlighted in Helen Williams’ work on household food 
waste causes (Schanes et al., 2018). Thus, there remains a 
gap in understanding the primary drivers of  household 
food waste within society (Schanes et al., 2018).
However, the growing population presents challenges, 
including food insecurity. A considerable number 
of  Nigerians struggle to provide adequate meals for 
their families due to living below the poverty line. 
It’s not uncommon to witness people scavenging for 
leftovers at events to feed their loved ones. Despite the 
prevalence of  hunger in Nigeria, the wastage observed 
in marketplaces nationwide is alarming, with substantial 
quantities of  fresh produce like tomatoes and fruits 
left to spoil. This pressing issue calls for immediate and 
strategic intervention. One such intervention involves 
implementing an efficient food waste management 



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system to support Nigeria’s burgeoning population and 
secure the well-being of  future generations. The research 
outlined in this paper aims to investigate the root causes, 
impacts, and potential remedies for effective food waste 
management in Nigeria.

LITERATURE REVIEW
Global food waste is staggering, estimated at USD 750 
billion annually, excluding additional social costs of  USD 
900 billion and environmental costs valued at USD 600 
billion (UN, 2015; FAO, 2014). Despite this, 870 million 
people globally suffer from undernourishment (UN, 
2015). On a national level, 40% of  Nigerians live below 
the poverty line, earning less than 137,430 Naira ($381.75) 
per year (NBS, 2020). Moreover, research suggests 
that Nigerians allocate over 56.4% of  their income to 
food expenses (WEF, 2016). With Nigeria’s population 
estimated at 213 million in 2021, the country struggles 
to provide for its growing populace. The Food and 
Agriculture Organization of  the United Nations (FAO) 

indicates that 690 million people experienced hunger in 
2019, a figure expected to rise significantly during and 
after the COVID-19 pandemic, with an astonishing 3 
billion people unable to afford a nutritious diet (FAO, 
2020). Given the escalating global population, food 
waste and food security have become focal points for 
both researchers and policymakers across developed and 
developing nations (Chalak et al., 2019). Farmers engage 
in agriculture for various reasons, including catering to 
the needs of  the rapidly expanding global population. 
Food is a basic human necessity crucial for survival, 
yet our consumption habits, disposal practices, and 
wastage profoundly impact both us and the environment 
we inhabit. According to national estimates, Nigeria 
generates approximately 32 million tonnes of  waste 
annually, encompassing all stages of  vegetable production 
(Lantz, 2021). Research indicates that the most prevalent 
form of  food waste and loss occurs in perishable goods 
such as vegetables.

Figure 1: Vegetable Waste in Nigeria
Source: Yemisi Odusanya, The Guardian Nigeria, 2017

Food Waste: Definition and Effects
Food waste is commonly defined as “food, which 
was originally produced for human consumption but 
then was discarded or was not consumed by humans” 
(Thyberg & Tonjes, 2016). Narvanen et al. (2020) 
characterize food waste as a complex, multifaceted, and 
persistent challenge, noting its unstructured nature due to 
difficulties in defining the problem. They also highlight 
its moral dimension, particularly regarding disparities 
between the wealthy and the impoverished. Some scholars 
emphasize the importance of  understanding the intricate 
interactions between human and non-human factors in 
the conversion of  food to waste (Evans, 2018; Hebrok & 
Heidenstrøm, 2019). Factors contributing to waste vary 
depending on material types, production methods, and 
management approaches (FAO, 2013).
With the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 
projecting a 60% increase in food demand to 

accommodate a population of  9.3 billion by 2050 (Da 
Silva, 2021), concerns about the extensive impacts of  
food waste on society, the economy, and the environment 
are escalating. Consequently, various local, national, and 
international institutions are implementing programs and 
policies to tackle this issue (Thyberg & Tonjes, 2016). 
Empirical evidence suggests that food waste comprises a 
significant portion of  global food production, estimated at 
about one third annually by weight (Hamilton et al., 2005; 
Hebrok & Boks, 2017). While more prevalent in highly 
developed economies, food waste is becoming a concern 
worldwide with increasing economic development, 
urbanization, and affluence (Gustavsson et al., 2015; Baig 
et al., 2018; Koch et al., 2018). The detrimental impacts 
of  escalating food waste on the environment and society 
are widely recognized and extensively discussed in the 
literature (Park & Lah, 2015; Secondi et al., 2015). These 
impacts span various levels of  analysis, from individual 



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consumers to national and international food systems, 
leading to heightened environmental concerns, resource 
sustainability challenges, and potential future food 
scarcity (Gustavsson et al., 2011).

Causes, Environmental and Health Implication of  
Food Waste and Loss
The causes of  food waste are diverse and extensively 
discussed in literature (Oelofse & Nahman, 2013; Neff  
et al., 2019). Conversely, food loss can occur due to 
various factors, including inefficiencies in harvesting, 
transportation, storage, and processing, as well as issues 
like pests, diseases, and adverse weather conditions. 
Upstream processes such as crop losses due to disease, 
pest infestation, and weather fluctuations, combined with 
strict quality standards in food production, contribute 

to 54% of  food loss and waste, while the remaining 
46% arises from processing operations, distribution, 
and consumption patterns (Mebratu, 1998). In a study 
conducted in Ireland, major causes of  food waste were 
identified as expired food, waste from served meals, 
and spoilage or odor issues (Flanagan & Priyardarshini, 
2021). Drivers of  food waste in the food service sector 
have been examined and categorized into various types, 
including organizational, internal, external, business, and 
market-specific factors (Hennchen, 2019; Kasavan et al., 
2019). Within kitchens, food waste can be generated due to 
equipment malfunctions, excessive ordering, standards of  
fine dining, rejection of  “ugly” produce, inadequate handling 
by suppliers, poor sanitation, or excessive planning for 
business requirements (Pinto et al., 2018; Papargyropoulou et 
al., 2019; Shao et al., 2020; Filimonau et al., 2021).

Figure 2: Stages of  food waste globally
Source: Oguntade (2014)

Food systems contribute significantly to anthropogenic 
greenhouse gas emissions, accounting for approximately 
one-third of  the world’s total emissions (Crippa et 
al., 2021). Additionally, food waste disposal leads to 
environmental impacts such as the release of  pollutants 
into the atmosphere and water bodies through dumping 
and incineration. In landfills, for instance, decomposing 
food waste generates organic pollutants in landfill 
leachate, posing contamination risks to surrounding water 
sources (Ma et al., 2022). Moreover, food waste in landfills 
contributes to the production of  methane, a potent 
greenhouse gas that exacerbates climate change and 
serves as a breeding ground for disease vectors. Research 
by Peter et al. (2010) illustrated that one ton of  food waste 
could generate a carbon impact equivalent to over 3.8 
tons of  carbon dioxide emissions. Therefore, diverting 
food waste from emission-generating sources presents 
an opportunity for countries to mitigate greenhouse gas 
emissions (Thi et al., 2015).

METHODOLOGY
The methodology for this study involved gathering data 
primarily from previous research, secondary sources 
such as published studies, newspapers, articles, and other 
relevant materials. The main focus of  the study was on 
food waste, with a particular emphasis on the Nigerian 
context streamline to vegetable waste. Data collection 
primarily utilized the Google Search Engine, employing 
specific queries such as ‘Food Waste in Nigeria,’ ‘Causes 
of  Food Waste in Nigeria,’ and investigating three 
common types of  food waste in Nigeria: causes, effects, 
and possible solutions. Additionally, relevant literature 
and reports were reviewed to provide comprehensive 
insights into the topic.

RESULTS & DISCUSSION
Food Waste in Nigeria
Food waste poses a significant challenge in developing 
nations like Nigeria, primarily due to the substantial 



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proportion of  organic waste, particularly from vegetables, 
in municipal solid waste, especially from households 
(Oyelola, 2013; LAWMA, 2015). This organic content 
tends to be three times higher compared to developed 
economies. National estimates indicate that Nigeria 
generates approximately 32 million tonnes of  waste 
annually, with a significant portion comprising vegetable 
waste (Lantz, 2021). Over the past two decades, urban 
centers in Nigeria have experienced a rapid increase in 
the volume and complexity of  solid waste, including food 
waste, attributed to factors such as population growth, 
rising living standards, increased consumption patterns, 
urbanization, and inadequate environmental management 
policies (Rathi, 2007).
This surge in food waste coincides with reported cases 
of  hunger, malnutrition, and poverty across various 
socioeconomic classes, leading to food insecurity within 
the population (Ojo and Adebayo, 2012). Findings from 
the 2013 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) fact 
sheets and surveys conducted by the Nigerian Stored 
Products Research Institute (NSPRI) estimate post-
harvest food losses at 51.3 million tonnes across all crops, 
valued at $8.9 billion. However, statistics on food waste 
at the retail/consumer level are not readily available, 
except for occasional estimates provided by individual 
or private corporate organizations. For example, at the 
unveiling of  Danfoss Company in February 2016, it was 

suggested by the Business Development Manager that 
approximately 80% of  food, equivalent to $750 billion, 
is wasted in Nigeria, underscoring the magnitude of  the 
issue. Addressing food waste is crucial for developing a 
sustainable food system. Akerele et al. (2017) reported 
that households in Nigeria waste approximately 3–7% of  
the food consumed per month, amounting to an average 
monthly value of  ₦1500, with root and tubers and cereals 
accounting for the largest percentage of  total food waste.

Common Food (VEGETABLES) Waste/Loss in 
Nigeria
Research indicates that the most prevalent form of  food 
loss and waste in Nigeria pertains to major vegetables. 
Market areas often exhibit piles of  vegetable waste 
nearby or within nearby dumpsites. Storage challenges, 
pest and disease infestations, delays in transportation 
to sales points, and fluctuating temperatures, depending 
on weather conditions, are among the key factors 
contributing to this vegetable waste. A value chain study 
conducted by the Central Bureau of  Investigation (CBI) 
in 2021 highlighted tomatoes, onions, and chili peppers 
as the primary sources of  food waste among vegetables. 
The table below illustrates the production of  these 
vegetables in Nigeria from 2015 to 2019, measured in 
tonnes, according to data from the Food and Agriculture 
Organization (FAO).

Figure 3: Nigeria Field Survey on Tomato Production
Source: Knowledge Transfer, 2023

The brief  explanation to the table 1 below suggests 
that, from 2015 to 2019, Nigeria witnessed fluctuations 
and changes in the production of  various vegetables. 
In 2015, the country harvested 4,083,500 metric tonnes 
of  tomatoes, 235,000 metric tonnes of  green onions, 
985,400 metric tonnes of  dry onions, 741,260 metric 
tonnes of  green chili peppers, and 60,299 metric tonnes 
of  dry chili peppers. Moving to 2016, there was a slight 
increase in tomato production to 4,229,330 metric 
tonnes, while the production of  green onions remained 

relatively stable at 235,276 metric tonnes. However, there 
was a notable increase in the production of  dry onions to 
997,900 metric tonnes. Similarly, the production of  green 
chili peppers increased to 745,855 metric tonnes, and dry 
chili peppers saw a slight rise to 65,004 metric tonnes. 
Transitioning to 2017, there was a decline in tomato 
production to 3,412,650 metric tonnes, which could be 
attributed to various factors such as weather conditions, 
pest infestations, or fluctuations in agricultural practices. 
However, the production of  green onions and dry onions 



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remained relatively stable compared to the previous year. 
In contrast, there was a slight decrease in the production 
of  both green and dry chili peppers. By 2018, Nigeria 
experienced a rebound in tomato production, reaching 
4,100,000 metric tonnes, which might be attributed to 
improved agricultural practices or favorable weather 
conditions. The production of  green onions remained 
stable, while there was a slight decrease in the production 
of  dry onions. Additionally, there was a slight increase 
in the production of  both green and dry chili peppers 
compared to the previous year. In 2019, although tomato 
production decreased slightly to 3,913,993 metric tonnes, 

the production of  green onions and dry onions saw a 
marginal increase. Similarly, both green and dry chili 
peppers witnessed a slight rise in production compared 
to the previous year. Furthermore, the fluctuations 
in vegetable production from 2015 to 2019 could be 
influenced by various factors such as weather patterns, 
changes in agricultural practices, pest infestations, 
market demand, and government policies. Additionally, 
challenges such as inadequate infrastructure, access to 
quality inputs, and post-harvest management practices 
could have also contributed to the observed variations in 
production levels across the years.

Table 1: Production (tonnes) of  Tomatoes, Onions, and Chilli Pepper for 5 Years in Nigeria
Vegetables 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
Tomatoes 4,083,500 4,229,330 3,412,650 4,100,000 3,913,993
Onions (Green) 235,000 235,276 243,195 243,544 245,201
Onions (Dry) 985,400 997,900 1,014,810 971,110 938,417
Chilli Peppers (Green) 741,260 745,855 744,064 745,715 747,367
Chilli Peppers (Dry) 60,299 65,004 67,197 69,034 70,871

Source: CBI, 2021

Brief  History of  Tomato, Onion, and Chili Pepper 
in Nigeria
Tomato
Nigeria holds the position of  the 14th largest tomato 
producer globally and the 2nd largest within Africa. The 
primary tomato-producing regions are Kaduna and Kano 
states, jointly responsible for over 50% of  the country’s 
total tomato output (NBS, 2010-2011). Nevertheless, 
tomatoes are cultivated across nearly all states in Nigeria, 
with 24 out of  the 36 states, including the Federal Capital 
Territory (FCT), engaging in their production. Cultivation 
practices often involve intercropping and rotation with 
other vegetables like onions, peppers, lettuces, carrots, 
cabbages, and peas to mitigate susceptibility to pests 
and diseases. Despite significant domestic production, 
Nigeria ranks as the 13th largest importer of  tomato paste 
globally and the 2nd largest within Africa. In 2019 alone, 
Nigeria produced over 3.9 million tonnes of  tomatoes. 
However, the tomato production sector faces numerous 
challenges, including pest and disease outbreaks such 
as the notorious tuta absoluta, extreme weather events 
exacerbated by climate change, market price fluctuations 
leading to reduced demand, encroachment by herders 
resulting in delayed harvesting and potential food loss 
due to cattle damage, insecurity and armed robbery along 
transport routes, and transportation delays caused by truck 
stoppages and extortion by law enforcement officers. 
These issues collectively pose significant obstacles to the 
tomato industry in Nigeria.

Onions
Nigeria holds the distinction of  being the largest onion 
producer in West Africa, with a total production exceeding 
1.1 million tonnes. Onions are exclusively cultivated in 
the northern states of  Nigeria, with Kaduna, Kano, and 

Sokoto being the predominant states involved in onion 
production. Over the past five years (2015–2019), onion 
production has remained relatively stable, with the green 
onion segment experiencing growth while the dry onions 
segment has witnessed a slight decline in the last three 
years. The reasons behind this trend would be further 
explored through engagement with sector experts during 
the field research phase. The Onion Producers and 
Marketers Association of  Nigeria (OPMAN) asserts 
that onion cultivation in the country has the potential 
to generate approximately USD 420 million annually. 
However, onion farmers encounter storage challenges, 
leading to the loss of  approximately 50% of  harvested 
onions due to inadequate storage systems. In 2019, many 
farmers suffered substantial losses of  onion crops due 
to a fungal infection known as Purple Blotch. Similar to 
the tomato industry, onion production in Nigeria faces 
comparable threats, with the exception of  pest and disease 
incidents. Notably, a fungal infection, Purple Blotch, 
caused severe crop destruction in 2019, highlighting the 
vulnerability of  onion cultivation to such diseases (CBI, 
2021).

Chili Pepper
Nigeria ranks as the 7th largest producer of  chili peppers 
globally, with peppers cultivated in over 80% of  the 
country. The states of  Kaduna and Kano contribute 
significantly to the production of  peppers, tomatoes, and 
onions, accounting for 36%, 43%, and 50% respectively 
(Christine et al., 2019). Chili pepper production volume 
stands at approximately 818,000 tonnes and has exhibited 
steady growth over the past five years. Industry experts 
anticipate this upward trajectory to continue, attributing 
the sector’s boost in 2018 to the introduction of  a new 
pepper species known as yellow pepper, locally referred 



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to as Ose Nsukka, which is exclusive to the soil of  
Nsukka in the Northern zone of  Enugu state. This 
particular pepper species has garnered high demand 
from buyers across the country. Despite its promising 
outlook, the chili pepper industry in Nigeria faces similar 
challenges to those encountered in the production 
and supply of  onions and tomatoes. These challenges 
include storage difficulties, market price fluctuations, 
transportation delays, security concerns, and the threat of  
diseases such as the aforementioned Purple Blotch fungal 
infection. Therefore, while the chili pepper sector shows 
considerable potential for growth, it remains vulnerable 
to various risks and uncertainties inherent in agricultural 
production and trade in Nigeria.

Food Waste in Nigeria
Food waste, as defined by Parfitt et al. and Lipinski et al. 
(2013), refers to food that is still of  good quality and 
suitable for human consumption but is discarded at the 
distribution and consumption stages of  the food chain. 

In contrast, Food loss refers to the reduction in edible 
food mass occurring at various stages such as production, 
post-harvest, and processing of  vegetables like tomatoes, 
onions, and chili peppers before reaching the consumer 
(Vilariño et al., 2017). For countries in Sub-Saharan 
Africa, including Nigeria, the issue of  food waste and 
loss signifies a squandering of  scarce natural resources, 
which can exacerbate food and nutrition insecurity and 
deepen poverty. According to research by the Food and 
Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2015), approximately 
690 million people worldwide suffer from hunger, 
comprising 8.9 percent of  the global population. FAO 
projections suggest that by 2030, this number may rise 
to 890 million, affecting around 9.8 percent of  the global 
population. Depending on economic growth scenarios, 
FAO estimates that between 83 and 132 million more 
individuals could be undernourished globally. Addressing 
food loss and waste is therefore crucial for tackling food 
insecurity and promoting sustainable development in 
regions like Sub-Saharan Africa.

Figure 4: Classification of  Food Waste & Loss
Source: WRAP (2009)

The issue of  food waste remains a significant challenge for 
Nigeria, with reports indicating that the country generates 
approximately 32 million tonnes of  waste annually across 
all stages of  vegetable production to consumption. 
Various factors contribute to this problem, particularly in 
the production and processing of  key vegetable products 
such as tomatoes, onions, and chili peppers. These sectors 
lack advanced techniques, equipment, technology, and 
governance structures, hindering their efficiency and 
productivity. Additionally, there is a dearth of  enabling 
policies to stimulate the development of  these essential 
food products. Stakeholders and influencers in the 
vegetable supply chain have often failed to take a holistic 
approach when proposing interventions or solutions to 
address food loss. For instance, the Tomato Growers 
Association of  Nigeria (TOGAN) reported that its 
members lose approximately 40 percent of  their total 
annual production, leading to significant economic losses. 

In 2018 alone, tomato farmers suffered losses exceeding 
USD 10 billion due to market challenges and the absence 
of  guaranteed off-takers. Calls have been made for 
the Federal Government of  Nigeria to implement the 
Tomato Policy outlined in 2017. This policy aims to 
promote local production and processing by increasing 
tariffs on tomato concentrate imports, introducing 
additional levies, classifying greenhouse equipment as 
agricultural equipment to attract zero import duty, and 
implementing restrictions on tomato paste imports and 
other related measures. However, despite these efforts, 
the full implementation of  the tomato policy has yet 
to be realized. In summary, addressing food loss in 
Nigeria requires comprehensive strategies encompassing 
improved production and processing techniques, 
supportive policies, and effective implementation 
mechanisms to enhance the efficiency and sustainability 
of  the vegetable supply chain.



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Major Causes of  Food Waste in Nigeria
Lack of  Quality Inputs
The absence of  good quality seeds, fertilizers, and 
agrochemicals is a primary cause of  food losses in 
Nigeria’s vegetable production. For instance, around 
80% of  tomato seeds planted by farmers are generic 
varieties of  low quality with limited post-harvest shelf-
life (Technoserve, 2020). Similarly, onion farmers often 
cultivate local landrace varieties with low shelf-life, 
leading to losses (World Vegetable Center, 2018).

Low Skills in Crop Management
A majority of  smallholder farmers lack adequate skills 
in crop management and handling during and after 
harvesting. Capacity building and training in these areas 
are crucial for enhancing product yield and reducing 
losses at production and harvesting stages.

Diseases, Pests, and Rodents
Frequent pest and disease outbreaks in the tomato, onion, 
and chili pepper sectors result in significant harvest losses. 
For instance, the devastating pest, tuta absoluta, led to the 
loss of  up to 80% of  tomato yields in 2015/2016 (Sanda 
et al., 2018). Additionally, rodents and insects contribute 
to postharvest losses in onion production.

Poor Crop Handling and Storage
Inadequate technical knowledge in crop handling during 
harvesting and rudimentary storage techniques lead to 
spoilage and losses. Drying and storage facilities are often 
insufficient to preserve crops, resulting in spoilage and 
wastage.

Security Incidents
Incidents of  violence and insecurity, particularly in the 
northern regions of  Nigeria, disrupt farming activities 
and lead to on-farm and post-harvest losses. These 
incidents include herdsmen encroachment on fields and 
armed robberies during transportation.

Poor Vehicle Condition and Road Conditions
Overloading of  trucks and poor packaging materials 
during transport contribute to food waste and loss. 
Additionally, the poor condition of  roads, especially 
during the rainy season, exacerbates transportation 
challenges, affecting product quality.

Lack of  Efficient Refrigeration
Inadequate refrigeration facilities during transport and at 
marketplaces result in spoilage and rotting of  perishable 
goods. The absence of  efficient cold chains leads to the 
deterioration of  fresh produce before reaching points of  sale.

Traffic Constraints and Rough Offloading
In major vegetable markets like Mile 12 in Lagos, rough 
offloading and traffic congestion lead to significant losses. 
The lack of  proper waste disposal systems exacerbates 
environmental challenges in these markets.

Other Causes of  Food Waste in Nigeria
Food Gets Lost When Production Exceeds Demand
This occurs when farmers produce more food than is 
needed or consumed by the population. When there’s 
an oversupply, food may not be harvested in time, 
leading to spoilage in the fields or during transportation. 
Additionally, excess food often ends up in landfills, 
contributing to environmental issues like greenhouse gas 
emissions. This inefficiency in distribution exacerbates 
food waste problems.

Premature Harvesting of  Crops
Sometimes, crops are harvested before they reach their 
optimal ripeness or maturity due to various reasons such 
as labor shortages, weather concerns, or market demands. 
Premature harvesting not only affects the quality and 
taste of  the produce but also reduces its nutritional value. 
Consumers may reject such produce, leading to further 
waste along the supply chain.

Poor Storage Facilities
Inadequate storage facilities can result in food spoilage 
due to factors like temperature fluctuations, pests, and 
improper handling. This is particularly problematic 
in regions with high temperatures or humidity where 
perishable items deteriorate quickly. Proper storage 
infrastructure, such as cold storage units or warehouses 
with controlled atmospheres, is essential to minimize 
food losses during storage.

Purchase and Preparation of  Too Much Food 
Individuals, households, and businesses often purchase or 
prepare more food than they can consume. This can occur 
due to bulk buying habits, improper meal planning, or 
misjudgment of  portion sizes. Leftovers from oversized 
portions may end up being discarded, contributing to 
food waste at the consumer level.

Lack of  Appropriate Planning (e.g., food timetable) 
Without proper planning, individuals and institutions may 
struggle to manage their food resources efficiently. A lack 
of  meal planning, both at the household and institutional 
levels, can lead to excessive purchasing, cooking, and 
subsequent waste. Implementing food timetables or meal 
plans helps in organizing food consumption, reducing 
impulse buying, and ensuring that perishable items are 
used before they spoil.

Over-preparation of  Food in Restaurants, Hotels, 
and the Food Service Industry 
Food establishments often prepare more food than 
necessary to meet potential demand, especially during 
peak hours. While this practice aims to avoid shortages 
and maintain customer satisfaction, it often results 
in surplus food that goes unsold. Over-preparation 
contributes significantly to food waste in the hospitality 
sector.



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Over-merchandising and Over-ordering in Food 
Stores and Supermarkets
Food retailers may overstock their shelves or order excessive 
quantities of  perishable goods to attract customers and meet 
potential demand. However, this can lead to food spoilage 
and waste if  products remain unsold past their shelf  life. 
Additionally, marketing strategies such as bulk discounts or 
“buy one, get one free” offers can encourage consumers to 
purchase more than they need, contributing to food waste 
at the retail level.

Food Waste Effects
Food waste has multifaceted implications, extending beyond 
mere economic loss. Firstly, it represents a substantial 
monetary loss. Secondly, its social impact is profound, 
contributing to the escalation of  food prices and exacerbating 
food inaccessibility, particularly for the most vulnerable 
populations, thus increasing the prevalence of  malnutrition 
(Graham-Rowe et al., 2014; Stuart, 2009). Thirdly, food 
waste is a significant contributor to the degradation of  
natural resources, thereby amplifying greenhouse gas 
emissions (FAO, 2013 and 2014; WRAP, 2011). Moreover, 
food loss exacerbates poverty, particularly in developing 
countries like Nigeria. Studies indicate that the deterioration 
in the quality of  food products results in reduced quantities 
available for sale, leading to diminished economic gains, 
especially for millions of  smallholder families and low-
income farmers in these regions. The World Bank (2013) 
highlights that in Sub-Saharan Africa, a mere one percent 
reduction in postharvest losses could save $40 million 
annually, which could be redirected towards addressing 
various dimensions of  poverty. By mitigating post-harvest 
losses, income opportunities could be amplified for 470 
million smallholder farms globally, representing a significant 
stride towards global poverty alleviation, food security, and 
sustainability. To catalyze action towards reducing food 
waste and achieve Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 
12.3, it is imperative to accurately assess the extent of  food 
waste. Such measurement not only provides insights into 
the magnitude of  the problem but also delineates the scope 
for intervention, thereby offering a baseline against which 
progress can be gauged (FAO, 2024).

Environmental and Health Problems Associated with 
Food Waste
Resource Depletion: Both food loss and food waste 
represent a significant waste of  resources, including water, 
land, energy, and agricultural inputs such as fertilizers and 
pesticides. This wastage contributes to environmental 
degradation and resource depletion.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions
When food is lost or wasted, it rots in landfills, releasing 
methane, a potent greenhouse gas that contributes to climate 
change. Additionally, the production, transportation, and 
disposal of  food generate carbon dioxide emissions, further 
exacerbating climate change.

Health Risks
Rotting food can attract pests such as rodents and insects, 
which can spread diseases. Additionally, food waste in 
landfills generates methane, a potent greenhouse gas, and 
contributes to environmental and air pollution.

Land Use
Agriculture is a major driver of  deforestation and habitat 
destruction. Food loss and waste intensify the pressure 
on land resources as more agricultural land is required to 
produce food that ultimately goes unconsumed.

Water Scarcity and Contamination
Agriculture is a significant consumer of  freshwater 
resources. Food loss and waste exacerbate water scarcity by 
increasing the demand for irrigation and processing water, 
leading to over-extraction of  water from rivers and aquifers. 
Food waste dumpsite can bring about water contamination 
and even leachate. According to Omokaro et al. (2024a), 
waterborne diseases like cholera and dysentery which can 
spread through contaminated water sources, impacting 
communities relying on them for drinking and sanitation.

Biodiversity Loss
Deforestation and habitat destruction associated with 
agriculture contribute to biodiversity loss. Food loss and 
waste further exacerbate these impacts by increasing the 
demand for agricultural land, leading to the conversion of  
natural habitats into farmland.

Food Security
Food loss and waste reduce the overall availability of  food, 
exacerbating food insecurity and malnutrition, particularly 
in regions where food availability is already limited. 
This can have profound health implications, including 
stunted growth, micronutrient deficiencies, and increased 
susceptibility to diseases.

Economic Costs
Food loss and waste represent a loss of  economic value 
throughout the food supply chain, from farmers to 
consumers. This has economic implications for both 
producers and consumers, as resources invested in 
producing food that goes unconsumed are wasted, and 
consumers may face higher prices due to decreased supply.

Possible Solution
It should be known that, there exists significant potential 
for job creation, particularly for millions of  Nigerian 
women and youth, within the production, processing, and 
trade of  tomato, chili, and onions. In Nigeria, these sectors 
are predominantly operated by women and youth. For 
instance, the Nigerian Government envisions that a well-
implemented policy aimed at boosting local production 
and processing of  fresh tomato could potentially reduce 
tomato wastage by 40 percent and generate 60,000 direct 
employment opportunities (NIPC, 2017). This underscores 
the pivotal role that targeted policies and interventions 



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can play in harnessing the economic potential of  these 
agricultural value chains while simultaneously addressing 
the challenge of  food waste and enhancing livelihoods. 
To address food wastage and loss in Nigeria, there needs 
to be concerted effort (supporters and influencers) and a 
holistic strategy. For instance, intervention to curb food 
loss in Nigeria should include action on all of  the following, 
amongst others: 

• Financial support to improve roads, energy infrastructure 
as well as the machinery used in the food production and 
supply sector, 

• Institutional arrangements and reforms to facilitate 
access of  private sector investment for improved production 
and value-added processing in the food production and 
supply sector and Introducing government actions and 
policies to discourage food loss, 

• Circular economy approach: focus on the causes of  
food loss as well as the consequences, regional and country 
differences; ideas and solutions as well as the stakeholders 
and actors involved, and 

• Communication and education campaigns targeted to 
reduce food loss particularly at farm level, processing sites 
as well as during transport and distribution. 

Reduce Your Personal Food Waste, The Change 
Should Start From You 
Individuals can make a significant impact by being mindful 
of  their food consumption habits. This includes planning 
meals, buying only what is needed, properly storing 
perishable items, and consuming leftovers before they 
spoil. By taking responsibility for their own food waste, 
individuals contribute to reducing the overall amount of  
food that ends up in landfills.

Take Part In Food Waste Challenges Both Online And 
Offline
Participating in food waste challenges encourages individuals 
to actively engage in reducing food waste. These challenges 
often provide practical tips, recipes, and resources to help 
participants minimize waste in their daily lives. By joining 
such initiatives, individuals become more conscious of  their 
habits and learn new strategies to prevent food waste.

Start A Food Waste Campaign In Your Community
Launching a food waste campaign in the community can 
raise awareness and foster behavior change on a larger scale. 
By educating neighbors about the consequences of  food 
waste and providing practical tips to reduce it, individuals 
can inspire others to adopt more sustainable practices. 
Over time, the ripple effect of  this campaign can lead to 
widespread awareness and action within the community.

Plan Your Meals Instead of  Buying Whatever You See 
on The Shelves And Stalls
Meal planning is an effective strategy to minimize food 
waste. By carefully planning meals based on what is already 
available and what needs to be purchased, individuals can 
avoid overbuying and ensure that all purchased food items 

are used efficiently. This not only reduces food waste but 
also saves money and time spent on grocery shopping.

Start Composting
Composting food scraps, such as fruit and vegetable peels, 
is an eco-friendly way to divert organic waste from landfills 
and create nutrient-rich soil for gardening. Even individuals 
with limited space can engage in composting using small-
scale methods like vermicomposting or composting bins. By 
composting food waste, individuals contribute to reducing 
greenhouse gas emissions and promoting soil health.

Establish A Food Bank
Setting up a food bank in the neighborhood provides a 
platform for redistributing excess food to those in need. 
When individuals realize they have surplus food that may 
otherwise go to waste, they can donate it to the food bank 
instead. This ensures that edible food is utilized to its fullest 
potential and helps address food insecurity within the 
community.

Volunteer And Organize Small Farmers
Collaborating with local farmers to educate them about food 
waste prevention techniques can have a significant impact 
on reducing losses at the production level. By organizing 
workshops, training sessions, or farm visits, volunteers can 
share best practices for harvesting, storing, and transporting 
crops to minimize spoilage. Empowering farmers with 
this knowledge not only improve their efficiency but also 
contributes to a more sustainable food supply chain.

Further Interventions
• Composting offers a promising solution to address 

food waste by converting it into valuable organic manure 
for agricultural production in Nigeria. The Nigerian 
government should initiate a systematic food waste 
collection process across each state and establish organized 
landfills dedicated to composting food waste. This initiative 
will promote the widespread use of  organic manure 
throughout the country. Research conducted by Omokaro 
et al. (2023; 2024b) on the perception of  organic manure 
by local farmers in two Nigerian states revealed that 
approximately 80% of  farmers prefer using organic manure 
over inorganic alternatives. However, the availability of  
organic manure was cited as a challenge, leading some 
farmers to resort to inorganic options. By implementing a 
robust composting infrastructure for food waste, the supply 
of  organic manure can be significantly increased, meeting 
the demand expressed by farmers and fostering sustainable 
agricultural practices nationwide.

• Engaging the Nigerian Government to address some 
of  the challenging political economy issues, to ensure a 
better enabling environment for the farmers and traders 
to operate in. Such as: support the Nigerian Government 
to develop a central strategy on food loss from agri-food 
productions; provide financial and technical support to 
strengthen tomato, onion and chili associations or groups 
(CBI, 2021).



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Financial Support and Infrastructure Improvement
Providing financial support to improve roads, energy 
infrastructure, and machinery used in production can 
enhance efficiency and reduce losses during transportation 
and processing. Access to Finance for SMEs by ensuring 
access to finance and offering financial capacity development 
programs for small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in 
vegetable production can make them investment-ready, 
fostering growth and sustainability in the sector (CBI, 2021).

Promotion of  Circular Economy
Stimulating the adoption of  circular economy principles 
within the food value chains can help minimize waste by 
repurposing by-products and promoting resource efficiency.

Communication and Education Campaigns
Launching communication and education campaigns 
aimed at raising awareness about food loss and waste 
reduction practices among stakeholders, including farmers, 
processors, retailers, and consumers, can foster behavioral 
change and promote best practices.

National Hackathon
Organizing a national hackathon focused on developing 
innovative solutions to tackle food losses in vegetable 
production can leverage the creativity and expertise of  
diverse stakeholders to generate actionable ideas and 
initiatives.

Support for Local Initiatives
Providing support for the scale-up or further development 
of  existing local initiatives aimed at reducing food losses 
can facilitate knowledge sharing, collaboration, and the 
implementation of  proven strategies and technologies.

CONCLUSION
Food waste and loss represent complex challenges with 
profound implications for Nigeria’s economy, food security, 
and environmental sustainability. This study has thoroughly 
examined the causes, effects, and potential solutions to 
food waste within the Nigerian context. Various factors 
contribute to the pervasive problem of  food waste 
across the country, from inadequate infrastructure and 
transportation constraints to socioeconomic disparities and 
policy gaps. However, amidst these challenges, there are 
clear opportunities for intervention. By adopting a holistic 
approach that addresses the root causes of  food waste and 
promotes sustainable practices throughout the food supply 
chain, Nigeria can make significant strides towards reducing 
food waste, enhancing food security, and fostering economic 
development. Additionally, individual actions, such as 
prudent consumption habits and support for local farmers, 
are integral to mitigating food waste at the grassroots 
level. It is imperative that governments, businesses, civil 
society, and individuals work together collaboratively to 
implement innovative strategies and policies that promote 
a more resilient and sustainable food system in Nigeria. 
By doing so, Nigeria can not only alleviate food insecurity 

and poverty but also contribute to global efforts towards 
building a more equitable and sustainable future for all.

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