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American Journal of  
Geospatial Technology (AJGT)

Detection of  Human Induced Land Use and Land Cover Change in Nagi Forest Reserve 
in Gwer-West Local Government Area of  Benue State, Nigeria

Yongo Akase Celdric1, Bem Ioron1, Niambe Obed Kohol2*, Adamgbe Tahav Benard1

Volume 4 Issue 1, Year 2025
ISSN: 2833-8006 (Online)

DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajgt.v4i1.3688
https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajgt

Article Information ABSTRACT

Received: July 30, 2024

Accepted: September 27, 2024

Published: March 01, 2025

Land cover and land use are often conflated concepts but have distinct definitions and im-
plications. Land cover refers to the physical surface of  the Earth, encompassing natural and 
artificial features, while land use describes the human activities and purposes for which land 
is utilized. Land Use and Land Cover Change (LULCC) represents human-driven modifi-
cations of  Earth’s terrestrial surface, significantly impacting environmental conditions. This 
study focuses on detecting human-induced land use and land cover changes in the Nagi 
Forest Reserve in Benue State, Nigeria. Utilizing Geographic Information System (GIS) and 
Remote Sensing techniques, the research analyzes changes in land cover from 1980 to 2020 
to provide insights into sustainable forest management. Multi-temporal Landsat satellite im-
agery was employed, using supervised classification methods to identify five land use cate-
gories: built-up areas, forest, grassland, and agricultural land. Image processing and change 
detection analyses revealed significant deforestation and forest degradation, primarily driven 
by human activities such as oil palm expansion, population growth, and logging. The study 
identified a cumulative loss of  forest cover, with the most alarming rate observed in 2020. 
To mitigate ongoing deforestation, this study recommends implementing guided forest con-
servation policies, frequent eco-guard monitoring, community involvement in forest man-
agement, and capacity-building for policymakers and resource managers. These measures 
aim to ensure the sustainable management and conservation of  the Nagi Forest Reserve, 
preserving its ecological balance and biodiversity for future generations.

Keywords
Conservation, Deforestation, 
Environmental Degradation, 
Landcover, Land Use, Remote 
Sensing

1 Joseph Sarwuan Tarka University Makurdi, Nigeria
2 Peoples Friendship University of  Russia, Russia
* Corresponding author’s e-mail: obedkohol@gmail.com

INTRODUCTION 
Land cover and land use are two interrelated concepts 
that are often confused but differ fundamentally in their 
definitions and implications. Land cover refers to the 
Earth’s physical surface, including natural vegetation, 
water bodies, rock formations, and other visible physical 
features, whether natural or man-made (Njike et al., 2011; 
Saleh et al., 2014). It describes the total physical features 
that cover a particular land area, while land use refers to 
the human purposes for which land is utilized, such as 
agriculture, settlement, or conservation (Ellis, 2011). Land 
Use and Land Cover Change (LULCC), also referred to 
as land change, represents the human modification of  
Earth’s terrestrial surface, often driven by a combination 
of  natural and anthropogenic factors, with the latter 
generally being predominant (Selvaraj et al., 2013).
The dynamics of  Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) have 
become increasingly significant in recent years, particularly 
in the Niger Delta region of  Nigeria, where rapid 
changes in land use and cover are leading to widespread 
environmental degradation (Abah, 2013). As global 
demand for land resources, particularly for agriculture, 
continues to rise, the need for decisions that optimize 
land use is becoming more urgent. Such decisions should 
be based on evidence to ensure the optimal utilization 
of  limited land resources while conserving them for 
future use. Furthermore, the activities carried out on 
the land surface contribute significantly to changes in 

its cover, impacting both biotic and abiotic components 
and their interactions (Ronchi, 2018; Bekele et al., 2019). 
Accurate forecasting of  LULC changes and predicting 
their consequences depend on understanding the past, 
present, and future states of  land use and cover, which 
is facilitated by the use of  multi-temporal data (Dalil et 
al., 2016).
LULCC plays a crucial role in contributing to variations in 
climate at all scales by altering the balance of  greenhouse 
gases (GHG) in the atmosphere. For instance, LULCC 
can lead to increased carbon dioxide emissions through 
deforestation and subsequent agricultural activities 
that disturb terrestrial soils and vegetation (Ellis, 2013). 
While human activities are increasingly disturbing the 
Earth’s surface, some areas remain relatively undisturbed 
(Dadson, 2016). However, with time, human activities 
such as deforestation and sand mining are likely to 
further degrade these areas. Evidence from a study on 
the Owabi river catchment area demonstrates the rapid 
conversion of  forest cover to built-up areas due to human 
encroachment (Frimpong, 2011).
The rapid and often unplanned changes in LULC have 
emerged as a critical concern worldwide, significantly 
contributing to global environmental changes such as 
ecosystem degradation, water scarcity, and declining food 
security (Venter et al., 2016). As the global population 
grows and environmental issues become more prominent, 
studying the effects of  land use and cover changes is 



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increasingly vital (Lambin & Meyfroidt, 2011). Notably, 
substantial areas of  forest, including economically 
valuable trees, have been destroyed in various regions, 
such as the Nagi forest reserve in Benue State, Nigeria.
Given this context, this study aims to detect human-induced 
land use and land cover changes in the Nagi forest reserve. 
The research will address several key questions, including 
the magnitude and rate of  land use and cover changes in 
the study area, the human activities contributing to these 
changes, and the current state of  the Nagi forest reserve. 
By employing Geographic Information System (GIS) and 
Remote Sensing approaches, this study seeks to provide 
the data needed for sustainable forest management and 
promote community-based forestry practices in Benue 
State. The focus will be on generating LULC maps of  the 
Nagi forest reserve for the periods 1980, 2000, and 2020, 
and determining the magnitude, rate, and human-induced 
factors contributing to these changes, thereby informing 
measures for sustainability.

LITERATURE REVIEW
Forests
Forests are defined as extensive areas characterized by 
dense woodland, non-woody vegetation, and diverse 
communities of  plants and animals that exist in mutually 
supportive associations (Orobator et al., 2020). They play 
a crucial role in the global ecosystem as “the lungs of  
the planet” (Mohammed, 2014) and offer a variety of  
ecosystem services, including supporting, provisioning, 
regulating, and cultural functions. At the local level, 
they provide essential resources such as food, timber, 
and medicine to indigenous communities (Eguiguren 
et al., 2019). In their natural state, forests are relatively 
stable, self-regulated systems (Oludotun, 2011). However, 
they are increasingly affected by human activities and 
environmental changes, particularly in semi-arid regions 
where they are managed as forest reserves to stimulate 
rainfall, reduce wind erosion, and combat desertification. 
Globally, forests are among the most vital natural 
resources after air and water, providing significant 
ecological services such as carbon sequestration, oxygen 
production, and maintaining the hydrological cycle 
(Mohammed, 2014). Moreover, forests act as protective 
barriers against soil erosion, drought, and floods, and 
serve as habitats for diverse wildlife. In recognition of  
their importance, the United Nations mandates that 
at least 25% of  every country’s surface area should be 
maintained under permanent forest cover to ensure 
ecological balance and socio-economic stability. However, 
forests and forest reserves in certain regions, such as 
Northern Nigeria, have become security concerns due to 
their use as hideouts for insurgents, armed robbers, and 
other criminals. This situation poses significant challenges 
to forest management and conservation efforts in these 
areas (Tudunwada, 2012).

Forest Reserves
Forest reserves are areas specifically designated by 

governments to protect forest ecosystems for their 
ecological benefits and other purposes (Usman & 
Adefalu, 2010). These areas are managed to conserve 
specific habitats and their associated flora and fauna, 
particularly those considered rare or endangered (Farlex, 
2014). Forest reserves are also vital for supporting local 
livelihoods and serving as safety nets for the rural poor in 
Nigeria. However, the increasing human encroachment 
and development activities have led to significant 
biodiversity loss, reduction in forest reserves, and the 
extinction of  flora and fauna (Tudunwada, 2012). Forest 
management in Nigeria is primarily the responsibility 
of  the State Forestry Departments, which manage 
forest resources on behalf  of  their respective states. 
However, several unresolved issues, such as ownership 
disputes, unclear roles, and management rights, have 
hindered effective forest conservation efforts. Moreover, 
anthropogenic activities such as illegal logging, poaching, 
and overgrazing by Fulani herdsmen continue to degrade 
forest reserves. Insufficient personnel, inadequate 
equipment, and poor remuneration further exacerbate 
these challenges (Tudunwada, 2012).

Causes of  Land Use and Land Cover Change in 
Forests
Rapid population growth, increased human activities, 
and urbanization are major drivers of  land use and land 
cover change (LULCC) in forests. In Nigeria, these 
changes are driven by a range of  factors including a 
mono-cultural economy reliant on crude oil, soil erosion, 
deforestation, loss of  biodiversity, and urban expansion. 
Urbanization, for example, has led to the conversion of  
approximately 400,000 hectares of  vegetative cover in 
recent decades (Etim & Dukiya, 2013). Human activities 
such as forest exploitation, hunting, and farming have 
led to significant forest depletion (Kiki & Akpor, 2012). 
These activities alter the structure and function of  forest 
ecosystems, affecting their biogeochemical properties 
and contributing to environmental degradation. Illegal 
activities such as unauthorized logging, corruption, and 
misuse of  forest resources also pose serious threats to 
the sustainability of  forest ecosystems, resulting in loss 
of  government revenues, increased poverty, and social 
conflict (Leadley et al., 2010).

Effects of  Land Use Changes
Land use changes significantly impact environmental 
functions, both in the short and long term. For example, 
urbanization leads to the destruction of  biodiversity, 
land degradation, and alterations in the hydrological 
cycle (Malaiki, 2017). These changes reduce the land’s 
ability to perform essential ecological functions, such as 
supporting human settlements, providing raw materials, 
and preserving cultural heritage. Additionally, changes in 
land use can exacerbate water shortages, which are already 
a pressing concern in many African states (Bronstert et al., 
2012).



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Land Use and Land Cover Change (LULCC)
LULCC studies are critical for monitoring human-
induced environmental changes. These studies reveal 
that LULCC is often the result of  complex interactions 
between human and environmental factors (Goswami et 
al., 2019). Changes in land cover are influenced by both 
direct human activities, such as agriculture and urban 
development, and indirect factors, such as acid rain from 
fossil fuel combustion and other pollutants (Pervez et al., 
2016). Remote sensing (RS) and Geographic Information 
Systems (GIS) are essential tools for monitoring LULCC, 
allowing for the collection and analysis of  spatial data 
on land use patterns (Rai et al., 2017). Understanding the 
driving forces behind LULCC is essential for explaining 
past trends and predicting future patterns. These driving 
forces may include cultural, economic, environmental, 
and policy-related factors. Human activities, particularly 
those driven by socio-economic and cultural forces, are 
the primary causes of  environmental changes, such as 
land degradation and ecosystem alteration (Panwar & 
Malik, 2017). Effective management and intervention 
strategies are necessary to mitigate these impacts and 
ensure sustainable land use practices.

Remote Sensing and GIS in LULCC
RS and GIS are widely used to analyze LULCC and 
predict future trends. Various models, such as the 
Markov chain and Cellular Automata (CA-Markov) 
models, have been developed to simulate land cover 
changes. These models combine long-term prediction 
capabilities with dynamic simulation functions, allowing 
for effective monitoring and management of  LULCC 
(He et al., 2018). Studies using RS and GIS have shown 
significant urban expansion and land cover changes in 
various regions, highlighting the need for effective land 

use planning and management strategies (Manju et al., 
2011). The review highlights the critical importance of  
forests and forest reserves for ecological balance, socio-
economic development, and environmental sustainability. 
However, increasing human activities, population growth, 
and urbanization pose significant threats to forest 
ecosystems. Effective management strategies, including 
the use of  advanced technologies such as RS and GIS, 
are essential for monitoring and mitigating the impacts 
of  land use and land cover changes on forest resources. 
Policymakers and stakeholders must prioritize sustainable 
forest management practices to ensure the continued 
provision of  ecosystem services and the conservation of  
biodiversity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted in the Nagi Forest District, 
which spans approximately 12.5 km² and is situated at 
longitude 80° 91′ E and latitude 70° 411′ N. The district 
is located about 12 km along the Naka-Agagbe road, 
Gwer West local government area, Benue state, Nigeria. 
The area falls within the tropical sub-humid climate zone, 
characterized as a tropical wet and dry (Aw) climate. Two 
distinct seasons are observed: the dry season, lasting 
from late November to March, dominated by tropical 
continental air mass and harmattan winds that are 
typically dry, cold, and hazy; and the wet season, from 
April to October, marked by rainfall and moist conditions, 
peaking in August/September. A brief  transitional period 
with sparse rainfall occurs in early November. The 
annual mean rainfall is approximately 1200 mm, with a 
mean annual temperature of  about 32.5°C. The region is 
identified with Guinea savannah vegetation, where trees 
such as Daniella olivera, Prosopis africana, and Vitex 
doniana grow alongside tall grasses. The forest types 

Figure 1: Map of  the Study Area



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include naturally occurring wild forests, gallery forests, 
village forests, and reserved forests. The topography of  
the area is undulating, characterized by interfluves with 
hills averaging 30-40 meters, while the majority of  the 
terrain lies below 183 meters (600 feet) above sea level. 
The Nagi and Kpukujembe streams drain the area. 
The soil is primarily tropical ferruginous, formed from 
different parent materials, with clay-loamy soil as the 
dominant type, and sandy lateritic soil occurring in the 
vicinity of  Nagi town (Mage & Hula, 2015).

Data Collection
To assess the land use and land cover changes in the study 
area, remote sensing data were utilized. The analysis was 
based on three multi-date Landsat satellite imageries: the 
Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+) for the years 1985 
and 2000, and the Operational Land Imager (OLI) for 
2020. The study area was extracted from the scenes, and 
a supervised classification method was applied using a 
Level 1 classification scheme, as proposed by Anderson 
et al. (1976). Five land use and land cover categories were 

Table 1: Characteristics of  Landsat Images used for the study
Date of  
Acquisition

Sensor Path Row Multispectral 
Band

Thermal 
Band

Spectral 
Range 
(micrometers)

Spatial 
Resolution 
(pixel spacing)

Source

1985 TM 188 55 1to5 and 7 6 10.45-12.45 30
2000 & 2010 ETM+ 188 55 1to5 and 7 6 10.45-12.45 30 USGS
2020 OLI and 

TIRS
188 55 1to7 and 9 10 and 11 10.60-12.51 30

identified and classified: built-up areas, forest, grassland, 
and agricultural land.

Image Processing and Classification
Image processing was carried out using Idrisi Image 
Processing software. The images, initially in single 
bands, were layer-stacked, and geometric corrections 
were applied using change detection analysis to remove 
possible noise and scan lines. Geometric errors were 
corrected using ground control points to geocode the 
images, which were then used to register other images 
for photo-interpretation. Four basic pre-processing 
operations were conducted: 

1. Image reconstruction to extract the area of  interest 

from the general satellite scene.
2. Image enhancement to improve visual interpretation 

by increasing apparent contrast among various features.
3. Radiometric correction to adjust for the sun’s 

elevation on the raw data.
4. Band combinations of  2,3,4 were used for the 1985 

and 2000 images, and 3,4,5 for the 2020 Landsat 8 (OLI), 
due to the sensitivity of  bands 4 and 3 to vegetation cover 
and band 4 to water content.
Following classification, a histogram of  the classified 
images was generated, displaying the areas of  the different 
land use and land cover classes, facilitating comparison 
and inference.

Table 2: Software Components of  the Research
S/N Software Purpose
1 Idrisi & ArcGIS 10.3 GIS analysis & classification of  the Landsat images
2 Microsoft Excel Statistical analysis for the calculation of  percentage
3 Global Positioning System For picking geographic co-ordinates

Data Analysis
Analysis of  Extent, Rate, and Magnitude of  Forest 
Degradation
To determine the extent of  land use change, the analysis 
was conducted by subtracting the reference year (2020) 
from the base year (1985). The extent of  change is 
represented mathematically as:
E_T=B-A
Where:
A= Base year (1985)  
B = Reference year (2020)  
ET = Total extent of  forest land

Statistical Analysis
Histograms generated from the classified images provided 
the total area coverage of  each class theme for the 

different years. Simple percentage tables were employed 
for statistical analysis. Change analysis was conducted to 
examine the alterations in built-up areas from 1985 to 
2020 to determine the extent of  land use and land cover 
changes.

Change Detection Techniques
Three change detection methods, as previously applied by 
Ikusemoran et al. (2013), were utilized to analyze land use 
and land cover changes:

Change Detection by Area Calculation
This method involves three key steps:

i. Magnitude of  Change Calculation: The magnitude of  
change was calculated by subtracting the observed change 
of  each period from the previous period.



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ii. Trend Calculation: The trend, or percentage change 
for each land use, was determined by subtracting the 
percentage of  the previous land use from the recent land 
use, dividing by the previous land use, and multiplying 
by 100:

“Percentage Change “= ├ ((B-A)/A┤)”× 100” 
Where:  

A= Base year (1985)  
B = Reference year (2020)  

iii. Annual Rate of  Change Calculation: The annual 
rate of  change was calculated by dividing the percentage 

change by 100 and multiplying by the number of  study 
years, which is 35 years (1985-2020).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 
Classification of  Land Use/Land Cover Dynamics 
(1985, 2000, and 2020)
The land use and land cover (LULC) dynamics of  the 
Nagi Forest Reserve were classified for the years 1985, 
2000, and 2020 to illustrate and interpret the changes in 
the various land use categories. The classification results 
are presented using maps, charts, and tables. 

Figure 2: 1985 Land use/Land cover distribution map generated from LandSat 4 TM
Source: Author’s Analysis, 2020

Figure 3: 2000 Land use/Land cover distribution map generated from LandSat 4 TM
Source: Author’s Analysis, 2020



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Figure 4: 2020 Land use/Land cover distribution map generated from LandSat 4 TM
Source: Author’s Analysis, 2020

Figure 5: Land use and land cover comparative chart

Figure 6: Trend analysis of  forest decline



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Table 3: Magnitude and Percentage of  Change in Land Use/Land cover between 1985 and 2000
LULC Class 1985 Extent 

(Sq. km)
2000 Extent 
(Sq. km)

Magnitude of  
Change (Sq. km)

Percentage of  
Change

Annual Rate of  
Change %

Forest 42.12 34.02 -8.1 -52.02 7.80
Grassland 3.69 9.18 5.49 35.26 5.29
Cultivated land 2.07 3.87 1.8 11.56 1.73
Bare surface 1.08 0.9 -0.18 1.16 0.14
Total 48.96 47.97 15.57 100 15

Table 4: Magnitude and Percentage of  Change in Land Use/Land cover between 2000 and 2020
LULC Class 2000 Extent 

(Sq. km)
2020Extent 
(Sq. km)

Magnitude of  
Change (Sq. km)

Percentage of  
Change

Annual Rate of  
Change %

Forest 34.02 23.04 -10.98 47.84 9.57
Grassland 9.18 10.89 1.71 7.45 1.49
Cultivated land 3.87 11.52 7.65 33.33 6.67
Bare surface 0.9 3.51 2.61 11.37 2.27
Total 47.97 48.96 22.95 100 20

Table 5: Magnitude and Percentage of  Change in Land Use/Land cover between 1985 and 2020
LULC Class 1985 Extent 

(Sq. km)
2020 Extent 
(Sq. km)

Magnitude of  
Change (Sq. km)

Percentage of  
Change

Annual Rate of  
Change %

Forest 42.12 23.04 -19.08 50 17.5
Grassland 3.69 10.89 7.2 18.87 6.60
Cultivated land 2.07 11.52 9.45 24.76 8.67
Bare surface 1.08 3.51 2.43 6.37 2.23
Total 48.96 48.96 38.16 100 35

Analysis of  Classified Land Use and Land Cover 
Map of  1985
The classified LULC map for 1985 (Figure 2) shows that 
forest was the dominant land use and land cover type, 
covering approximately 42.12 hectares (ha) or 86.03% of  
the area. This forested area was predominantly located 
in the Nagi Forest Reserve and extended towards the 
northern, southern, and some sections of  the study 
area. Grassland was the next most significant cover type, 
occupying about 3.69 hectares (ha) or 7.54% of  the total 
land area. These grasslands were primarily found in the 
northwest and southeastern sections, as well as in patches 
across various parts of  the study area.

Analysis of  Land Use/Land Cover Classification for 
2000
The LULC map for 2000 (Figure 3) reveals notable 
changes in the spatial distribution and areal extent of  the 
various land use categories. Forest areas, while remaining 
the most dominant class, decreased from 42.12 hectares 
(86.03%) in 1985 to 34.02 hectares (70.92%) in 2000. This 
decline in forest cover was primarily due to increased 
farming activities and settlement expansion in many 
sections of  the map. Conversely, grassland areas increased 
from 3.69 hectares (7.54%) in 1985 to 9.18 hectares 
(19.14%) in 2000, mainly in the southeastern region 

and spreading towards the northern section. Cultivated 
land also saw an increase from 2.07 hectares (4.23%) in 
1985 to 3.87 hectares (8.07%) in 2000, particularly in the 
southern sections of  the study area.

Analysis of  Land Use/Land Cover Classification for 
2020
The LULC map for 2020 (Figure 4) indicates further 
significant changes in the study area. The forested areas 
experienced a marked decline, decreasing from 34.02 
hectares (70.92%) in 2000 to 23.04 hectares (47.71%) 
in 2020. This decline is attributed to increased human 
activities and the expansion of  built-up areas across the 
region. Cultivated land areas also continued to increase, 
rising from 3.87 hectares (8.07%) in 2000 to 11.52 hectares 
(23.53%) in 2020, particularly in the northwestern part 
and expanding towards the central and southern sections 
of  the study area. Bare surface areas increased from 0.9 
hectares (1.88%) in 2000 to 3.51 hectares (7.17%) in 2020, 
further reflecting the intensification of  land use changes.

Trend Analysis of  Forest Decline in the Study Area
The trend analysis (Figure 4.5) shows a continuous 
decline in forest cover in the study area over the years. 
Between 1985 and 2000 (a period of  15 years), forest 
cover decreased by -15.11%. From 2000 to 2020 (a period 



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of  20 years), the forest decreased further by -23.86%. 
Overall, the forest lost -38.97% of  its coverage between 
1985 and 2020, indicating a continuous conversion of  
forest land to other land use types.

Magnitude and Percentage of  Change in Land Use/
Land Cover
1985 to 2000 
The magnitude of  change in forest area between 1985 
and 2000 shows a decrease of  -8.1 sq. km, representing 
52.02% of  the total change during this period (Table 3). 
Forests had the highest annual rate of  change at 7.80%, 
while bare surfaces had the lowest at 0.14%. The period 
also witnessed an increase in grassland (5.49 sq. km, 
35.26% of  the total change) and cultivated land (1.8 sq. 
km, 11.56%), reflecting urbanization pressures.

2000 to 2020
Between 2000 and 2020, the forest area further declined 
by -10.98 sq. km, representing 47.84% of  the total change 
(Table 4). The forest had an annual rate of  change of  
9.57%, while bare surfaces remained the least changed. In 
contrast, cultivated land increased by 7.65 sq. km (33.3%) 
at an annual growth rate of  6.67%, driven by agricultural 
expansion, fuel wood collection, and logging activities.

1985 to 2020
Over the 35 years from 1985 to 2020, the forest area 
declined by -19.08 sq. km, accounting for 50% of  the total 
change in the study area (Table 5). Forests had the highest 
annual rate of  change at 17.5%, whereas bare surfaces 
had the lowest at 2.23%. Grassland areas also underwent 
changes of  7.2 sq. km (18.87%) with an annual growth 
rate of  6.60%.
The use of  Landsat satellite imagery for change detection, 
despite limitations like weather effects and noise from 
passive sensors, remains effective in monitoring LULC 
changes. The data reveal a substantial decline in forest 
and grassland areas in the Nagi Forest Reserve between 
1985 and 2020, signifying a shift towards other land 
use types such as agriculture and settlement expansion. 
The continuous loss of  forest cover (from 86.03% in 
1985 to 47.71% in 2020) and the conversion to other 
uses indicate ongoing habitat loss and declining forest 
resources, consistent with findings from previous studies 
(Audu & Shola, 2016; Uloko & Yager, 2017; Yager et 
al., 2018). The reduction in vegetation cover has led to 
decreased productivity, increased soil erosion, and long-
term degradation. These changes also affect vegetation 
composition, leading to bush encroachment, reduced 
floral biodiversity, and habitat loss for fauna (Vogel 
& Strohbach, 2009). The disturbed forest canopy has 
resulted in a higher amount of  understory, signaling that 
the Nagi Forest has been significantly altered. This aligns 
with Uloko & Yager’s (2017) report on the decline in range 
vegetation cover due to farming activities, indicating the 
current habitat is less suitable for wildlife.

CONCLUSION 
The study reveals a significant threat to the Nagi Forest 
Reserve, primarily driven by human-induced deforestation 
and forest degradation. Through the application 
of  advanced remote sensing and GIS technologies, 
substantial deforestation has been quantified over the 
past decades, offering detailed insights into the spatial and 
temporal dynamics of  land use and land cover changes in 
the study area. The use of  satellite imagery and ground-
based data allowed for precise mapping of  deforestation, 
forest degradation, disturbances, and their corresponding 
drivers. The analysis showed a cumulative loss of  forest 
cover due to clearings for farms and other uses from 
1985 to 2020, with the most alarming rate of  forest loss 
occurring in 2020. Key drivers identified for this decline 
include oil palm expansion, population growth, increased 
built-up areas, and settlement-related activities such as 
logging. Faced with these rising threats, it is evident that 
only a concerted and comprehensive approach can guide 
sustainable forest management and conservation efforts 
in the Nagi Forest Reserve. Immediate intervention is 
required to mitigate the ongoing deforestation and ensure 
the long-term preservation of  forest resources.

Recommendations
To effectively address the challenges of  deforestation and 
promote sustainable forest management, the following 
recommendations are proposed:

1. Development and Implementation of  a Guided 
Forest Conservation Policy:  There is a need for a well-
structured forest conservation policy that incorporates 
community sensitization and education on the importance 
of  forest conservation. This policy should emphasize 
sustainable land-use practices and discourage activities 
that lead to forest degradation.

2. Frequent Monitoring by Eco-Guards:  Regular 
patrols and monitoring by eco-guards should be enforced 
to prevent illegal logging and other unauthorized activities 
that contribute to forest degradation. The presence of  
eco-guards would help in deterring illegal activities and 
ensuring compliance with forest conservation regulations.

3. Community Involvement and Participatory Forest 
Mapping: Incorporating local communities in forest 
management through participatory forest mapping and 
decision-making can enhance community ownership 
and reduce conflicts. This approach can also foster 
cooperation and commitment towards sustainable forest 
management and conservation efforts.

4. Capacity Building for Policymakers and Resource 
Managers:  Training and capacity-building programs 
should be organized for policymakers, resource managers, 
and stakeholders on the use of  remote sensing and GIS 
technologies. This will enable them to effectively monitor 
land use and land cover changes, identify critical areas for 
intervention, and implement appropriate management 
strategies.
By adopting these recommendations, sustainable 



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forest management can be achieved in the Nagi Forest 
Reserve, thus safeguarding it for future generations while 
also maintaining ecological balance and biodiversity 
conservation.

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