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 American Journal of  
Food Science and Technology (AJFST)

Nutritional and Biochemical Evaluation of  Wild Marine Fishes Lates calcariferLates calcarifer and Alepes Alepes 
djedabadjedaba from Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh

Khandakar Zakir Hossain1*, Faisal Rashid1, Kawkabul Saba2, Farhat Bashir2, Shanzida Islam3, Mahmuda Begum3

Volume 4 Issue 2, Year 2025
ISSN: 2834-0086 (Online)

DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajfst.v4i2.6031
https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajfst

Article Information ABSTRACT

Received: August 23, 2025

Accepted: September 30, 2025

Published: October 31, 2025

Marine fish are crucial for human nutrition, as they include high-quality protein, necessary 
amino acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), and accessible minerals. This study 
examined the nutritional and biochemical content of  two economically important wild 
marine fish species, Asian seabass (Lates calcarifer) and shrimp scad (Alepes djedaba), 
obtained from artisanal landings in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, during the 2025 monsoon. 
Analyses were carried out using standard protocols and advanced instrumentation. L. 
calcarifer had somewhat less protein (21.1 ± 0.6%) and more lipid (2.5 ± 0.3%) than A. 
djedaba (22.0 ± 0.7% protein, 1.5 ± 0.2% lipid). The fatty acid profile revealed that L. calcarifer 
was high in polyunsaturated (53.0%) and monounsaturated (44.4%) fatty acids but low in 
saturated fatty acids (2.6%), resulting in minor index of  atherogenicity (IA: 0.01) and index 
of  thrombogenicity (IT: 0.01). In contrast, A. djedaba contained more saturated fatty acids 
(69.0%), as well as alpha-linolenic acid (4.2%) and eicosapentaenoic acid (4.6%), resulting in 
higher IA (2.03) and IT (1.01). Amino acid analysis revealed greater essential amino acids in 
L. calcarifer (~220 mg/g protein) than in A. djedaba (~135 mg/g protein). In contrast, mineral 
profiling showed A. djedaba contained high phosphorus (21,000 mg/100 g) and potassium 
(12,000 mg/100 g), and L. calcarifer had higher microminerals. Principal Component Analysis 
identified amino acids and minerals as the primary differentiating factors. Overall, L. calcarifer 
delivers superior amino acids and cardioprotective fatty acids, whereas A. djedaba provides 
rich macrominerals, implying that including a variety of  marine fish species in diets can 
improve nutrition and food security.

Keywords

Biochemical Profile, Coastal 
People, Fatty Acids, Marine 
Fish, Nutrition Supplements

1 Division of  Post-Harvest Technology, Faculty of  Fisheries, Sher-e-Kashmir University of  Agricultural Sciences and Technology 
  of  Kashmir, Srinagar- 190025, India
2 Division of  Fish Nutrition and Biochemistry, Faculty of  Fisheries, Sher-e-Kashmir University of  Agricultural Sciences and 
  Technology of  Kashmir, Srinagar- 190025, India
3 Zoology Section, Biological Research Division, Bangladesh Council of  Scientific and Industrial Research (BCSIR), Dhaka-1205 
  Bangladesh
* Corresponding author’s e-mail: zakir_fisheries.bau2008@yahoo.com

INTRODUCTION
Fish is a vital component of  human diets worldwide, 
particularly in regions where food insecurity, protein 
shortages, and micronutrient deficiencies are prevalent. In 
addition to providing almost 20% of  the average amount 
of  animal protein consumed by over 3.3 billion people 
worldwide, fish are an important source of  essential amino 
acids (EAAs), long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty 
acids (PUFAs), and highly bioavailable micronutrients 
like calcium, zinc, iron, selenium, and iodine (FAO, 2020). 
According to Bogard et al. (2015) and Tacon & Metian 
(2013), these nutrients help prevent cardiovascular 
disease, promote neurological and cognitive development, 
boost immunity, and lessen the effects of  micronutrient 
shortages or “hidden hunger.” Marine fish both tiny 
pelagic and large demersal species are essential to public 
health and nutritional resilience in low- and middle-
income countries (LMICs), such as Bangladesh, because 
they are frequently the most readily available and socially 
acceptable animal-source diets (Rifat et al., 2023).
One of  the highest rates of  fish intake per capita 
among LMICs is seen in Bangladesh (Bogard et al., 
2015), a deltaic nation with abundant inland and marine 
water resources. Fish is deeply ingrained in the nation’s 

socioeconomic, nutritional, and cultural systems, 
accounting for approximately 60% of  the country’s 
animal protein intake (DoF, 2023). The Bay of  Bengal’s 
most abundant marine and estuarine ecosystems may be 
found in the southeast coastal region, especially around 
Cox’s Bazar. These ecosystems support a wide variety of  
finfish and shellfish species, which help artisanal fishing 
communities make a living (Manusher Jonno Foundation, 
2021; Sadia et al., 2022). Among the region’s commercially 
important marine fish, Lates calcarifer (commonly known 
as barramundi or Asian seabass, locally “koral” or “red 
koral”) and Alepes djedaba (shrimp scad, locally “pata 
kauya”) hold substantial dietary and economic value 
(Belton et al., 2011).
Large, carnivorous, and euryhaline, L. calcarifer is found 
in brackish, coastal, and estuary marine environments in 
the tropical Indo-West Pacific (Jerry, 2013). It commands 
premium market prices due to its big size, firm texture, 
and palatability. During the post-monsoon season in 
Bangladesh, when nutrient-rich runoff  boosts primary 
productivity, its abundance peaks in estuarine ecosystems 
(Haque et al., 2020). A. djedaba, on the other hand, is a 
small to medium-sized pelagic fish that is found in 
tropical and subtropical Indo-Pacific waters. It belongs to 



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the Carangidae family (Majeed et al., 2022). This species’ 
flavor, tender flesh, and versatility in preparation make it 
reasonably priced, year-round, and widely consumed in 
both coastal and interior regions (Sajana & Nandan, 2019).
Despite the widespread consumption of  both species, 
little is known about their nutritional makeup, especially 
when it comes to populations that are wild-caught 
from Bangladesh’s maritime seas. The majority of  
research on L. calcarifer to date has been conducted in 
aquaculture populations, where controlled conditions, 
stocking densities, and prepared diets affect nutrient 
profiles (Farhaduzzaman et al., 2023; Mostofa et al., 2023; 
Yasmin et al., 2023; Seafood Network Bangladesh, 2024). 
Comparably, the majority of  the research on A. djedaba 
that is currently available comes from other regions and is 
not very applicable to Bangladeshi stocks, which may have 
different biochemical compositions because of  changes 
in prey availability, habitat-specific feeding ecology, and 
seasonal environmental variability (Sirot et al., 2008; Ullah 
et al., 2022). Compared to their farmed counterparts, wild 
marine fish typically have higher amounts of  omega-3 
fatty acids, better amino acid balance, and greater mineral 
diversity, highlighting the significance of  region-specific 
assessments (Sarah et al., 2020; Willer et al., 2024).
Therefore, generating robust, species- and habitat-
specific nutritional data is critical for several reasons: 
(i) to guide consumer education and encourage the 
consumption of  nutrient-rich marine fish; (ii) to support 
nutrition-sensitive fisheries management and sustainable 
exploitation strategies; and (iii) to inform dietary planning 
and public health nutrition interventions in coastal and 
inland communities. These findings also offer a scientific 
foundation for assessing these species’ capacity to satisfy 
the 0.8 g of  protein per kilogram of  body weight that 
the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends 
adults consume daily, with higher needs for children, 
pregnant women, and physically active people (Joint 
WHO/FAO/UNU Expert Consultation, 2007). Given 
the great biological value of  fish protein, even moderate 
consumption of  these species might significantly 
improve Bangladesh’s food quality and meet the country’s 
necessary amino acid demands.
Thus, the present study was undertaken to evaluate the 
proximate composition, amino acid and fatty acid profiles, 
and mineral content of  wild-caught L. calcarifer and A. 
djedaba from the Cox’s Bazar coast, Bangladesh. The 
results will set baseline nutritional information for these 
species, evaluate how well they contribute to achieving 
recommended protein intakes, and offer proof  of  their 
contribution to improving food and nutrition security at 
the national and regional levels.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sample Collection and Preparation
Fifteen adult fish of  each species (Lates calcarifer and 
Alepes djedaba) were collected from artisanal landings 
at Cox’s Bazar Sadar coast, Bangladesh, in July-August 
2025 (monsoon season). Fish were cleansed of  any 

surface material as soon as they were collected, put on 
ice in insulated styrofoam crates, and then taken to the 
Hatchery of  Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences 
University (CVASU) Cox’s Bazar campus, for primary 
processing within 4 hours. Biometric traits of  samples 
were recorded at the Hatchery lab immediately. The 
fish sample of  each species was split into three groups, 
each having five fish. A pool sample of  each group was 
collected and used as a replicate sample. The fish samples 
were cleaned in distilled water and filleted, and the meat 
was chopped before being dried to a consistent weight in 
an oven with heated air at 60⁰ C. Before micronutrient 
analysis, the dried samples were crushed into a fine 
powder and preserved in sealed plastic bags at 4 ◦C. 
Proximate compositions of  the powdered samples were 
analyzed at the Nutrition Lab of  CVASU, Chittagong, 
while fatty acid, amino acid, and mineral analyses were 
conducted at the Institute of  Technology Transfer and 
Innovation of  the Bangladesh Council of  Scientific and 
Industrial Research (BCSIR), Dhaka, Bangladesh, using 
established protocols and advanced instrumentation.

Biometric Traits and Proximate Composition 
Every specimen’s total body weight (g) and length (cm) 
were measured at the lab and recorded to the closest 0.01 
g and 0.1 cm, respectively. The results were then displayed 
as mean ± standard deviation.
The AOAC technique (1995) was used to determine the 
proximate compositions (protein, lipid, ash, carbohydrate, 
and moisture) of  collected koral and shrimp scad fish 
samples. To summarize, moisture content (5 g each 
sample) was evaluated by drying the sample at 105°C 
overnight until a consistent weight was achieved. The 
Kjeldahl method (N × 6.25) was used to quantify crude 
protein concentration in homogenized samples (0.5 g) 
following acid digestion, distillation, and titration. To 
measure lipid content, 2 g of  wet homogenized samples 
were placed in a crucible thimble and extracted with 
petroleum ether (boiling point 100° C) for 1 hour using 
a Soxhlet apparatus (LSFA-A10, Labtron, UK). After 
lipid extraction, the solvent was evaporated, and the 
extracted lipid was dried in a hot oven at 105 °C, cooled 
in a desiccator, and weighed. Lipids were measured 
gravimetrically, and lipid content was estimated as the 
fat percentage relative to the initial dry sample weight. 
The ash content of  samples (4 g each) was tested using a 
Muffle furnace at 550 °C for 4 hours. The carbohydrate 
content of  each sample was calculated by subtracting 
the protein, fat, ash, and moisture content from 100. 
All analyses were performed in triplicate from three 
pooled samples of  each fish species, and the results were 
expressed on a wet weight basis and on average:
Moisture (%) = [(wet sample weight – dried sample 
weight)/ wet sample weight] × 100 
Crude protein (%) = % nitrogen (N) × 6.25 
% nitrogen = [milliequivalent of  nitrogen (0.014) × titrant 
value (ml) × strength of  HCl / sample weight] × 100 
Crude lipid (%) = (weight of  lipid/ weight of  sample) × 100 



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Ash (%) = (weight of  ash/ weight of  sample) × 100 
Carbohydrates (%) = 100 - (moisture – lipids – proteins - ash) 

Fatty Acids Measure
Fatty acid composition was determined using gas 
chromatography with a flame ionization detector (GC-
FID, GC6000, SciencePower, China). The fat content 
of  each dried powdered sample was extracted in a 
combination of  methanol (CH3OH) and chloroform 
(CHCl3) (v/v = 1:2 ratio) with 0.1 mg per 100 g of  
butylated hydroxytoluene. Next, 200 mg of  fat sample 
was added to each 10 ml test tube, followed by 3.5 ml of  
0.5 M sodium methoxide (CH₃ONa). Following that, the 
mixtures were heated on the burner to remove bubbles 
before adding 1.5 ml of  n-hexane and homogenizing 
consistently with the vortex mixture. To speed up the 
phase separation of  fat content, 5 ml of  deionized water 
was gently added to the mixtures. After giving appropriate 
time for phase separation, the superior layer was used to 
analyze fatty acids. The data were identified, quantified, 
and processed by comparing the withhold times to known 
fatty acid standards.

Amino Acids Measure
The amino acid content of  each sample was evaluated 
using an automatic amino acid analyzer (Sykam S4300, 
GmBH, Germany). The powder samples were first 
treated with 25 ml of  7N HCl, homogenized uniformly, 
and filtered to remove insoluble materials before being 
hydrolyzed in the hydrolyzer for 24 hours. After the 
hydrolysis, leftover HCl was neutralized with 7.5 N 
NaOH and measured using a pH meter (Sension TM 
156, HACH, USA). The sample volumes were increased 
to 250 ml in calibrated volumetric flasks using a buffer 
solution with a pH of  3.4. After filtration via a 0.45 µm 
pore-sized filter paper, 1 ml of  the prepared sample, 
consisting of  100 µL sample solution and 900 µL of  pH 
3.4 buffer solution, was serially analyzed to detect amino 
acids. A standard amino acid solution was also evaluated 
at the same time for data comparison, quantity accuracy, 
and quality assurance purposes.

Minerals Measure
Mineral composition analysis was performed using 
the Agilent AA240FS Fast Sequential Atomic 
Absorption Spectrometer (Agilent Technologies, USA). 
Approximately 0.5 to 1.0 g of  dried powdered sample was 
precisely weighed and placed in a Teflon digesting vessel. 
The sample was digested with 10 mL of  concentrated 
nitric acid (HNO₃) and 2-3 mL of  hydrogen peroxide 
(H₂O₂) using controlled microwave digestion (ramped to 

180°C over 15 minutes and held for 30 minutes). After 
cooling, the digested solution was diluted with 50 mL 
of  deionized water. Calibration standards with known 
concentrations (0.1 to 10 mg/L) were prepared for each 
target mineral element. The AA240FS was outfitted with 
element-specific hollow cathode lamps, and appropriate 
flame and nebulizer settings were used. Approximately 10 
mL of  each sample solution was aspirated, and absorbance 
was measured in triplicate at characteristic wavelengths 
for each mineral. Blanks, verified reference materials, 
and replication samples were analyzed to guarantee 
quality control, with relative standard deviations of  less 
than 5%. Mineral concentrations were estimated using 
interpolation from calibration curves and represented in 
mg per 100 g dry weight.

Statistical Analyses
The biometric traits (length and weight) of  L. calcarifer 
and A. djedaba were analyzed using descriptive statistics, 
including means and standard deviations (SD). Variations 
in proximate composition of  fish were analyzed using 
one‐way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s HSD post hoc 
for multiple comparisons, with statistical significance 
set at P < 0.05. Comparative figures on the fatty acid 
composition, amino acid composition, and mineral 
contents between two species were generated using R 
software. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was 
applied to investigate multivariate patterns in the key 
nutrient groups (fatty acids, amino acids, and minerals), 
as well as to visually analyze species-specific variations 
in nutritional composition. The first two principal 
components (PC1 and PC2) explained the majority of  
the variation, enabling qualitative differentiation between 
L. calcarifer and A. djedaba.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Biometric Traits and Proximate Composition
The biometric measurements of  the harvested L. calcarifer 
and A. djedaba fish species are shown in Table 1. The 
mean total length and weight of  L. calcarifer were 42.2 ± 
4.20 cm and 900 ± 20 g, respectively, while A. djedaba 
specimens measured 33.2 ± 1.08 cm in length and 500 ± 
10 g in weight. All measurements represent mean values 
± standard deviation (SD).
These observations are consistent with previous research 
highlighting L. calcarifer as a fast-growing predatory species 
widely farmed for its adaptability to aquaculture systems 
(Jerry, 2013; Venkatachalam et al., 2018), whereas A. 
djedaba plays a significant ecological role as a mid-trophic 
species with lower per-individual economic importance 
(Sivakami, 1990).

Table 1: Biometric traits of  the two fish species
English name Local Name Scientific Name            Length (cm)        Weight (g)
Barramundi/ Asian seabass Koral Lates calcarifer             42.2 ± 4.20           900  ± 20
Shrimp scad               Icha mouri/Pata kauya Alepes djedaba 33.2 ± 1.08 500  ± 10

Values are mean ± standard deviation; n = 15 fish per species



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The proximate composition analysis revealed notable 
biochemical differences between the two species (Table 
2), reflecting distinct nutritional profiles. A. djedaba had 
substantially greater moisture content (74.4 ± 1.8%) 
than L. calcarifer (71.4 ± 1.5%) (P < 0.05), suggesting 
that the former had leaner muscular tissue. This finding 
is consistent with that of  Sajana and Nandan (2019), 
who found that leaner species tend to have higher water 
percentages in their muscle tissue, which are inversely 
correlated with lipid content. Protein content was 
marginally higher in A. djedaba (22.0 ± 0.7%) than in L. 
calcarifer (21.08 ± 0.6%), with both species representing 
high-quality protein sources enriched in essential amino 
acids (FAO/WHO, 1991; FAO, 2019; Sajana and Nandan, 
2019). These findings demonstrate both species’ capacity 
to significantly increase dietary protein intake, especially in 
areas where malnutrition is still a problem. A considerable 
difference was found in the amount of  lipids, with L. 

calcarifer having far greater quantities (2.5 ± 0.3%) than 
A. djedaba (1.5 ± 0.2%) (P < 0.05). L. calcarifer’s lipid-
rich profile indicates that it is a nutritious dietary source 
that is high in important fatty acids, particularly omega-3 
polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), which are well 
known for their cardioprotective qualities (Pervin et al., 
2012; Sikder et al., 2025). As a result, customers looking 
for dietary fat sources may favor L. calcarifer, whereas low-
fat diets may benefit from the leaner A. djedaba (Sajana 
and Nandan, 2019).
Ash content, reflecting mineral composition, was 
comparable in both species (1.2 ± 0.1% in L. calcarifer and 
1.1 ± 0.1% in A. djedaba), consistent with findings by Islam 
et al. (2012), which emphasized the relatively uniform 
mineral content in marine fish species. Carbohydrate 
content was below 1% in both species, as expected for 
fish muscle predominantly relying on proteins and lipids 
for energy metabolism (Wilson, 2003).

Table 2: Proximate Composition (% of  wet weight basis) of  the two fish species
Fish species Moisture Protein Lipid Ash Carbohydrate
Barramundi 71.4 ± 1.5b 21.08 ± 0.6a 2.5 ± 0.3a 1.2 ± 0.1a 0.82 ± 0.05a

Shrimp Scad 74.4 ± 1.8a 22.00 ± 0.7a 1.5 ± 0.2 b 1.1 ± 0.1a 0.9 ± 0.05a

Values are mean ± standard deviation of  three pooled samples. Different superscripts under each column indicate significant differences 
(P < 0.05).

Fatty Acid Composition
L. calcarifer and A. djedaba’s mean fatty acid composition 
differed significantly across individual fatty acids, major 
fatty acid groups, and lipid quality metrics (Figure 1-3).

Individual Fatty Acids
A thorough analysis of  fatty acid profiles (Figure 1) 
highlighted the nutritional variations between species. 
Linoleic acid (C18:2, LA; 34.5%), oleic acid (C18:1; 
19.0%), and gamma-linolenic acid (C18:3 n-6, GLA; 
16.5%) dominated the lipid profile of  L. calcarifer. These 
three acids are essential precursors in PUFA biosynthesis, 
supporting physiological processes like inflammation 
regulation and cell membrane integrity (Simopoulos, 
2002). Conversely, A. djedaba showed comparatively 
larger amounts of  saturated fatty acids (SFAs), including 
stearic acid (C18:0; 8.5%) and tetracosanoic acid (C24:0; 
7.6%), but very low concentrations of  LA (0.2%), oleic 
acid (1.3%), and GLA (0.2%). Essential omega-3 fatty 
acids, alpha-linolenic acid (C18:3 n-3, ALA; 4.2%) 
and eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5, EPA; 4.6%), were 
significantly more abundant in A. djedaba than in L. calcarifer 
(<0.5%), aligning with prior studies that report species-
specific fatty acid profiles influenced by dietary habits 
and environmental conditions (Sajana & Nandan, 2019; 

Gladyshev et al., 2009). Interestingly, no docosahexaenoic 
acid (DHA) was found, which could be explained by 
trophic level, species-specific lipid metabolism, or the 
fatty acid makeup of  the prey (Tocher, 2003).
Although polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are 
necessary for many physiological processes, the n-6/n-3 
ratio in L. calcarifer that was found in this study (93.84) was 
very high, indicating a possible nutritional imbalance if  it 
is not supplemented with sufficient consumption of  n-3 
PUFAs from other sources (Simopoulos, 2002). Alpha-
linolenic acid (18:3n-3; 0.39%) and eicosapentaenoic acid 
(20:5n-3, EPA; 0.16%) were among the n-3 PUFAs that 
were comparatively low in content in L. calcarifer (Figure 
1). If  L. calcarifer is ingested as the only or main source of  
dietary PUFA, the unbalanced n-6/n-3 ratio may provide 
a nutritional risk (Scaioli et al., 2017). Excessive levels 
of  n-6 fatty acids are already common in modern diets, 
and a higher ratio has been linked to non-communicable 
diseases and inflammatory conditions (Simopoulos, 2002; 
Hilton et al., 2019; Mariamenatu et al., 2021). Therefore, 
increasing the n-3 content and optimizing the nutritional 
profile may be achieved by changing the feeding schedules 
of  fish to incorporate n-3-rich oils (such as fish oil or 
algae) or by diversifying the sources of  PUFA.



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Fatty Acid Group 
At the fatty acid group level, SFAs made up 69.0% of  
the total fatty acid content in A. djedaba, while they only 
made up 2.6% in L. calcarifer. According to Kris-Etherton 
et al. (2002), L. calcarifer’s low total SFA concentration 
supports a lower risk of  cardiovascular illnesses by 
contributing to a good lipid quality index. In contrast, L. 
calcarifer exhibited considerably higher polyunsaturated 
(53.0%) and monounsaturated fatty acids (44.4%) than 
A. djedaba (15.5% and 15.0%, respectively) (Figure 
2). It is well known that these MUFAs have anti-

inflammatory and hypocholesterolemic properties, 
which help to improve metabolic profiles and regulate 
plasma lipid levels (Gillingham et al., 2011; Coniglio et 
al., 2023). The high 16:1 ratio is in line with findings 
for carnivorous marine finfish, which are frequently 
connected to endogenous synthesis pathways and 
dietary lipid sources (Bruno et al., 2016). These results 
highlight the nutritional superiority of  L. calcarifer in 
delivering unsaturated fatty acids, which are widely 
known to promote cardiovascular health (Brenna et al., 
2009; Mozaffarian & Wu, 2011; Calder, 2015).

Figure 1: Fatty acid composition (% of  total fat) in the muscle of  koral and shrimp scad fish species. Values represent 
the mean of  three pooled samples. Here,  C8:0 = caprylic acid; C10:0 = capric acid; C11:0 = undecanoic acid; C12:0 = 
lauric acid; C13:0 = tridecanoic acid; C14:0 = myristic acid; C15:0 = pentadecanoic acid; C17:0 = heptadecanoic acid; 
C18:0 = stearic acid/octadecanoic acid; C20:0 = arachidic acid /eicosanoic acid;  C21:0 = heneicosanoic acid; C22:0 = 
docosanoic acid; C23:0 = tricosanoic acid; C24:0 = tetracosanoic acid; C14:1 = myristoleic acid; C16:1 = palmitoleic 
acid; C17:1 = heptadecenoic acid; C18:1/C18:1(cis) = oleic acid; C20:1 = gondoic acid; C22:1 = erucic acid; C24:1 = 
nervonic acid; C18:2, LA = linoleic acid; C18:2 (Trans) = trans-linoleic acid; C18:2 (Cis) = cis-linoleic acid;  C18:3 (n-6) 
= gamma linolenic acid (GLA); C18:3 (n-3) = alpha linolenic acid (ALA); C20:2 = eicosadienoic acid (EDA); C20:3 (n-6) 
= dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA); C20:3 (n-3) = eicosatrienoic acid (ETE); C20:4, AA = arachidonic acid (AA); 
C20:5 = eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA); C22:2 = docosadienoic acid; C22:6, DHA = docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)



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Lipid Quality Indices (LQI) 
Lipid quality indices mirrored the two species’ distinct 
nutritional consequences (Figure 3). In A. djedaba, the index 
of  atherogenicity (IA) and thrombogenicity (IT) were 
significantly higher (IA: 2.03; IT: 1.01), whereas in L. calcarifer, 
they were remarkably low (IA: 0.01; IT: 0.01) (Figure 3). The 
idea that L. calcarifer is a healthy food choice is supported 

by low IA and IT values, which indicate a lipid profile that 
presents little danger of  encouraging atherogenesis and 
thrombosis (Ulbricht & Southgate, 1991). In contrast, the 
higher IA and IT in A. djedaba are consistent with its elevated 
SFA content, which is associated with an increased risk of  
cardiovascular disease when consumed in excess (Siri-Tarino 
et al., 2010; Baum et al., 2012).

Figure 2: SFA, MUFA, PUFA comparison of  fishes. Values represent the mean of  three pooled samples. Here, SFA = 
saturated fatty acids; MUFA = monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFA = polyunsaturated fatty acids

Figure 3: Lipid quality indices of  two fish species. Values represent the mean of  three pooled samples Here, IA = index 
of  atherogenicity; IT = index of  thrombogenicity

Collectively, the findings show that L. calcarifer is a good 
source of  healthy fatty acids, especially PUFAs and 
MUFAs, which help to regulate lipid metabolism and have 
anti-inflammatory properties (Simopoulos, 2002; Pervin 
et al., 2012). Despite having important polyunsaturated fats 
(PUFAs) like ALA and EPA, A. djedaba’s high SFA content 
and poor lipid quality indices indicate that it may offer 
limited health benefits if  consumed in large quantities over 
extended periods (Sajana & Nandan, 2019).

Amino Acid Composition
The amino acid profiles in the muscle tissue of  L. calcarifer 
and A. djedaba are thoroughly compared in this work 
(Figure 4-5). Amino acid composition plays a pivotal role 
in evaluating the nutritional and functional quality of  fish 
proteins, which are increasingly valued as high-quality 
dietary protein sources (FAO, 2013; Ghosh et al., 2017; 
Zhang et al., 2021).

Individual Amino Acids
Non-essential amino acids (NEAAs), especially glutamic 
acid and aspartic acid, which are known to contribute 
to the taste and umami qualities of  fish flesh (Misako et 

al., 2002; Özden, 2005; Golam et al., 2012), dominated 
the qualitative profiles of  both species. According to 
quantitative analysis, L. calcarifer had somewhat more 
aspartic acid (67.148 mg/g protein) and substantially 
more glutamic acid (111.063 mg/g protein) than 
A. djedaba (66.399 mg/g protein and 100.650 mg/g 
protein, respectively) (Figure 4). These variations point 
to a possibly higher organoleptic quality in L. calcarifer, 
which is consistent with earlier findings that emphasize 
the function of  glutamic acid in flavor improvement 
(Golam et al., 2012; Sikder et al., 2025). Aromatic amino 
acids, especially tyrosine, were higher in L. calcarifer (17.67 
mg/g) than in A. djedaba (12.50 mg/g), aligning with the 
view that marine fish often provide substantial precursors 
for neurotransmitter synthesis (Fernstrom & Fernstrom, 
2007). Notably, A. djedaba had significantly greater levels 
of  cystine and proline (26.564 mg/g protein and 25.884 
mg/g protein, respectively) than L. calcarifer (5.715 mg/g 
and 17.394 mg/g) (Figure 4). Given that cystine is a 
precursor of  glutathione, a crucial cellular antioxidant, 
A. djedaba’s high cystine content may help explain its 
antioxidant potential (Wu et al., 2014). Increased amounts 
of  proline and cystine also suggest possible functional 



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advantages in specific dietary applications, such as 
promoting skin health or serving as an additional source 
of  amino acids in food formulations (Wu, 2010; Zhang 
et al., 2021).
In terms of  essential amino acids (EAAs), Leucine 
(40.996 mg/g protein), lysine (56.887 mg/g protein), 
and threonine (28.547 mg/g protein) concentrations 
were consistently greater in L. calcarifer than in A. 
djedaba (27.037 mg/g, 36.335 mg/g, and 20.178 mg/g, 
respectively) (Figure 4). These amino acids are essential 
for human nutrition because they support immunological 

response, metabolic homeostasis, and muscle protein 
synthesis (FAO/WHO, 2013; Wu, 2016). L. calcarifer 
had nearly twice as much methionine (19.28 mg/g) as 
A. djedaba (9.13 mg/g), indicating that it offers a more 
balanced sulfur amino acid profile that is crucial for 
methylation and antioxidant defense (Li et al., 2009). 
Overall, L. calcarifer’s EAA content scored well against 
FAO/WHO reference amino acid scoring patterns, 
suggesting a complete protein profile appropriate for 
people of  all ages, including young children, the elderly, 
and those with higher protein needs (Harper, 1981).

Figure 4: Amino acid composition (mg/g protein) in the muscle of  koral and shrimp scad fish species. Values represent 
the mean of  three pooled samples

Essential vs. Non-Essential Amino Acids
At the aggregated level (Figure 5), the L. calcarifer muscle had 
a total EAA content of  around 220.847 mg/g protein, which 
was significantly higher than that of  A. djedaba (134.859 
mg/g protein). In a similar vein, L. calcarifer had a greater 
NEAA content (349.359 mg/g protein) than A. djedaba 
(324.481 mg/g protein) (Figure 5). The overall balance of  
EAAs to NEAAs in L. calcarifer was superior, consistent with 
the amino acid scoring pattern proposed by WHO/FAO for 
evaluating protein quality (FAO/WHO, 2013). This elevated 
EAA and NEAA content suggests a higher biological 
value of  L. calcarifer protein, rendering it a more balanced 
and nutritionally favorable option for human consumption 

(FAO/WHO, 1991; Reddy et al., 2019).
These findings collectively imply that although both 
species provide valuable amino acids, L. calcarifer has a 
more nutritionally favorable profile with higher EAA 
content, especially leucine, lysine, and methionine, 
while A. djedaba stands out for having higher cystine 
and proline, which may have an impact on connective 
tissue integrity and collagen metabolism (Karna et al., 
2020). These results are consistent with other research on 
tropical marine fish that shows species-specific variations 
in amino acids related to diet, metabolic physiology, and 
environment (Venugopal & Shahidi, 1996; Syed et al., 
2020; Kumar et al., 2024; Traina et al., 2024).

Figure 5: Essential amino acids (EAA) and non-essential amino acids (NEAA) (mg/g protein) in koral and shrimp scad 
fish species. Values represent the mean of  three pooled samples.



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Mineral Composition
The mean mineral composition of  muscle tissues from L. 
calcarifer and A. djedaba fish species is presented in Figure 
6. Mineral concentrations were determined on a dry 
weight basis (mg/100 g) and plotted using a log₁₀ scale 
to accommodate the wide range of  concentration values 
and enable clearer comparison.
The result demonstrated significant interspecific 
differences in both macromineral and micromineral 
concentrations between two species (Figure 6). In L. 
calcarifer, micromineral contents were higher than A. 
djedaba, with Fe recorded at 22.18 mg/100 g, Cu at 16.11 
mg/100 g, K at 20.37 mg/100 g, P at 10.91 mg/100 g, Zn 
at 10.70 mg/100 g, and Mn at 1.45 mg/100 g. According 
to earlier research on the mineral profiles of  marine fish 
species, these microminerals are necessary for metabolic 
processes like hemoglobin synthesis (Fe), antioxidant 
enzymes (Zn and Mn), and enzymatic reactions (Cu) 
(FAO/WHO, 2001; FAO, 2019; Lall et al., 2021; Frydrych 
et al., 2023).
As opposed to L. calcarifer, A. djedaba showed a remarkably 
distinct profile with extraordinarily high macromineral 
concentrations, including P at 21,000 mg/100 g and 
K at 12,000 mg/100 g, which were roughly three 
orders of  magnitude higher. A. djedaba’s high P and K 
levels may be an indication of  adaptation to particular 
environmental factors, such as sediment composition 
or brackish water environments, which are known to 

affect mineral bioavailability (Scott et al., 2001; Hamza 
et al., 2019). Similarly, eutrophication and environmental 
deterioration in aquatic ecosystems are associated with 
excessive phosphorus discharge, according to Kuldeep 
et al. (2015) and Hamza et al. (2019). Even though these 
high macromineral concentrations might be essential 
for energy metabolism, osmotic control, or skeletal 
growth, the possible physiological and environmental 
effects of  such high P levels call for more research 
(Graham Sustainability Institute, 2025). Conversely, the 
micromineral levels were lower: Cu (11 mg/100 g), Fe 
(4.15 mg/100 g), Zn (1.5 mg/100 g), and Mn (0.8 mg/100 
g). This discrepancy likely reflects species-specific 
differences in mineral accumulation due to dietary choices, 
environmental conditions, or physiological adaptations 
(Bayissa et al., 2021; Lall et al., 2021; Rodrigues et al., 2021; 
Khawar et al., 2024). 
These findings scientifically validate L. calcarifer as a 
valuable dietary source of  key microminerals such as Fe, 
Zn, Cu, and Mn, all of  which play important roles in human 
metabolic processes. The relatively greater micromineral 
concentrations observed in L. calcarifer compared to A. 
djedaba highlight its nutritional significance, consistent 
with previous reports (Kamruzzaman et al., 2015; Rahman 
et al., 2019; Rifat et al., 2023; Ghosh et al., 2024; Kanij et 
al., 2025). This underscores the potential of  L. calcarifer as 
a key component in correcting micronutrient deficiencies 
in human diets.

Figure 6: Mineral composition (mg/100 g dry weight) in the muscle of  koral and shrimp scad fish species. Values 
represent the mean of  three pooled samples and were converted to log₁₀ scale for improved visualization of  the wide 
concentration range. Here, Cu = Copper; Fe = Iron; Zn = Zinc; Mn = Manganese; P = Phosphorus; K = Potassium

Correlation of  Major Amino Acid Groups, Fatty Acid 
Groups, and Vital Minerals between Species 
A principal Component Analysis (PCA) was conducted 
to compare the patterns of  variation in main nutritional 
groups—amino acids, fatty acids, and minerals—between 
the L. calcarifer and A. djedaba fish species (Figure 7). The 
PCA intended to reduce dimensionality and identify critical 
variables that contributed to species differences based on 
nutritional profiles. The first principal component (PC1) 
accounted for 60.8% of  the overall variance, showing 
that it captured the majority of  the variation in nutritional 
content among species. The second main component 
(PC2) accounted for 39.2% of  the variation, further 
separating the nutritional groups (Figure 7).

Essential Amino Acids (EAA) and non-essential 
Amino Acids (NEAA) had significant positive loadings 
along PC1 and PC2, clustering together and showing 
a high correlation. These amino acids made a major 
contribution to species differentiation, particularly 
promoting separation along the positive axis of  PC1 and 
PC2. L. calcarifer and A. djedaba both showed significant 
quantities of  amino acids; however, the PCA indicated 
that L. calcarifer had a greater amino acid content, which 
contributed to this pattern. This aligns with the finding by 
Kamruzzaman et al. (2015), who reported high amounts 
of  essential amino acids in muscles of  L. calcarifer.
Conversely, monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and 
polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) clustered together 



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and had moderate loadings on PC1 and slightly negative 
loadings on PC2. These fatty acids mostly contributed to 
differentiation along PC1, although their impact was less 
substantial when compared to amino acids and minerals. 
The PCA suggested that L. calcarifer had slightly higher 
MUFA and PUFA content than A. djedaba, as indicated by 
the direction of  the vectors. These results are consistent 
with the findings of  Chan et al. (2021), who reported 
that the tissue oil of  L. calcarifer contained high levels of  
monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), particularly oleic 
acid. In contrast, Purushothaman et al. (2024) found a 
different result in their experiment that koral fish muscle 
contained less PUFA and SFA than another marine fish 
malabar red snapper (Lutjanus malabaricus).
Vital minerals such as P, K, Fe, Zn, Mn, and Cu were 
tightly clustered with high negative loadings along PC1 
and PC2. Phosphorus and potassium had very high 
loadings along PC2, indicating a considerable contribution 
to differentiation along this axis. The PCA indicated that 
A. djedaba was more enriched in vital minerals than L. 
calcarifer, particularly with higher P and K content, which 
drove the separation toward the negative side of  PC1 
and positive PC2. A similar finding was also reported 
by Sajana and Nandan (2019) that A. djedaba, regardless 
of  their sexes, was enriched with important minerals, 
especially P and K.
Overall, the comparative investigation revealed that amino 
acids and minerals played key roles in the differentiation 
of  L. calcarifer and A. djedaba species. L. calcarifer contained 
more amino acids (NEAA and EAA) and minerals, 
whereas A. djedaba had a higher concentration of  
saturated fatty acids (SFA). This nutrient profiling using 
PCA highlights species-specific nutritional advantages, 
with implications for dietary recommendations and 
aquaculture strategies.

Limitation of  the Study
This investigation was hampered by seasonal and 
logistical constraints. All specimens were obtained during 
a single monsoon season, and financial constraints 
precluded multi-seasonal sampling, limiting the research 

to a snapshot of  biochemical composition. Future studies 
should encompass multiple seasons to capture temporal 
fluctuations in proximate composition, fatty acids, amino 
acids, and mineral profiles, resulting in a more complete 
understanding of  these species’ nutritional dynamics.

CONCLUSION
This study revealed significant nutritional differences 
between L. calcarifer and A. djedaba, two major wild marine 
fish species of  Bangladesh’s Cox’s Bazar coast. L. calcarifer 
was discovered to have a healthier lipid profile, including 
higher levels of  unsaturated fatty acids and necessary 
amino acids, making it an excellent source of  protein and 
lipids for human health. In contrast, A. djedaba had a lipid 
composition dominated by saturated fats and very high 
concentrations of  phosphorus and potassium, as well as 
considerable levels of  cystine and proline, contributing to 
mineral intake and particular metabolic functions. Based 
on these findings, L. calcarifer should be included in diets 
regularly to support protein sufficiency and cardiovascular 
health, while A. djedaba can be used as a supplement 
to important minerals, particularly phosphorus and 
potassium, to help address macronutrient deficiencies in 
coastal and inland populations. Together, these species 
can play an important role in increasing dietary diversity 
and boosting nutrition security in vulnerable communities. 
However, further research exploring seasonal dynamics 
in the biochemical composition of  these fish is needed 
to inform sustainable harvesting practices and nutritional 
assessment strategies.

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