Pa ge 1 Pa ge 44 American Journal of Food Science and Technology (AJFST) Nutritional and Biochemical Evaluation of Wild Marine Fishes Lates calcariferLates calcarifer and Alepes Alepes djedabadjedaba from Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh Khandakar Zakir Hossain1*, Faisal Rashid1, Kawkabul Saba2, Farhat Bashir2, Shanzida Islam3, Mahmuda Begum3 Volume 4 Issue 2, Year 2025 ISSN: 2834-0086 (Online) DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajfst.v4i2.6031 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajfst Article Information ABSTRACT Received: August 23, 2025 Accepted: September 30, 2025 Published: October 31, 2025 Marine fish are crucial for human nutrition, as they include high-quality protein, necessary amino acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), and accessible minerals. This study examined the nutritional and biochemical content of two economically important wild marine fish species, Asian seabass (Lates calcarifer) and shrimp scad (Alepes djedaba), obtained from artisanal landings in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, during the 2025 monsoon. Analyses were carried out using standard protocols and advanced instrumentation. L. calcarifer had somewhat less protein (21.1 ± 0.6%) and more lipid (2.5 ± 0.3%) than A. djedaba (22.0 ± 0.7% protein, 1.5 ± 0.2% lipid). The fatty acid profile revealed that L. calcarifer was high in polyunsaturated (53.0%) and monounsaturated (44.4%) fatty acids but low in saturated fatty acids (2.6%), resulting in minor index of atherogenicity (IA: 0.01) and index of thrombogenicity (IT: 0.01). In contrast, A. djedaba contained more saturated fatty acids (69.0%), as well as alpha-linolenic acid (4.2%) and eicosapentaenoic acid (4.6%), resulting in higher IA (2.03) and IT (1.01). Amino acid analysis revealed greater essential amino acids in L. calcarifer (~220 mg/g protein) than in A. djedaba (~135 mg/g protein). In contrast, mineral profiling showed A. djedaba contained high phosphorus (21,000 mg/100 g) and potassium (12,000 mg/100 g), and L. calcarifer had higher microminerals. Principal Component Analysis identified amino acids and minerals as the primary differentiating factors. Overall, L. calcarifer delivers superior amino acids and cardioprotective fatty acids, whereas A. djedaba provides rich macrominerals, implying that including a variety of marine fish species in diets can improve nutrition and food security. Keywords Biochemical Profile, Coastal People, Fatty Acids, Marine Fish, Nutrition Supplements 1 Division of Post-Harvest Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir, Srinagar- 190025, India 2 Division of Fish Nutrition and Biochemistry, Faculty of Fisheries, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir, Srinagar- 190025, India 3 Zoology Section, Biological Research Division, Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (BCSIR), Dhaka-1205 Bangladesh * Corresponding author’s e-mail: zakir_fisheries.bau2008@yahoo.com INTRODUCTION Fish is a vital component of human diets worldwide, particularly in regions where food insecurity, protein shortages, and micronutrient deficiencies are prevalent. In addition to providing almost 20% of the average amount of animal protein consumed by over 3.3 billion people worldwide, fish are an important source of essential amino acids (EAAs), long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), and highly bioavailable micronutrients like calcium, zinc, iron, selenium, and iodine (FAO, 2020). According to Bogard et al. (2015) and Tacon & Metian (2013), these nutrients help prevent cardiovascular disease, promote neurological and cognitive development, boost immunity, and lessen the effects of micronutrient shortages or “hidden hunger.” Marine fish both tiny pelagic and large demersal species are essential to public health and nutritional resilience in low- and middle- income countries (LMICs), such as Bangladesh, because they are frequently the most readily available and socially acceptable animal-source diets (Rifat et al., 2023). One of the highest rates of fish intake per capita among LMICs is seen in Bangladesh (Bogard et al., 2015), a deltaic nation with abundant inland and marine water resources. Fish is deeply ingrained in the nation’s socioeconomic, nutritional, and cultural systems, accounting for approximately 60% of the country’s animal protein intake (DoF, 2023). The Bay of Bengal’s most abundant marine and estuarine ecosystems may be found in the southeast coastal region, especially around Cox’s Bazar. These ecosystems support a wide variety of finfish and shellfish species, which help artisanal fishing communities make a living (Manusher Jonno Foundation, 2021; Sadia et al., 2022). Among the region’s commercially important marine fish, Lates calcarifer (commonly known as barramundi or Asian seabass, locally “koral” or “red koral”) and Alepes djedaba (shrimp scad, locally “pata kauya”) hold substantial dietary and economic value (Belton et al., 2011). Large, carnivorous, and euryhaline, L. calcarifer is found in brackish, coastal, and estuary marine environments in the tropical Indo-West Pacific (Jerry, 2013). It commands premium market prices due to its big size, firm texture, and palatability. During the post-monsoon season in Bangladesh, when nutrient-rich runoff boosts primary productivity, its abundance peaks in estuarine ecosystems (Haque et al., 2020). A. djedaba, on the other hand, is a small to medium-sized pelagic fish that is found in tropical and subtropical Indo-Pacific waters. It belongs to Pa ge 45 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajfst Am. J. Food. Sci. Technol. 4(2) 44-56, 2025 the Carangidae family (Majeed et al., 2022). This species’ flavor, tender flesh, and versatility in preparation make it reasonably priced, year-round, and widely consumed in both coastal and interior regions (Sajana & Nandan, 2019). Despite the widespread consumption of both species, little is known about their nutritional makeup, especially when it comes to populations that are wild-caught from Bangladesh’s maritime seas. The majority of research on L. calcarifer to date has been conducted in aquaculture populations, where controlled conditions, stocking densities, and prepared diets affect nutrient profiles (Farhaduzzaman et al., 2023; Mostofa et al., 2023; Yasmin et al., 2023; Seafood Network Bangladesh, 2024). Comparably, the majority of the research on A. djedaba that is currently available comes from other regions and is not very applicable to Bangladeshi stocks, which may have different biochemical compositions because of changes in prey availability, habitat-specific feeding ecology, and seasonal environmental variability (Sirot et al., 2008; Ullah et al., 2022). Compared to their farmed counterparts, wild marine fish typically have higher amounts of omega-3 fatty acids, better amino acid balance, and greater mineral diversity, highlighting the significance of region-specific assessments (Sarah et al., 2020; Willer et al., 2024). Therefore, generating robust, species- and habitat- specific nutritional data is critical for several reasons: (i) to guide consumer education and encourage the consumption of nutrient-rich marine fish; (ii) to support nutrition-sensitive fisheries management and sustainable exploitation strategies; and (iii) to inform dietary planning and public health nutrition interventions in coastal and inland communities. These findings also offer a scientific foundation for assessing these species’ capacity to satisfy the 0.8 g of protein per kilogram of body weight that the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends adults consume daily, with higher needs for children, pregnant women, and physically active people (Joint WHO/FAO/UNU Expert Consultation, 2007). Given the great biological value of fish protein, even moderate consumption of these species might significantly improve Bangladesh’s food quality and meet the country’s necessary amino acid demands. Thus, the present study was undertaken to evaluate the proximate composition, amino acid and fatty acid profiles, and mineral content of wild-caught L. calcarifer and A. djedaba from the Cox’s Bazar coast, Bangladesh. The results will set baseline nutritional information for these species, evaluate how well they contribute to achieving recommended protein intakes, and offer proof of their contribution to improving food and nutrition security at the national and regional levels. MATERIALS AND METHODS Sample Collection and Preparation Fifteen adult fish of each species (Lates calcarifer and Alepes djedaba) were collected from artisanal landings at Cox’s Bazar Sadar coast, Bangladesh, in July-August 2025 (monsoon season). Fish were cleansed of any surface material as soon as they were collected, put on ice in insulated styrofoam crates, and then taken to the Hatchery of Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (CVASU) Cox’s Bazar campus, for primary processing within 4 hours. Biometric traits of samples were recorded at the Hatchery lab immediately. The fish sample of each species was split into three groups, each having five fish. A pool sample of each group was collected and used as a replicate sample. The fish samples were cleaned in distilled water and filleted, and the meat was chopped before being dried to a consistent weight in an oven with heated air at 60⁰ C. Before micronutrient analysis, the dried samples were crushed into a fine powder and preserved in sealed plastic bags at 4 ◦C. Proximate compositions of the powdered samples were analyzed at the Nutrition Lab of CVASU, Chittagong, while fatty acid, amino acid, and mineral analyses were conducted at the Institute of Technology Transfer and Innovation of the Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (BCSIR), Dhaka, Bangladesh, using established protocols and advanced instrumentation. Biometric Traits and Proximate Composition Every specimen’s total body weight (g) and length (cm) were measured at the lab and recorded to the closest 0.01 g and 0.1 cm, respectively. The results were then displayed as mean ± standard deviation. The AOAC technique (1995) was used to determine the proximate compositions (protein, lipid, ash, carbohydrate, and moisture) of collected koral and shrimp scad fish samples. To summarize, moisture content (5 g each sample) was evaluated by drying the sample at 105°C overnight until a consistent weight was achieved. The Kjeldahl method (N × 6.25) was used to quantify crude protein concentration in homogenized samples (0.5 g) following acid digestion, distillation, and titration. To measure lipid content, 2 g of wet homogenized samples were placed in a crucible thimble and extracted with petroleum ether (boiling point 100° C) for 1 hour using a Soxhlet apparatus (LSFA-A10, Labtron, UK). After lipid extraction, the solvent was evaporated, and the extracted lipid was dried in a hot oven at 105 °C, cooled in a desiccator, and weighed. Lipids were measured gravimetrically, and lipid content was estimated as the fat percentage relative to the initial dry sample weight. The ash content of samples (4 g each) was tested using a Muffle furnace at 550 °C for 4 hours. The carbohydrate content of each sample was calculated by subtracting the protein, fat, ash, and moisture content from 100. All analyses were performed in triplicate from three pooled samples of each fish species, and the results were expressed on a wet weight basis and on average: Moisture (%) = [(wet sample weight – dried sample weight)/ wet sample weight] × 100 Crude protein (%) = % nitrogen (N) × 6.25 % nitrogen = [milliequivalent of nitrogen (0.014) × titrant value (ml) × strength of HCl / sample weight] × 100 Crude lipid (%) = (weight of lipid/ weight of sample) × 100 Pa ge 46 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajfst Am. J. Food. Sci. Technol. 4(2) 44-56, 2025 Ash (%) = (weight of ash/ weight of sample) × 100 Carbohydrates (%) = 100 - (moisture – lipids – proteins - ash) Fatty Acids Measure Fatty acid composition was determined using gas chromatography with a flame ionization detector (GC- FID, GC6000, SciencePower, China). The fat content of each dried powdered sample was extracted in a combination of methanol (CH3OH) and chloroform (CHCl3) (v/v = 1:2 ratio) with 0.1 mg per 100 g of butylated hydroxytoluene. Next, 200 mg of fat sample was added to each 10 ml test tube, followed by 3.5 ml of 0.5 M sodium methoxide (CH₃ONa). Following that, the mixtures were heated on the burner to remove bubbles before adding 1.5 ml of n-hexane and homogenizing consistently with the vortex mixture. To speed up the phase separation of fat content, 5 ml of deionized water was gently added to the mixtures. After giving appropriate time for phase separation, the superior layer was used to analyze fatty acids. The data were identified, quantified, and processed by comparing the withhold times to known fatty acid standards. Amino Acids Measure The amino acid content of each sample was evaluated using an automatic amino acid analyzer (Sykam S4300, GmBH, Germany). The powder samples were first treated with 25 ml of 7N HCl, homogenized uniformly, and filtered to remove insoluble materials before being hydrolyzed in the hydrolyzer for 24 hours. After the hydrolysis, leftover HCl was neutralized with 7.5 N NaOH and measured using a pH meter (Sension TM 156, HACH, USA). The sample volumes were increased to 250 ml in calibrated volumetric flasks using a buffer solution with a pH of 3.4. After filtration via a 0.45 µm pore-sized filter paper, 1 ml of the prepared sample, consisting of 100 µL sample solution and 900 µL of pH 3.4 buffer solution, was serially analyzed to detect amino acids. A standard amino acid solution was also evaluated at the same time for data comparison, quantity accuracy, and quality assurance purposes. Minerals Measure Mineral composition analysis was performed using the Agilent AA240FS Fast Sequential Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (Agilent Technologies, USA). Approximately 0.5 to 1.0 g of dried powdered sample was precisely weighed and placed in a Teflon digesting vessel. The sample was digested with 10 mL of concentrated nitric acid (HNO₃) and 2-3 mL of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) using controlled microwave digestion (ramped to 180°C over 15 minutes and held for 30 minutes). After cooling, the digested solution was diluted with 50 mL of deionized water. Calibration standards with known concentrations (0.1 to 10 mg/L) were prepared for each target mineral element. The AA240FS was outfitted with element-specific hollow cathode lamps, and appropriate flame and nebulizer settings were used. Approximately 10 mL of each sample solution was aspirated, and absorbance was measured in triplicate at characteristic wavelengths for each mineral. Blanks, verified reference materials, and replication samples were analyzed to guarantee quality control, with relative standard deviations of less than 5%. Mineral concentrations were estimated using interpolation from calibration curves and represented in mg per 100 g dry weight. Statistical Analyses The biometric traits (length and weight) of L. calcarifer and A. djedaba were analyzed using descriptive statistics, including means and standard deviations (SD). Variations in proximate composition of fish were analyzed using one‐way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s HSD post hoc for multiple comparisons, with statistical significance set at P < 0.05. Comparative figures on the fatty acid composition, amino acid composition, and mineral contents between two species were generated using R software. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was applied to investigate multivariate patterns in the key nutrient groups (fatty acids, amino acids, and minerals), as well as to visually analyze species-specific variations in nutritional composition. The first two principal components (PC1 and PC2) explained the majority of the variation, enabling qualitative differentiation between L. calcarifer and A. djedaba. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Biometric Traits and Proximate Composition The biometric measurements of the harvested L. calcarifer and A. djedaba fish species are shown in Table 1. The mean total length and weight of L. calcarifer were 42.2 ± 4.20 cm and 900 ± 20 g, respectively, while A. djedaba specimens measured 33.2 ± 1.08 cm in length and 500 ± 10 g in weight. All measurements represent mean values ± standard deviation (SD). These observations are consistent with previous research highlighting L. calcarifer as a fast-growing predatory species widely farmed for its adaptability to aquaculture systems (Jerry, 2013; Venkatachalam et al., 2018), whereas A. djedaba plays a significant ecological role as a mid-trophic species with lower per-individual economic importance (Sivakami, 1990). Table 1: Biometric traits of the two fish species English name Local Name Scientific Name Length (cm) Weight (g) Barramundi/ Asian seabass Koral Lates calcarifer 42.2 ± 4.20 900 ± 20 Shrimp scad Icha mouri/Pata kauya Alepes djedaba 33.2 ± 1.08 500 ± 10 Values are mean ± standard deviation; n = 15 fish per species Pa ge 47 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajfst Am. J. Food. Sci. Technol. 4(2) 44-56, 2025 The proximate composition analysis revealed notable biochemical differences between the two species (Table 2), reflecting distinct nutritional profiles. A. djedaba had substantially greater moisture content (74.4 ± 1.8%) than L. calcarifer (71.4 ± 1.5%) (P < 0.05), suggesting that the former had leaner muscular tissue. This finding is consistent with that of Sajana and Nandan (2019), who found that leaner species tend to have higher water percentages in their muscle tissue, which are inversely correlated with lipid content. Protein content was marginally higher in A. djedaba (22.0 ± 0.7%) than in L. calcarifer (21.08 ± 0.6%), with both species representing high-quality protein sources enriched in essential amino acids (FAO/WHO, 1991; FAO, 2019; Sajana and Nandan, 2019). These findings demonstrate both species’ capacity to significantly increase dietary protein intake, especially in areas where malnutrition is still a problem. A considerable difference was found in the amount of lipids, with L. calcarifer having far greater quantities (2.5 ± 0.3%) than A. djedaba (1.5 ± 0.2%) (P < 0.05). L. calcarifer’s lipid- rich profile indicates that it is a nutritious dietary source that is high in important fatty acids, particularly omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), which are well known for their cardioprotective qualities (Pervin et al., 2012; Sikder et al., 2025). As a result, customers looking for dietary fat sources may favor L. calcarifer, whereas low- fat diets may benefit from the leaner A. djedaba (Sajana and Nandan, 2019). Ash content, reflecting mineral composition, was comparable in both species (1.2 ± 0.1% in L. calcarifer and 1.1 ± 0.1% in A. djedaba), consistent with findings by Islam et al. (2012), which emphasized the relatively uniform mineral content in marine fish species. Carbohydrate content was below 1% in both species, as expected for fish muscle predominantly relying on proteins and lipids for energy metabolism (Wilson, 2003). Table 2: Proximate Composition (% of wet weight basis) of the two fish species Fish species Moisture Protein Lipid Ash Carbohydrate Barramundi 71.4 ± 1.5b 21.08 ± 0.6a 2.5 ± 0.3a 1.2 ± 0.1a 0.82 ± 0.05a Shrimp Scad 74.4 ± 1.8a 22.00 ± 0.7a 1.5 ± 0.2 b 1.1 ± 0.1a 0.9 ± 0.05a Values are mean ± standard deviation of three pooled samples. Different superscripts under each column indicate significant differences (P < 0.05). Fatty Acid Composition L. calcarifer and A. djedaba’s mean fatty acid composition differed significantly across individual fatty acids, major fatty acid groups, and lipid quality metrics (Figure 1-3). Individual Fatty Acids A thorough analysis of fatty acid profiles (Figure 1) highlighted the nutritional variations between species. Linoleic acid (C18:2, LA; 34.5%), oleic acid (C18:1; 19.0%), and gamma-linolenic acid (C18:3 n-6, GLA; 16.5%) dominated the lipid profile of L. calcarifer. These three acids are essential precursors in PUFA biosynthesis, supporting physiological processes like inflammation regulation and cell membrane integrity (Simopoulos, 2002). Conversely, A. djedaba showed comparatively larger amounts of saturated fatty acids (SFAs), including stearic acid (C18:0; 8.5%) and tetracosanoic acid (C24:0; 7.6%), but very low concentrations of LA (0.2%), oleic acid (1.3%), and GLA (0.2%). Essential omega-3 fatty acids, alpha-linolenic acid (C18:3 n-3, ALA; 4.2%) and eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5, EPA; 4.6%), were significantly more abundant in A. djedaba than in L. calcarifer (<0.5%), aligning with prior studies that report species- specific fatty acid profiles influenced by dietary habits and environmental conditions (Sajana & Nandan, 2019; Gladyshev et al., 2009). Interestingly, no docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) was found, which could be explained by trophic level, species-specific lipid metabolism, or the fatty acid makeup of the prey (Tocher, 2003). Although polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are necessary for many physiological processes, the n-6/n-3 ratio in L. calcarifer that was found in this study (93.84) was very high, indicating a possible nutritional imbalance if it is not supplemented with sufficient consumption of n-3 PUFAs from other sources (Simopoulos, 2002). Alpha- linolenic acid (18:3n-3; 0.39%) and eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3, EPA; 0.16%) were among the n-3 PUFAs that were comparatively low in content in L. calcarifer (Figure 1). If L. calcarifer is ingested as the only or main source of dietary PUFA, the unbalanced n-6/n-3 ratio may provide a nutritional risk (Scaioli et al., 2017). Excessive levels of n-6 fatty acids are already common in modern diets, and a higher ratio has been linked to non-communicable diseases and inflammatory conditions (Simopoulos, 2002; Hilton et al., 2019; Mariamenatu et al., 2021). Therefore, increasing the n-3 content and optimizing the nutritional profile may be achieved by changing the feeding schedules of fish to incorporate n-3-rich oils (such as fish oil or algae) or by diversifying the sources of PUFA. Pa ge 48 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajfst Am. J. Food. Sci. Technol. 4(2) 44-56, 2025 Fatty Acid Group At the fatty acid group level, SFAs made up 69.0% of the total fatty acid content in A. djedaba, while they only made up 2.6% in L. calcarifer. According to Kris-Etherton et al. (2002), L. calcarifer’s low total SFA concentration supports a lower risk of cardiovascular illnesses by contributing to a good lipid quality index. In contrast, L. calcarifer exhibited considerably higher polyunsaturated (53.0%) and monounsaturated fatty acids (44.4%) than A. djedaba (15.5% and 15.0%, respectively) (Figure 2). It is well known that these MUFAs have anti- inflammatory and hypocholesterolemic properties, which help to improve metabolic profiles and regulate plasma lipid levels (Gillingham et al., 2011; Coniglio et al., 2023). The high 16:1 ratio is in line with findings for carnivorous marine finfish, which are frequently connected to endogenous synthesis pathways and dietary lipid sources (Bruno et al., 2016). These results highlight the nutritional superiority of L. calcarifer in delivering unsaturated fatty acids, which are widely known to promote cardiovascular health (Brenna et al., 2009; Mozaffarian & Wu, 2011; Calder, 2015). Figure 1: Fatty acid composition (% of total fat) in the muscle of koral and shrimp scad fish species. Values represent the mean of three pooled samples. Here, C8:0 = caprylic acid; C10:0 = capric acid; C11:0 = undecanoic acid; C12:0 = lauric acid; C13:0 = tridecanoic acid; C14:0 = myristic acid; C15:0 = pentadecanoic acid; C17:0 = heptadecanoic acid; C18:0 = stearic acid/octadecanoic acid; C20:0 = arachidic acid /eicosanoic acid; C21:0 = heneicosanoic acid; C22:0 = docosanoic acid; C23:0 = tricosanoic acid; C24:0 = tetracosanoic acid; C14:1 = myristoleic acid; C16:1 = palmitoleic acid; C17:1 = heptadecenoic acid; C18:1/C18:1(cis) = oleic acid; C20:1 = gondoic acid; C22:1 = erucic acid; C24:1 = nervonic acid; C18:2, LA = linoleic acid; C18:2 (Trans) = trans-linoleic acid; C18:2 (Cis) = cis-linoleic acid; C18:3 (n-6) = gamma linolenic acid (GLA); C18:3 (n-3) = alpha linolenic acid (ALA); C20:2 = eicosadienoic acid (EDA); C20:3 (n-6) = dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA); C20:3 (n-3) = eicosatrienoic acid (ETE); C20:4, AA = arachidonic acid (AA); C20:5 = eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA); C22:2 = docosadienoic acid; C22:6, DHA = docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) Pa ge 49 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajfst Am. J. Food. Sci. Technol. 4(2) 44-56, 2025 Lipid Quality Indices (LQI) Lipid quality indices mirrored the two species’ distinct nutritional consequences (Figure 3). In A. djedaba, the index of atherogenicity (IA) and thrombogenicity (IT) were significantly higher (IA: 2.03; IT: 1.01), whereas in L. calcarifer, they were remarkably low (IA: 0.01; IT: 0.01) (Figure 3). The idea that L. calcarifer is a healthy food choice is supported by low IA and IT values, which indicate a lipid profile that presents little danger of encouraging atherogenesis and thrombosis (Ulbricht & Southgate, 1991). In contrast, the higher IA and IT in A. djedaba are consistent with its elevated SFA content, which is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease when consumed in excess (Siri-Tarino et al., 2010; Baum et al., 2012). Figure 2: SFA, MUFA, PUFA comparison of fishes. Values represent the mean of three pooled samples. Here, SFA = saturated fatty acids; MUFA = monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFA = polyunsaturated fatty acids Figure 3: Lipid quality indices of two fish species. Values represent the mean of three pooled samples Here, IA = index of atherogenicity; IT = index of thrombogenicity Collectively, the findings show that L. calcarifer is a good source of healthy fatty acids, especially PUFAs and MUFAs, which help to regulate lipid metabolism and have anti-inflammatory properties (Simopoulos, 2002; Pervin et al., 2012). Despite having important polyunsaturated fats (PUFAs) like ALA and EPA, A. djedaba’s high SFA content and poor lipid quality indices indicate that it may offer limited health benefits if consumed in large quantities over extended periods (Sajana & Nandan, 2019). Amino Acid Composition The amino acid profiles in the muscle tissue of L. calcarifer and A. djedaba are thoroughly compared in this work (Figure 4-5). Amino acid composition plays a pivotal role in evaluating the nutritional and functional quality of fish proteins, which are increasingly valued as high-quality dietary protein sources (FAO, 2013; Ghosh et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2021). Individual Amino Acids Non-essential amino acids (NEAAs), especially glutamic acid and aspartic acid, which are known to contribute to the taste and umami qualities of fish flesh (Misako et al., 2002; Özden, 2005; Golam et al., 2012), dominated the qualitative profiles of both species. According to quantitative analysis, L. calcarifer had somewhat more aspartic acid (67.148 mg/g protein) and substantially more glutamic acid (111.063 mg/g protein) than A. djedaba (66.399 mg/g protein and 100.650 mg/g protein, respectively) (Figure 4). These variations point to a possibly higher organoleptic quality in L. calcarifer, which is consistent with earlier findings that emphasize the function of glutamic acid in flavor improvement (Golam et al., 2012; Sikder et al., 2025). Aromatic amino acids, especially tyrosine, were higher in L. calcarifer (17.67 mg/g) than in A. djedaba (12.50 mg/g), aligning with the view that marine fish often provide substantial precursors for neurotransmitter synthesis (Fernstrom & Fernstrom, 2007). Notably, A. djedaba had significantly greater levels of cystine and proline (26.564 mg/g protein and 25.884 mg/g protein, respectively) than L. calcarifer (5.715 mg/g and 17.394 mg/g) (Figure 4). Given that cystine is a precursor of glutathione, a crucial cellular antioxidant, A. djedaba’s high cystine content may help explain its antioxidant potential (Wu et al., 2014). Increased amounts of proline and cystine also suggest possible functional Pa ge 50 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajfst Am. J. Food. Sci. Technol. 4(2) 44-56, 2025 advantages in specific dietary applications, such as promoting skin health or serving as an additional source of amino acids in food formulations (Wu, 2010; Zhang et al., 2021). In terms of essential amino acids (EAAs), Leucine (40.996 mg/g protein), lysine (56.887 mg/g protein), and threonine (28.547 mg/g protein) concentrations were consistently greater in L. calcarifer than in A. djedaba (27.037 mg/g, 36.335 mg/g, and 20.178 mg/g, respectively) (Figure 4). These amino acids are essential for human nutrition because they support immunological response, metabolic homeostasis, and muscle protein synthesis (FAO/WHO, 2013; Wu, 2016). L. calcarifer had nearly twice as much methionine (19.28 mg/g) as A. djedaba (9.13 mg/g), indicating that it offers a more balanced sulfur amino acid profile that is crucial for methylation and antioxidant defense (Li et al., 2009). Overall, L. calcarifer’s EAA content scored well against FAO/WHO reference amino acid scoring patterns, suggesting a complete protein profile appropriate for people of all ages, including young children, the elderly, and those with higher protein needs (Harper, 1981). Figure 4: Amino acid composition (mg/g protein) in the muscle of koral and shrimp scad fish species. Values represent the mean of three pooled samples Essential vs. Non-Essential Amino Acids At the aggregated level (Figure 5), the L. calcarifer muscle had a total EAA content of around 220.847 mg/g protein, which was significantly higher than that of A. djedaba (134.859 mg/g protein). In a similar vein, L. calcarifer had a greater NEAA content (349.359 mg/g protein) than A. djedaba (324.481 mg/g protein) (Figure 5). The overall balance of EAAs to NEAAs in L. calcarifer was superior, consistent with the amino acid scoring pattern proposed by WHO/FAO for evaluating protein quality (FAO/WHO, 2013). This elevated EAA and NEAA content suggests a higher biological value of L. calcarifer protein, rendering it a more balanced and nutritionally favorable option for human consumption (FAO/WHO, 1991; Reddy et al., 2019). These findings collectively imply that although both species provide valuable amino acids, L. calcarifer has a more nutritionally favorable profile with higher EAA content, especially leucine, lysine, and methionine, while A. djedaba stands out for having higher cystine and proline, which may have an impact on connective tissue integrity and collagen metabolism (Karna et al., 2020). These results are consistent with other research on tropical marine fish that shows species-specific variations in amino acids related to diet, metabolic physiology, and environment (Venugopal & Shahidi, 1996; Syed et al., 2020; Kumar et al., 2024; Traina et al., 2024). Figure 5: Essential amino acids (EAA) and non-essential amino acids (NEAA) (mg/g protein) in koral and shrimp scad fish species. Values represent the mean of three pooled samples. Pa ge 51 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajfst Am. J. Food. Sci. Technol. 4(2) 44-56, 2025 Mineral Composition The mean mineral composition of muscle tissues from L. calcarifer and A. djedaba fish species is presented in Figure 6. Mineral concentrations were determined on a dry weight basis (mg/100 g) and plotted using a log₁₀ scale to accommodate the wide range of concentration values and enable clearer comparison. The result demonstrated significant interspecific differences in both macromineral and micromineral concentrations between two species (Figure 6). In L. calcarifer, micromineral contents were higher than A. djedaba, with Fe recorded at 22.18 mg/100 g, Cu at 16.11 mg/100 g, K at 20.37 mg/100 g, P at 10.91 mg/100 g, Zn at 10.70 mg/100 g, and Mn at 1.45 mg/100 g. According to earlier research on the mineral profiles of marine fish species, these microminerals are necessary for metabolic processes like hemoglobin synthesis (Fe), antioxidant enzymes (Zn and Mn), and enzymatic reactions (Cu) (FAO/WHO, 2001; FAO, 2019; Lall et al., 2021; Frydrych et al., 2023). As opposed to L. calcarifer, A. djedaba showed a remarkably distinct profile with extraordinarily high macromineral concentrations, including P at 21,000 mg/100 g and K at 12,000 mg/100 g, which were roughly three orders of magnitude higher. A. djedaba’s high P and K levels may be an indication of adaptation to particular environmental factors, such as sediment composition or brackish water environments, which are known to affect mineral bioavailability (Scott et al., 2001; Hamza et al., 2019). Similarly, eutrophication and environmental deterioration in aquatic ecosystems are associated with excessive phosphorus discharge, according to Kuldeep et al. (2015) and Hamza et al. (2019). Even though these high macromineral concentrations might be essential for energy metabolism, osmotic control, or skeletal growth, the possible physiological and environmental effects of such high P levels call for more research (Graham Sustainability Institute, 2025). Conversely, the micromineral levels were lower: Cu (11 mg/100 g), Fe (4.15 mg/100 g), Zn (1.5 mg/100 g), and Mn (0.8 mg/100 g). This discrepancy likely reflects species-specific differences in mineral accumulation due to dietary choices, environmental conditions, or physiological adaptations (Bayissa et al., 2021; Lall et al., 2021; Rodrigues et al., 2021; Khawar et al., 2024). These findings scientifically validate L. calcarifer as a valuable dietary source of key microminerals such as Fe, Zn, Cu, and Mn, all of which play important roles in human metabolic processes. The relatively greater micromineral concentrations observed in L. calcarifer compared to A. djedaba highlight its nutritional significance, consistent with previous reports (Kamruzzaman et al., 2015; Rahman et al., 2019; Rifat et al., 2023; Ghosh et al., 2024; Kanij et al., 2025). This underscores the potential of L. calcarifer as a key component in correcting micronutrient deficiencies in human diets. Figure 6: Mineral composition (mg/100 g dry weight) in the muscle of koral and shrimp scad fish species. Values represent the mean of three pooled samples and were converted to log₁₀ scale for improved visualization of the wide concentration range. Here, Cu = Copper; Fe = Iron; Zn = Zinc; Mn = Manganese; P = Phosphorus; K = Potassium Correlation of Major Amino Acid Groups, Fatty Acid Groups, and Vital Minerals between Species A principal Component Analysis (PCA) was conducted to compare the patterns of variation in main nutritional groups—amino acids, fatty acids, and minerals—between the L. calcarifer and A. djedaba fish species (Figure 7). The PCA intended to reduce dimensionality and identify critical variables that contributed to species differences based on nutritional profiles. The first principal component (PC1) accounted for 60.8% of the overall variance, showing that it captured the majority of the variation in nutritional content among species. The second main component (PC2) accounted for 39.2% of the variation, further separating the nutritional groups (Figure 7). Essential Amino Acids (EAA) and non-essential Amino Acids (NEAA) had significant positive loadings along PC1 and PC2, clustering together and showing a high correlation. These amino acids made a major contribution to species differentiation, particularly promoting separation along the positive axis of PC1 and PC2. L. calcarifer and A. djedaba both showed significant quantities of amino acids; however, the PCA indicated that L. calcarifer had a greater amino acid content, which contributed to this pattern. This aligns with the finding by Kamruzzaman et al. (2015), who reported high amounts of essential amino acids in muscles of L. calcarifer. Conversely, monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) clustered together Pa ge 52 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajfst Am. J. Food. Sci. Technol. 4(2) 44-56, 2025 and had moderate loadings on PC1 and slightly negative loadings on PC2. These fatty acids mostly contributed to differentiation along PC1, although their impact was less substantial when compared to amino acids and minerals. The PCA suggested that L. calcarifer had slightly higher MUFA and PUFA content than A. djedaba, as indicated by the direction of the vectors. These results are consistent with the findings of Chan et al. (2021), who reported that the tissue oil of L. calcarifer contained high levels of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), particularly oleic acid. In contrast, Purushothaman et al. (2024) found a different result in their experiment that koral fish muscle contained less PUFA and SFA than another marine fish malabar red snapper (Lutjanus malabaricus). Vital minerals such as P, K, Fe, Zn, Mn, and Cu were tightly clustered with high negative loadings along PC1 and PC2. Phosphorus and potassium had very high loadings along PC2, indicating a considerable contribution to differentiation along this axis. The PCA indicated that A. djedaba was more enriched in vital minerals than L. calcarifer, particularly with higher P and K content, which drove the separation toward the negative side of PC1 and positive PC2. A similar finding was also reported by Sajana and Nandan (2019) that A. djedaba, regardless of their sexes, was enriched with important minerals, especially P and K. Overall, the comparative investigation revealed that amino acids and minerals played key roles in the differentiation of L. calcarifer and A. djedaba species. L. calcarifer contained more amino acids (NEAA and EAA) and minerals, whereas A. djedaba had a higher concentration of saturated fatty acids (SFA). This nutrient profiling using PCA highlights species-specific nutritional advantages, with implications for dietary recommendations and aquaculture strategies. Limitation of the Study This investigation was hampered by seasonal and logistical constraints. All specimens were obtained during a single monsoon season, and financial constraints precluded multi-seasonal sampling, limiting the research to a snapshot of biochemical composition. Future studies should encompass multiple seasons to capture temporal fluctuations in proximate composition, fatty acids, amino acids, and mineral profiles, resulting in a more complete understanding of these species’ nutritional dynamics. CONCLUSION This study revealed significant nutritional differences between L. calcarifer and A. djedaba, two major wild marine fish species of Bangladesh’s Cox’s Bazar coast. L. calcarifer was discovered to have a healthier lipid profile, including higher levels of unsaturated fatty acids and necessary amino acids, making it an excellent source of protein and lipids for human health. 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