pa ge 1 pa ge 34 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) reflections on the robbers cave experiment: finding lessons on political conflict, racism, xenophobia, and business environments vonwicks c. onyango1* volume 1 issue 1, year 2023 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v1i1.2092 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: september 25, 2023 accepted: october 22, 2023 published: october 27, 2023 the robbers cave experiment in the mid-1950s by muzafer sherif and his colleagues advanced the realistic conflict theory, whose main premise is that conflict is inevitable whenever two (or more) in-groups are brought together in mutual competition for scarce resources. this conflict is driven by prejudice and discrimination, and may take on various forms of hostilities and aggressions towards a competing out-group. however, a resolution of the conflict is possible when the two (or more) competing in-groups are forced to work together to attain mutually beneficial superordinate goals. whereas the robbers cave experiment suffers from serious questions of ethics and confirmation bias, the lessons that draw from the tested hypotheses have remained germane to the understanding of realistic conflict theory. in this study, the author seeks to reflect on this (in)famous experiment and draw poignant comparisons and lessons as they relate to some contemporary examples in political conflicts, racism, xenophobia, business workplaces, and mergers and acquisitions. the author repeatedly acknowledges the blurring influence of the criticisms of the experiment on the clarity of these reflections. keywords realistic conflict theory, robbers cave experiment, intergroup conflict, in-group, out-group 1 department of medicine, st. joseph rift valley hospital, gilgil, nakuru county, kenya * corresponding author’s e-mail: drvonczelo@gmail.com introduction realistic conflict theory (rct) in social psychology is a theory that seeks to explain how intergroup conflict and hostility arise as a result of competition for limited resources. it also highlights how such conflict by one in-group towards an out-group is driven by prejudice, animosity, and discrimination (baumeister, 2007). this theory was advanced by the psychologist muzafer sherif and buttressed in his classical robbers cave experiment in the 1950s (relations & sherif, 1961). the scarce resources in contention may be real or perceived and may include such things as political power, territory, money, promotion, land, business control, social status, trade routes, etc. the feelings of resentment, hostility, and prejudice become progressively worse when the groups believe that the scarce resources under their contention must be obtained in a do-or-die scenario (jackson, 1993). each of the in-groups in contention often shows varying levels of intragroup organization and mutual cooperation in order to win the resources in contention to the exclusion of the competing out-group. this conflict may lead to serious consequences, including physical fights, loss of property, human dignity, and human lives. the rct posits that when such two warring groups are forced to pursue superordinate goals (i.e., goals that are beneficial to both groups and which can only be achieved by the mutual cooperation of both groups), then hostilities, discrimination, and prejudice can be overcome and positive relations can be created or restored between the groups (jackson, 1993). the robbers cave experiment’s background robbers cave state park is located in the hilly woodlands of the san bois mountains in latimer county, in southeast oklahoma, united states of america. in the 1950s, dr. muzafer sherif, a turkish-american social psychologist, conducted a famous experiment together with other researchers in this state park to illustrate the phenomenon of realistic conflict theory. the experiment was appropriately called the robbers cave experiment and focused on intergroup conflict and cooperation (relations & sherif, 1961). the experiment sought to test two main hypotheses. firstly, whenever people who don’t know each other are brought together to do group activities in pursuit of common goals, they will inevitably form discernible group structures with clear leadership hierarchies and roles. such a group formed is called an in-group. secondly, when two or more in-groups are brought into close proximity under conditions of mutual competition for and frustration over similar but limited resources, each in-group will develop hostilities in relation to the competing out-group(s) (fine, 2004). the members of each in-group will develop standardized attitudes, norms, and actions that will be shared by its members in varying degrees. subsequently, members of each ingroup will hold up such norms, attitudes, and actions as those that distinguish itself from the out-groups, with feelings and sentiments of superiority cementing such ingroup interrelationships. this inevitably sets up a conflict between two (or more) in-groups (mcleod, 2008). summary of the robbers cave experiment in the summer of 1954, sherif and his research team selected 22 white boys who were 11-12 years old and in the fifth grade for this experiment. they all came from a protestant, two-parent middle-class family pa ge 35 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 34-38, 2023 background, and each had good school performance with above-average intelligence. each boy had carefully been screened to be psychologically normal, and they did not know each other at all. they were sent to a remote summer camp location in robbers cave state park. the boys were randomly divided by the researchers (who doubled up as counselors) into two groups, which were essentially balanced on the basis of physical and social characteristics and talents. the researchers carefully ensured that neither group was aware of the existence of the other. each group was picked up by a bus and taken to the camp, where they lived away from each other and without knowledge of the existence of the other group. the experiment was conducted in three basic phases (mcleod, 2008). phase 1: group formation (proving the first main hypothesis) the boys were encouraged to bond among themselves and given tasks that required discussion and cooperation. over a period of 5-6 days, each group formed its own cultures, norms, leadership structures, and responsibilities as they did common activities like hiking and swimming. the boys became quite attached to their respective groups (in-group) and chose names for each of their groups, i.e., the eagles and the rattlers, which they proudly patterned onto their flags and shirts (mcleod, 2008). phase 2: group conflict/friction (proving the second main hypothesis) over the next 4-5 days, the researchers organized for the two newly formed in-groups to meet each other and participate under conditions that would generate conflict, friction, and prejudice. competitive games, e.g., baseball, and group challenges, e.g., tug-of-war were organized between the groups, with winners of various group and individual categories getting awards, e.g., a group trophy, medals, multi-bladed pocket knives, etc., based on cumulative points, while the “losers” were not given any consolation prizes! scenarios were also devised so as to have one group benefit at the expense of the other, e.g., one group was tactfully delayed getting to a picnic site, and when they eventually arrived, the other group had eaten all the food. members of each in-group expressed their prejudice against the out-group in various ways, which initially involved verbal taunting and name-calling but would later take a more directly confrontational pathway. for example, the rattlers took over the baseball pitch as their own territory and planted the rattler flag on the pitch, while threatening dire consequences to anyone from the eagles who dared to bother their flag. the eagles burned the flag of the rattlers! the following day, the rattlers ransacked the cabin of the eagles while the latter were away, turned their beds upside down, and made away with their private property as loot. all hell broke loose with counter-raids on cabins, food fights, vandalism, and ever-increasing animosity (mcleod, 2008). importantly, the researchers subtly manipulated each scenario of the boys’ conflicts by egging them on, providing the means to provoke one another, e.g., availing the matchsticks to burn the flags, etc. when the conflict became so confrontational, the researchers had to physically separate the opponents. phase 3: conflict resolution after a two-day cooling-off period in which each in-group member highly rated themselves on their own perceived virtues and talents while denigrating the out-group in contemptuous and hostile terminology, the researchers tried to reduce the animosity between the two groups by merely increasing contact and communication between them, but this plan failed. however, when the two groups were forced to work together to pursue common goals or superordinate goals (i.e., goals so large that they required more than one group to attain), this significantly reduced conflict and prejudice between the groups. for example, the boys’ water supply was cut off one morning, and the two groups had to work together to locate the water tanks high in the mountain, remove the stones blocking the valve (deliberately put in by the researchers!), and restore water supply. they all also cooperated in choosing a movie to watch between two choices, after which they had no objections to eating supper together and pushing out a truck carrying food for the two groups, which the boys “accidentally” found stuck in a rut. they all achieved these superordinate goals through innovative, receptive, and mutual cooperation amongst themselves (mcleod, 2008). the robbers cave experiment’s major criticisms the utility of a scientific experiment depends on how rigorously it has been designed and conducted in compliance with internationally acceptable bare minimum standards of research and experiment. at the very least, the experiment must adhere to standards of appropriate methodology and ethics in order to ensure high ecological validity, i.e., the relationship between experimental phenomena and their observation in the real world (kihlstrom, 2021). a model for conducting social psychological research has been proposed. this encompasses a synthetic approach that augments qualitative and quantitative methods to generate new hypotheses and capture any other experiences that would otherwise evade experimental reductionism (power et al., 2018). the robbers cave experiment does not really tell the whole story because the researchers did not disclose that two earlier versions of the same experiment had failed to yield the “desired” results (perry, 2018). the two groups of boys in the study were artificially selected, as were the various competitions, which does not reflect the randomness of real life. in real life, it is not realistic to believe that middle-school white boys randomly selected into two groups will compare with, say, rival political formations, street gangs, sports rivals, business competitors with hostile takeovers, etc. at any rate, there were no females, adults, or people of other pa ge 36 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 34-38, 2023 ethnicities in the experiment! real-world formations are characterized by wide complexities in race, age groups, culture, beliefs, attitudes, motivations, shared experiences, etc. this raises the validity of trying to generalize the results of the robbers cave experiment to the real world (i.e., the ecological validity of the study). however, one can argue that the experiment happened in a realworld environment and thus has high ecological validity (mcleod, 2008). the boys in the experiment did not know that they were participating in a study; no parental consent was obtained, and no provisions were made to protect the minors against the physical and emotional harm that some of them experienced. the researchers masqueraded as camp counselors and artificially created the challenges while subtly and overtly encouraging the boys towards the results that they wanted. these raise serious ethical issues about the entire experiment due to clear violations of acceptable standards of ethical research (schaefer & narimani, 2021), as well as questions of confirmation bias since the researchers artificially set up and manipulated the experiment towards the desired hypotheses (mcleod, 2008). a critical evaluation of the experiment for lessons on contemporary conflict management notwithstanding these valid criticisms, the observations at the robbers cave experiment may find practical utility and examples in many facets of life and society. the experiment essentially demonstrated that conflict and prejudice between various groups are driven by competition for resources that are perceived to be desirable yet are scarce in supply (fine, 2004). this is the basis of the realistic conflict theory in social psychology. the experiment also demonstrates, albeit inadvertently, that conflicts themselves can artificially be created when groups of people (sometimes total strangers) are brought together to compete for resources whose availability can artificially be made scarce by instigators for any number of noble and ignoble objectives. ultimately, though, the observations carve out a pathway by which hitherto competitors can be united to pursue common superordinate objectives that advance the welfare and/or interests of all parties. lessons from the experiment in political conflict management virtually any conflict in the human arena can be simply viewed through the lenses of the experiment, the clarity of which is blurred by the substantial weaknesses of the experiment as stated above. political settings where there is contestation for political power (the scarce resource) between two (or more) political formations (in-groups) create possible case studies for intergroup hostilities. post-election violence in kenya in kenya, such conflict for political power led two political formations or in-groups contending for the presidency (the party of national unity and the orange democratic movement party) to set the country on the precipice of a civil war, as more than 1,200 people were killed and in excess of 600,000 people were displaced from their homes in the 2007-2008 post-election violence (johnson et al., 2014). members of each political in-group in this case were unfortunately manipulated by the chief instigators (or call them “camp counselors”) to perceive the other members of the political out-group as dire competitors for power, land, privilege, and social status (jennifer, 2009). this created harsh rhetoric, ethnic contempt and jingoism, tribal persecutions, and serious human rights violations that attracted international intervention for purposes of punishment of those instigators (leaders) perceived to bear the greatest responsibility on the one hand (through legal proceedings at the international criminal court in the hague) and eventual resolution of the conflict through the formation of a grand coalition government of the two antagonistic in-group parties inspired by the need to preserve kenyan statehood from total collapse (a superordinate goal). however, there were clearly a plethora of other complex issues and factors at play (over and above conflict for political power) that led to the violence. rwandan genocide, the war in darfur, and the russian-ukraine war in other countries, especially where there has been serious political conflict for political power (the scarce resource) with resulting loss of lives and human rights violations, it is possible to identify a pattern of antagonistic ingroups and their various leaders (who could pass as the “researchers masquerading as camp counselors”); e.g., the 1994 rwanda genocide pitting the two ethnic in-groups (tutsis vs. hutus) fighting for political power (magnarella, 2005); the 2003 war in darfur, sudan, pitting the two religious in-groups (muslims vs. non-muslims of that region with different fighters coalescing around each group) fighting for political power, and territorial domination, among other reasons (de waal, 2007); the ongoing war in ukraine pitting two international in-groups (russians vs. ukrainians and their respective separatists and sympathizers) fighting for territorial legitimacy, political power, etc., with devastating consequences (levy & leaning, 2022), among many other examples elsewhere in the world. in all cases, the international community has been helping to restore peace by appealing to the superordinate values of national unity and shared prosperity. nonetheless, as the criticism of the robbers cave experiment so eloquently points out, even these examples given may be superficial prima facie as they do not capture the myriads of complex underlying issues that were uniquely necessary in instigating, initiating, propagating, maintaining, and eventually resolving the mentioned conflicts. what about racism and xenophobia? during tough economic times when jobs are scarce, the age-old “natives” vs. “immigrants/asylum seekers” ingroups typically witness increasing conflict and prejudice with racial discrimination, in which natives (typically pa ge 37 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 34-38, 2023 caucasians in predominantly white populations) believe that the immigrants (typically of african, asian, or middle-east descent) are taking over their jobs (bianchi et al., 2018). this phenomenon is also true among african in-groups, e.g., the recurrent xenophobic attacks in south africa pitting native, largely black south africans against immigrants from other african countries who are often accused of taking over (scarce) jobs that should belong to the natives (olofinbiyi, 2022). recently, there has been increasingly toxic political rhetoric and violence between various in-group formations among the democrats and the republicans in the united states contending for political power. this has created many other shades and iterations of in-group vs. out-group conflicts, including left-wing vs. right-wing politicians, and political ideologies, etc. they’re all ultimately in conflict for political power and influence (piazza, 2023). a review of these conflicts within the context of the experiment can easily pick out similarities between various actors and characters in real life and the experiment. however, it is to be noted that the complexities surrounding these real-life events are clearly beyond the scope of the experiment. what about in business and the workplace? business and workplace environments in which new employees are hired often inevitably set up conflict between two in-groups (the younger vs. the older employees) contending for real and perceived resources, e.g., promotions, bonuses, favors with the bosses, etc. (yeung et al., 2015). in workplaces where the management makes important but potentially unpopular decisions (e.g., salary deductions) to be implemented in the organization by lower-cadre employees or even among employees of different qualification portfolios (e.g., doctors vs. nurses), in-group vs out-group hostilities soon form (echebarria-echabe & guede, 2003). this has been a weakness tactfully exploited by suave managers to push down unpopular decisions. in this era of business and health care mergers and acquisitions, once the mergers are completed, the organizations often contend with the inevitable cultural clashes and conflicts between the two (or more) in-groups acquired or merged in the process. deliberate efforts to bring these in-groups together in pursuit of larger business interests (superordinate goals) can and have been deployed successfully (creasy & kinard, 2013). nonetheless, there are often other, more complex, intertwined factors that drive these workplace conflicts. conclusions ultimately, the author chooses to regard the robbers cave experiment as an example of a “forgotten classic” whose lessons carry sufficient fodder to satiate those who would have an appetite for understanding the basic rubrics of realistic conflict as a theory and a reality. the experiment not only highlights the origin of conflict between two (or more) in-groups as a contestation for scarce resources but also demonstrates a potential pathway for conflict resolution through the pursuit of superordinate goals. it was done almost 70 years ago under research methodology whose veracity and fidelity to (now) known scientific research standards have raised serious questions about its research ethics and confirmation bias, as well as the ecological validity of its conclusions. nonetheless, it remains a cornerstone in the basic understanding of realistic group conflict theory. recommendations the examples given by the author as delineated above are not exhaustive by a long stretch in reflecting on the utility of the lessons that can be drawn from the robbers cave experiment in contemporary reality. the author recommends a pragmatic approach in considering the lessons from the experiment to aid in resolving intergroup conflicts in contemporary life by promoting the pursuit of superordinate goals. this can promote peace and unity. the author also recommends a multivariate approach to conflict management that looks at the entirety of the complexities informing and framing various conflicts in society. admittedly, more research is needed in the similitude of the robbers cave experiment that adheres to acceptable scientific research standards to drive a clearer understanding of intergroup conflict. references baumeister, r. f. v., k. d. (2007). encyclopedia of social psychology (vol. 2). sage publications inc. https:// us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/encyclopedia-of-socialpsychology/book227442 bianchi, e. c., hall, e. v., & lee, s. (2018). reexamining the link between economic downturns and racial antipathy: evidence that prejudice against blacks rises during recessions. psychological science, 29(10), 1584-1597. https://doi. org/10.1177/0956797618777214 creasy, t., & kinard, j. (2013). health care mergers and acquisitions: implications of robbers cave realistic conflict theory and prisoner’s dilemma game theory. health care manag (frederick), 32(1), 58-68. https:// doi.org/10.1097/hcm.0b013e31827edadd de waal, a. (2007). darfur and the failure of the responsibility to protect. international affairs (royal institute of international affairs 1944-), 83(6), 10391054. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4541909 echebarria-echabe, a., & guede, e. f. 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(2018). the sage model of social psychological research. perspect psychol sci, 13(3), 359-372. https://doi. org/10.1177/1745691617734863 relations, u. o. o. i. o. g., & sherif, m. (1961). intergroup conflict and cooperation: the robbers cave experiment (vol. 10). university book exchange norman, ok. schaefer, i., & narimani, p. (2021). [ethics in participatory research-reflection on challenges and possible impairments for participants]. bundesgesundheitsblatt gesundheitsforschung gesundheitsschutz, 64(2), 171178. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00103-020-03270-0 (ethische aspekte in der partizipativen forschung – reflexion von herausforderungen und möglichen beeinträchtigungen für teilnehmende.) yeung, d. y., fung, h. h., & chan, d. (2015). managing conflict at work: comparison between younger and older managerial employees. international journal of conflict management, 26(3), 342-364. https://doi. org/10.1108/ijcma-06-2014-0044 pa ge 1 pa ge 50 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) depression in adolescent sickle cell patients: a 2021 sudan study fatima hassan salman1, ziryab elmahdi1, sahar moawia balla elnour2* volume 1 issue 1, year 2023 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v1i1.2144 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: september 25, 2023 accepted: october 28, 2023 published: november 03, 2023 the global mental health crisis, particularly depression, is escalating due to genetic mutations affecting the sixth amino acid, glutamic acid. this cross-sectional study aimed to investigate depression among adolescents with sca using the beck depression inventory (bdi) between february 2021 and august 2021. this hospital-based cross-sectional study was conducted in khartoum, sudan. the study involved 102 sca patients aged 10-19, with a majority (63.7%) aged 13-16. depression severity was diagnosed using the beck depression inventory (bdi), and statistical analysis involved chi-square tests to compare proportions between groups, with a significance level of p<0.05 and 95% confidence level. the study found that most males (38.5%) had none-mild depression, while most females (42.0%) had mild-moderate depression with a p-value of 0.310. age groups showed the highest prevalence of mild-to-moderate depression (46.2%) in 10-12-year-olds and the most mild depression (33.3%) in 17-19-year-olds. crisis frequency was infrequent among participants (p=0.933). a significant association was observed between crisis frequency and depression severity, with severe depression primarily seen in crisis-prone individuals (27.8%) (p=0.001). the study highlights the global mental illness burden and challenges faced by individuals with sca, particularly females, emphasizing the need for early psychological support and intervention to improve their well-being. keywords adolescent, depression, sickle cell anaemia, sickle cell disease, sudan 1 sheikh khalifa medical city, al karamah st. al manhal, al tibbiya, abu dhabi, united arab emirates 2 sudan medical specialization board, al khurtum, sudan * corresponding author’s e-mail: dr.saharmoawia@gmail.com introduction the worldwide prevalence of mental health issues is increasing, with depression emerging as a significant global public health concern. according to alatab et al., 2020, approximately 264 million individuals are affected by depression, and its prevalence and incidence continue to escalate (alatab et al., 2020; ferrari et al., 2013; fu et al., 2013). the disorder is considered a financial liability and affects the struggling healthcare systems (murray et al., 2012). additionally, vascular blockage and anaemia are characteristics of sickle cell anaemia (sca), an inherited disorder caused by mutations that cause the sixth amino acid to be replaced by valine instead of glutamic acid (zorca et al., 2010). haemoglobin s and haemoglobin c are the predominant haemoglobin variants found in africa (chakravorty & williams, 2015). a decade ago, approximately 80% of infants in sub-suharan africa had sca, but according to oppong et al. 2020 projections, this percentage is expected to rise by 10% by the year 2050 (oppong et al., 2020). the sickle-shaped red blood cells are responsible for obstructing small capillaries and pathways when exposed to low oxygen levels, as demonstrated by makani et al. in 2013 and ngwengi et al. in 2020 (makani et al., 2013; ngwengi et al., 2020). conversely, osteomyelitis and acute chest syndrome are the complications that sca patients encounter every day (chakravorty & williams, 2015). those with a genetic tendency have a shorter life expectancy as a result of morbidities such as respiratory, renal, and cardiac failure and stroke. there are several contributing factors to this reduced life expectancy (chakravorty & williams, 2015; lanzkron et al., 2013). in developed countries, the life expectancy of individuals with sca typically ranges from 40 to 60 years. however, in economically disadvantaged nations like sudan, the life expectancy for sca patients is significantly lower (hamideh & alvarez, 2013; piel et al., 2013). additionally, around 30% of individuals with sca experience persistent chronic pain, which is defined as enduring for more than three months (smith et al., 2008). numerous studies have shown a strong correlation between chronic pain and mental health issues, including depression (arnow et al., 2006; currie & wang, 2004; ohayon & schatzberg, 2003). notably, depression was more prevalent among sca patients compared to the general population (comer, 2004; jenerette et al., 2005). furthermore, there is a notable association between depression in sca patients and increased hospitalizations for vaso-occlusive pain, frequent emergency room visits, and the need for blood transfusions (hasan et al., 2003). additionally, depression may contribute to the development of further medical complications (leavell & ford, 1983). therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate the prevalence and impact of depression among adolescents with sickle cell anemia in sudan. the study on depression among adolescents with sickle cell anemia offers unique insights into the mental health of this population. it focuses on the adolescent population, revealing varying depression severity across age groups, gender differences, and a significant association between vaso-occlusive crises and depression severity. the research recommends routine screenings, a holistic approach, and stigma reduction to improve the quality of life for sca patients. pa ge 51 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 50-55, 2023 materials and methods a cross-sectional survey was conducted in hospitals located within the state of khartoum, sudan, from february 2021 to august 2021. this survey focused on individuals diagnosed with sca who fell within the age range of 10 to 19 and attended referral clinics along with a parent or guardian. the selection of participants was based on a modified version of the cochran formula, specifically adapted for small populations. in total, 102 patients diagnosed with sca were included in the study. data collection involved patients completing a pre-coded questionnaire through direct interviews conducted in an outpatient clinic. the questionnaire encompassed various aspects, including socio-demographic information, an assessment of depression severity, and an evaluation of the frequency of crises. diagnosing depression with the black depression inventory (bdi) for the diagnosis of depression among participants, the bdi was employed. the bdi assigns scores that indicate different levels of depression severity, as follows (beck et al., 1961). • scores from 0 to 9: minimal depression • scores from 10 to 18: mild to moderate depression • scores from 19 to 29: moderate to severe depression • scores from 30 to 63: severe depression data analysis in this study, data collection, validation, and analysis were conducted using the statistical software tool (spss version 25). the study involved the generation of frequency distributions for both independent and dependent variables that were pertinent to the study objectives. the chi-square test compared the proportions between the two groups. moreover, a confidence level of 95% was utilized, and a p-value of 0.05 was considered statistically significant. results the study included 102 participants who were diagnosed with sca and ranged in age from 10 to 19 years. among the participants, males were 51%, and females were 49%. the age distribution was 10 to 12 years (12.7%), 13 to 16 years (63.7%), and 17 to 19 years (23.5%). additionally, the majority of the participants experienced mild to moderate depression (38.2%). specifically (37.3%) demonstrated no to mild symptoms of depression. subsequently, an additional (17.6%) of participants exhibited moderate to severe depression. in contrast, (6.9%) of participants showed symptoms of severe depression, as shown in figure 1. figure 1: severity of depression furthermore, an examination of the relationship between depression severity and gender revealed that there was no statistically significant association (p = 0.310). among males, the majority experienced none to mild depression (38.5%), followed closely by those with mild to moderate depression (34.6%), while (23.1%) exhibited moderate to severe depression, and only (3.8%) had severe depression. a similar distribution was observed among females, with the highest percentage experiencing mild to moderate depression (42.0%), followed by none to mild depression (36.0%), (13.8%) experiencing moderate to severe depression, and (10%) exhibiting severe depression, as shown in table 1. however, analysing the connection between depression severity and age groups indicated no statistically significant association (p =0.583). among the 10-12 years age group, mild to moderate depression was the most prevalent, table 1: demographic distribution vs. severity of depression gender severity of depression none-mild mild-moderate moderatesevere severe p. value male 38.5% 34.6% 23.1% 3.8% 0.310 female 36.0% 42.0% 12.0% 10.0% age groups 10-12 yo 30.8% 46.2% 23.1% 0 0.583 13-16 yo 40.0% 40.0% 13.8% 6.2% 17-19 yo 33.3% 29.2% 25.0% 12.5% affecting (46.2%0 of participants. in the 13-16 years age group, none to mild and mild to moderate depression were (40.0%) equally prevalent. moreover, among the 1719 years age group, mild to no depression was the most frequently observed, affecting (3.3%) of the participants. the frequency of crisis was distributed as follows: rarely (41.2%), sometimes (20.6%), often (18.6%), always (17.6%) and never (2%), as shown in figure 2. pa ge 52 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 50-55, 2023 experiencing crises, with percentages of (53.8%) for the 10-12 years age group, (40.0%) for the 13-16 years, and (37.5%) for the 17-19 years as shown in table 2. consequently, there was a statistically significant association observed between the frequency of crises and depression severity (p = 0.001). the following breakdown describes the distribution of depression severity among participants based on the frequency of crises: among participants who never experienced a crisis, 50% had none to mild depression, while the other half had mild to moderate depression. those who rarely experienced crises predominantly had none to mild depression (42.9%), followed by mild to moderate depression (47.6%), with a smaller percentage experiencing moderate to severe depression (9.5%). among participants who sometimes experienced crises, the majority had mild to moderate depression (61.9%0, while the remaining had none to mild depression (38.1%). approximately half of the participants who often had crises experienced mild to moderate depression (52.6%0, followed by moderate to severe depression (31.6%), and some experienced none to mild depression (15.8%). for participants who always had crises, the distribution of depression severity was as follows: none to mild depression (11.1%), mild to moderate depression (16.7%), moderate to severe depression (44.4%), and severe depression (27.8%), as shown in figure 3. figure 2: frequency of crisis table 2: demographic distribution vs. frequency of crisis gender frequency of crisis never rarely sometimes often always p. value male 1.9% 38.5% 21.2% 17.3% 21.2% 0.903 female 2.0% 44.0% 20.0% 20.0% 14.0% age 10-12 yo 0 53.8% 15.4% 15.4% 15.4% 0.933 13-16 yo 1.5% 40.0% 21.5% 16.9% 20.0% 17-19 yo 4.2% 37.5% 20.8% 25.5% 12.5% in addition, the analysis of the relationship between the frequency of crises and gender revealed that there was no statistically significant association (p = 0.903). a significant proportion of males and females reported rarely experiencing crises, with percentages of (38.5%) and (44.0%), respectively. similarly, the association between the frequency of crises and age groups showed no statistical significance (p = 0.933). the majority of participants among all age groups reported rarely figure 3: frequency of crisis vs. depression severity discussion patients with sca are challenged with substantial stress due to their disease and its management. although many environmental stressors could cause depressive symptoms not related to sca. however, this study aimed to investigate depression among patients between the ages pa ge 53 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 50-55, 2023 of 10 and 19 with sickle cell anaemia patients in sudan. most participants in the current study had mild-moderate depression (38.2%), followed closely by those who had no-mild depression (37.3%). almost half the participants rarely had a crisis (41.2%). in this study, the severity of depression in association with gender (p=0.310) and age (p=0.583) showed a significant statistical association. while males and females were mostly on the lower scale of bdi, more females had severe depression in comparison to males. these findings are in line with a previous study where (44.4%) of the females had depression, and (20.3%) of males had depression (p = .0038) (adam et al., 2017). in this study, by observing the incidence of severe depression, it was evaluated that depression increases as age increases, and it was not present in the age group 10-12 years. previous studies on adolescents report more depressive symptoms than younger children because of the stressors they experience (barakat et al., 2006; jiya et al.). however, other studies have stated that there is no association between age and the prevalence of depression in sca patients (alhomoud et al., 2018; ali et al., 2017; graves et al., 2016; sehlo & kamfar, 2015). furthermore, in this study frequency of crisis in association with gender (p=0.903) and age (p=0.933) showed a significant statistical association where the majority of participants had rarely experienced a crisis. patients with scd who also suffered from depression were shown to have a likelihood that was 2.8 times higher of being hospitalized due to a crisis than patients who did not suffer from the disease (jonassaint et al., 2016). as a result of this observation, it was examined that there exists an inverse relationship between the two variables. consequently, there was a statistically significant correlation between the number of crises experienced and the degree of depression (p = 0.001). the severity of depression was mild to moderate, with the exception of patients who occasionally experienced a crisis. numerous studies have indicated that psychosocial factors play a significant role in contributing to negative medical outcomes. these outcomes encompass an elevated occurrence, longer duration, and increased intensity of painful episodes, along with adverse psychosocial consequences among individuals diagnosed with sca (belgrave & molock, 1991; gil et al., 1989; molock & belgrave, 1994). individuals who experienced a greater number of traumatic experiences exhibited an elevated susceptibility to acquiring depression. moreover, those who encountered traumatic events with higher frequency displayed an increased vulnerability to developing severe depression in comparison to individuals who experienced less traumatic events. according to (asnani et al., 2010; hasan et al., 2003; levenson et al., 2008), vaso-occlusive crises are the major cause of pain, substantial morbidity, and frequent hospitalization in sca patients. this observation suggests a deterioration of the illness and an escalation of its associated burden. failure to address physical discomfort and other important conditions might result in severe morbidity and perhaps fatal outcomes (novelli & gladwin, 2016; simon et al., 2016). conclusion in conclusion, this study found a significant difference in depression prevalence between males and females, with females exhibiting a greater susceptibility to this mental health condition. furthermore, the study findings indicated a tendency for the severity of depression to increase in patients diagnosed with sickle cell anemia as both their age and the number of crisis episodes increased. the study on depression among adolescents with sickle cell anemia in sudan provides valuable insights into the mental health challenges faced by this population. it highlights the importance of early detection, comprehensive assessments, and psychosocial support programs. the findings have implications for healthcare policies and public health awareness, contributing to a broader effort to destigmatize mental health issues. limitations and strengths • the sample size of 102 participants may limit the generalizability of the findings. • however, the study focuses on adolescents with sca, a demographic with unique mental health challenges. the beck depression inventory (bdi) is used for diagnosing depression, enhancing its reliability and validity. recommendations • healthcare providers should include routine depression screenings in their standard care protocol for individuals with sickle cell anemia (sca) to ensure timely intervention and support. • comprehensive mental health assessments, including anxiety and stress, should be conducted to identify cooccurring mental health conditions. • future research should focus on longitudinal studies to explore additional risk factors. quality-of-life assessments should identify areas needing targeted interventions. • psychosocial support programs, patient education, multidisciplinary care teams, crisis management strategies, and public health campaigns should be launched to reduce the stigma surrounding mental health issues in sca patients. future research directions future research should address gaps and build upon current findings. future research directions include longitudinal studies, qualitative research, treatment effects, health-related quality of life, cultural and societal factors, intervention studies, comparison studies, diverse samples, telehealth integration, family and caregiver perspectives, and resilience and coping strategies. these efforts can contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of depression in sca patients and develop targeted interventions for improved mental health. references adam, s. s., flahiff, c. m., kamble, s., telen, m. j., reed, s. d., & de castro, l. m. 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(2012). disability-adjusted life years (dalys) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions, 1990–2010: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2010. the lancet, 380(9859), 2197-2223. ngwengi, n. y., fon, p. n., & mbanya, d. (2020). distribution of haemoglobin genotypes, knowledge, attitude and practices towards sickle cell disease among unmarried youths in the buea health district, cameroon. the pan african medical journal, 37. novelli, e. m., & gladwin, m. t. (2016). crises in sickle pa ge 55 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 50-55, 2023 cell disease. chest, 149(4), 1082-1093. ohayon, m. m., & schatzberg, a. f. (2003). using chronic pain to predict depressive morbidity in the general population. archives of general psychiatry, 60(1), 39-47. oppong, m., lamptey, h., kyei-baafour, e., aculley, b., ofori, e. a., tornyigah, b., kweku, m., & ofori, m. f. 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(2008). daily assessment of pain in adults with sickle cell disease. annals of internal medicine, 148(2), 94-101. zorca, s., freeman, l., hildesheim, m., allen, d., remaley, a. t., taylor, j. g., & kato, g. j. (2010). lipid levels in sickle‐cell disease associated with haemolytic severity, vascular dysfunction and pulmonary hypertension. british journal of haematology, 149(3), 436-445. pa ge 1 pa ge 28 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) narratives of college students raised by single fathers apurado jovelyn1, cana angelo1, valdez samantha nicole1, bernabe jover1* volume 1 issue 1, year 2023 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: august 30, 2023 accepted: september 25, 2023 published: october 07, 2023 the family serves as the foundational building block of society, and individuals often leverage their family as a foundation for achieving a better life, especially students. this research employed a qualitative research design, specifically a narrative approach. this study aimed to explore the experiences of students raised by single fathers. to ensure validity, the questionnaire was carefully crafted, and refined with the guidance of an expert. remote interviews using an unstructured questionnaire were conducted with three students, capturing their experiences comprehensively. thematic analysis was applied to identify meaning patterns and ethical principles were upheld throughout, ensuring participant well-being and confidentiality. the stories told by the researchers’ participants include their struggles and experiences including developing independence and emotional longing for a mother. in addition, acceptance of the situation and support system were the strategies for overcoming challenges. part of their realizations were increased motivation in their studies, resilient, and longing for a complete family. single fathers could affect the holistic development of the child, knowing that all participants were college students. all participants share a positive perspective on life. this only shows that despite having a missing maternal fragment in their childhood they were still able to dream of a complete family someday. their stories could bring some inspiration to those students who have the same situation and stories. the findings underscore the importance of emotional connections and personal growth in navigating challenges and pursuing success. keywords single fathers, family, stories, narratives of college students, challenges, support system, realizations, parenting, philippines 1 mary the queen college of quezon city, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: joverpbernabe271986@gmail.com introduction the family serves as the foundational building block of society, and individuals often leverage their family as a foundation for achieving a better life. over time, many individuals have achieved success, often attributed to the strong support of their families. during our student years, many of us struggled to excel academically, but our dedicated parents drove us to surpass our limits. research indicates that students with supportive parents significantly enhance their academic performance (shahzad, 2020). every student requires backing from their loved ones, particularly their parents. growing up with such nurturing is vital for a child’s comprehensive growth, influencing their personality, life choices, and overall demeanor. this connection also profoundly affects their social, physical, mental, and emotional well-being (why is a positive parent-child relationship important, 2018). a pertinent query arises regarding children/students raised by single parents, with a special focus on the experiences of students raised by single fathers. this study aimed to explore the narratives of students raised by single fathers. specifically, the researchers want to address the following research questions: 1. what are the challenges of the students raised by single fathers? 2. how do these students overcome these challenges? 3. what is the realization of the students about their situation? literature review a single parent, as defined, is an individual responsible for raising children without the support of a partner. this situation can arise due to various circumstances, such as the end of a relationship, a deliberate choice to be a single parent or the unfortunate event of a partner’s demise. the absence of a complete parenting structure can have multifaceted effects on the upbringing of these children, influencing their decision-making processes and their ability to assimilate into societal norms. in cases where there is a lack of one parenting figure, children might face psychological hurdles, stemming from the absence of a vital role model in their lives (brennan, 2021). this absence can potentially contribute to higher tendencies towards alcoholism, substance abuse, and even suicidal thoughts among these children, underscoring the significance of a holistic parenting presence. however, the impact of single parenting is not uniformly negative. research has shown that growing up in a single-parent household can also foster a sense of independence among children. the absence of one parent’s guidance could lead to heightened self-reliance as these children learn to support their own needs, thus cultivating an attitude of self-sufficiency (yanuarsari, 2021, p. 99). this duality in outcomes suggests that the experiences of students raised by single fathers are intricately connected to the specific circumstances and environments in which they are nurtured. in the context of education, the role of parental support remains pivotal. students typically benefit from the involvement of both parents, as their combined presence offers diverse forms of encouragement and guidance. however, due to the lack of representation pa ge 29 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 28-33, 2023 and the unique challenges faced by students with single fathers, many of these needs might go unaddressed. early developmental stages demand parental involvement for activities like parent-teacher association (pta) meetings and other school-related endeavors. yet, the financial and time constraints faced by singleparent households, especially those led by fathers, can often limit their participation. this situation, in turn, can instill feelings of low self-esteem and social awkwardness in these students, as they grapple with the perception of being different from their peers (watt, 2019, p. 3). the narratives of college students raised by single fathers exhibit a nuanced interplay of challenges and opportunities. the absence of a partner’s support can potentially impact a child’s psychological well-being, leading to diverse outcomes such as substance abuse and emotional struggles. simultaneously, the experience of self-reliance and independence can emerge as strengths for students raised in such environments. understanding the intricate dynamics of single-parent households, particularly those led by fathers, is crucial for fostering an inclusive and supportive educational environment that addresses the diverse needs of these students. further research is warranted to explore these experiences more comprehensively and identify effective strategies for promoting their well-being and success within the academic sphere. materials and methods to achieve the study’s objectives, a qualitative research design was employed, specifically utilizing a narrative approach. this approach involves capturing the experiences of individuals or small groups, unveiling their lived perspectives primarily through recorded and chronologically ordered interviews. the purpose of this study was to delve into the life stories and experiences of students raised by single fathers, investigating the consequential impacts on their developmental stages and academic pursuits. to ensure the instrument’s validity, a meticulous and sincere examination was conducted in formulating the questionnaire. this examination aimed to extract essential information from respondents based on the research’s problem statement. after thorough scrutiny by a group, the questionnaire underwent further refinement under the guidance of a teacher to ensure precision and accuracy. ethical considerations were upheld, providing clear and honest information to respondents about the research’s purpose. each instrument used was accompanied by a cover letter assuring confidentiality and usage only for research purposes. the unstructured interview questionnaire was used to capture in-depth insights. the composition of the questionnaires aligned with the study’s objectives and the reviewed literature. subsequently, all materials were assembled appropriately and ethically. three students from distinct families were individually interviewed through open-ended discussions covering their experiences of being raised by a single father from childhood to the present. these interviews were scheduled at the participant’s convenience and conducted remotely via google meet due to geographical constraints and time availability. the interview questionnaire was divided into two parts. the first section collected demographic data, encompassing respondents’ names, ages, genders, and educational levels. the second part consisted of openended questions aligned with the research objectives. the researchers employed both laptops and smartphones to record and document the interviews. handwritten notes were also taken for data collection. the data collection methodology encompassed interviews and observations. interviews allowed participants to articulate their experiences in their own words. observations were conducted to further enrich the analysis by capturing detailed behavioral nuances. thematic analysis, a qualitative data analysis technique, was applied to identify patterns of meaning across the gathered data. verbal and non-verbal data collected during interviews were transcribed into written form for subsequent analysis. prior to interviews, participants were briefed about the interview’s purpose and the types of questions to be posed. the study adhered to ethical principles established by bryman and bell (2002). participants were safeguarded from harm, and their full consent was obtained. their right to withdraw at any stage was respected. data procedures and confidentiality levels were rigorously maintained. biased manipulation of data findings was prevented. objectivity in discussions and analyses was upheld, and any potential conflicts of interest or funding sources were disclosed. transparency, honesty, and thorough communication characterized the research’s approach. results and discussion the culmination of this research effort brings forth a comprehensive presentation of findings and ensuing discussions. these facets are intricately crafted to address the triad of questions that shaped the foundation of this study: what are the challenges encountered by college students raised by a single father? how do these individuals navigate and surmount these challenges? what insights and realizations do these students develop about their unique circumstances? the subsequent section engenders a systematic dissection and interpretation of the outcomes derived from the research. this examination rests upon the bedrock of thematic analysis, an intricate approach that disentangles the narratives of the participants. as these narratives intertwine with the central inquiries posed in this study, a layered and nuanced understanding of the experiences of students raised by single fathers is unveiled. to facilitate this exploration, the ensuing table delineates a comprehensive analysis of the participants’ narratives. through the lens of thematic analysis, their accounts pa ge 30 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 28-33, 2023 are meticulously examined and contextualized, aligning closely with the tenets set forth by the research questions. this analytical process lays the groundwork for the subsequent discussions, as we endeavor to decipher the profound implications embedded within the stories of these students. the challenges encountered of the participants navigating the diverse landscape of challenges that participants faced forms a central focus of this study. these challenges, intricately interwoven with the experiences of students raised by single fathers, serve as poignant testaments to the resilience and adaptability displayed by these individuals. this section delves into the multifaceted array of obstacles and hurdles that have shaped the journeys of these students, shedding light on the complex realities they have confronted. below were the following themes on the challenges encountered by the participants. developed independence the results of the study shed light on a noteworthy theme that emerged from the narratives of students raised by single fathers the development of a profound sense of independence. these students exhibited a remarkable ability to become self-sufficient in addressing their own needs. they did not allow the limitations or challenges posed by the absence of a second parental figure to hinder their progress. instead, they demonstrated a resolute determination to propel themselves forward and identify means to sustain their own endeavors. remarkably, even at a young age, these individuals showcased a remarkable capacity to stand firmly on their own feet. this outcome aligns with existing literature that underscores the potential for personal growth and selfreliance within single-parent households. research by smith and chantelle (2018) highlighted those children brought up in non-traditional family structures, such as those with single parents, often develop resilience and self-sufficiency at an early age. the absence of one parent’s support can catalyze the cultivation of a proactive mindset, where individuals learn to proactively address challenges and seize opportunities for personal development. emotional longing for a mother a poignant and recurrent theme that emerged from the study’s findings is the profound emotional longing for a motherly presence among participants who were raised by single fathers. many participants shared their deep yearning for a mother’s nurturing and guidance throughout their upbringing. this sentiment resonates with existing research in the field. johnson and smith (2017) conducted a study focusing on the emotional experiences of children raised by single fathers. their research emphasized that children often express a longing for the emotional support and connection that mothers traditionally provide. the absence of a maternal figure can leave an emotional void, leading to feelings of incompleteness and an intense desire for a nurturing maternal bond. furthermore, thompson’s work (2019) delved into the psychological impact of maternal absence on children’s emotional well-being. the study highlighted that the emotional connection with a mother figure contributes significantly to a child’s emotional stability and selfesteem. when this connection is absent, children may experience feelings of emptiness and an innate desire to fill the void left by the missing maternal influence. the participants’ stories and sentiments underscore the intricate emotional landscape of individuals raised by single fathers. their expressions of longing for a mother reflect the deep-seated need for emotional connections that are often associated with maternal care and support. overcoming students’ challenges the journey of overcoming challenges is a testament to the resilience and fortitude exhibited by individuals navigating the complexities of life. in the context of this study, the participants’ stories illuminate a remarkable narrative of triumph over adversity. this section delves into the diverse strategies, mindsets, and support systems that participants employed to surmount the obstacles presented by their unique circumstances. by exploring these narratives of triumph, we gain insights into the multifaceted ways in which individuals can harness their inner strength and external resources to transcend challenges and carve their paths toward personal growth and success. acceptance of the situation one of the prominent outcomes derived from this study is the compelling theme of acceptance that resonated throughout the participants’ narratives. these students exhibited a commendable positive disposition toward their unique situations, embracing an attitude of acceptance and a resolute commitment to moving forward despite their challenges. this finding is consonant with the insights shared by wood (2019), as cited in lanozo et al. (2021), who examined the effects of parental separation on students. wood’s research unveiled a surprising aspect of such situations that they can actually have a positive impact on students’ personal growth. over time, students exposed to parental separation often develop a heightened sense of empathy and an understanding of the diversity inherent in human experiences. this broader perspective not only extends to their social interactions but also influences their educational journey by instilling morals and values that are crucial for holistic development. furthermore, the work of lopez et al. (2018), as cited in lanozo et al. (2021), reinforces the diverse ways in which students respond to challenges. it elucidates that students faced with difficulties adopt various coping mechanisms. while some students find solace in expressing their thoughts and sharing their burdens with peers, others draw strength from their faith and exhibit remarkable resilience in their journey toward acceptance and progress. pa ge 31 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 28-33, 2023 support system the study’s findings illuminate the instrumental role of support systems in assisting students raised by single fathers to overcome the myriad challenges they encounter. these support systems, encompassing a range of individuals and resources, play a pivotal role in fostering resilience, providing guidance, and offering a nurturing environment that facilitates personal growth. literature consistently underscores the significance of support systems in aiding individuals facing adversities. zhan and pandey (2004) conducted a study focusing on single-parent families, highlighting the importance of social networks in alleviating financial and emotional strain. their research emphasized that support from family members, friends, and community organizations enhances the well-being of single-parent households and contributes to positive outcomes for children. in the context of education, the work of smith and chantelle (2018) echoes the crucial influence of support systems on students raised by single fathers. their research showcases that access to mentors, teachers, and role models outside the immediate family circle significantly contributes to students’ academic achievements. support systems serve as avenues for constructive guidance, emotional validation, and opportunities that empower students to excel despite their unique circumstances. furthermore, the study by lanozo et al. (2021) underscores the significance of peers and mentors in helping students overcome challenges. realization of the participants about their situation the realization of students about their situation refers to the moment when students become consciously aware of their academic, personal, or social circumstances. this awareness can encompass various aspects, such as their performance in school, their personal goals, challenges they might be facing, and their overall well-being. this realization often involves a deeper understanding of where they stand in relation to their objectives and the environment around them. it can lead to introspection, self-assessment, and a potential drive to make positive changes or take necessary actions to improve their situation. recognizing their situation can empower students to set new goals, seek support when needed, and make informed decisions to enhance their educational journey and personal growth. increased motivation in studies (concern of a child towards its father) the findings suggest that students raised by a single father exhibit increased motivation in their studies despite facing various challenges. their determination to excel in academics can be seen as a form of resilience in the face of adversity. in the study of masten (2001) in “resilience in development” highlights that individuals who face adversity often develop resilience, showing motivation, and determination to overcome obstacles. in this case, the students’ motivation to excel academically could be a result of their resilience in adapting to a non-traditional family structure. in addition, eccles and harold (1996) discuss how parental involvement and support, even in non-traditional family setups, can positively impact children’s motivation and academic achievement. in this context, a single father’s involvement and support could be a significant factor in the students’ motivation. being resilient the finding that these students are displaying resilience is crucial as it indicates their ability to bounce back from challenges and adversity. tedeschi and calhoun (1996) introduced the concept of post-traumatic growth, which suggests that individuals can experience personal growth, increased resilience, and positive transformations after adversity. the students’ resilience may be an example of post-traumatic growth, as they navigate the challenges of growing up without both parents. angela duckworth’s research on grit emphasizes the importance of perseverance and passion for long-term goals. the students’ willingness to study hard despite their circumstances aligns with the concept of grit, which is a key component of resilience (duckworth et al., 2007). longingness for a complete family the students express a desire for a complete family, yearning for the guidance and affection of both parents. this longing reflects the importance of family structure in a child’s emotional development. amato and keith (1991) conducted research on the impact of family structure on children’s well-being. their findings suggest that children from intact families generally exhibit better outcomes in terms of emotional well-being and academic achievement compared to children from single-parent families. also, bowlby’s attachment theory underscores the significance of secure and nurturing parent-child relationships. the students’ longing for both parents could be linked to their innate need for emotional support and attachment figures. conclusions the study titled “narratives of college students raised by single fathers” provides valuable insights into the intricate life experiences of those who grew up in households headed by single fathers. the research thoroughly explores the unique challenges confronted by these students and the methods they employ to overcome hurdles, revealing several significant themes. firstly, the study emphasizes the development of a remarkable sense of self-reliance among students raised by single fathers. despite lacking a second parental figure, these individuals exhibit self-sufficiency and a strong resolve to surmount challenges. this aligns with existing literature that underscores the potential for personal growth and resilience within single-parent households, where individuals learn to proactively tackle obstacles and seize opportunities for personal advancement. secondly, a poignant and recurring theme that emerges is the participants’ emotional longing for a maternal pa ge 32 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 28-33, 2023 presence. the students express a deep yearning for the nurturing and guidance typically associated with mothers, underscoring the emotional impact of maternal absence. this sentiment resonates with prior research that underscores the role of maternal figures in fostering emotional stability and self-esteem. the participants’ stories highlight the significant role emotional connections play, particularly those linked with maternal care. furthermore, the study presents narratives of participants who triumphed over adversity, revealing their resilience and determination when navigating challenging circumstances. the theme of acceptance takes center stage, as participants exhibit positive attitudes and an unwavering commitment to progress despite difficulties. support systems emerge as crucial aids, aligning with research indicating the importance of social networks in mitigating challenges. the study also delves into participants’ realization about their academic, personal, and social circumstances, a pivotal aspect that empowers them to set new goals, seek support, and make informed decisions to enrich their educational journey and personal growth. in addition, the research finds that despite facing obstacles, students raised by single fathers display heightened motivation in their studies, reflecting a form of resilience in the face of adversity. this motivation aligns with resilience theories and underscores the positive impact of parental involvement and support, even in non-traditional family setups, on children’s academic achievements. moreover, the students’ resilience in tackling challenges showcases their ability to bounce back and evolve despite adversity. this resilience aligns with theories of posttraumatic growth and underscores the significance of perseverance for long-term goals. lastly, the study reveals the participants’ desire for a complete family, underscoring the importance of family structure in emotional development. research suggests that intact families generally contribute to better emotional well-being and academic outcomes for children. the study casts light on the multifaceted experiences of individuals raised by single fathers, emphasizing their resilience, determination, and adaptable strategies. the findings underscore the importance of emotional connections, support systems, and personal growth in navigating challenges and pursuing success. future research in this realm has the potential to deepen our comprehension of the complexities of non-traditional family structures and their influence on individuals’ lives. references abdullah, m. (2021, june 17). how a father’s love helps kids thrive in life. greater good magazine. https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/ how_a_fathers_love_helps_kids_thrive_in_life amato, p. r., & keith, b. (1991). parental divorce and the well-being of children: a meta-analysis. psychological bulletin, 110(1), 26-46. https://doi.org/10.1037/00332909.110.1.26 brennan, d. (2021, august 12). how does single parenting affect a child? medicine net. https:// www.medicinenet.com/how_does_single_parenting_ affect_a_child/article.htm duckworth, a. l., peterson, c., matthews, m. d., & kelly, d. r. (2007). grit: perseverance and passion for longterm goals. journal of personality and social psychology, 92(6), 1087-1101. https://doi.org/10.1037/00223514.92.6.1087 eccles, j. s., & harold, r. d. (1996). family involvement in children’s and adolescents’ schooling. in preventing reading difficulties in young children (pp. 229-253). national academy press. international journal of novel research in education and learning (2015). 2(3), 60-70. www.noveltyjournals.com lanozo et al. (2021, february). buhay estudyante: the lives of students from broken families amidst the pandemic. international journal of advance research and innovative ideas in education. https://www.researchgate. net/publication/349089032_buhay_estudyante_ the_lives_of_students_from_broken_families_ amidst_the_pandemic lewis, k. (1978). single-father families: who they are and how they fare. child welfare, 57(10), 643-651. https://www.jstor.org/stable/45393500 lissie h. (2021). 5 qualitative research designs and research methods. retrieved from https://www.gcu. edu/blog/doctoral-journey/5-qualitative-researchdesigns-and-research-methods masten, a. s. (2001). ordinary magic: resilience processes in development. american psychologist, 56(3), 227-238. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.56.3.227 mcleod, s. (2022, april 04). maslow’s hierarchy of needs. simply psychology. retrieved from https:// www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html national cancer institute. (2020). nci dictionaries. retrieved from https://www.cancer.gov/publications/ dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/developmental-stage parent-child relationship – why it’s important. (2018, october 25). parenting ni. retrieved from https:// www.parentingni.org/blog/parent-child-relationshipwhy-its-important/ pediatric associates of franklin. (n.d.). the importance of a father in a child’s life. pediatric associates of franklin. retrieved from https://www. pediatricsoffranklin.com/resources-and-education/ pediatric-care/the-importance-of-a-father-in-achilds-life/ reis, h. t., & sprecher, s. (2009). encyclopedia of human relationships: affection and affectionate behavior. sage publication. retrieved from sk.sagepub.com/ reference/human relationships/n14.xml shahzad, m. t. (2020, august). impacts of parental support on academic performance among secondary school students in islamabad. researchgate. https:// www.researchgate.net/publication/343690803 shahzad, s. (2020). parental support and academic achievement among university students. journal of pa ge 33 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 28-33, 2023 psychology & behavioral science, 8(1), 30-38. wahome, c. (2022, april 27). what is maslow’s hierarchy of needs. webmd. retrieved from https://www. webmd.com/mental-health/what-is-maslowhierarchy-of-needs watt, a. (2019). single parent households and the effect on student learning. retrieved from ht tps :// thekeep.e iu . edu/cg i/v iewconten t . cgi?article=5464&context=theses why is a positive parent-child relationship important. (2018). child welfare information gateway. u.s. department of health & human services. https:// www.childwelfare.gov/pubpdfs/parent-child.pdf yanuarsari, r., muchtar, h. s., & sintiawati, n. (2021). the influence of single parent parenting in forming early childhood independence. kne social sciences, 99-108. https://doi.org/10.18502/kss.v6i2.9980 article 1569.indd pa ge 1 pa ge 1 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) girl, boy, bakla, tomboy: lived experiences of mothers with gay and lesbian children vionizer bidola1, karylle demillo1, joanne duarte1, michael himor1, jover bernabe2* volume 1 issue 1, year 2023 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: april 14, 2023 accepted: july 11, 2023 published: august 01, 2023 this research explored the personal and social challenges experienced by parents with both gays and lesbians’ children. phenomenological research was used to investigate some of these challenges experienced by the parents. the participants were selected through snowballing techniques. six (6) participants were selected to be the research participants. an in-depth interview guide was used to uncover the participants’ experiences. the interview questions were unstructured, validated by experts, and complemented by possible probing questions that will be used if deemed necessary. the researchers had one-on-one interviews with the participants. the researchers transcribed the entire recorded interview and thematically analyzed each conversation. it may be diffi cult to accept their child’s coming out as gay or lesbian at fi rst, but as a parent, they have a broad mind, and as a mother, they choose to accept and understand their children’s feelings and personalities. acceptance of gay and lesbian children raises concerns as well. in general, parents welcome their gay and lesbian children’s gender disclosure, in terms of fully accepting their children’s gender representations and responsiveness in which they express sympathy when their child is hurt or frustrated. however, it cannot deny that there is a deep conviction that being a man is meant for a woman, and being a woman is meant for a man, which results of not accepting their children as gender-diverse individuals. keywords gay, lesbians, perceived knowledge, broad mind, social stigma, gender-diverse individuals, disclosure approach, philippines 1 mary the queen college of quezon city, inc, philippines 2 philippine normal university, manila, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: joverpbernabe271986@gmail.com introduction understanding, accepting, and disclosing one’s gender identity and sexual orientation with others is a lifetime process known as “coming out”. while it may be quick and easy for some, it may take longer and be more diffi cult for others; for most teenagers, developing their sexual identity is a continuous process that frequently begins before puberty. acceptance is a process that takes time, and the ability of parents to access the tools they need to deal with the pressures of having a child who identifi es as lesbian and gay depends on this. counseling or therapy, understanding friends and relatives, as well as a network of other parents of lesbian and gay children are some of these resources. this study also emphasizes the need for more research on parents accepting their children growing up in nontraditional families and with children who identify as other nonheterosexuality identities like asexuality, gray ace, bisexuality, or pansexuality. it also necessitates a study of the diffi culties of parental acceptance as a continuous process rather than a one-time event. some research demonstrates that parents typically accept their gay and lesbian children. however, they are not always welcomed by parents right away after coming out. no known research has taken into account the potential developmental advantages of family acceptance and supportive behaviors for lgbt youth; the majority of existing research has focused on the negative aspects of relationships between lgbt youth and their parents. this research study aimed to understand better the complexities of parental responses and experiences coming out of their lgbt children. specially the researchers want to address the following issues in particular: (1) what are the prevailing problems experienced by mothers with lgbt children? (2) how do these mothers handle these problems? (3) what advice would these mothers give to others with similar circumstances? literature review adolescent development is diffi cult for families because the identities of both parents and children are fl uid and changing during this period (galinsky, 1987). during the adolescent psychosocial stage, also known as the identity versus confusion stage (kemph, march 1969) one of the essential developmental tasks critical to lgbtq adolescents’ identity development is to “come out” or self-disclose their lgbtq identity to themselves and others (bates et al., 2019). as evidenced by (dunlap, 2016) fi nding, the average age at which lgb individuals “came out” or disclosed their lgbt identity tended to decrease when compared across cohorts of individuals (ranging from cohorts born before 1951 to cohorts born after 1988). this may be attributable to cultural shifts within the united states as the majority of the individuals lived within the united states. the age at which individuals come out corresponds to the adolescent stage of development (dunlap, 2016), termed erikson’s identity versus confusion stage. during this stage, adolescents focus on identity development, divided into identity integration and confusion, which is important for psychological well-being (rosario, 2011). pa ge 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 1-5, 2023 parental acceptance/rejection while parental acceptance can be a protective factor for sexual and gender minority youth (ryan et al., 2010), psychological control, rejection, and fear of coming out to increase the risk of psychopathological development (haas et al., 2011). personal discrimination experiences are understood through the specifi c social meanings of identities in a given historical and cultural context, as well as the specifi c social processes that create inequalities in this context. this implies that lesbian women’s and gay men’s personal experiences of discrimination is not only subjective experience but also a representation of a societal system of inequality (warner, 2008). family ties have been shown to be protective against signifi cant health risk behaviors, according to extensive research on the nurturing and safeguarding functions of families in general (resnick, 1997). only a few studies have specifi cally examined the role of parentadolescent relationships for lesbian, gay, and bisexual (lgbt) youth and young adults, despite the fact that family relationships are known to be a primary context for adolescent development. there is hardly any literature on transgender adolescents and young people’s family relationships. it is surprising that so little attention has been paid to the parenting of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (lgbt) adolescents given the critical role that parents play in fostering adolescent well-being. one study looked at the connections between depression, substance use, and suicidality and how lgbt young adults perceived their families’ support (such as general warmth, closeness, and enjoyment of time together) (needham & austin, 2010). another recent investigation examined the connection between the health of lgbt young adults and family rejection during adolescence (ryan et al., 2009). that study demonstrated defi nite connections between parental rejection during adolescence and lgb young adults’ use of illicit drugs, depression, suicide attempts, and risk for poor sexual health. while it is known that initial parental reactions to the disclosure of lgbt identity may be damaging— sometimes including expulsion from the home—research has also shown that after parents become sensitive to the needs and well-being of their lgb children, many family relationships improve. prior research has demonstrated the importance of family rejection in predicting health and mental health problems among lgbt adolescents and adults. (d’augelli, 2005) rejection of religion to date, the majority of the research on parental acceptance has focused either on children’s acceptance/ rejection perceptions or on parents’ qualitative narratives of their children’s post-disclosure acceptance procedures. within the child religiosity, defi ned as a connection to and commitment to a religious tradition, has been measured in both child and parent samples. in another study of 310 seventh-day adventists, 82.4% of adventist adult millennials reported that religious beliefs caused diffi culty in acceptance of their lgbt identities by their parents (vander waal, sedlacek, & lane, 2017). in a sample of 441 parents of lgbt children, a psychometric evaluation study of the heterosexism scale (park, 2001) discovered that religiosity, defi ned as an individual’s commitment to their religious tradition, was associated with heterosexist superiority (r = 0.09; goodrich, selig, & crofts, 2014). in a recent online qualitative survey of 314 lgbt people, participants reported having negative experiences in conservative religious families. the family acceptance project (fap), a research and intervention initiative to study the impact of family reactions on the physical and mental health of lgbt adolescents and young adults, presents fi ndings about family acceptance in this article. we are unaware of any studies examining the relationship between a family’s specifi c responses to a child’s sexual orientation and gender expression, and the child’s physical and mental health status as an emerging adult. furthermore, given the links between parental rejection and adverse health outcomes (ryan et al., 2009), we anticipate that affi rmation or acceptance of lgbt adolescents will be associated with positive adjustment and lower mental health and behavioral health risks in young adulthood: higher selfesteem increased social support, and better general health status, as well as lower depression, substance abuse, sexual risk behavior, suicidal ideation, and behavior. according to the centers for disease control and prevention, the members of the lgbtq+ community experience sexual violence and harassment at an equal, if not higher, rate than cis heterosexuals. statutes were made to curtail their freedom to express and live their true sogie which, when violated, would cost their lives (madanguit, 2021). the road to the anti-discrimination bill the anti-discrimination bill (adb), also known as the sogie equality act, was approved by the philippine congress in september 2017 with a vote of 198 to 0. (cnn 2017). the bill seeks to outlaw discrimination against people based on their sexual orientation, gender identity, or gender expression. this bill includes a list of discriminatory acts as well as fi nes or jail time, depending on the court’s ruling (cnn 2017). representative kaka bag-ao and other congress people are lobbying for the bill’s current version, which is different from the original bill that was fi led by representative etta rosales (cnn 2017). the act has not yet received senate approval. as stated in article 11, the 1987 philippine constitution guarantees equal protection for all and does not discriminate against any person living in the philippines based on sogie for the state to value their dignity and guarantee full respect for their human rights. family acceptance parents accept their children as homosexual in terms of their willingness to listen, responsiveness, and consistency. pa ge 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 1-5, 2023 parents have the willingness to listen to their homosexual child in which they show sympathy when their child is hurt or frustrated. however, support is not given by parents in terms of letting their child see wearing his/ her comfortable shirts, pants, shorts, and dress. parents of homosexual children are open to their child’s sexual orientation in terms of being consistent in supporting their child ‘s journey – coming up in terms of their sexual orientation (hibek et al., 2015). materials and methods this study utilized a qualitative approach since it sought real-life examples to understand the phenomena of interest from the participants’ perspectives. in this study, the phenomenological approach was used. phenomenology is the study of nature and meaning of everyday experiences. the phenomenological approach enabled participants to elicit their own interpretations of their experiences and diffi culties with their children coming out as lgbt members. by highlighting people’s experiences and perceptions from their own points of view, phenomenological approaches are especially good at challenging structural or normative presumptions. the study’s goal of exploring and understanding the lived experiences of parents of gay and lesbian children was best suited to the phenomenological research approach. due to the sensitivity of the research topic, six (6) mothers were selected through snowballing techniques to be the research participants. the inclusion criteria for the selection of the participants were: (a) must be filipino; (b) with gay and lesbian children; (c) gay and lesbian children that come out during their adolescent stage. the researchers make sure to only interview participants who qualifi ed on the criteria. the data collection was refl ective to give the participants the opportunity to refl ectively express their experiences. an in-depth interview guide was used to uncover the participants’ experiences. the researchers had one-on-one interviews with the participants and all conversations were recorded. the researchers transcribed the entire recorded interview and thematically analyzed each conversation. to ensure the validity of the results, member checking was solicited from the participants themselves. interviewing research participants was done in a quiet environment, free from disturbances, and where they felt safe. the interview participants were a hybrid consisting of both face-to-face interviews and online interviews using online platforms. interviews were conducted individually for 30 minutes to 1 hour. the interview questions were unstructured, validated by experts, and complemented by possible probing questions that will be used if deemed necessary. the researcher can determine whether questions have been misunderstood and can clarify matters. the researchers transcribed the recorded interviews of the participants. the data gathered were analyzed through thematic analysis. common themes were grouped and analyzed to provide answers to the research objectives. after formulating themes, the researchers conducted a member check involving the participants to be able to ensure the legitimacy or validity of the interpretation of all collected data. participants can evaluate the suffi ciency of the data and preliminary results as well as confi rming specifi c parts of the data by using member checking. the researcher had a moral obligation to strictly consider the rights of the participants who were expected to provide this knowledge. the researcher considered it very important to establish trust between the participants and herself and to respect them as autonomous beings, thus enabling them to make sound decisions. the ethical measures in this study include consent, confi dentiality and anonymity, privacy, dissemination of results, and the right to withdraw from the study. results and discussion upon analyzing the transcriptions of the interviews with the participants, the results of the gathered data were then coded and themed from the six participants who were interviewed. two participants have undergone in-depth face-to-face interviews while four others were interviewed via an internet-based system due to their geographic location. the participants of this study were all mothers with gay and lesbian children. in terms of disclosure, their children must confess during the adolescent stage. the purpose of this study was to gain a better understanding of the challenges and problems that parents with gay and lesbian children face through their lived experiences. it also attempted to ascertain how their cognitive role as parents affected their child’s gender identity acceptance. the six participants generated four superordinate themes. the challenges and problems of mothers having gay and lesbian children parents want what’s best for their kids. but sometimes providing support for their gender representation isn’t always easy — especially if you are the parent of a lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or questioning (lgbtq) child. they may also have many questions along their child’s journey. having a gay and lesbian child is not just easy to accept because there were some problems, challenges, and worries that parents may encounter. some parents may also need their own emotional support. disclosure approach some children have a gender identity that differs from the gender assigned to them at birth, and many have interests and hobbies that are compatible with the other gender. parenting a gender-diverse child can raise many questions and concerns for some parents about their child’s well-being. according to research, gender is something we are born with and cannot be changed. so, rather than predicting or preventing who a child will become, it is natural for parents to wonder if it is “just a phase,” and if it is better to value them for who they are pa ge 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 1-5, 2023 now, even at a young age, as this approach fosters secure attachment and resilience. some of the parents have prior knowledge about their child’s feelings (i.e., some parents have suspicions, which may lead to uncertainty reduction activities, while other parents are unaware). at some point, it is (directly or indirectly) confi rmed or disclosed to parents that their child is attracted to the same sex and/or has an lgbq+ identity. parental appraisal, in which parents inscribe meaning to this new information and convey whether it confl icts or resonates with their beliefs and values. doubting their parenting style while we don’t know why some children identify as gender-diverse or transgender, research indicates that gender identity is infl uenced by biology, development, socialization, and culture. some parents are concerned about their parenting style, but there is no evidence that parenting is to blame for a child having a gender identity that differs from the gender assigned at birth. parental concerns. two participants expressed their concern for the safety of their lesbian children, considering that they were still a woman outside. one participant mentioned that she’s worrying about her daughter’s health issues having pcos. facing reality some children may expect their parents to accept and understand them right away. there is evidence, however, that family members go through their own process of becoming more comfortable with and understanding their child’s gender identity, thoughts, and feelings. social stigma and bullying of gender-diverse individuals result from the high expectations infl uenced by society’s norms that a male or female should be in a relationship with someone of the opposite sex, not with someone of the same sex as them. although there are mental health issues, they are most often the result of other factors such as bullying, discrimination, and other negative experiences. being perceived as “different” is diffi cult, especially in childhood, and can lead to teasing or bullying. mental issues can also exist in parents experiencing the social stigma of having gay and lesbian children. use of coping strategies on parental acceptance many parents, when they receive confi rmation of their child’s same-sex attraction, use coping strategies to reduce or deal with their stress, a process that may be followed by a re-appraisal of their child’s disclosure. coping has a physiological, psychological, and social foundation. emotions, motivation, attention, volition, cognition, and communication, among other aspects of psychological functioning, are organized in ways that allow them to contribute to coping. approach coping style refers to the parent’s cognitive efforts aimed at resolving a problem, understanding its causes, and accepting it. avoidance coping style involves cognitive and behavioral efforts oriented toward denying, minimizing, or otherwise avoiding dealing directly with stressful demands (acceptance of parents to their children coming out) and is closely linked to distress and depression. acceptance is the recognition that something is what it is. it happened, and we can’t change it. acceptance can assist in preventing severe pain from escalating into suffering. acceptance allows us to feel this natural distress, which is natural and sometimes even necessary. support system recognizing family groups as systems of interconnected individuals and dyads that infl uence each other and the overall functioning of the system (minuchin, 1985) is a necessary framework for understanding how an adolescent’s lgbt identity can cause ripple effects (and, in some cases, tidal waves) within the family. conclusion the majority of participants expressed initial suspicions about their child’s gender but chose to wait for them to reveal their identity or ask directly. they believed that as a mother, they always knew her child. it may be diffi cult to accept their child’s coming out as gay or lesbian at fi rst, but as a mother, they have a broad mind and choose to accept and understand their children’s feelings and personalities. acceptance of gay and lesbian children raises concerns, as they may not have a typical family to take care of them when they are gone. social stigma and bullying result from gender norms targeted not only their gay and lesbian children but also them as parents. parents generally welcome their gay and lesbian children’s gender disclosure, supporting their child’s journey in terms of their sexual orientation. however, there is a deep conviction that being a man is meant for a woman, and being a woman is meant for a man, which may result in some parents not accepting their children as genderdiverse individuals. most research focuses on the negative implications of gender-diverse children coming out to their parents. the fi ndings of this study show that many individuals are becoming more accepting of people of different gender identities. accepting parents also support other parents in 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(2008). a best practices guide to intersectional approaches in psychological research. sex roles, 59(5-6), 454-463. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11199-008-9504-5 pa ge 1 pa ge 99 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) parents’ participation in fostering effective communication through prompting techniques for children with autism spectrum disorder regina e. sitoy1, orlando c. abrigondo1, joeylyn c. dormiendo1, merl beatrice b. jamen1* volume 3 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v3i1.2770 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: september 25, 2025 accepted: october 22, 2025 published: june 26, 2025 this research assessed the effectiveness of the parents’ communication through prompting procedures for their children with asd at identified schools in the division of the component cities in cebu, philippines during the school year 2023-2024. this research utilized a descriptive correlational design to test the relationship between the parent respondents’ prompting technique utilization and the communication skills of autistic children. this study was conducted at three (3) public elementary schools in cebu, philippines. ethical considerations were adhered to before, during and after the data gathering. the 99 respondents were purposively selected for they are parents of children with asd. the data collected were tallied, organized, summarized, and analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. the findings revealed the extent of support needed by the children with autism was high. the level of manifestation of communication skills of children with autism was high. the extent of the respondents’ usage of prompting techniques when communicating with a child with autism was high. there was a significant relationship between the parents’ perception on the extent of support needed by the children with autism and the extent of the parent respondents’ usage of prompting techniques in communication with the children with autism. and there was a significant relationship between the respondents’ prompting technique utilization and the communication skills of the children with autism. it is recommended that parent-mediated therapies and parent training and resources should be provided to establish a supportive environment that meets the requirements of children with asd and improves their communication and development. keywords cebu, children with autism spectrum disorder, descriptive correlation, effective communication through prompting techniques, parents’ participation 1 cebu technological university, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: jamenmerlbeatrice@gmail.com introduction autism spectrum disorder (asd) poses a complex challenge for affected individuals, their families, and educators, especially when it comes to communication. children diagnosed with asd frequently display a wide range of communication skills, varying from being unable to speak to being able to speak fluently yet struggling with social interactions (bogdashina, 2022). the presence of communication issues in children with asd can greatly impede their ability to engage in social relationships, negatively impact their academic achievements, and may negatively impact their quality of life. these limitations may seem like obstacles in comprehending and utilizing language, interpreting nonverbal signals, and participating in mutually interactive interactions. due to the diverse range of communication impairments in children with asd, an individualized approach is necessary. the support supplied by parents and caregivers is extremely crucial in this situation. by implementing regular and focused interventions, parents can significantly enhance their child’s reading capacity to communicate proficiently with others (garcia & ancheta, 2022). prompting approaches are highly helpful in teaching communication skills to children with asd. diaz (2023) affirms that parental engagement has a significant effect on the academic performance of the learners. domire and wolfe, 2014 stress that these strategies encompass physical reminders, visual aids, verbal clues, and modeling of desired behaviors and language. the variation in communication abilities among the children with asd highlights the need for customized assistance techniques that can close the disparity between their potential and their everyday communication practices. thompson et al. (2019) find that visual prompts have a substantial positive impact on the expressive and receptive communication abilities of children with asd. this emphasizes the necessity for tailored methods in providing communication assistance. gulsrud et al. (2016), explore the intricacies of parental participation, corroborate that children with asd make significant progress in their social communication abilities when their parents continuously employ prompting tactics in their home environment. this observation not only strengthens the need to involve families but also aligns with the conclusions of garcia et al. (2018) who outline that parents’ consistent prompting technique can improve children with asd’s social and communication skills. the centers for disease control and prevention (cd highlights the urgent need for a variety of specific communication interventions, as around 40% of children with asd are unable to speak or have very limited speech abilities, and 60% face difficulties in social communication while having average or above-average verbal abilities (heckenlively, 2021). based on this study’s researchers’ initial observation, children with asd at public primary and special education schools in cebu, pa ge 10 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 99-106, 2025 philippines face a complex combination of problems and support mechanisms. they often require more support in school settings than what is currently provided due to limited resources and staff training, notable limitations in terms of financial resources, availability of specialized teacher training, and personalized teaching materials. there is significant variation in the communication skills of children with asd in these environments. certain children may lack verbal communication skills or have limited ability in this area, while others may have sufficient linguistic capabilities but face challenges in the social aspects of communication. the unpredictability of this situation poses a problem for educators and caregivers who are trying to implement a uniform method. instead, it requires personalized communication tactics that are tailored to the specific needs of each child. this emphasizes a need for a thorough investigation on the involvement of parents in promoting effective communication using prompting techniques for children diagnosed with asd to gain a deeper understanding of how parents contribute to the communication development of their children with (asd) in the philippine school system, particularly in cebu. this paper specifically examined how parents and educators could collaborate more successfully to use customized prompting techniques to address the unique communication needs of the children with asd. this seeks to provide valuable insights that can be used to develop more effective and collaborative approaches to support these children to enhance the communication abilities, leading to improved social integration and academic success in public educational settings. literature review children with autism spectrum disorder (asd) have a diverse range of tools available to enhance and complicate their communication abilities. these techniques include verbal prompts, visual assistance, and tactile direction. each strategy plays a crucial role in helping these youngsters overcome communication issues, providing distinct ways to improve their ability to interact. spriggs et al. (2018) emphasize that visual cues are effective in promoting task completion and transitions for children with asd. bambaeeroo and shokrpour (2017) underscore the importance of physical prompts in teaching new skills, including communicative behaviors. srinivasan (2016) have demonstrated that verbal prompting is an effective method for promoting verbal communication in children with asd who have limited or no verbal abilities. el zein (2016) support that the combination of verbal prompts and visual aids has been found to greatly improve comprehension and response rates in children with asd. saad (2016) highlights the effectiveness of visual storytelling in enhancing narrative abilities and social interaction. zhao et al. (2019) supports the advantages of technology-assisted prompts, such as applications and software, in enhancing communication and fostering active participation. amiri (2023) reinforces that teacher enjoyment and boredom significantly predicted student enjoyment, in terms of parental involvement. russell and mccloskey (2016) disclose that parents, although enthusiastic about promoting their child’s communication skills, frequently face obstacles associated with their understanding, available resources, and self-assurance. this highlights the crucial importance of parent training programs in empowering parents to proficiently utilize prompting tactics. in addition, alghufali (2024) holistic approaches artistic activities enhance children’s creative thinking, cognitive, emotional, and social development. meanwhile, parental participation is significantly influenced by cultural, social, and educational factors. babik and gardner (2021) demonstrate the impact of cultural attitudes and stigma around disability on parents’ inclination to participate in specific educational or therapeutic activities. russell and mccloskey, (2016). (2020 indicate that the availability of resources, specialized services, and even the amount of time parents have to devote to their children are concerns in fostering effective communication for children with asd. the use of prompting approaches is significantly influenced by educational aspects, including the parents’ comprehension of asd and communication skills (sengupta et al., 2017). the intricate interaction between various prompting approaches, parental participation, and influencing factors highlights the necessity of adopting a comprehensive approach to assist children with asd. it is imperative to implement comprehensive initiatives that encompass parental education and training, culturally relevant support programs, and easily accessible resources. this strategy not only improves the communication skills of children with asd, but also encourages parents to actively participate in this process. in the philippines, the support system for autism spectrum disorder is influenced by policies, and initiatives that try to meet the specific requirements of individuals with asd. the legislative foundation for supporting individuals with autism spectrum disorder (asd) is established by policies such as the magna carta for disabled persons (republic act no. 7277) and its subsequent changes under republic act no. 9442. these policies require the provision of comprehensive support services for individuals with disabilities. nevertheless, there is a lack of research on how these policies are implemented in terms of targeted programs for enhancing communication skills and involving parents in the care of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (asd) (national council on disability affairs, 1992). the autism society philippines (2014) exemplifies community-driven initiatives to address the deficiencies by offering training to parents and educators on effectively managing asd. although shalev et al. (2019) provide evidence of the advantages of parent-mediated treatments, however, there is a lack of equivalent extensive studies in the philippine context, specially in cebu island. this lack of empirical data on the effectiveness of parental participation in enhancing communication through prompting techniques in the philippine setting pa ge 10 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 99-106, 2025 underscores a significant research gap. there is a critical need for a study focused on parents’ participation in fostering effective communication through prompting techniques for children with autism spectrum disorder. hence, this study assessed the effectiveness of the parents’ communication through prompting procedures for their children with asd at identified schools in the division of the component cities in cebu, philippines during the school year 2023-2024. specifically, it sought to answer the following questions: 1) what is the extent of support needed by the children with autism? 2) what is the level of manifestation of communication skills of children with autism? 3) to what extent do the respondents use prompting techniques when communicating with the child with autism? 4) is there a significant relationship between the parents’ perception on the extent of support needed by the children with autism and the extent of the parent respondents’ usage of prompting techniques in communication with the children with autism? and 5) is there a significant relationship between the respondents’ prompting technique utilization and the communication skills of the children with autism? these areas, the study could offer valuable insights into optimizing support strategies for children with asd, tailoring interventions to the unique cultural, socioeconomic, and educational landscape of the philippines, and ultimately enhancing the communicative outcomes and overall well-being of children with asd. materials and methods this section presents the research method, respondents, data collection tools, data collection process, and data analysis. this research utilized a descriptive correlational design to test the relationship between the parent respondents’ prompting technique utilization and the communication skills of the children with autism. a correlational research design aims to determine the relationship between two or more variables without the intent of controlling any of these variables (carlson & wu, 2012). this study was conducted at the three (3) public elementary schools in cebu, philippines. ethical considerations were adhered to before, during and after the data gathering. the 99 respondents were purposively selected for they are parents of children with asd. the data collected were tallied, organized, summarized, and analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. mean and standard deviation (sd) were used to determine the extent of support needed by the children with autism; the level of manifestation of communication skills of children with autism; and the extent of the respondents’ usage of prompting techniques when communicating with the child with autism. while pearson’s r was used to test the relationship between the respondents’ prompting technique utilization and the communication skills of the children with autism. results and discussion this section presents the results of the data gathered from the parent respondents about the extent of support needed by the children with autism; the level of manifestation of communication skills of children with autism; the extent of the respondents’ usage of prompting techniques when communicating with the child with autism; and the test of relationship between the respondents’ prompting technique utilization and the communication skills of the children with autism. table 1: parents’ perception on the extent of support needed by the children with autism (n=99) s/n indicators wm verbal description 1 the child has difficulty understanding verbal instructions or conversations. 2.78 often 2 the child has difficulty expressing their needs or ideas verbally. 3.00 often 3 the child uses alternative communication methods (e.g., signs, gestures, aac devices). 3.00 often 4 the child displays strong reactions or aversions to sensory stimuli (e.g., loud noises, certain textures). 2.78 often 5 the child struggles to understand social cues or non-verbal communication (e.g., facial expressions, body language). 2.57 often 6 the child has challenges initiating or maintaining friendships. 2.51 often 7 the child has difficulty filtering sensory input and may become overwhelmed in sensory-rich environments. 2.22 occasionally 8 the child struggles with changes in routines or transitions. 2.54 often 9 the child relies on sameness and may become distressed by changes in their environment or daily activities. 2.38 occasionally 10 the child has difficulty adapting to new situations or environments. 2.43 occasionally 11 the child requires support in academic settings (e.g., modifications, accommodations). 2.62 often 12 the child needs assistance with daily living skills (e.g., self-care, organization) 2.38 occasionally 13 the child benefits from therapy or intervention services (e.g., speech therapy, occupational therapy). 2.38 occasionally aggregate weighted mean 2.58 often pa ge 10 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 99-106, 2025 table 1 shows that parents’ perceptions of their children’s autism spectrum disorder (asd) support needs are high, notably in communication, sensory processing, and social interaction. an aggregate weighted mean of 2.58 suggests these demands are “often” needed, highlighting the ongoing help young children need. the hurdles go beyond fundamental communication issues like interpreting verbal instructions or expressing demands verbally, which got a wm of 3.00, indicating a frequent struggle. seol et al. (2014) argue that asd patients have complicated communication challenges, including expressive and receptive language impairments. the multidimensional nature of asd is shown by the frequent use of alternative communication strategies (wm=3.00) and the difficulty with sensory stimuli and social cues (wm=2.78 and 2.57). these data confirm that asd has a wide range of sensory sensitivities and social communication difficulties, requiring different support measures (kojovic, et al., 2013). the findings also show that while adapting to new situations and requiring therapy or intervention services are “occasionally” needed (wm 2.38 to 2.43), they are essential to the entire support plan for children with asd. this complex understanding of support needs is essential for creating focused intervention programs for asd children. it emphasizes multidisciplinary support, including educational adjustments, therapeutic interventions, and daily living skills initiatives. studies support tailored and holistic support programs for children with asd, highlighting the need of meeting their diverse needs (reichow et al., 2012). these findings have major implications, emphasizing that parents, educators, and therapists must work together to meet the different needs of asd children. this collaborative approach helps children with asd improve communication skills, social competence, and adaptive behaviors, improving their well-being and social inclusion. legend: 3.25-4.00-always 2.50– 3.24often 1.75 – 2.49-occasionally 1.00 – 1.74– not need table 2: parents’ perception on the level of manifestation of communication skills of the children with autism (n=99) s/n indicators wm verbal description 1 says his own first name or nickname 2.86 manifested 2 names at least three actions 2.86 manifested 3 says his age when asked 2.76 manifested 4 responds to questions that use the word "who" 2.51 manifested 5 identifies one or more alphabet letters 2.46 less manifested 6 understands at least three more advanced gestures 2.70 manifested 7 follows instructions with two related actions 2.65 manifested 8 responds to questions that use the word "why" 2.51 manifested 9 follows instructions with one and two steps 2.65 manifested 10 copies his own first name correctly 2.89 manifested 11 follows instructions involving right and left 2.78 manifested 12 writes both his first and last name from memory 2.70 manifested 13 reads sentences of three or more words out loud 2.86 manifested 14 understands sarcastic words 2.62 manifested 15 remembers to do something up to an hour later 2.46 less manifested aggregate weighted mean 2.69 manifested legend: 3.25-4.00-highly manifested 2.50– 3.24manifested 1.75 – 2.49-less manifested 1.00 – 1.74– not manifested table 2 offers a detailed look at parents’ perceptions of the communication skills manifested by their children with asd, based on responses from 99 participants. these communication skills are “manifested” to a noticeable or high degree, according to the weighted mean of 2.69. most capabilities, including fundamental verbal abilities like expressing their name, labeling actions, and answering simple questions, are reported, indicating kid communication capacity. the ability to copy their own first name correctly (wm=2.89) and read sentences of three or more words out loud (wm=2.86) are among the highest rated, suggesting that many asd children in this sample have strengths in written communication and early literacy. however, “less manifested” (wm=2.46) weighted means for identifying alphabet letters and remembering to finish a task an hour later show regions of struggle. this complex view of asd children’s communication abilities highlights the condition’s spectrum of abilities and challenges, echoing that a wide range of language and communication skills (cummins pa ge 10 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 99-106, 2025 et al., 2020). because asd is heterogeneous, these skills appear in different ways, requiring individualized support and intervention. the weaker expression of memory and less specific language concepts like sarcasm (wm=2.62) indicates the complexity of these children’s communication issues. without focused interventions, abstract thinking and executive functioning may lag in communication. this supports that asd therapies targeted to individual profiles are effective and that early identification and assistance for unique communication requirements are crucial (genovese & butler, 2020). the study synthesizes these ideas to help parents comprehend asd children’s communication skills and reinforces the importance of personalized, evidence-based therapy. the findings encourage comprehensive assessment and intervention planning that addresses all communication strengths and problems in children with asd to help them grow and participate in a communicative world. table 3: extent of the parent respondents’ usage of prompting techniques in communication with the children with autism (n=99) s/n indicators wm verbal description 1 teaching hand over 2.81 often 2 touching the child’s hand, wrist, elbow, etc. 2.57 often 3 pointing to the desired answer 2.35 sometimes 4 putting the correct answer in a position to make it easier for the child 2.54 often 5 verbalize would be “aaa” or “aapp” 2.35 sometimes 6 using pictures or other images so that the child selects the correct answer 2.81 often 7 modeling the desired behavior or action for imitation 2.65 often 8 using gesture prompts, such as nodding or shaking head for yes/no questions 2.40 sometimes 9 providing choices verbally to narrow down options for the child 2.60 often 10 employing technology-assisted prompts, like speech-generating devices or apps 2.50 often aggregate weighted mean 2.57 often legend: 3.25-4.00-always 2.50– 3.24often 1.75 – 2.49-sometimes 1.00 – 1.74– never table 3 showcases the findings from a survey of 99 parents regarding their use of prompting techniques in communicating with their children with autism spectrum disorder (asd). the aggregate weighted mean of 2.57, which falls under “often” shows that these parents highly use a range of urging tactics to communicate with their children. the most common techniques for selecting the correct answer in asd are “teaching hand over hand” and “using pictures or other images” (both with wms of 2.81). these methods use visual and physical prompts to support understanding and expression. rutherford et al. (2020) articulate that visual and tactile supports improve asd communication. some techniques, like “pointing to the desired answer” and “using gesture prompts” are reported as used “sometimes” (wms of 2.35 and 2.40, respectively), suggesting that while helpful, they may not be used consistently or depend on the context or child’s responsiveness on a given day. this heterogeneity highlights the personalized nature of communication tactics in asd, where prompt effectiveness can vary substantially. the frequent use of “modeling the desired behavior” and “providing choices verbally to narrow down options for the child” (wms of 2.65 and 2.60, respectively) shows that parents understand the importance of clear, concrete examples and choices to improve their children’s decision-making and communication. the adoption of “technologyassisted prompts” with a wm of 2.50 indicates an increasing use of digital tools and applications to support communication, aligning on technology’s potential to help asd patients communicate (ennis-cole, 2015). the survey results show that children with asd use a wide range of prompting strategies, highlighting the complexity of communication issues and the need for parents and caregivers to use a diverse strategy to help them communicate. this suggests that asd individuals need personalized, dynamic communication strategies that can adapt to their changing needs, including prompt-based strategies in communication interventions (korneder & louie, 2021). table 4: test of significant relationship between the parents’ perception on the extent of support needed by the children with autism and the extent of the parent respondents’ usage of prompting techniques in communication with the children with autism variables r-value strength of correlation p value decision result support needed and prompting technique utilization 0.632 strong positive 0.002 reject ho significant *significant at p<0.05 (two-tailed) pa ge 10 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 99-106, 2025 table 4 shows a strong positive correlation (r-value = 0.632) between the perceived support needed by children with autism spectrum disorder (asd) and parents’ prompting technique use in communication. a p-value of 0.002 rejects the null hypothesis and proves the correlation’s statistical significance. this strong link shows that parents who regard their children as needing more help are more likely to use a variety of prompting tactics in their communication. this findings show that parents’ view of their child’s requirements directly affects their use of communicative tactics to help them develop. this is consistent with research on parental participation and focused communication tactics like prompting to help children with asd acquire communication skills. this study also highlights the ability for parents to play a role in their children’s development beyond recognizing a correlation. asd children’s communication results can be greatly improved by teaching parents how to use prompting tactics adapted to their child’s requirements (bradshaw et al., 2017). this suggests that parent training treatments have consistently improved child outcomes and empowered families to support their children’s development across time. the substantial association between parental perceptions of support requirements and prompting approaches emphasizes the importance of parent-mediated therapies for asd children (adedipe, 2022). this underscores that parents should be included in communication intervention creation and implementation and get focused training and assistance to help their children succeed. table 5: test of significant relationship between the parent respondents’ perception on the on the level of manifestation of communication skills of the children with autism and the extent of the parent respondents’ usage of prompting techniques in communication with the children with autism variables r-value strength of correlation p value decision result communication skills and prompting technique utilization 0.515* moderate positive 0.001 reject ho significant *significant at p<0.05 (two-tailed) due of the lack of strong correlations in other areas, inclusive education difficulties may necessitate a multidimensional approach that tackles all elements of teaching and learning. in table 5, parents’ opinions of their children with autism spectrum disorder (asd)’s communication skills and prompting use are somewhat positively correlated (r-value = 0.515). a 0.001 p-value strongly rejects the null hypothesis, showing that the observed link is statistically significant and not attributable to random chance. this finding underscores the importance of parental involvement and communication methods in asd children’s communication development. the modest strength of the link shows that asd children’s communication abilities improve when parents utilize prompting strategies more. this complements that visual assistance, gestural prompts, and model-based learning improve asd patients’ communicative outcomes (amara et al., 2022). this correlation shows how parents adjust to their children’s communication issues and suggests that teaching parents in effective communication skills may be beneficial. ruppert et al. (2016) found that parentimplemented interventions can improve communication skills in children with asd, so teaching parents how to use prompting techniques may improve these outcomes. this study adds to the expanding amount of evidence supporting comprehensive intervention programs that involve parents in therapy. practitioners can maximize developmental gains in children with asd by incorporating parent training into intervention plans to use parents’ unique insights and opportunities to reinforce communication skills in naturalistic settings (schreibman et al., 2015). targeted interventions that teach parents how to prompt their children with asd to develop communication skills are crucial to actively contribute to their child’s development. conclusion the findings form tables 1 to 5 provide a detailed look at parental perspectives and actions in supporting children with autism spectrum disorder (asd). the aggregate evidence shows that children with asd struggle in communication, sensory processing, and social engagement. parents indicate a need for support across multiple domains, underlining asd’s complexity and the need for specialized intervention and care. communication becomes a priority as parents report that their children struggle to understand and convey verbal instructions, requiring alternate communication strategies and prompting. these methods are frequently used, highlighting parents’ active engagement in helping asd children communicate and interact. the strong positive link between perceived support requirements and prompting method use suggests that parents intuitively utilize these strategies more when perceived needs are higher. the considerable association between prompting approaches and communication abilities in children with asd shows their efficacy. this correlation validates parents’ use of varied prompting strategies and emphasizes the necessity of training parents with the skills and information to support their children’s communication development. it is recommended that parent-mediated therapies and parent training and resources should be provided to establish a supportive environment that meets the requirements of children with asd and improves their communication and development. pa ge 10 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 99-106, 2025 references adedipe, o. d. t. 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(2018). hand-in-hand: a communicationenhancement collaborative virtual reality system for promoting social interaction in children with autism spectrum disorders. ieee transactions on humanmachine systems, 48(2), 136-148. pa ge 1 pa ge 33 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) personality traits and happiness of university students in region xi and region xii: the philippine context brandon n. obenza1*, althea j. torralba1, al-sheree ann cantal eupena1, gideon s. sumayo2, jeeb t. abelito3 volume 2 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v2i1.2551 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: february 12, 2024 accepted: march 20, 2024 published: march 25, 2024 this quantitative research study investigates the relationship between personality traits and happiness of 291 university students in region xi (davao region) and region xii (soccsksargen), philippines. the respondents of this research were chosen using stratified random sampling. two reliable and validated questionnaires were used to extract data from the university students. based on the notable findings of the study, agreeableness, and extraversion have a significant positive relationship with happiness, with respective beta coefficients of 0.282 and 0.347, respectively. on the other hand, neuroticism has a negative significant relationship with happiness, with a beta coefficient of -0.264. subsequently, conscientiousness and openness to experience have no significant relationship with happiness. the study offers significant and fresh data about the happiness index of university students in two different regions of the peninsula. keywords happiness, big five personality traits, university students, philippines 1 university of mindanao, davao city, philippines 2 university of southern mindanao, palma cluster campuses, libungan, philippines 3 sultan kudarat state university, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: bobenza@umindanao.edu.ph introduction aristotle posited that happiness is the paramount objective of life, making it the most sought and desired human state. further, happiness is a complex and multifaceted concept shaped by numerous circumstances across different domains. scholars have analyzed happiness from several viewpoints, with sustainability being highlighted as a critical framework that focuses on balancing current satisfaction with future well-being (petrovič & murgaš, 2020). engaging in leisure activities, including relaxation and personal achievements, is crucial in enhancing one’s happiness (liu & da, 2019; lobo et al., 2022). examining happiness from a global historical perspective demonstrates its universal significance throughout different cultures and periods (lomas et al., 2021). utilizing a multidimensional approach emphasizes the intricate nature of happiness, showing how it relies on several aspects such as temperament, health, relationships, cultural norms, economic conditions, and governance systems (lomas, 2021). moral character is a key factor in determining happiness, with both children and adults believing that those with virtuous attributes are happier (yang et al., 2021). various aspects of life, including work, family, finances, and living conditions, are strongly linked to people’s feelings of happiness (lópez-ruiz et al., 2021; raymunde & caballo, 2023). aside from traditional aspects, the psychological depth of life is highlighted as a significant but frequently disregarded factor in enhancing general well-being (oishi et al., 2020). the distinction between a purposeful existence and one centered on pleasure highlights the complex relationship between job satisfaction and stress, providing valuable information on enhancing individuals’ happiness and well-being (tandler et al., 2020). happiness predisposes creativity and productivity: as individuals become more satisfied with their lives, they are more motivated to pursue resource-building goals to prepare for future challenges. they are also more engaged in activities that produce positive results than avoiding endeavors that are deemed to generate loss or negative outcomes (booth et al., 2012; yang, 2008). thus, happiness is not just a mere emotional state but a marker that determines one’s quality of life. it is not only a desire to achieve but also a significant catalyst that directs a person’s behavior and outlook. moreover, happiness is a complex construct summed by emotional and cognitive components. its emotional component entails that there should be a balance of pleasant and unpleasant feelings as a response to stimuli. the cognitive component, conversely, signifies the assessment of life’s meaning and general satisfaction of life according to one’s standards; thus, happiness requires cognition (diener, 2002; rojas, 2007). furthermore, lozano and solé-auró (2021) highlighted that happiness is usually used as a subjective index to determine quality of life. happiness impacts one’s physiological state and positively affects life expectancy since happiness prolongs life and motivates people to live healthier (lawrence et al., 2015; ryff, 1989). meanwhile, happiness has been studied in different seminal research to investigate if personality traits affect it (amendola et al., 2022; chung et al., 2019; saghir et al., 2019). allport (1961) claims that personality traits consist of different psychophysical systems within an individual that determine how they act and behave. in studying this connection (personality traits and happiness), the big five personality model is widely used as it describes personality in terms of five underlying dimensions: extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, and openness to experience. extraversion is a high degree of friendliness and sociability. conscientiousness is a tendency to discipline oneself for achievement rather pa ge 34 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 33-40, 2024 than acting in spontaneity. agreeableness is the opposite of aggression--it is defined as being considerate of others and being humane. neuroticism entails irritability, anger, anxiety, and vulnerability. openness to experience is displayed in adaptability, curiosity, and “preference for variety.” numerous research studies consistently show a significant relationship between the big five personality traits and students’ happiness. high levels of happiness are more prevalent in certain personalities. extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness are positively correlated with happiness, while neuroticism is negatively correlated (khaledian et al., 2013; bahiraei et al., 2012; joshanloo & afshari, 2009; suldo et al., 2014; bonab, 2014). additionally, it has been found that unhappy people are usually neurotic --they have low self-esteem and a negative outlook on life (carr, 2004; ng, 2015; lauriola & iani, 2015). moreover, despite existing literature on the link between the two constructs (personality traits and happiness), a noticeable gap exists in the literature on the investigation of these variables in the context of university students in the philippines. these propositions led the researchers to study the multifaceted relationship between personality traits and happiness among university students to provide an in-depth understanding of the factors that could positively impact their lives while in pursuit of tertiary education. given this rationale, this research aims to study the relationship between the big five personality traits and happiness among university students in two regions of the philippines and to investigate what specific personality traits are predeterminants of happiness in this specific population and context. materials and methods this research employed a quantitative research methodology, specifically a non-experimental correlational design, in evaluating the relationship between specific personality traits and the happiness of university students in regions xi and xii. creswell (2019) asserted that quantitative research is a postpositivist view as it follows the traditional form of research. it uses statistical tools to test objective theories and analyze numbered data to investigate the relationships among variables and support or refute the established hypotheses. thus, it is a scientific approach to gathering, evaluating, and analyzing data and information, commonly through surveys or experimental studies. the research instrument utilized in this study is adapted from john and srivasta’s big five inventory (bfi) (1995) for personality traits and the oxford happiness scale by hills and argyle (2002) for happiness. the questionnaires were in the form of a 6-point likert scale and were administered through an online survey (google form) to students at different universities from region xi and xii, philippines. a stratified random sampling technique is used in choosing respondents from the different universities in the aforementioned regions. creswell and creswell (2017) stated that the stratified random sampling technique entails dividing the research population into groups or strata based on specifications and characteristics and then taking random samples from each stratum. this method ensures that all relevant subgroups are represented, leading to more accurate and reliable results (kish, 1965). in testing the hypothesis regarding the relationship between personality traits and happiness among university students of region xi and region xii, priori power analysis using g*power 3.1.9.6 (faul et al., 2007) determines that an n=89 is required to achieve 95% power for detecting medium effect size (f2= 0.15) at α=0.05. the computed noncentrality parameter was 3.654, with six predictors in the model, a critical t-value of 1.989, and a degree of freedom (df) of 82. in this study, the actual size is n=295, which significantly exceeded the calculated threshold, underscoring the robustness of this study in explaining the multifaceted relationship between personality traits and happiness among tertiary students’ community. pilot testing and expert validation were implemented for these instruments. furthermore, cronbach’s alpha was utilized to ascertain the instruments’ reliability and validity. average variance extracted (ave) was used to assess convergent validity, and heterotrait-monotrait ratio (htmt) was employed to evaluate discriminant validity. moreover, descriptive statistics using jamovi software version 2.0 were utilized to determine the mean and standard deviation to characterize university students’ personality traits and happiness. also, smarpls 4.0 software was utilized to evaluate the hypothesized regression model, implement the bootstrapping standardized algorithm, and assess the model’s direct effect, including the effect sizes of individual paths. hypothesis h1: there is a significant relationship between the big five personality traits and the happiness of university students in regions xi and xii of the philippines. results and discussion creswell (2019) underscored the importance of assessing the reliability and validity of a measurement model before performing regression analysis. in examining the constructs’ reliability and validity, several items are considered to be omitted. table 1 shows the reliability and validity of the instrument utilized in the study. cronbach’s alpha is employed to measure the internal consistency reliability, indicating how well the items in each scale correlate with each other. the questionnaires’ internal consistency is satisfactorily evident in the cronbach’s alpha values for agreeableness (0.762), conscientiousness (0.800), extraversion (0.737), happiness (0.893), neuroticism (0.745), and openness (0.821). these values are generally accepted since they are above the suggested threshold of 0.7, suggesting that the items within each scale are reliable in measuring the intended construct. devellis (2017) asserted that cronbach’s alpha equal to pa ge 35 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 33-40, 2024 or above 0.7 is generally accepted. however, values that exceed 0.95 may be problematic. since all values were close to or above 0.7, the instruments are reliable in measuring the constructs of interest. also, none of the values were above 0.95, implying that none of the items in the questionnaires were redundant; hence, all items were administered. moreover, the average variance extracted (ave) is utilized to evaluate the instrument’s convergent validity (fornell & lacker, 1981; chin, 1998). the ave values for agreeableness (0.513), conscientiousness (0.555), extraversion (0.58), happiness (0.511), neuroticism (0.584), and openness to experience (0.525) exceeded 0.5 which is the generally accepted threshold. these values inferred that the observed variables adequately reflected the underlying constructs (henseler et al., 2015; hair et al., 2010). also, heterotrait-monotrait ratio is employed to assess discriminant validity in comparing the correlation between constructs (personality traits and happiness) to ascertain that the constructs are more strongly correlated with their measures than with measures of other constructs. generally, an htmt value less than 0.85 is considered indicative of good discriminant validity (henseler et al., 2015). the htmt values for happiness and agreeableness (0.687), happiness and conscientiousness (0.617), happiness and extraversion (0.801), neuroticism and happiness (0.68), and openness and happiness (0.534) are less than 0.85, indicating a good discriminant validity. therefore, these findings empirically suggest that the instruments utilized in this research to measure university students’ personality traits and happiness in region xi and region xii are reliable and valid. table 1: construct reliability and validity variables cronbach's alpha average variance extracted (ave)" agreeableness 0.762 0.513 conscientiousness 0.800 0.555 extraversion 0.737 0.580 happiness 0.893 0.511 neuroticism 0.745 0.584 openness 0.821 0.525 discriminant validity heterotrait-monotrait ratio (htmt) happiness <-> agreeableness 0.687 happiness <-> conscientiousness 0.617 happiness <-> extraversion 0.801 neuroticism <-> happiness 0.680 openness <-> happiness 0.534 table 2 exhibits the key variables’ mean and other statistical scores gathered and evaluated based on the 295 completed responses. happiness had a mean score of 4.14, implying that the college students who participated in the survey had moderate happiness and were adequately satisfied with their lives. this result aligns with lacida et al. (2020), who postulate that university students have a moderate to high level of happiness. these individuals exhibited satisfaction in their lives as they encountered different experiences, both in personal and academic domains. however, this result is negated by jiang et al. (2022), arguing that students in different colleges demonstrated low happiness as they expressed that life was not gratifying. their study found that age negatively affects happiness, as first and second-year nursing students were happier than third and fourth-year students. agreeableness obtained a mean score of 4.80, indicating that university students demonstrated a balanced tendency toward cooperation, friendliness, and empathy. big five personality theory asserted that agreeableness reflects the individual’s orientation toward cooperation and empathy. college students’ level of agreeableness personality has been found to have various implications. yang and tu (2020) found that higher levels of empathy can suppress the growth of interpersonal relationships for agreeable students, while lower levels of empathy may promote it. the mean score for conscientiousness is 4.30, which stipulates that there is a moderate level of self-discipline, responsibility, and organization among college students. according to soto (2018), conscious students perform better in academic endeavors as they have higher grades. aside from this, conscientious individuals exhibit satisfactory performance in the workforce. extraversion attained a mean score of 3.98, indicating that university students have a balanced tendency to interact socially and demonstrate a low level of energy. according to the big five personality theory, extroverted individuals generally prefer to be in the company of other people, mostly their peers and family. psychologically, extroverts experience greater subjective wellbeing than introverts— positive emotions are frequently and intensely present in them (soto, 2018; diener & lucas, 2003). the mean score of neuroticism is 3.36, implying that university students had a low tendency to experience pa ge 36 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 33-40, 2024 negative emotions and were less prone to emotional fluctuation. diener (2002) said that neurotics typically show irritability and emotional instability, leading to an increased risk of anxiety and mood disorders. openness had a mean score of 4.51, suggesting that students in tertiary education had a balanced tendency to novelty, variety, and intellectual stimulation. according to the big five personality theory, openness reflects a person’s preference to experience a variety of stimulations and their enthusiasm to pursue different endeavors. soto (2018) argued that openness is “strongly associated with intellectual and creative outcomes.” table 2: status of university students’ personality traits and happiness n mean sd (s) description happiness 295 4.14 1.22 moderate happiness agreeableness 295 4.80 1.14 balanced tendency conscientiousness 295 4.30 1.11 moderate level extraversion 295 3.98 1.31 moderate tendency neuroticism 295 3.36 1.47 low tendency openness 295 4.51 1.11 balanced tendency notable findings were discovered after the regression analysis, detailed in the accompanying table. in terms of direct effects, a path from agreeableness to happiness entails a substantial significant relationship (o= 0.282, f2= 0.088, t= 4.832, p=0.000). this suggests that the increase in this construct increases an individual’s happiness. this finding is supported by the results of saghir et al. (2019), lu and hu (2005), and pishva et al. (2011), indicating that the students possessing this personality trait are found to have high levels of happiness. this result is because they find harmony with the people around them and have a positive perspective about life. similarly, the path from extraversion to happiness manifests a positive significant relationship (o= 0.347, f2= 0.169, t= 6.59, p=0.000). this finding implies that extraversion increases the happiness index of a certain person. this finding aligns with preissler (2020), asserting that acting outgoing and showing a high level of energy in a given moment increases happiness. on the other hand, the path from neuroticism to happiness demonstrates a negative significant relationship (o= -0.264, f2= 0.114, t= 5.843, p=0.000). this result postulates that the increase in this construct decreases happiness. according to the big five personality theory, neuroticism decreases an individual’s happiness as they are more susceptible to intense and frequent negative emotions. this finding is further proven by lucas and diener (2008), hellewill et al. (2014), and cheng, furnam, and pan (2013), claiming that neuroticism causes dissatisfaction in life. subsequently, the path from conscientiousness to happiness (o= 0.06, f2= 0.003, t= 0.902, p=0.367) and the path from openness to happiness (o= -0.001, f2= 0, t= 0.021, p=0.983) manifests no significant relationship. it can be gleaned from the finding that being open to experience and being considerate of people would not positively or negatively impact one’s life. saghir et al., 2019 underscored in their study that these personality traits could in no way affect someone’s life, highlighting its consonance with the study’s results. figure 1: path coefficients. results using smartpls 4.0 pa ge 37 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 33-40, 2024 based on the value of r2= 0.568, it can be conjectured that the model effectively elucidates a significant percentage of variability in the observed personality traits affecting one’s happiness. the adjusted r2 value of 0.561 implicates the robustness of the model in evaluating the predictors. therefore, the results highlight the significance of direct structures in understanding how certain personality traits affect an individual’s happiness. table 3: path coefficients and r-squared values of the regression model original sample (o) sample mean (m) standard deviation (stdev) f2 t statistics (o/std ev|) p values agreeableness -> happiness 0.282 0.283 0.058 0.088 4.832 0.001 conscientiousness -> happiness 0.060 0.062 0.066 0.003 0.902 0.367 extraversion -> happiness 0.347 0.345 0.053 0.169 6.59 0.001 neuroticism -> happiness -0.264 -0.264 0.045 0.114 5.843 0.001 openness -> happiness -0.001 0.003 0.065 0.000 0.021 0.983 r2: 0.568, adjusted r2: 0.561 conclusions in a nutshell, personality traits are significantly associated with individuals’ happiness. the findings of this research conclude that agreeableness and extraversion increase the happiness index. on the other hand, neuroticism decreases an individual’s happiness and leads to dissatisfaction in life. however, these findings can only be applied to regions xi and xii university students. they must not be used to make inferences about the general facets of personality traits and happiness. moreover, the model’s r² value of 0.568 suggests that it effectively explains a substantial portion of the variability in observed personality traits impacting happiness. this accentuates the value of direct structures in deciphering the influence of specific personality traits on an individual’s happiness, particularly in the context of university students. recommendations given the study’s findings, educational institutions should integrate personality assessment and development into their student support services, particularly in regions xi and xii, philippines. one approach is to incorporate personality-focused seminars into current mental health and counseling programs to cater to students’ individual needs according to their personality characteristics. moreover, providing professors and staff with training on how personality factors impact student satisfaction could improve educational approaches and student engagement. future studies should replicate these results in various cultural and educational settings, investigate how educational interventions affect the happiness of different personality traits, and utilize longitudinal designs to comprehend the changing connection between personality characteristics and happiness as time progresses. limitations and future implications this study is limited in geographical and demographic scope, focusing solely on university students from regions xi and xii in the philippines. this peculiarity raises issues about the applicability of the findings to different populations or cultural settings. the study’s cross-sectional design limits the capacity to establish causal correlations between personality factors and happiness. to enhance future study, it is advised to utilize longitudinal designs to gain a deeper understanding of these interactions’ evolution over time. moreover, broadening the research to encompass various demographics and environments could improve the applicability of the results. studying how personality traits interact with other psychological or environmental elements could offer a more thorough comprehension of their influence on happiness. acknowledgments the researchers are profoundly grateful to the respondents and, most importantly, to the almighty god. references allport, d. a. 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(2008). long and happy living: trends and patterns of happy life expectancy in the u.s., 1970– 2000. social science research, 37, 1235–125 pa ge 1 pa ge 1 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) the impact of virtual schooling due to covid-19 restrictions on children’s mood and behavior in the clinical context rahaf alasiri m. d1*, tarek alghamdi m. d1, abdullah zarkan m. d1, samah alkhawashki m. d2 volume 2 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v2i1.2272 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: december 05, 2023 accepted: december 29, 2023 published: january 01, 2024 the covid-19 pandemic has caused significant educational system disruptions, leading to the transition to virtual schooling. this study evaluated the mood and behavioral shifts in students attending virtual school during covid-19 restrictions. participants included 66 children aged 6 to 14 and their parents from a pediatric outpatient clinic. a self-administered questionnaire was used to collect data, adhd symptoms using connor’s modified scale, and parental stress levels using the parental stress scale (pss). statistical analysis included descriptive statistics, mann-whitney z-test, and pearson correlation. adhd scores and parental stress levels showed a substantial unfavorable connection. 60.6% of the 66 surveyed students were between 10 and 14; most were females (77.3%). asthma was the most prevalent (7.6%), while nearly two-thirds (63.6%) reported being in good health during the epidemic. between the pss and adhd scores, there was a strong negative connection (r=-0.387). there were no discernible variations between the children’s sociodemographic factors and their adhd and pss scores. most kids scored within the normal range, with the mean adhd score overall being 11.3. children attending virtual school during covid-19 restrictions did not appear to be significantly affected in terms of mood and behavior, as reported by parents. parental stress, subsequently, was extremely high. the epidemic calls for the development of treatment plans for parental psychological issues. it is necessary to conduct further research to comprehend how virtual schooling affects children’s well-being fully. keywords virtual schooling, children, mood, behavior, socio-demographic characteristics, adhd symptoms, parental stress, pandemic restrictions 1 college of medicine, king saud bin abdulaziz university for health sciences, saudi arabia 2 king saud university medical complex, riyadh, kingdom of saudi arabia * corresponding author’s e-mail: alasirira@ngha.med.sa introduction education is a basic, most necessary need of every human being; however, the pandemic of covid-19 shattered the world and its systems to the core. every big or small organization was locked down, travel bans were imposed, and quarantine at home was advised by the government to protect from the disease, as the death poll increased exponentially every day. initially, covid-19 started in wuhan, china; however, later on, it spread worldwide(parmet & sinha, 2020). this pandemic horribly affected businesses, healthcare systems, and the educational system (martin & mulvihill, 2021). the covid-19 pandemic escorts to ubiquitous disruptions in education systems worldwide, with many schools transitioning to virtual schooling or remote learning as a response to the restrictions imposed to curb the spread of the virus (catalano et al., 2021). it is reported that the covid-19 quarantine has affected 860 million children and adolescents worldwide (orgilés et al., 2020). many countries implemented widespread school closures to control the spread of the virus. according to unesco, over 1.6 billion learners in more than 190 countries were affected by school closures at the pandemic’s peak, representing 94% of the world’s student population (conto et al., 2020). according to a report, over 91% of the education community was affected by national and international closures due to covid-19. to manage the learning process, educational institutions implemented e-learning and remote learning technologies to support the continuity of the educational process (abumalloh et al., 2021). the global educational environment has been profoundly impacted by the covid-19 epidemic, resulting in a transformation in the school system (natividad & abrogena, 2023). schools and institutions have been shuttered to slow the spread of the virus, forcing the adoption of online education as an instructional tool. considering the future is unknown, adaptable and resilient, educational systems were critical for the world to deal with the pandemic’s issues (natividad & abrogena, 2023). with the closure of physical schools, there was a rapid shift to virtual schooling or remote learning. schools adopted various approaches, including online classes, video conferencing, pre-recorded lectures, and digital learning platforms to continue education remotely(babbar & gupta, 2022). as e-learning or virtual schooling sought to be efficient and secure for students, one of the major challenges was unequal access to technology and internet connectivity (dhawan, 2020; kamysbayeva et al., 2021). many children, especially those from disadvantaged backgrounds, faced difficulties accessing the necessary devices and stable internet connections, leading to disparities in educational opportunities (jalongo, 2021). many children from struggling or developing countries faced difficulties abiding by the virtual education system as the resources were inefficient; thus, those children’s mental health came at a cost due to the fear of missing out(almajali et al., 2021; jalongo, 2021). pa ge 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 1-10, 2024 literature review extended periods of school closures and the transition to virtual schooling resulted in learning loss for many students. the lack of in-person instruction and reduced interaction with teachers and peers impacted students’ academic progress, particularly in subjects that require hands-on learning or specialized equipment (agostinelli et al., 2022). the pandemic and its associated disruptions significantly impacted children’s mental health. the increased stress, social isolation, uncertainty, and changes in routine contributed to feelings of anxiety, depression, and loneliness in many children (imran et al., 2020; o’sullivan et al., 2021). school closures also limited access to vital support services provided within schools, such as counselling and mental health resources(hoffman et al., 2020). the absence of face-to-face interaction and reduced opportunities for socialization affected children’s social and emotional development. peer relationships, teamwork, and social skills development were hindered, and children had to adapt to new ways of connecting with their classmates and teachers (adnan & anwar, 2020). virtual schooling often meant that children were physically separated from their peers and teachers, reducing social interaction. the lack of face-to-face communication and limited opportunities for socialization can contribute to feelings of loneliness and isolation, which can negatively affect children’s moods (cockerham et al., 2021; magson et al., 2021). the pandemic raised concerns about the health and safety of students and educators and heightened stress and anxiety in children and adolescents. schools had to implement strict protocols, such as physical distancing, mask-wearing, and enhanced hygiene practices, to ensure a safe learning environment once schools reopened (group et al., 1996). the abrupt transition to virtual schooling and the challenges associated with adapting to new learning environments, technology, and increased screen time can cause stress and anxiety in children (idris et al., 2021). they may experience difficulties adjusting to the new format, managing time effectively, or understanding instructions without immediate teacher support. school closures also impacted extracurricular activities such as sports, arts, and clubs. these activities play a crucial role in children’s holistic development, and their lack of access further limits their overall educational experience (carey et al., 2022; ilari et al., 2022). the remote learning format led to decreased motivation and engagement in children. the absence of a physical classroom environment, peer interaction, and handson activities may result in diminished interest in academic tasks (goldberg et al., 2022). this led to a decline in academic performance and productivity. the pandemic also resulted in irregular routines and increased distractions, which led the students to slack off and distance themselves from their studies (kwakye & kibort-crocker, 2021). virtual schooling often disrupted the regular routines and structures children had become accustomed to in a traditional classroom setting (apriyanti, 2020; dorn et al., 2020). being at home during school hours can introduce various distractions, such as access to electronic devices, household chores, or other family members’ activities, making it challenging for children to focus and concentrate on their studies (commodari & la rosa, 2021). above all the consequences that the pandemic brought to the world, the lack of physical classes indirectly caused a greater impact on children’s mental health; some children exhibited emotional and behavioral changes due to virtual schooling (goldberg et al., 2022). they may become more irritable, frustrated, or exhibit mood swings due to the added stressors and reduced social interactions. additionally, prolonged screen time can contribute to eye strain, fatigue, and disrupted sleep patterns, further impacting emotional well-being and increased behavioral shifts (bahkir & grandee, 2020). a change to virtual schooling was brought about by the coronavirus pandemic, which had a significant impact on the educational system. in contrast, the transformation came with difficulties like unequal access to technology and internet connectivity, diminished academic achievement, and mental health problems. distractions and routine disruptions brought on by virtual learning affected students’ motivation and engagement. this study examined how children who attended virtual school during the covid-19 outbreak changed attitudes and behavior. to gather information, parents had to selfadminister a questionnaire that asked them questions about their sociodemographic traits, their children’s adhd symptoms, and their levels of stress. materials and methods this cross-sectional study investigated various aspects of children’s health and well-being, specifically focusing on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (adhd) and parental distress. the study recruited participants from a pediatric outpatient clinic, targeting children aged 6 to 14 and their parents. a self-administered questionnaire was distributed to the guardians to gather relevant data, providing a comprehensive understanding of the participants’ socio-demographic characteristics, adhd symptoms in children using connor’s modified scale, and parental stress levels utilizing the parental stress scale (pss). the socio-demographic characteristics section of the questionnaire aimed to collect information about the participants’ age, gender, educational background, occupation, child medical condition, child health condition during quarantine and other relevant factors. this data was essential for understanding the sample population’s diverse backgrounds and potential influencing factors. by obtaining a comprehensive overview of these demographic variables, the study could account for potential confounding factors in the analysis and interpretation of the findings. to assess adhd symptoms in children, connor’s modified scale was employed, which is a widely recognized pa ge 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 1-10, 2024 tool in clinical research. this scale incorporates various dimensions related to adhd, such as inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. by utilizing this scale, the study intended to assess the presence and severity of adhd symptoms in the participating children, allowing for a better understanding of the prevalence and impact of adhd within the studied population. the parental stress scale (pss) was added to the survey to measure the parents’ stress symptoms. parental stress is essential to consider, as it may significantly influence the child’s wellbeing and overall family dynamics. the pss provided a standardized measure to evaluate the levels of stress experienced by the parents, covering various domains such as personal stressors, parenting stressors, and perceived social support. statistical analysis a variety of statistical methods, including numbers and percentages (categorical variables), the mean and standard deviation (continuous variables), were employed to sum up the entire group of respondents. the mann-whitney z-test was used to compare the differences between adhd and pss scores based on the sociodemographic features of the children. the kolmogorov-smirnov test and the shapiro-wilk test were used to assess statistical collinearity. results on the pss and adhd both have a non-normal distribution. the non-parametric tests were so used. using pearson correlation, it has been determined whether adhd and pss scores are correlated. various descriptive statistics, including numbers and percentages (categorical variables), the mean and standard deviation (continuous variables), were employed to illustrate the entire group of respondents. all statistical tests were judged significant at a p-value of 0.05. the statistical package for social sciences, version 26 (spss, armonk, ny: ibm corp, usa) was used to analyses all statistical data for this project. results this study addressed how common adhd symptoms are in kids and how stressed out parents are. we gathered information on sociodemographic traits, adhd symptoms, and parental stress levels using a selfadministered questionnaire. the characteristics of the respondents were compiled using descriptive statistics. statistical collinearity was evaluated using the mannwhitney z-test, shapiro-wilk, kolmogorov-smirnov, and pearson correlation tests. in a pediatric outpatient clinical environment, 66 pupils participated in this cross-sectional study. asthma was the most frequently mentioned medical issue, while 63.6% of kids said they were in good health throughout the pandemic. they reported that wanting to be in charge, readily getting wounded, crying easily, shyness, and restlessness were the top five traits that affected their mood. parental stress ratings were 68, and adhd symptoms were 11.3. there were no significant differences depending on age, gender, medical condition, or improvement from medication. however, there was a strong inverse link between adhd scores and parental stress levels. table 1: socio-demographic characteristics of the children (n=66) study data n (%) age group 5 – 9 years 26 (39.4%) 10 – 14 years 40 (60.6%) gender male 15 (22.7%) female 51 (77.3%) type of education governmental 63 (95.5%) special 03 (04.5%) educational level kindergarten 03 (04.5%) primary education 59 (89.4%) secondary education 04 (06.1%) the child's medical condition asthma 05 (07.6%) chest problem 02 (03.0%) autism 01 (01.5%) difficulty learning 01 (01.5%) others 03 (04.5%) there is nothing 54 (81.8%) pa ge 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 1-10, 2024 this cross-sectional study involved 66 children in the pediatric outpatient clinical setting. as seen in table 1, the most common age group was 10 to 14 years old, with females being dominant (77.3%). nearly all (95.5%) were studying in a government school, with 89.4% being students at primary school levels. the prevalent medical disorder was asthma (7.6%). good health condition during the pandemic was reported by 63.6%, and half of them (50%) showed improvement due to a commitment to medication. the child's health condition during quarantine excellent 13 (19.7%) good 42 (63.6%) fair 08 (12.1%) poor 03 (04.5%) is there an improvement now, and is there a commitment to medication? yes 33 (50.0%) no 22 (33.3%) i do not know 11 (16.7%) table 2: assessment of children's mood during covid-19 using the conners comprehensive behavior rating scale (n=66) statement mean ± sd wants to run things 1.09 ± 0.89 feeling easily hurt 0.86 ± 0.80 cries easily 0.52 ± 0.81 shy 0.48 ± 0.77 restless in the “squirmy” sense 0.42 ± 0.72 speaks differently from others of the same age (baby talk, stuttering, hard to understand) 0.41 ± 0.72 daydreams 0.35 ± 0.71 excitable, impulsive 0.38 ± 0.67 distractibility or attention span is a problem 0.33 ± 0.71 problems with eating, e.g. poor appetite 0.33 ± 0.69 mood changes quickly and drastically 0.30 ± 0.70 problems with making or keeping friends 0.27 ± 0.62 fearful (of new situations, new people or places) 0.27 ± 0.62 problems with sleep, e.g. cannot fall asleep, up at night 0.26 ± 0.62 easily frustrated in efforts 0.26 ± 0.59 childish or immature (wants help he should not need, clings, needs constant reassurance) 0.23 ± 0.60 puts and sulks 0.24 ± 0.58 quarrelsome 0.21 ± 0.57 stomach aches 0.20 ± 0.59 bowel problems (frequently loose, irregular habits) 0.20 ± 0.59 destructive 0.20 ± 0.56 headaches 0.20 ± 0.53 fails to finish things 0.20 ± 0.50 picks at things (nails, fingers, hair, clothing) 0.18 ± 0.55 difficulty in learning 0.18 ± 0.55 carries a chip on his shoulder 0.18 ± 0.46 does not get along well with brothers or sisters 0.17 ± 0.54 worries more than others (about being alone; illness) 0.17 ± 0.51 denies mistakes or blames others 0.17 ± 0.45 gets into more trouble than others of the same age 0.18 ± 0.49 does not like or does not follow restrictions 0.15 ± 0.50 pa ge 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 1-10, 2024 in table 2, the top 5 statements that mostly affected the mood of the children during the pandemic were “want to run things (mean score: 1.09), “feeling easily hurt” (mean score: 0.86), “cries easily” (mean score: 0.52), “shy” (mean score: 0.48) and “restless in the squirmy sense” (mean score: 0.42) while “bullies others” showed the least concern (mean score: 0.03). the overall mean score for adhd was 11.3 (sd 14.3%), with nearly all (89.4%) being normal, 6.1% slightly atypical, and 4.5% very typical adhd levels. unable to stop a repetitive activity 0.15 ± 0.47 boasts and brags 0.15 ± 0.47 other aches and pains 0.14 ± 0.49 sucks or chews (thumb, clothing, blanket) 0.14 ± 0.46 fights constantly 0.12 ± 0.50 disobedient or obeys but resentfully 0.12 ± 0.45 vomiting or nausea 0.12 ± 0.45 restless, always up and on the go 0.12 ± 0.37 an unhappy child 0.11 ± 0.43 let yourself be pushed around 0.11 ± 0.39 sassy to grown-ups 0.09 ± 0.38 disturbs other children 0.09 ± 0.38 feels cheated in a family circle 0.09 ± 0.34 tells lies or stories that are not true 0.08 ± 0.36 steals 0.06 ± 0.34 cruel 0.05 ± 0.27 bullies others 0.03 ± 0.25 total adhd score 11.3 ± 14.3 level of adhd normal (score ≤60 points) 59 (89.4%) slightly atypical (61 – 70 points) 04 (06.1%) very atypical (>70 points) 03 (04.5%) the response ranges from “not at all” coded with 0 to “very much” with 3 source: (buckinghampediatrics.com, 2022) table 3: assessment of parental stress scale (pss) (pontoppidan et al., 2018) (n=66) statement mean ± sd i am satisfied as a parent † 4.68 ± 0.84 i find my child enjoyable † 4.64 ± 0.82 i am happy in my role as a parent † 4.62 ± 0.87 if i had it to do over again, i might decide not to have a child 4.56 ± 0.95 my child is an important source of affection for me † 4.48 ± 0.99 i enjoy spending time with my child † 4.36 ± 1.02 there is little or nothing i would not do for my child if it were necessary † 4.35 ± 0.98 i feel close to my child † 4.32 ± 1.01 the major source of stress in my life is my child 4.05 ± 1.32 the behavior of my child is often embarrassing or stressful to me 3.98 ± 1.34 having a child has meant having too few choices and too little control over my life 3.88 ± 1.37 it is not easy to balance different responsibilities because my child 3.68 ± 1.33 having a child has been a financial burden 3.62 ± 1.37 having a child gives me a more certain and optimistic view of the future † 3.47 ± 1.56 having a child leaves little time and flexibility in my life 3.06 ± 1.48 caring for my child sometimes takes more time and energy than i have to give 2.32 ± 1.29 i sometimes worry whether i am doing enough for my child 2.05 ± 1.19 pa ge 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 1-10, 2024 in the assessment of parental stress (table 3), it was revealed that the top 5 statements where parents showed the highest ratings were “i am satisfied as a parent” (mean score: 4.68), “i find my child enjoyable” (mean score: 4.64), “if i had it to do over again, i might decide not to have a child” (mean score: 4.56) and “my child is an important source of affection for me” (mean score: 4.48). the overall mean score of pss was 68 (sd 9.55). i feel overwhelmed by the responsibility of being a parent 1.91 ± 1.36 total pss score 68.0 ± 9.55 the response ranges from “strongly agree”, coded with 1, to “strongly disagree”, coded with 5. † reverse-coded items figure 1: correlation between adhd score and pss score in figure 1, it was observed that there was a significant inverse correlation between adhd results and pss results (r=-0.387; p=0.001). in table 4, there were no significant differences in the score of adhd concerning age group, gender, medical condition, child’s health condition, and improvement due to commitment to medication (p>0.05). table 5 shows no statistically significant variations in pss scores according to age, gender, medical condition, the children’s health while in quarantine, or the current improvement brought on by commitment to treatment (all p>0.05). table 4: difference in the adhd score according to the socio-demographic characteristics of the children (n=66) factor adhd score (144) mean ± sd z-test p-value § age group 5 – 9 years 9.46 ± 9.74 0.053 0.958 10 – 14 years 12.6 ± 16.6 gender male 8.87 ± 12.2 0.714 0.475 female 12.1 ± 14.8 having medical condition yes 17.5 ± 16.9 1.234 0.217 no 9.98 ± 13.4 the child's health condition during quarantine good/excellent 11.4 ± 14.8 0.311 0.756 fair/poor 11.1 ± 11.7 is there an improvement now, and is there a commitment to medication? yes 14.1 ± 17.8 0.688 0.491 no/i do not know 8.61 ± 9.05 § p-value has been calculated using mann whitney z-test pa ge 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 1-10, 2024 table 5: difference in the pss score according to the socio-demographic characteristics of the children (n=66) factor pss score (90) mean ± sd z-test p-value § age group 5 – 9 years 69.8 ± 7.91 0.848 0.397 10 – 14 years 66.9 ± 10.4 gender male 71.3 ± 9.87 1.831 0.067 female 67.1 ± 9.31 having medical condition yes 68.3 ± 9.42 0.033 0.973 no 67.9 ± 9.67 the child's health condition during quarantine good/excellent 68.4 ± 9.47 0.698 0.485 fair/poor 66.0 ± 10.2 is there an improvement now, and is there a commitment to medication? yes 67.4 ± 9.14 0.854 0.393 no/i do not know 68.6 ± 10.1 § p-value has been calculated using mann whitney z-test discussion this study examined the effect of covid-19 restrictions and virtual schooling on the mood and behavior of children attending the pediatric outpatient clinic. the findings of this study revealed that the covid-19 restrictions have no significant impact on children’s moods and behaviors, as per parental reports. based on the conners comprehensive behavior rating scale, out of 144 total score points, the mean score was only 11.3 (sd 14.3), indicating a very limited impact. only 6.1% were considered slightly atypical, and only 4.5% were considered a very atypical level of adhd; the rest were normal (89.4%). of all the statements included in the questionnaires (48 items), only the statement “wants to run things” reached more than 1 point (scale out of 3 points), and the rest were below 1 point. these findings did not seem to coincide with the paper of orgilés et al. (orgilés et al., 2020). according to their accounts, 85.7% of the parents in spain and italy saw changes in their child’s mental states and behavior while in quarantine. the researchers concluded that spanish parents reported the symptoms more frequently than italian parents and included difficulty concentrating, boredom, impatience, restlessness, nervousness, the sensation of loneliness, discomfort, and worry as some of the most prevalent symptoms. in a similar vein, research conducted in europe (francisco et al., 2020) discovered that throughout the pandemic, children’s psychiatric and behavioral symptoms, screen time, and sleep hours/night had increased, while a decline in physical activity time also became a problem. italian children showed fewer behavioral and psychiatric signs compared to portuguese or spanish children. in jeddah, similar incidents have also been reported (almugti et al., 2021). in comparison to the pre-pandemic period, studies have shown that during the pandemic, 30% of students displayed higher irritation, and mood swings with screen time were shown to occur more frequently. physical activity and sleep time also decreased. despite this, 22% of the children became calmer, and 14% were seen to be more thoughtful at the time of the pandemic. in a study by li et al. (dugas et al., 2005), 22.3% of children and adolescents were suffering from depressive symptoms, and the most well-known risk factors were smartphone addiction, internet addiction, and being a resident of hubei province. another study conducted by bosch et al. (bosch et al., 2022) showed that the quality and quantity of a child’s social networks during a lockdown, the child’s daily routines following parental rules, the child’s worries about their health, and the existence of economic and learning issues brought on by the pandemic were all significant predictors of a child’s emotional disorder. in tabuk (jamileh et al., 2021), a study found that living in a tiny house or not having an outdoor play place for children has a greater psychological influence on feelings and behavior in men. however, we discovered no statistically significant correlation between the adhd score and any of the socio-demographic characteristics of the children in our study, including age, gender, medical condition, health status during quarantine, and improvement as a result of medication adherence (p>0.05). further investigation is required to establish the effect of children’s mood and behavior in terms of socio-demographic characteristics. the parental stress scale’s total mean score was 68 (sd 9.55) out of 90, indicating significant stress. additionally, we discovered no statistically significant correlation between the respondents’ sociodemographic information and their overall pss score (p>0.05). in germany (christner et al., 2021), an investigation revealed that most pa ge 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 1-10, 2024 parents and children had experienced lockdown-related stress, and the primary challenge was not being able to meet friends and family members outside the household. among italian parents of 2 to 14-year-old children (spinelli et al., 2020), parents were shown to exhibit more stress in dealing with quarantine issues resulting from increasing children’s dilemmas. however, no effects were seen on families’ well-being regarding the quality of the home environment, living in a more at-risk area, or their relationship with the pandemic effects. parents must balance personal life, job, raising children, and being alone without any support, however, dealing with the consequences of quarantine is particularly more stressful among parents. this occurrence left parents at increased risk of developing distress, leading to being vulnerable and their capability to be caring caregivers becomes futile. it is important to state that there was a significant inverse correlation between adhd score and pss score, suggesting that better mood and behavior in children correlate with increased parental stress. theoretically, these results may not reflect the reality of the situation. however, we would like to emphasize that most of the psychological items in our questionnaire did not significantly influence our children, which could be one of the main reasons why it was inversely associated with parental stress. also, consideration for other interferences should be considered, including personal life struggles during quarantine, jobs, resources, and other matters affecting parents’ mental health conditions. recommendation to further investigate its correlation is highly advised. on the other hand, a study carried out among qatari children (chaabane et al., 2021) reported that the most common contributing factor to increased anxiety and loneliness among children was school closure. hence, as the school closure extended its duration, the likelihood of decreased physical activity may occur, and in return, it may increase the body mass index and incidence of childhood obesity. likewise, in riyadh (alnamnakani et al., 2022), the anxiety levels of children increased during the pandemic (28.1%), wherein 36.8% of the children reported incidences of panic attacks and agoraphobia; this is in the separation of physical injury fears for 35.1%, in generalized anxiety disorder/overanxious for 27.3%, anxiety fear for 26.8%, in obsessive-compulsive for 25.1%, and social phobia for 19%. the covid-19 pandemic resulted in negative impacts on the mental and intellectual development of children. a structured plan for intervention is needed to address the mental problems of our youth. conclusion despite covid-19 restrictions, parents of children attending the pediatric outpatient setting did not seem to identify virtual schooling as having a significant effect on their children’s mood and behavior. most children were reported to have good health conditions during quarantine. however, despite their good mood and behavior, it is surprising to know that their parents had increased stress levels. further, children’s age, gender, medical condition, child health condition during quarantine, and improvement due to commitment to medication did not seem to affect our population’s mood and stress. further advanced studies are needed to establish the effect of mood and behavior in children during online classes during the pandemic. limitations a combination of the small sample size and specialized outpatient setting of this study, there is little opportunity for generalizability. the conclusions also depended on parents’ memories of their kids’ attitudes and behaviors during virtual schooling, which could have caused recall bias and minimized the true impact of the pandemic. references abumalloh, r. a., asadi, s., nilashi, m., minaei-bidgoli, b., nayer, f. k., samad, s., mohd, s., & ibrahim, o. 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(2020). parents’ stress and children’s psychological problems in families facing the covid-19 outbreak in italy. frontiers in psychology, 11, 1713. pa ge 1 pa ge 17 5 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) the lived experiences of plea-bargaining agreement grantees among selected residents of doh-treatment and rehabilitation center lawrence d. balana1*, camille v. de leon1 volume 2 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v2i1.3246 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: june 25, 2024 accepted: july 29, 2024 published: november 19, 2024 plea bargaining agreements (pba) for drug rehabilitation residents in the philippines seek to strike a balance between criminal justice and public health approaches, allowing individuals to avoid harsh penalties while accessing voluntary, evidence-based treatment and rehabilitation programs. however, the implementation of pba necessitates a careful design and monitoring system ensures that the well-being of the individuals involved are protected. our qualitative study explored the lived experiences of selected grantees of plea-bargaining agreement among six in-house program residents of dohtreatment and rehabilitation center in bataan to identify the significant changes it has on their lives, given their current situation. using interpretative phenomenological analysis, responses were interpreted, analyzed, and categorized according to primary patterns. to ensure the reliability and validity of the written protocols, member checking, together with spending prolonged time and description were employed. results revealed that the participants have generally gained positive insight and were able to attain motivation towards their recovery from drug dependence. they employed various coping mechanisms such as acceptance of their current situation; drawing strength from family; and their pursuance in attaining a better future. the in-depth analysis of the lived experiences and actual accounts of selected residents granted with plea-bargaining agreement generally provides an enriched overview of the recovery pattern of persons who used drugs (pwuds) inside the treatment and rehabilitation center. this research may serve as a basis for extension services and collaboration among policymakers and society in improving pba interventions align with human rights principles. keywords drug rehabilitation, phenomenology, plea bargaining agreement, therapeutic community 1 bataan peninsula state university, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: lddbalana@bpsu.edu.ph introduction according to the world health organization (2019), the world drug problem has multiple public health dimensions encompassing vulnerability to drug use disorders and dependence, treatment, and care of people with drug use disorders, reducing the harm associated with drug misuse, and access to controlled medicines for medical pain relief. it remains a common and shared responsibility that should be addressed in a multilateral setting through effective and increased international cooperation and demands an integrated, multidisciplinary, mutually reinforcing, balanced, scientific evidence-based and comprehensive approach. the drug problem in the philippines is a complex and multifaceted issue that encompasses not only criminal justice concerns but also public health considerations (simbulan et al., 2019). in response, the government has implemented various policies and strategies, including the compulsory rehabilitation of individuals found to be using illicit drugs (alibudbud, 2023). drug use has long been viewed negatively, with drug users often facing harsh societal judgment. the previous administration of president rodrigo r. duterte established an aggressive “drug war” policy aimed at eradicating the drug problem, which he claimed could be resolved within three to six months. however, this approach led to numerous issues as duterte took office, as he reportedly urged members of the public to kill suspected criminals and drug addicts without hesitation (bouckaert, 2023; reporter, 2016). human rights groups and the united nations have condemned duterte’s war on drugs, stating that it is morally and legally unjustifiable and has created large-scale human rights violations. the effectiveness and legality of the compulsory rehabilitation programs implemented as part of this strategy have also been called into question. while the government’s intention to address the drug problem is understandable, the limited evidence supporting the benefits of compulsory treatment and the potential for human rights violations within such settings have led to recommendations that policymakers prioritize voluntary and non-compulsory treatment options (boehringer, 2017; johnson & fernquest, 2018). furthermore, the political dynamics surrounding drug rehabilitation in the philippines cannot be overlooked. controversies continue to arise over whether drug dependents should face extrajudicial killings or be confined in institutions that aim to educate them on the negative effects of drug use and help them value themselves. this so-called “drug war” has resulted in over one million drug surrenderers, 40 thousand arrests, and an estimated six thousand deaths, with two thousand occurring during police operations and thousands more due to extrajudicial killings (bueza, 2017). meanwhile, dependents must undergo effective treatment and rehabilitation to assist them in managing their substance use disorders over time. for those with mild to moderate issues, treatment pa ge 17 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 175-181, 2024 through the general health care system may be sufficient, while those with severe disorders may require specialty treatment. to this end, philippines republic act 9165, also known as the comprehensive dangerous drugs act of 2002 mandates the department of health to regulate, oversee, and monitor the integration, coordination, and supervision of all drug rehabilitation programs, projects, and activities. the objective is to establish, operate, maintain, and manage nationwide drug abuse treatment and rehabilitation centers that ensure highquality services to help persons who have used illegal drugs achieve holistic recovery from addiction. in light of the ongoing efforts to address the serious drug problem in the country, the supreme court of the philippines has issued separate resolutions in a.m. no. 18-03-16-sc in 2018 and 2019, allowing plea bargaining in drug cases and the possibility of probation. certain criteria have been established for eligibility. first, when the accused is charged with possession of dangerous drugs under section 11 of ra 9165, and the quantity of “shabu” is less than 5 grams or, in the case of marijuana, less than 300 grams. second, when the accused is charged under section 5 of ra 9165 with the sale of “shabu” and the quantity found in their possession is less than 1 gram, or in the case of marijuana, less than 10 grams. third, when the accused is charged under section 13 in relation to section 11 of ra 9165, and the quantity of the dangerous drug in their possession is less than 5 grams, or in the case of marijuana, less than 300 grams. lastly, when the accused is an employee or a visitor of a drug den, dive, or resort, provided they are charged solely under section 7 of ra 9165, and there are no other persons charged for maintaining the said drug den, dive, or resort. additionally, plea bargaining is also permissible if the accused is charged with possession of “shabu” weighing 5 to 9.99 grams, or marijuana weighing 300 to 499 grams. however, probation will not be allowed in such instances. with these guidelines in place, regional trial courts have promptly enacted this circular, which has given the accused an opportunity to reduce the severity of their offenses and access rehabilitation programs. the opportunity for plea bargaining and probation in drug cases reflects a shift in the approach to addressing the drug problem in the philippines. the researchers interest in this topic was heightened by the pressing issue of drug addiction in the philippines, which is still on the rise despite the existing measures of the legal system and administration’s efforts. this societal challenge has brought significant social and economic problems across the country, highlighting the urgent need for a well-designed and effective treatment program that addresses the specific needs of those affected. given the complex and multifaceted nature of the drug problem, comprehensive solutions that incorporate public health considerations, rehabilitation, and community-based support are crucial to effectively address this growing concern and provide sustainable recovery pathways for individuals struggling with addiction. this study examined the patterns of change in attitude, behavior, and coping strategies both internal and external among selected residents in a treatment and rehabilitation program who were grantees of pleabargaining agreement. it also explored the significant shifts in the residents’ perspectives after they were given the opportunity for rehabilitation instead of incarceration for their drug-related offenses. materials and methods the study used an interpretative phenomenological analysis (smith, 2009) to capture the lived experiences of six (6) residents in treatment and rehabilitation programs who were granted plea bargaining agreement. a purposive selection was utilized in identifying qualified participants through the following criteria: (a) must be 18 years old and above; (b) single or married; (c) currently admitted in rehabilitation and already spent at least two [2] months in treatment program; (d) was previously imprisoned due to drug case/s but ordered to be rehabilitated through the signing of pleabargaining agreement and (e) has no psychiatric evaluation results. the profile of the participants consisted of six males, whose age range from 24 to 43 (m=32.2); four (4) are single; one (1) married and one (1) is legally separated. all of them have violated the article ii, section 5 and section 11 of the republic act 9165 “comprehensive dangerous drugs act of 2002” after being caught of selling, trading and possession of dangerous drugs. all of them have suffered detention from at least 3 months which is the shortest and eight years as the longest period of imprisonment. also, respondents have already stayed in the in-house treatment program for at least 4 months. prior to the interview session, a written informed consent form was provided to each participant. this form outlined the purpose of the study and interview, as well as the entire interview process. the content was thoroughly discussed with the participants to ensure their voluntary decision to be part of the study. the researchers also requested permission to record the interviews. the use of a voice recorder was deemed essential to avoid missing any important points from the participants’ responses. at the end of each interview, the researcher ensured the participants that their responses would be kept confidential. the researcher also shared information with the participants regarding the purpose of the research and the findings. results and discussion the data analysis generated three (3) themes that account for the external experience of the phenomenon and the internal experiences of the participants with the subsequent responses. pa ge 17 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 175-181, 2024 discerning tough decision the first superordinate theme explores the challenging decision for participants to sign the plea-bargaining agreement. it elaborates how they grappled with this decision, presenting their external experiences of pleading to the trial court to reduce their criminal charges by admitting their offenses. this process was marked by uncertainties about whether their decisions would ultimately benefit them. as a prerequisite for their plea to lower their criminal charges, participants had to conscientiously acknowledge their mistakes. embracing the system the first subtheme concerns the participants’ uncertainty about availing the plea bargain. most participants had doubts about how this framework would work. given that they believe their cases do not warrant lengthy incarceration, participants had to carefully consider their decision. however, to attain liberty, they had to navigate the system. one participant expressed hesitation in signing the agreement, stating he had not actually tried selling drugs. nevertheless, he still accepted the plea bargain as an option for his freedom, recounting: “...at first i really don’t like to sign because i didn’t really push drugs.” another participant had doubts if he would sign the plea. however, after seeing that most of his co-inmates are being freed after availing the same legal option, he also decided to imitate them. the participant elaborated, “at first i have second thought of signing the plea, however, after seeing my co-inmates who are being freed, i was encouraged to sign, also because of my child.” participants have already suffered imprisonment for years. yet, one of them believes that he has a chance to win the case but decided later on to accept the agreement. for instance, one participant shared that his arresting officer was also imprisoned due to same ordeal he underwent. “i was having a second thought because during that time, my arresting police officer was also brought to jail due to drugs.” one has identified that he is doubtful to sign the plea due to his lack of knowledge on how it would work. one participant elaborated how his mother encouraged him to plea: “i still don’t have an idea what it was all about.” pleading guilty the second subtheme highlights that to take advantage of the framework, one must admit the allegation as the initial step to reduce the criminal case and obtain freedom. as one participant explained, “i will admit it, it’s like admitting the accusation that i was using [drugs]... to lower the case.” another participant stated, “they gave this to us to reduce the severity of our case.” perceiving things positively this superordinate theme highlights the positive perspective of the residents regarding the plea-bargaining agreement. despite initial hesitations, they were ultimately able to embrace the agreement as a new opportunity, leading them to adopt a more optimistic life outlook. recognizing new opportunities. participants viewed plea-bargaining agreement as another chance provided by the government to address their legal issues and move forward with their lives. since their cases were nonbailable, they risked being detained for 20 to 40 years, depending on their progress and performance in court. consequently, they saw the plea-bargaining agreement as a way to expedite their cases and regain their freedom, requiring them to only admit their offenses. participants expressed their perspectives on the plea option, highlighting the positive impact it could have. one participant shared that it was an opportunity for him to turn his life around, stating, “i see it as a chance to fix my life.” another participant echoed the same sentiment, noting, “they gave me another chance to start over,” and “they’ve given you the chance to change your life and be free.” attaining new life perspective. participants were able to see the plea bargaining as an opportunity to improve their lives. many stated that they gained hope after signing the agreement, as it would reduce the severity of their criminal offenses. one participant expressed feeling a sense of inner peace, describing it as “i have gained inner peace.” another participant identified this experience as a catalyst for changing his life perspectives, saying, “it has changed my perspective in life.” meanwhile, another participant simply stated that it gave him hope. enacting healthy coping mechanisms the last superordinate theme describes the coping strategies participants used to deal with their experiences of rehabilitation through the plea-bargaining agreement. it highlights three ways the participants coped before and during their rehabilitation program. this theme also involves the participants’ reflections on the people and coping styles that helped them the most. table 1: summary of superordinate and subordinate themes superordinate theme subordinate theme discerning tough decision 1.1. embracing the system 1.2. pleading guilty perceving things positively 2.1. recognizing new opportunities 2.2. attaining new life perspective enacting healthy coping mechanisms 3.1. accepting the situation 3.2. drawing strength from family support 3.3. pursuing a better future pa ge 17 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 175-181, 2024 accepting the situation one of the main coping strategies most participants did was to learn to accept their current situation. it was already been given that most of them already spent many years in jail. hence, the present scenario they are in are actually an opportunity to end up their incarceration. by acknowledging their mistakes in the past, they were able to see their need to change themselves. even though they initially had doubts to sign the agreement they were still able to see the advantages of their stay in the rehab. for an instance, participants recognized how the treatment and rehabilitation center helped them change their lives. “i became more excited about my daily living”; “rehabilitation helped me a lot to change myself ”; and “i learn here even in small and little things.” drawing strength from family support for most participants, the support from their family has a significant impact on their ability to fully recover from drug addiction. they regard their family as a source of motivation to move their lives forward. they view their family’s efforts to support them as a sign of unconditional love. whenever they are visited by their family, they experience a renewed resolve to remain steadfast in their treatment program, even though it is difficult to be away from them. however, some have expressed sadness due to this separation. others acknowledge how their loved ones inspire them to overcome the challenges they face. statements such as “my resolve has strengthened,” “my family gives me strength,” “my family is crucial to my change,”; “they give me hope to continue changing my life,”; “my family’s support always motivates me,” and “i gain inspiration from my family” reflect the importance of family support in their recovery process. pursuing a better future the participants expressed optimism and gratitude for the opportunity to change their lives. being hopeful helped them commit fully to the rehabilitation process and make concrete plans for their futures. one participant vowed to take his life more seriously in order to restore his reputation, determined to prove himself and overcome his past mistakes. another participant was confidently looking forward to the good opportunities he believed would be waiting for him upon his release from the rehab center. statements like “i see a positive future ahead,” “i know i’ll find good things when i get out,” and “i want to be truly reformed when i leave” reflected their unwavering determination to apply the lessons they had learned and emerge as better, more responsible versions of themselves. this positive outlook and sense of purpose instilled in them during rehabilitation gave them the motivation and drive to successfully reintegrate into society and lead productive, fulfilling lives moving forward. discussion this study explored the experiences of residents engaged in plea bargaining agreements at the doh-treatment and rehabilitation center in bataan, philippines. the duterte administration’s war on drugs has significantly impacted the incarceration rates of individuals detained for drug-related offenses, leading to challenges such as substandard detention conditions and prolonged trial proceedings. findings revealed that participants felt emotionally conflicted before entering into plea bargaining agreements, fearing that their cases could worsen due to extended incarceration. despite expecting immediate freedom upon signing the agreement, the resolution required them to continue serving their sentences within the rehabilitation center. during the interviews, the participants expressed significant uncertainties about the plea-bargaining agreement, viewing it as a punitive measure that would prolong their imprisonment. the incarcerated individuals likened their situation to a state of homelessness, leading to a profound sense of social disaffiliation and learned helplessness, which aligns with the characteristic features of psychological trauma. despite their initial doubts and beliefs in their own innocence, the participants felt compelled to accept the plea bargains due to external factors, such as the flaws and shortcomings within the justice system. this underscores the challenging circumstances they faced and the difficult decisions they had to make in navigating the legal landscape. this experiential information adheres to the study of hechanova et al. (2022) wherein barriers and enablers are crucial for the rehabilitation and reintegration of drug offenders in the philippines. upon admission to the treatment center, participants experienced a sense of heaviness, indicating their initial unpreparedness for the path ahead. according to lamorte (2019), individuals in the pre-contemplation stage often underestimate the potential benefits of behavior change. however, motivated by the fear of harm or imprisonment, the participants embraced the rehabilitation process as seen in previous studies (yusay & canon, 2019). as they progressed through the program, engagement in various activities provided them with valuable insights, and the “unwritten philosophy” of the therapeutic community encouraged their compliance and acceptance of the treatment. during the initial stage of their treatment, most of the participants struggled to accept the fact that they would be placed in a rehabilitation center. however, through the repetitive daily schedule of activities in the program, they gradually adapted and realized that accepting their situation was the only way to help themselves and overcome their drug addiction. additionally, the support and camaraderie of their small community within the rehabilitation center enabled them to adapt to the people and processes of the rehabilitation program. as they witnessed their fellow residents progressing and improving themselves, the participants gained a renewed sense of hope and motivation to continue their own journey of recovery. the study suggests that the successful road to recovery from drug addiction involves a complex interplay of pa ge 17 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 175-181, 2024 social, structural, and internal processes, all driven by the residents’ desire for self-improvement. by focusing on their ultimate goal of recovering from drug addiction, the residents came to recognize the importance of their active role as participants in the program. as maercker and zoellner (2004) argue, both positive and negative emotions are necessary for personal growth, and accepting challenging life situations, though difficult, can be a transformative experience that leads to meaningful change. in addition, study by grim and grim (2019) emphasize that having belief and faith are key elements of hope, which can alleviate pain and have significant effects on an individual’s physical and psychological wellbeing during the recovery process in addiction treatment programs. initially, the residents experienced feelings of doubt and uncertainty due to their unmet expectations. preoccupied with thoughts of immediately returning home and regaining their freedom, most expected to be able to resume their normal lives immediately after accepting the plea bargain. however, following a drug dependency assessment conducted by a doh-accredited physician, they learned that they would need to undergo a comprehensive treatment and rehabilitation program for at least six months before fully serving out their sentence. this revelation was a significant adjustment, as the residents had to recalibrate their perspectives and priorities. as highlighted by birkhäuer et al. (2017), beneficial health behaviors, less problematic symptoms and higher quality of life are expected by having higher trust in a care system, which eventually reshape an individual’s outlook on problems and their value hierarchy. nevertheless, after accepting their circumstances and the requirements of the rehabilitation program, the residents were able to find constructive ways to cope with their current situation and focus on their path to recovery. the process of recovery for individuals struggling with drug addiction involves improving their physical and mental health, as well as reclaiming control over their lives (patterson, 2015). these participants recognized that they needed psychological support to address the underlying causes of their addiction, but had to be willing to actively seek out and engage with such support (hess & tracey, 2013). when they felt hopeless and miserable about their addiction, they courageously chose to trust others and motivate themselves to bravely face the challenges ahead. a crucial step in entering a treatment program is enhancing the intrinsic motivation to willingly and persistently engage in the necessary rehabilitative behaviors as also evident from the study of webb and sheeran (2013). these individuals are hopeful that by seeking comprehensive treatment, they will be able to recover from the devastating physical, psychological, and social effects of drug abuse and addiction, and ultimately reclaim their lives. in the filipino context, a collectivist culture emphasizes the important role of friends and family. for this reason, the participants view their family support as a driving force that boosts their motivation toward lifelong recovery from drug addiction. however, friends and family can be a “double-edged sword” in the drugtaking culture of filipinos, serving as both risk factors and protective factors. according to estacio (2018), peers and family members are the primary reasons why young filipinos initiate drug use. if relationships, particularly with family members, remain unresolved or unrepaired for an extended period, drug dependents are more likely to relapse upon discharge, even if they have undergone residential treatment. thus, repairing relationships is a crucial factor for the treatment and recovery of the residents. similarly, landry (2020) found that conducting behavioral relationship therapy during and after the program has significant potential to improve the relationships, maintain sobriety, and lead to positive outcomes. this underscores the importance of incorporating family and community-based interventions in drug rehabilitation programs for filipino patients. by addressing the social and relational aspects of addiction, these programs can better support long-term recovery and reintegration into the community. most drug dependents come from challenging family backgrounds that are stressful, traumatic, and disturbed (chassin et al., 2019). lack of parental support and control, along with childhood distress, are crucial reasons why adolescents turn to drugs. hence, the family plays a central role in the treatment of substance abuse (kaufmann, 1994; mccrady et al., 1996). gaining their family’s trust is one of the important motivations for residents to continue their recovery. family work has become a strong and continuing theme in many treatment approaches. residents in drug rehabilitation programs are encouraged to end toxic relationships, as these can lead to drug abuse. conversely, they are also encouraged to seek help from supportive people, such as family members, other rehab residents, and support staff. this allows the participants to cope with their current situation by seeking assistance from their co-residents and the support staff, including case managers, physicians, and other related partners who have direct contact in their daily activities. as a result, the participants consider these support systems as their “family.” sufficient exposure to the attachment principle in therapeutic community environments, along with involvement and inclusion through engendering a sense of belonging and feeling valued, can create a sense of trust in others, encouraging communication and providing opportunities for containment evidently (capone et al., 2017). furthermore, the participants are striving to maintain not only their relationships with their families, but also their good spiritual practices. according to abu-raiya and pargament (2015), people often turn to religion during difficult times. the use of positive religious coping methods is correlated with better mental health, lower distress levels, less depression and anxiety, less helplessness, less perceived stress, and less severe postpa ge 18 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 175-181, 2024 traumatic symptoms. some participants were able to identify that god led them to the rehab program, which enabled them to change themselves and keep their families intact. behavioral improvement means more than just abstinence; it also involves maintaining sobriety. both families and individuals are taught to cope with psychological, emotional, and physical pain through continuous participation in the residential program, in order to learn strategies for maintaining their sobriety until discharge. our study highlights the crucial role of interpersonal relations, particularly family support, in encouraging drug dependents to seek and succeed in recovery. family involvement, including visitation during rehabilitation, is shown to improve family ties and lower chances of reoffending (mears, 2010). this familial support provides psychological reinforcement that aids in adjusting to life post-release (casey-avecedo & bakken, 2002). the treatment program itself fosters a sense of community and belonging, further motivating residents to pursue their recovery goals (room, 2005; bernardo, 2010). being a resident at a treatment and rehabilitation center focuses on the holistic need for personal change. through their daily activities, the residents gain positive insight into their recovery journey, despite facing various challenges. a key lesson they learn is to accept their current situation, moving past their past mistakes and focusing on cultivating an optimistic mindset and setting goals centered on themselves and their families. this motivates them to embark on a lifelong recovery process that extends beyond just abstinence, but also developing resilience and becoming role models (harris et al., 2011). the residents’ positive perception and hope play a crucial role in sustaining their sobriety and shaping their vision for the future, which their families can significantly contribute to the attainment of individual goal (livingston & boyd, 2010). after realizing their need to change their drug-seeking behavior, the residents began to view the rehab program as a catalyst for transformation. the study findings indicate that all participants gained positive insights from the program. as armenakis et al. (1992) explained, individuals use interpretive frameworks, or schemata, to assign meaning to their observations and experiences. developing detailed plans for a more optimistic, healthy, and fulfilling future helps sustain their hope and motivate them through the challenges of recovery. these structured plans guide them along the path to recovery, enabling them to recognize that their visions and goals are attainable through gradual progress and persistent effort. such personal achievements, no matter how small, further cultivate hope, as success often becomes a source of encouragement and renewed determination throughout the recovery process. with a renewed sense of purpose and self-belief, the residents are empowered to reclaim their lives and work towards a brighter, drugfree future. conclusion the experiences of participants who suffered imprisonment due to drug-related cases brought them despair and a lack of motivation to recover from their drug dependence, due to the slow movement of the justice system in the country. however, the promulgation of the plea-bargaining agreement by the supreme court has led them to attain positive outcomes. the results of the study show that the tribulations they endured led them towards positive results, as after their treatment in the rehabilitation center, they will be able to attain liberty and, at the same time, make better progress in their lives. this includes improving their relationships with their loved ones and fully recovering from drug addiction. the pleabargaining agreement also helped them achieve significant changes in their attitude and behavior by making them perceive the importance of their rehabilitation process, and recognize the significance of their recovery as the main avenue to become productive members of their families and good citizens of the community. the respondents employed internal and external coping strategies to manage their uncertainties, specifically prior to signing the plea-bargaining agreement and during the beginning of their treatment program. the study primarily focused on the lived experiences of selected plea-bargaining agreement residents who were rehabilitated at the doh-treatment and rehabilitation center in bataan. further and more in-depth studies could be conducted to explore additional challenges faced by residents under plea-bargaining agreements at treatment and rehabilitation centers. it is recommended to create timely and innovative extension programs for drug dependents in these centers, developed through careful consideration of their unique needs and challenges. the involvement of universities could include volunteer opportunities, guest lectures, or communitybased projects that foster integration and reduce stigma. a holistic approach addressing not only academic needs but also personal and social aspects of recovery, such as incorporating counseling services, mentorship programs, and peer support, could enhance the overall well-being of drug treatment and rehabilitation residents. references abu-raiya, h., & pargament, k. i. 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(2019). healing the hurt amid the drug war: narratives of young urban poor filipinos in recovering families with parental drug use. international journal of drug policy, 68, 124-131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.10.009 pa ge 1 pa ge 41 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) hereditary emotional capacities redefinition of emotional categorizations and manifestations miroslav kuka1*, jove talevski1, ivan jankovic2 volume 2 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v2i1.2598 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: february 15, 2024 accepted: march 21, 2024 published: march 25, 2024 this paper will attempt to open a marginalized but topical debate on the notion of science and the temporal sustainability of stochastic laws in social sciences. it will offer a new interpretation, through a comparative analogy, aimed at revising the existing pedagogical psychological sociological scientific attitudes. the paper tries to define a new line of thought, defined by the limited and essentially unchanged individual capacities of the individual. our approach is expressed in the view that science is a cognitive-developmental reality, rather than a value system of interpretations and defined lines of thought. what has been done in the area of stochastic regularities, performed categorizations, listed manifestations and the new definitions of “emotions” in the recent decades and what we propose, we will show through a simplified analysis within this paper. keywords emotions, categorizations, manifestations, emotional capacities, hereditary potentials, social changes, individual limits 1 faculty of education, universiti, st. kliment ohridski in bitola, north macedonia 2 academy for educational and medical studies in krusevac, republic of serbia * corresponding author’s e-mail: miroslav.kuka@kuka-grosmeister.com introduction contemporary social changes manifest in all spheres of life and individual and social adaptations to these changes are the cause and effect. emotional adaptations of emotional changes. our direct and comparative examinations, created as a result of permanent social changes. considering the generational exposure of people to permanent social changes, that new basic emotion begins to appear from birth. it is observed in an increasing number of people, regardless of their cultural heritage. this research is a correlational survey model study that examines the relationship between emotions and future expectations. correlational survey research is a type of research that shows the relationship between variables and that some of the change observed in one of the variables may be due to the other variable. the most important characteristic of the contemporary society is perpetual change. appreciating the occurrence of the information revolution, developed countries are abandoning the concept of industrialization and turning to servicing activities. contemporary society is transforming into a postmodern one, which increasingly doubts the previous scientific explanations. however, the imposed social circumstances did not change the differences in the definition of scientific knowledge in relation to the other forms of the acquired knowledge. in their several published scientific works and media appearances, the authors described the trichotomy of scientific religious and common sense (laic) knowledge in the following manner: “we consider a science the developmental system of true knowledge (theorems, hypotheses, theories, laws...) about the world, which are reached by applying certain methods, consciously or unconsciously, starting from a certain philosophical theory and world point of view. science is more general term than theory, because every science includes a number of theories with which it interprets the results of research in its field: 1) physics contains the quantum theory and the theory of relativity as its fundamental theories, 2) biology contains darwin’s, morgan’s, weismann’s and the other theories, 3) philosophy contains pragmatism, existentialism, phenomenology and the other philosophical theories, which develop philosophical sciences such as logic, ethics, aesthetics, etc. scientific knowledge was preceded by religious and common sense knowledge that still exists today. religious knowledge has its roots in human practice. it does not come from experience, but it is the fruit of divine revelation. religious truths or dogmas (from the greek dogma, meaning thought) were declared to the chosen ones (moses, jesus, muhammad...), thus are considered eternal and immutable. this means that religious dogmas (about the divine origin of man, about the immortality of the soul, about the last judgment...) even if they can be properly presented as scientific knowledge and proven in some way, are not scientific knowledge, because their accuracy cannot be objectively verified and one can only either believe in them or not believe in them. common sense (laic) knowledge is the practical knowledge of a person, which has acquired in the process of his life experience and which theoretically serves him to direct successfully his practical activities. this knowledge comes from practical experience and allows us to interpret phenomena and predict their course with some success. thus, the practice of melting and processing metals, treating people and animals... centuries before the advent of science was based on common sense knowledge. however, the shortcomings of these pa ge 42 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 41-47, 2024 knowledge is that they are unverified, unreliable, full of prejudices and their successful application is limited by their one-sidedness, resulting from the fact that they are derived from the limited practice of individuals and social groups (e.g. the common sense understanding is: the sun rises in the east and sets in the west, i.e. the sun revolves around the earth). if we compare the statements that we consider correct based on common sense, we will see that there are also those that are mutually excluding: for some, based on common sense, the position about the existence of god is correct, and for others, it is the position about his non-existence. due to these shortcomings of common sense knowledge, our activity cannot rely on them, but needs to be guided by higher forms of knowledge, i.e. scientific knowledge, characterized by objective truth, and thus a high degree of successful application in practice, forecasting and changing the course of events. in order to achieve this, each science has a specific object of its study. according to subjects, which make up certain areas of reality, science is divided into five large groups: 1. mathematical, 2. natural (physics, chemistry, biology...), 3. psychological, 4. social (political economy, pedagogy, history, sociology...), 5. philosophical. depending on its subject, each science has its own specific method, i.e. ways to reach the truth. nothing in the world is so liable to doubt as the truth is. namely, what is true and what is untrue, what is axiom and what is dogma, what is a man and what is his shadow, it is not often easy to find out. all questions and answers can be summarized in the following way: there is the truth as a goal and the truth as a means. where the truth ceases to be the goal and turns into the means that is the point when the truth turns into a lie, axiom into dogma and the man as a subject of the truth becomes an object of manipulation because he goes out from the sphere of anthropology and becomes an object of theology and ideology. the essential issue of what is the right path of the truth gives a conclusion from the up-to-now historical heritage: although the truth is a real rarity, offer is always higher than demand.” (kuka, m. 2011,2020,2021). literature review the scientific definition of emotions is complex, comparatively, it provides answers to many other questions and philosophical dilemmas. the british philosopher and mathematician bertrand russell (1872 1970) noticed that scientists who think they are studying a simple phenomenon, eventually comprehend that the question, e.g. “why the sky is blue?” is much more complicated than they presumed. in the same way, the question “what is emotion?” offers answers that are filled out with vagueness, that do not accept clear and transparent definitions like speed and heat (kagan, j. 2007). the question often raised how should we think about emotions: as an excuses for responsibility or irresponsibility, as dangerous or irrelevant, as disruptive or as crucial factors for our rationality? which of the aspects of emotions, i.e. of the various sensory, physiological, behavioral, cognitive and social phenomena that typically correspond to emotions, we should consider essential? (solomon, r. c. 2008). emotion is a process that is launched when a certain situation, which can be external (some event or person) or internal (some thought or sensation) leads to a change in our body, behavior and perception. we can experience such a change as pleasant or unpleasant, i.e. emotions trigger reactions and physical changes in our body that help us to control the situation. therefore, it can be said that emotions are the result of a complex interrelationship of cultural, sociostructural, cognitive and neurological forces and our aim is to understand how they are connected (turner, j.h., stets, j.e. 2005). additionally, it is possible to argue that emotions of natural types, which have common characteristics and origins in human nature (izard, c.e. 2007). however, there is emotion`s research that points out the evidence that separate emotions such as happiness, sadness, anger, and anxiety cause concrete and specific changes in an individual’s cognition, behavior, judgment, experience, and physiology (lench, h.c., flores, s.a., bench s.w. 2011). the neurophysiological approach to emotions refers to the assumptions that certain psychological processes triggered by the activity of a group of neurons that are located in the same physical place. there is sufficient empirical evidence for the assertion that there is a set of complex, separate, and mutually distinct emotional reactions in the autonomic nervous system (levenson, r.w. 1992). the neurological determinants of male and female emotions described by m. kuka in the scientific paper psychophysical, neurological and sociological dualisms of the sexes in the function of an incompatible male-female communities (kuka, m. 2023). emotions are manifested in several manners: 1. physiological, 2. expressive (behavioral), 3. subjective (experience). the physiological manifestation of the experienced emotion manifests through physiological changes: rapid heartbeat, rapid breathing, increased secretion of hormones, muscle tension, etc. the function of physiological changes is to prepare the organism for a reaction and the stronger physiological changes are the stronger experience of emotion is. the expressive manifestation of emotion manifest through laughter, crying, gestures, changes in the voice tone or color of the voice, etc. the expressive manifestation of emotion is a combination of verbal and non-verbal communication, with the aim of conveying messages about our emotional status, what we intend to do and what we expect from the others. on the other hand, people recognize the other people’s emotional manifestations, thus prepare and decide how they will behave. the subjective manifestation of emotion manifests through personal experiences: happiness, sadness, fear, jealousy, anger, etc. these manifestations direct us to think about how to control the circumstances we encounter. pa ge 43 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 41-47, 2024 emotions are most frequently categorized into basic and complex. basic emotions appear from birth and are characteristic of all people, i.e. we all express them in the same manner, regardless of the culture we belong to and they arise from the same circumstances in all people (e.g. the loss of a loved one makes us sad). the significant characteristics of basic emotions: 1. appear at an early age of life, 2. caused by relatively simple situations, 3. culturally universal, 4. additionally occur in people blind from birth, 5. can be identified on facial expressions, 6. have a specific organic basis, 7. most of them can also be identified in animals too, especially in higher primates. the basic emotions include six emotions: anger, joy, sadness, fear, disgust, surprise. percepted causally, every basic emotion has its own cause and effect: anger the cause is an outcome contrary to expectation and the consequence is preparation for acting in one’s own interest. joy the cause is the fulfillment of a desire and the consequence is the adoption of behavior that leads to a pleasant feeling. sadness the cause is the loss of someone or something and the consequence is seeking help in order to compensate the loss. fear the cause is the perception of danger and the consequence is preparation for facing danger or running away. disgust the cause is a morally or physically undesirable circumstance for us and the consequence is moving away from the undesirable. surprise the cause is novelty in the environment and the consequence is driving attention to events in the environment. distinct from the basic emotions, the complex emotions develop during growing up through different personal experiences and social interactions, so the people differ from each other in experiencing and expressing these emotions. the complex emotions are e.g. guilt, shame, jealousy, love, etc. these emotions usually represent a combination of two or more emotions (e.g. jealousy can be a combination of an anger and a fear or a sadness) or different intensities of one of the basic emotions (e.g. a wreath is an anger of a strong intensity and an anger can be interpreted as a punishment that we impose to ourselves for some kind of behavior). materials and methods contemporary social changes manifest in all spheres of life and individual and social adaptations to these changes are the cause and effect. emotional adaptations of emotional changes. figure 1: survey that examined the potential impact of social change on human emotions pa ge 44 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 41-47, 2024 the first industrial revolution began during the rapid social development in the second half of the xviiith century, when manual production began to be replaced by machine production. the second industrial revolution (the so-called technological industrial revolution) occurs between 1870 and 1914 and is marked by the invention of electricity and mass production (the construction of railroads, and the ford motor was the first company to start using line production). the third industrial revolution (the so-called digital industrial revolution) begins at the end of the 60s of the xxth century and is marked by the transition from analog electronics and mechanical devices to the digital technologies we use today. the fourth industrial revolution brings us changes in robotics, artificial intelligence, nanotechnologies, etc. to these progressive social phenomena, we must add over a hundred wars fought in the period from 1914 1918 (world war i) to 2011 2023 (war in libya, syria, afghanistan, ukraine, israel, palestine, nagornokarabakh...) which results are territorial, demographic, economic... catastrophic consequences. our direct and comparative examinations, observations and perceptions indicate that basic human emotions (anger, joy, sadness, fear, disgust, surprise) must be supplemented with some new emotion, created as a result of permanent social changes. in our direct and comparative investigations (interviews, surveys), observations and perceptions, carried out from 2020 2023, 592 respondents participated (female / male: 278 / 314, average age 43 years. the survey was conducted in serbia (belgrade, novi sad, niš, zrenjanin, leskovac). considering the generational exposure of people to permanent social changes, that new basic emotion begins to appear from birth. it is observed in an increasing number of people, regardless of their cultural heritage. according to us, that new basic emotion is ambivalence, which is used in psychoanalysis to describe the existence of the opposite feelings towards the same object (person, object, and phenomenon). for example, a person looks forward to a new technological achievement, because he will use it in a conformist manner in life. nevertheless, the same technological achievement cause a consideration and worries him, causing a fear... he does not know for what purpose it will be used (for example, we can drive a nail with a hammer, but we can also kill a person). the market will dictate reduction of the need for employment and increase the offer for which there is no need (loss of job and existence). the term “tolerance to ambivalence” introduced the swiss psychiatrist paul eugen bleuler (1857 1939) at the congress of swiss psychiatrists held in bern, while talking about schizophrenia. he described the simultaneous presence of contradictory feelings towards an object or a person, which manifested itself in an irresolvable opposition of two different behavioral tendencies (bleuler, e.p. 1950). the austrian psychiatrist sigmund freud (1856 1939) in the medical history of the “rat man” (a young lawyer whose compulsive thoughts were related to rats, torture and punishment) indicates that the conflict of love and hatred towards the same person can be explained by the existence of obsessive thoughts (freud, s. 1909). for him, ambivalence stems from the bisexuality of human beings, which means that a child can simultaneously love and hatred its parents. we found out through our examinations, that ambivalence is increasingly present in marriage (one of the products of the process of women’s emancipation), i.e. one feels love and joy towards one’s spouse at the same time... but also anger, hatred... (kuka, m. 2002, 2023). thus, ambivalence is a new basic emotion in humans, a product of permanent social changes, which manifests at the same time through different, opposing feelings (love, joy, anger, hatred) towards the same object (person, object, phenomenon). like any other basic or complex emotion, ambivalence has its cause and effect. ambivalence: the cause is permanent social changes (wars, refugees, technological progress, unstable labor markets...), and the consequence is different, conflicting feelings (uncertainty, fear, sadness, surprise, joy, anger...). we will state two examples, the results of which we observed in our research, which denote to daily exposure of contemporary man to ambivalent emotions. for example, most of men enjoy watching football, but today’s supply and demand for football matches, compared to the past, is in discrepancy i.e. a contemporary man is overwhelmed by the offer. the cause (a large offer) the feeling of former joy, satisfaction... consequently transforms into the opposite feeling towards the same object (watching football), because it initiates questions of meaning, which in the permanent offer of football see meaninglessness, disgust, anger... research indicated that women unlike men, prefer shopping. considering a similar example of a large offer, a woman who has decided on a specific item while shopping (manifested emotion joy, satisfaction...), soon she feels the opposite due to a similar or in the impression better item, which she sees in a large offer towards the previous choice i.e. expresses dissatisfaction, anger, disappointment, etc. in addition, we established that in contemporary man, due to various personal experiences and social interactions, ambivalence associated with a fear (e.g. of existence) manifests itself expressively and subjectively in an increased selfishness. we believe that selfishness, given its increasingly pronounced representation, can be included as a new complex emotion, determined by ambivalent indeterminacy and latent existential fear, because of contemporary social changes. selfishness exclusively manifests in taking care of one’s own needs and personal gain. selfish people do not necessarily be exclusively bad, evil or corrupt, they can be extremely sensitive (e.g. to the pain of another person) but almost never offer their help. in addition, selfish people often avoid unpleasant situations (illness, funerals, hospitals), under the pretext that they “can’t bear it”, while the main motive is only the desire to protect themselves. pa ge 45 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 41-47, 2024 results and discussion based on personal experiences and comparative analyses, we concluded that in the same way as psychophysical capacities (kuka, m. 2020), emotions are also determined by our “emotional capacities” inherited at birth, which cannot be changed during the lifetime. each individual has his own way of perceiving and acting in certain situations and his nature is responsible for that, i.e. external relation to the world and his nature, i.e. internal, mental, motivational emotional, social, cognitive characteristics, which determine reactions to certain events. precisely because of his nature, but also due to the environment in which he is, an individual determines the rules of life that he adheres to in an interaction with the other people. therefore, our “character assessment” of a certain event or an individual activates our “basic emotions”, primarily the “dominant emotion”, which produces a reaction, i.e. “emotional response” to certain events or individuals. it can be concluded that e.g. compatible married couples are made up of individuals of similar “emotional capacities”, i.e. emotional awareness, for knowing one’s own and recognizing the other people’s feelings. however, the emotional compatibility of couples, unlike the basic emotions of individuals, can change over the time, due to various psychosocial factors. every individual possesses each of the basic emotions (anger, joy, sadness, fear, disgust, surprise, ambivalence), but in his subjective and expressive manifestation, one of these emotions is dominant from birth, i.e. the most pronounced. if the basic emotion of “joy” is expressively dominant in an individual from birth, it will additionally manifest itself in situations of sadness and vice versa. for example, the source of sadness due to the loss of a close person is the most often manifested physiologically through a decrease in heart rate, rapid breathing, quieter and slower speech, crying, raised eyebrows, lowered lips, etc. however, an individual whose dominant emotion is joy will overcome the state of sadness faster than an individual whose dominant emotion is anger, sadness, fear, disgust, surprise or ambivalence. an individual whose dominant emotion is joy does not suppress sadness, but “shows it to himself ” by arguments initiated by the dominant emotion, i.e. joy. dominant joy transforms sadness into a milder expressive manifestation (e.g. if a person dear to us has died → the arguments of a person whose dominant emotion is joy are most often: “she has gone to a better place”, “the life of the dead remains in the memories of the living ones, while we remember them, will live with us” etc.). from a large number of personal experiences with individuals who are angry, sad or happy from birth (expressive and subjective manifestation), we conclude that without major changes during life, they remain angry, sad or happy, regardless of the life circumstances they go through. “that’s why we divided dominant emotions in people, which cannot be changed during life, and manifest physiologically, expressively and subjectively, into three groups. the first group, called tiha (goddess of happiness), consists of people who, as soon as they wake up, without being provoked by anything but themselves, say “good morning” and continue to live the rest of the day according to that inherited dominant emotion. the second group, called moira (goddess of good and evil), consists of people who do not have the capacity to say “good morning” immediately after waking up, but need time to rise to the level of emotional functioning of people from the first group, so they can be expected to say “ good day”. until they rise to the “good day level”, and it is always a question of how long they can function at that level, this group of people most often functions as people from the third group, called erida (goddess of strife and discord). people from the third group do not have, nor can they build a “basic emotion” to say at any time “good morning, good afternoon or good night”, regardless how much it pleases them.” there are a large number of combinations of emotional manifestations in people, but only within the aforementioned three basic groups. however, the described comparison of the psychophysical capacities of a person with the capacity of a computer can be applied to emotions too. additionally, according to us, emotions are determined by birth, without the possibility of any other influence on them during life, there are circumstances that can transform emotions expressively and subjectively. from a limited number of personal experiences, but confirmed in a larger number of examinations of the experiences of others, we conclude that the dominantly manifested basic emotion at birth can be transformed into another dominant manifested form by some strong, external influence. this example could be described as a “reset” in the case of a computer, i.e. by restarting the computer, returning to the initial mode. we can consider for example a person (parent) whose dominant emotion is fear, which is most often manifested through timidity. additionally, to imagine that this parent found himself in a situation where his child’s life was at risk (e.g. a child trapped in a burning car due to a traffic accident). with a sufficiently strong external influence, an “emotional reset” can be initiated in a human, who will break through some hitherto manifested limit (timidity), run into a burning car and save his child (manifested courage). this new experience may or may not be emotionally adopted, as a new manifested form, i.e. fear may or may not be suppressed by newly discovered and confirmed courage. in this sense, based on our research, we supplemented the basic human emotions (anger, joy, sadness, fear, disgust, surprise) with a new emotion, created because of permanent social changes. that new basic emotion is ambivalence, which, as a product of permanent social changes, manifests at the same time through different, opposing feelings (love, joy, anger, hatred...) towards the same object (person, object, phenomenon). additionally, we found out that in a contemporary man, due to various personal experiences and social interactions, ambivalence associated with fear (e.g. of existence) manifests expressively and subjectively in an increased selfishness. pa ge 46 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 41-47, 2024 conclusion growing up and expressing ourselves in a broader social environment, we “seek” for social values that are aligned with our affinities, while their realization is determined by our inherited and essentially unchanged capacities. we express ourselves psycho-physically and emotionally through processes: 1. cultivation i.e. developing fundamental human abilities such as: learning languages and communication methods, taking an experience from a given culture and training for an independence, 2. socialization i.e. the process by which the child is introduced into the rules of social life, but at the same time creating his or her own standards and criteria of behavior, 3. individualization i.e. the process by which one develops an internal system of motivation in accordance with one’s own personality characteristics. however, considering the generational exposure of man to permanent social changes, those changes also initiated changes in a contemporary man: 1. change of previous perception to social reality, 2. change of previous adaptation to permanent social changes, 3. change of subjective and expressive manifestations according to performed adaptations, etc. in this sense, based on our research, we supplemented the basic human emotions (anger, joy, sadness, fear, disgust, surprise) with a new emotion, created because of permanent social changes. that new basic emotion is ambivalence, which, as a product of permanent social changes, manifests at the same time through different, opposing feelings (love, joy, anger, hatred...) towards the same object (person, object, phenomenon). additionally, we found out that in a contemporary man, due to various personal experiences and social interactions, ambivalence associated with fear (e.g. of existence) manifests expressively and subjectively in an increased selfishness. considering a limited number of personal experiences, but confirmed in a larger number of examinations of the experiences of the others, we concluded that the dominantly manifested basic emotion at birth can be transformed by some strong, external influence into another, dominantly manifested form, which may or may not necessarily be adopted. in the end, we believe that with this work (paper), we have pioneered new directions of research in the broad field of getting know a human. acknowledgements we owe special gratitude to kuka mirjana for her unselfish assistance and support in organizing and technically implementing the conducted research. references bleuler, e. p. (1950). dementia praecox or the group of schizophrenias, new york, international universities press https://philarchive.org/rec/bledpo-2 britton, j. c., phan, k. l., taylor, s. f., welsh, r. c., berridge, k. c., liberzon, i. (2006). neural correlates of social and nonsocial emotions: an fmri study. neuroimage 31(1), 397 409. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16414281/ cacioppo, j. t., berntson, g. g., larsen, j. t., poehlmann, k. m., ito t. a. (2000). the psychophysiology of emotion. in: m. lewis and j. m. haviland jones https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2008-07784-011 cosmides, l., & tooby, j. (2000). evolutionary psychology and the emotions. handbook of emotions, 2(2), 91-115. https://shorturl.at/nhvw2 dawkins, m. s. (2000). animal minds and animal emotions. american zoologist, 40(6), 883-888. https:// academic.oup.com/icb/article/40/6/883/187667 eisenberg, n. 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(2005). the sociology of emotions. cambridge: cambridge university press. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2005-05065-000 pa ge 1 pa ge 11 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) revealing the fear of negative evaluation: exploring its impact on self-esteem through emotional loneliness and avoidance among adolescent khulood mohammed al mansoor1* volume 2 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v2i1.2364 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: december 25, 2023 accepted: february 01, 2024 published: february 05, 2024 adolescence is a crucial developmental stage characterized by complicated psychological challenges, including the fear of negative evaluation (fne), which can considerably influence self-esteem (se). this research explored fne’s psychological effects on adolescents’ se by utilizing the cross-sectional quantitative approach. it attempted to discover how emotional loneliness (el) and social avoidance (sa) mediate fne and se relationships. understanding se elements is crucial for mental health throughout adolescence. fne is common in adolescents and associated with psychosocial difficulties. the study showed el and sa’s significant role in mediating the relationship between fne and se. the mediation role of the el and sa are determined through the sobel test. in both case the value of z-score is greater than its benchmark (1.96) which proves that el and sa significantly mediate the relationship of fne, and se. the research also highlighted some limitations, which include the utilization of cross-sectional methods and the focus on specific cultural settings. the result of this study would help the academics to control the fne among students and enhance their se. keywords adolescents, self-esteem, emotional loneliness, fear of negative evaluation, social avoidance 1 clinical psychology, self-development skills department, king saud university, riyadh, saudi arabia * corresponding author’s e-mail: kalmansoor@ksu.edu.sa introduction a range of psychological and emotional challenges often characterize the phase of adolescence in an individual’s life (zhou et al., 2020). during adolescence, individuals encounter the complexities of developing their identity and integrating into society (branje et al., 2021). this transitional phase exposes them to a range of stresses that have the potential to have a substantial influence on their se and emotional welfare (dewangan et al., 2023). adolescents are more inclined to see themselves as socially isolated and to experience loneliness due to individualization, identity exploration, and physical and cognitive development (thomas & broussard, 2023). several research studies have shown a high correlation between fear of negative (fne) evaluation association with social and emotional loneliness (el) (nixon et al., 2023; sette et al., 2023; wu et al., 2023). meter et al., 2023 have cited in their research that 10% of different levels face negative evaluation in their educational sector (meter et al., 2023). fne in adolescents and childhood stages disturbs the psychological and mental ability of the students and lowers their se (kocatürk & çiçek, 2023). it can lead to social anxiety and, el and lower their se (gök & yalçınkaya‐alkar, 2023). according to ho & gu, 2023 se is positive, and the negative attitude of individuals toward themselves (ho & gu, 2023). se is one of the critical elements in the development of human behavior and is associated with emotional and social well-being. kocatürk & çiçek (2023) also highlighted that se is not a stable characteristic of human behavior and usually fluctuate due to change in the psychological characteristics involving social and mental well-being (kocatürk & çiçek, 2023). the present research is significant because it assists in seeking to build on the empirical and theoretical foundations outlined to assess the level of fne evaluation among adolescents in the kingdom of saudi arabia and to investigate its association with el, social avoidance (sa) and se. through the comprehensive examination of the mediating role of el and sa, this research has helped in determining the impact of the fne on adolescent se. multiple researchers have noted that fne is the leading cause of social anxiety in adolescents that impacts their se (li et al., 2023; naidu et al., 2023; niu et al., 2023). literature review fear of negative evaluation (fne) selem et al. (2023) defined fne as dread about others’ evaluation, anxiety regarding the possibility of an opposing decision, prevention of situations involving evaluations, and the expectation of being negatively evaluated (selem et al., 2023). previous research has demonstrated that individuals with a high fne are more stressed than those with a low fne (akkuş, 2023). moreover, according to the current research, individuals exposed to harsh oversight are hesitant to engage in social interactions where they might feel that they are being negatively judged by others, which could worsen their psychological distress and become the reason for their loneliness (haugen, 2023; lampraki et al., 2022). gök & yalçınkaya‐alkar (2023) found that individuals with a higher dread of negative evaluation are likelier to develop poor se. fear about being evaluated typically comes with unpleasant experiences. therefore, inferiority feelings will likely lead to the fne (gök & yalçınkaya‐alkar, 2023). this research evaluated the association of the fne with el, sa and se. the following hypotheses were designed to examine this variable relationship: pa ge 12 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 11-21, 2024 h1: higher fne is associated with decreased se in adolescents. ho1: higher fne is not associated with decreased se in adolescents. h2: higher fne is associated with higher el. h02: higher fne is not associated with higher el. h3: higher fne is associated with higher sa. ho3: higher fne is not associated with higher sa. emotional loneliness loneliness is a perceived psychological condition that has been linked to disorders of depression, introversion, and lack of social skills, along with objective social isolation. according to alam et al. (2023), loneliness is a condition in which a person feels socially isolated despite being surrounded by others(alam et al., 2023). furthermore, perlman and peplau (1981) describe loneliness as a person who believes they are socially isolated even though as the unfavorable emotion that people feel when they believe their network of social connections is quantitatively or qualitatively inadequate (huxhold et al., 2022; purcia et al., 2023). this research considers that loneliness can mediate between the fne and se, and it also decreases the se. when fne is high, individuals tend to avoid social interactions, resulting in emotional isolation. this el can contribute to low se because individuals perceive themselves as socially isolated and less valued by others. following two hypotheses have been considered for variable se: h4: higher el significantly is associated with lower se h04: higher el is not significantly associated with lower se h5: el mediates the association between fne and se, meaning higher fne scores will be linked to lower se. ho5: there is no mediation impact of el on fne and se in teenagers. thus, el does not substantially explain fne and se. social avoidance the fundamental fear of social anxiety is the fne, and individuals with social anxiety exhibit behavioral symptoms such as dread-driven sa (henricks et al., 2023). adolescents with high fne mostly avoid participating in social gatherings and thus have low se. in this reference, khoshnam et al. (2023) mentioned that fne adolescents in social gatherings are likelier to cope with social relationships and the search for their identity (khoshnam et al., 2023). they frequently lack se and confidence, dread social situations, distrust others, and experience insecurity in familial relationships. they also experience social isolation (wong et al., 2023). thus, this variable takes into account the following hypothesis: h6: higher sa significantly is associated with lower se h06: higher sa is not significantly being associated with lower se h7: sa mediates the association between fne and se, meaning higher fne scores will be linked to lower se. h07: there is no mediation impact of sa on fne and se in teenagers. thus, sa does not substantially explain fne and se. self-esteem (se) se, defined as how individuals evaluate their importance or as a simple positive or negative attitude toward oneself, is one of the most essential behavioral components of daily functioning. in their research, aronson et al. (2019) highlighted the concept of self-affirmation theory. they noted that individuals have a basic psychological need to maintain a favorable view of themselves and their selfworth. when their se is at risk, this need compels them to engage in self-affirming activities (aronson et al., 2019; obenza et al., 2024). according to amey et al. (2022), individuals appear to be naturally driven to maintain positive se, a crucial component of the self-concept, and utilize a variety of mechanisms to boost se in response to both positive and negative self-relevant feedback. this is accomplished in two primary methods. adolescents notice and encrypt positive and negative feedback and then deploy negative comments post hoc to maintain high se. alternatively, they may encode positive feedback more deeply than negative feedback to positively bias se (amey et al., 2022). mikkelsen et al. (2020) mentioned that se is closely linked to developing psychological and mental issues (mikkelsen et al., 2020). choi et al. (2019) highlighted that se is a socio-meter that provides an individual with acceptance and affection from others(choi et al., 2019). in this context, mullan et al. (2023) mentioned in their research that an individual who develops appropriately during adolescence is less likely to suffer from low se and engage in toxic or aberrant behaviors and more likely to become healthy, self-affirming, and self-confident as an adult. in contrast, adolescents who lack se are more inclined to struggle with social relationships and pursue an essence of identity (mullan et al., 2023). this research is performed to resolve the prominent gap in the past literature to determine the pathway to the fne impacting the adolescent’s se and only limiting the attention toward its influence on causing el and sa. however, this research bridged the gap by examining these mediating factors. this improved comprehension regarding psychological processes is essential for designing interventions to help adolescents cope with social anxiety and low se. consequently, this is crucial for fostering their well-being during this crucial developmental period. conceptual framework the conceptual framework highlights the critical role of el and sa in strengthening or lowering the relationship between the fne and se. fne causes el and sa, thus affecting se. adolescents having fne usually have low se. by determining the mediating role of el and sa, the association between the fne and se could be evaluated. after the evaluation, strategies can be proposed to minimize sa and el and strengthen the relationship between the fne and se. pa ge 13 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 11-21, 2024 methodology research design the present research utilized the cross-sectional quantitative approach and relied on data collection to quantify the conceptual framework work and to investigate the relationship between the variables (lin & fan, 2022). a cross-sectional method was employed, meaning the data was gathered from a single point. the data collection period was from january 2023 to march 2023. furthermore, the research included no experimental manipulation or environmental control. it examined naturally existing correlations and associations between variables (lin & fan, 2022). research participants data were collected from the adolescents of saudi arabia. students from ten saudi arabian secondary schools made up the research participants in this research. these schools were chosen to offer a broad and representative sample for the research strives in saudi arabian secondary schools (hammad et al., 2023). sample size a convenience sample size technique was used in this research to find the appropriate sample size. the sample size consisted of the secondary school 10th, 11th, and 12th class, both male and female adolescents. the population frame included 2,500 saudi adolescents who fulfilled the inclusion criteria and attended selected secondary schools (hammad et al., 2023). rao software was utilized to determine the minimum sample size. at a 95% confidence interval, the suggested sample size as per the rao soft is 334. as shown in table no. 1, out of 334 adolescents, 320 adolescents filled out the questionnaire willingly. among 320, 187 were male adolescents, while 133 were female adolescents. table 1 shows the number of adolescents from each school who filled out the questionnaire. figure 1: research conceptual framework source (author) figure 2: raosoft for sample size identification; source: author table 1: sample size table school number raosoft sample size distribution adolescents male female 1 34 34 20 14 2 33 32 21 11 3 33 32 16 16 4 34 30 21 09 5 33 32 20 12 6 34 32 17 15 7 33 33 18 15 8 33 32 20 12 pa ge 14 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 11-21, 2024 instrumental scale a structured questionnaire was utilized for the data collection. adolescents were approached for the data collection through google mail or whatsapp. after the data collection, the collected data were analyzed through the spss. 20 software. the questionnaire involved four sections. the first section was based on the demographics of three main questions: age, gender, and education. social anxiety scale for adolescents-revised (sas-a), developed by la greca & lopez (1998), was employed to evaluate the two subscales: fne and sa. neelmans et al. (2019) utilized the same scale in their research that was also adapted for this research (nelemans et al., 2019). the six-item de jong gierveld loneliness scale was used to evaluate el in large surveys. de jong gierveld and van tilburg (2008) deemed it valid and trustworthy. according to mund et al. (2023), their technique separates social and el based on factual and theoretical data (mund et al., 2023). furthermore, for evaluating the se rosenberg se scale was utilized (vispoel et al., 2023). the items were scored based on the likert scale from 1 (strongly agree) to 5 (strongly disagree) (south et al., 2022). informed consent adolescents were informed that their participation in the research was totally voluntary, with no consequences if they chose not to complete the survey. potential participants were under no duress to take part and were offered no monetary compensation. the informed consent of each of them was obtained before they began to fill out the survey, and each returned questionnaire was identified by a code, thus ensuring the confidentiality and anonymity of all information obtained from it. no additional risk was anticipated to arise from the involvement of adolescents in the research. ethical consideration the research was approved by the humanities and social research ethics committee at king saud university under the reference ksu-he-23-603. the researchers complied with all research ethics principles according to the declaration of helsinki. pilot testing the questionnaire was piloted among 10% of adolescents who met the inclusion criteria to assess its practicality, clarity, and completion time. in the pilot test, 32 adolescents filled out the questionaries’ from the targeted ten schools. the number of adolescents for pilot testing who filled out the questionnaire is as follows: 9 34 31 16 15 10 33 32 18 14 total number 334 320 187 133 table 2: pilot testing sample size school number adolescents male female 1 4 2 2 2 3 2 1 3 3 1 2 4 3 1 2 5 3 2 1 6 3 2 1 7 3 1 2 8 4 2 2 9 3 1 2 10 3 2 1 total number 32 16 16 scale revealing the fear of negative evaluation: exploring its impact on se through loneliness and avoidance among adolescent table # 2 depicts the 0.913 cronbach alpha value, which is above the cronbach alpha benchmark of 0. it means that the questionnaire is 91.3% consistent or reliable and suitable for further data collection. results demographic analysis table # 3 depicts the demographics of this research. according to the data, 320 participants have filled out the questionnaires. among them, 187 were male respondents, while 133 were female respondents. the age of the respondents was segmented into three categories that are 15-16, 17-18, and 19-20. as per the table 2: reliability analysis cronbach's alpha n of items .913 12 pa ge 15 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 11-21, 2024 data, 167 respondents belonged to the 15 -16 age group, 107 respondents belonged to the 17-18 age group, and 46 respondents belonged to the 19-20 age group. in the class level column, it is shown that 156 respondents were from the 10th standard, 106 respondents were from the 11th standard, and 58 respondents were from the 12th standard. reliability analysis table 4 and 5 depicts the reliability analysis of the model based on the overall sample size; out of 334 sample sizes extracted through the rao software, 320 respondents filled out the questionnaire. the reliability statistics have shown the cronbach alpha value of 0.866, which is above the benchmark value of 0.70. this means that the proposed questionnaire indicated 86.6% reliability. descriptive analysis table 6 shows the descriptive chart of the proposed charts. all variable minimum value is 1. se has the highest maximum value, which is 4, and el has the lowest maximum value, which is 3. these values indicate the range of responses, with the greatest and lowest scores representing the upper and lower limits of the respective measures for each variable in the 320 sample size. se has the highest mean value, which is 2.0292, which depicts that, on average, the se data have shown the highest value. el has the lowest mean value, which is 1.9229, which depicts that, on average, el data has shown the lowest value. furthermore, the maximum standard deviation value for the se variable is 0.51705, indicating increased dispersion or variability in the data. the data for the sa variable seem to be comparatively less variable, as shown by the lowest standard deviation value of 0.45723. table 3: demographic analysis frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent gender male 187 58.4 58.4 58.4 female 133 41.6 41.6 100.0 total 320 100.0 100.0 age 15-16 167 52.2 52.2 52.2 17-18 107 33.4 33.4 85.6 19-20 46 14.4 14.4 100.0 total 320 100.0 100.0 class level 10th standard 156 48.8 48.8 48.8 11th standard 106 33.1 33.1 81.9 12th standard 58 18.1 18.1 100.0 total 320 100.0 100.0 table 4: reliability analysis cronbach's alpha n of items .866 12 table 5: case processing summary n % cases valid 320 100.0 excluded 0 .0 total 320 100.0 a. listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure. table 6: descriptive analysis n minimum maximum mean std. deviation fear of negative evaluation 320 1.00 3.67 1.9427 .48865 emotional loneliness 320 1.00 3.00 1.9229 .48340 social avoidances 320 1.00 3.33 2.0066 .45723 self-esteem 320 1.00 4.00 2.0292 .51705 valid n (listwise) 320 correlation analysis table 7 depicts the correlation table. the low correlation value is below 0.3; the moderate correlation value lies between 0.3 to 0.5. at the same time, the highest correlation value is more than 0.5. according to this chart, sa and se are highly correlated since it has a value of 0.725 (72.5%). fne and se are low-moderately correlated to each other, with a value of 0.470 (47%). pa ge 16 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 11-21, 2024 table 7: correlation analysis fne emotional loneliness social avoidance self esteem (se) fear of negative evaluation pearson correlation 1 .720** .536** .470** sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 n 320 320 320 320 emotional loneliness pearson correlation .720** 1 .493** .537** sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 n 320 320 320 320 social avoidance pearson correlation .536** .493** 1 .725** sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 n 320 320 320 320 self esteem pearson correlation .470** .537** .725** 1 sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 n 320 320 320 320 **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). regression analysis direct effect of independent variable on dependent variable (self-esteem) as per the model summary, anova, and coefficient table depicted in tables 8, 9 and 10, respectively, there is a moderate relationship between the fne and se. the “r” value that is 0. 470 depicts that fne and se are 47% correlated with each other whereas, the value of r square, which is 0.218, shows that there is a 21.8% variance in se due to the fne. the f value in the anova chart depicts that this model is 90.081% valid. similarly, the value of significance (0.00) in the coefficient chart supports that high fne is associated with lower se. hence, it supports the following hypothesis: h1: higher fne is associated with lower se. table 8: model summary model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 .470a .221 .218 .45715 a. predictors: (constant), fne table 9: anova model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regression 18.826 1 18.826 90.081 .000b residual 66.458 318 .209 total 85.283 319 a. dependent variable: se b. predictors: (constant), fne table 10: coefficient model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 1.063 .105 10.135 .000 fear of negative evaluation .497 .052 .470 9.491 .000 a. dependent variable: se direct effect of independent variable on mediating variable (emotional loneliness) as per the model summary, anova, and coefficient table depicted in tables 11, 12 and 13, respectively, there is a strong relationship between the fne and el. the “r” value that is 0.720 depicts that fne and el are 72% correlated with each other whereas, the value of r square, which is 0.517, shows that there is a 51.7% variance in el due to the fne. similarly, the regression model explains considerable variation in the dependent variable, as shown by the very significant f-value of 342.280. furthermore, the coefficient chart depicts a 0.000 sig value that is less than 0.05, suggesting a strong association between variables. hence, it supports the following hypothesis. h2: higher fne is associated with higher el. pa ge 17 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 11-21, 2024 table 11: model summary model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 .720a .518 .517 .33600 a. predictors: (constant), fne table 12: anova model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regression 38.642 1 38.642 342.280 .000b residual 35.901 318 .113 total 74.543 319 a. dependent variable: el b. predictors: (constant), fne table 13: coefficient model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) .539 .077 6.993 .000 fear of negative evaluation .712 .038 .720 18.501 .000 a. dependent variable: el direct effect of independent variable on mediating variable (social avoidance) as per the model summary, anova, and coefficient table depicted in tables 14, 15 and 16, respectively, there is a moderate relationship between the fne and social avoidance (sa). the “r” value that is 0.536 depicts that fne and sa are 53.6% correlated with each other whereas, the value of r square, which is 0.287, shows that there is a 28.7% variance in sa due to the fne. similarly, the regression model explains considerable variation in the dependent variable, as shown by the very significant f-value of 128.118. furthermore, the coefficient chart depicts a 0.000 sig value that is less than 0.05, suggesting a strong association between fne and sa. hence, it supports the following hypothesis. h3: higher fne is associated with higher sa table 14: model summary model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 .536a .287 .285 .38664 a. predictors: (constant), fne table 15: anova model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regression 19.152 1 19.152 128.118 .000b residual 47.538 318 .149 total 66.690 319 a. dependent variable: sa b. predictors: (constant), fne table 16: coefficient model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 1.032 .089 11.635 .000 fear of negative evaluation .501 .044 .536 11.319 .000 a. dependent variable: sa direct effect of mediating variables on dependent variable the above model summary table #17 depicts the 0.754 r-value, which means that the mediating variables are 75.4% correlated with each other. the r-value that is 0.565 means that there is a 56.5% variation in se due to el and sa. similarly, the regression model in table # 18 explains considerable variation in the se, as shown by pa ge 18 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 11-21, 2024 the very significant f-value of 208.210. furthermore, the significance value for both el and sa variables is “0.000,” indicating strong statistical significance. this implies that higher el and sa significantly affect se in the regression model. whereas the constant’s “sig.” is 0.088, which is not significant but worth considering in the model. according to these result, it can be hypnotized that: h4: higher el significantly is associated with lower se h6: higher sa significantly is associated with lower se table 17: model summary model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 .754a .568 .565 .34100 a. predictors: (constant), sa, el table 18: anova model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regression 48.422 2 24.211 208.210 .000b residual 36.861 317 .116 total 85.283 319 a. dependent variable: se b. predictors: (constant), sa, el table 19: coefficient model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) .162 .095 1.710 .088 emotional loneliness .254 .045 .238 5.603 .000 social avoidance .687 .048 .607 14.310 .000 a. dependent variable: se mediation analysis to determine the mediation role of el and sa sobel test has been performed. the sobel test is a way to use statistics to figure out how important it is that an independent variable has a secondary effect on a dependent variable through a mediator. it checks the standard error of the indirect effect in a mediation model to see if the mediation effect is statistically different from zero. the calculation of a z-value within the framework of mediation analysis is denoted by a formula as given below, in which a and b denote coefficients, and “sa” and “sb” represent their corresponding standard errors. by calculating the z-value, which is utilized to assess the significance of the indirect effect, the formula offers valuable information regarding the statistical significance of the mediation effect. z-value = a*b /√ (b2*sa2 + a2*sb2) a= unstandardized coefficient of independent variable sa= standard error independent variable b= unstandardized coefficient of mediating variable sb= standard error of mediation variable el as mediation variable to determine the “a” and “sa” values, find out the regression analysis by considering fne as an independent variable and el as a dependent variable. similarly, to find out the “b” and “sb”, consider el and fne as independent variables and se as dependent variables. after running a linear regression test, the following values have been achieved: a = 0.712 sa= 0.038 b= 0.442 sb= 0.072 z-value = 0.712 * 0.442 /√ (0.4422*0.0382 + 0.7122*0.0722) z-value=5.8337 this z-score value is more than the z-score benchmark value, which is 1.96. it means that el is significantly mediating the relationship between fne and se. hence it is proved that: h5: el mediates the association between fne and se, meaning fne increases el that is linked to lower se. sa as mediation variable to determine the “a” and “sa” values, find out the regression analysis by considering fne as an independent variable and sa as a dependent variable. similarly, to find out the “b” and “sb”, consider sa and fne as independent variables and se as dependent variables. after running a linear regression test, the following values have been achieved: a = 0.501 sa= 0.044 b= 0.750 sb= 0.051 z-value = 0.501* 0.750/√ (0.7502*0.0442 + 0.5012*0.0512) z-value= 9.0031 this z-score value is more than the z-score benchmark value, which is 1.96. it means that sa is significantly pa ge 19 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 11-21, 2024 mediating the relationship between fne and se. hence it is proved that: h7: social avoidance mediates the association between fne and se, meaning higher fne scores will be linked to lower se. discussion the results of the study have shown that lower sa and el have decreased fne and increased adolescent self-esteem. both el and sa serve as mediators of the relationship between fne and self-esteem, shedding light on the psychological processes underlying adolescents’ se. these findings have implications for comprehending and addressing social anxiety and se issues among adolescents. liao et al. (2023) research has demonstrated that individuals with a high dread of negative evaluation tend to have reduced se. several studies examining social anxiety, self-perception, and self-worth have demonstrated this relationship(liao et al., 2023). lampraki et al. (2022) mentioned in their research that those with a high fne are more inclined to experience emotional isolation. fne can contribute to el by causing social withdrawal, avoidance of social situations, and difficulty forming meaningful social connections (lampraki et al., 2022). the robust positive association found between fne and el in this study is consistent with these findings. tomska et al. (2022) indicated the direct association of fne with sa and distress–general, hours of sleep and internet use indicate that adolescents who scored more highly on sa and distress were more likely to fear being judged, evaluated, or rejected and suggests that they may respond to such anxieties by sleeping longer or using the internet for prolonged periods, which in turn may worsen their condition (tomska et al., 2022). this research also correlates with our finding, as we also highlighted that fne has contributed significantly to adolescents’ se. the research overall supports the following hypothesis: mediators. even though not all studies have investigated these specific mediators, this study contributes to the developing corpus of evidence in this field. conclusion this study examined the complex relationship between fne, el, sa, and se among saudi arabian adolescents. the study found strong support for the hypothesis that higher fne is associated with reduced se, increased el, and increased sa. el and sa have been identified as significant mediators of the relationship between fne and se. these findings emphasized the importance of addressing fne and its psychological effects in adolescence to promote emotional well-being and se. future support and intervention mechanisms should focus on reducing fne and mitigating its harmful effects on the mental health of adolescents. limitations and future implications the cross-sectional design of this study is a limitation, as it limits the capacity to determine causal relationships between variables. in addition, the research was conducted within saudi arabia, particularly, so the applicability of the results to other cultural contexts may be limited. another potential limitation is the use of self-report measures, which are susceptible to response bias. future researchers could consider the longitudinal study and utilize the qualitative analysis or mixed method. furthermore, they can also target other audiences like adults or women or places other than saudi arabia. recommendations following are the recommendations to control the el and sa in adolescents to strengthen the relationship between fne and se: • create and perform adolescent fne intervention programs in different schools in saudi arabia. these programs should assist teenagers with social anxiety by increasing interpersonal abilities, se, and el (al awaji et al., 2022). • include mental health education and awareness in the curriculum to assist kids in understanding fne, el, and sa. school counselors and educators can help identify and assist students early (bi et al., 2023). • develop longitudinal investigations of fne, el, sa, and se in teenagers. this would clarify dynamics (foseid, 2023). create online resources for adolescents to obtain fne and mental health information, support, and coping methods. virtual help is more accessible (remskar et al., 2022). references akkuş, k. (2023). fear of positive evaluation and loneliness: mediating role of social anxiety and suppression. psychological reports, 00332941231197154. al awaji, n., zaidi, u., awad, s. s., alroqaiba, n., aldhahi, m. i., alsaleh, h., akil, s., & mortada, e. m. (2022). h1 higher fne is associated with lower se. h2 higher fne is associated with higher el. h3 higher fne is associated with higher sa h4 higher el is significantly associated with lower se h5 el mediates the association between fne and se, meaning fne increases el that is linked to lower se. h6 higher sa is significantly associated with lower se h7 sa mediates the association between fne and se, meaning fne increases sa that is linked to lower se. there is limited research available on determining the association between the fne and se through the sa and el. the current study offers scientific evidence for the mediating effects of el and sa on the fnese relationship, expanding our understanding of how the dread of negative evaluation influences se via these pa ge 20 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 11-21, 2024 moderating effects of self-esteem on the relationship between communication anxiety and academic performance among female health college students during the covid-19 pandemic. international journal of environmental research and public health, 19(21), 13960. alam, i., khayri, e., podger, t. a., aspinall, c., fuhrmann, d., & lau, j. y. 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(2020). longitudinal association between low self‐esteem and depression in early adolescents: the role of rejection sensitivity and loneliness. psychology and psychotherapy: theory, research and practice, 93(1), 54-71. pa ge 1 pa ge 6 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) the joint predictive effects of teachers’ enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom on students’ enjoyment in higher education settings elmakki amiri1* volume 1 issue 1, year 2023 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: july 18, 2023 accepted: august 04, 2023 published: august 07, 2023 the flourishing of positive psychology (pp) in education has shifted the focus to the crucial role of neglected emotions (e.g. enjoyment, boredom, hope). yet, studies about how teachers’ emotions are combined and have joint effects in predicting students’ emotions are hardly available. the current study aimed to investigate the relationship between studentperceived teacher enjoyment (pte), anxiety (pta), and boredom (ptb) and students’ selfreported enjoyment (se). as such, how the three perceived teacher emotions jointly predict se was also investigated. a total of 760 university students (mage= 21.07, sd = 3.59), enrolled in a public university in morocco, participated in this study through completing an anonymous questionnaire. statistical analyses (correlation and regression) showed that pte and ptb were found to be the only significant predictors of se. they contributed uniquely and significantly to the overall model, which explained 9% (r2 = .9) of the variance in the outcome variable (se). the effect of ptb was increased within the regression model compared to the independent effect. this is interpreted as a demonstration of the positive emotional crossover from teachers to students. furthermore, pta did not emerge as a significant predictor for se. implications for future research and educational practice are discussed. keywords perceived teacher enjoyment, perceived teacher anxiety, perceived teacher boredom, emotion contagion, higher education settings 1 sidi mohamed ben abdellah university, fez, morocco * corresponding author’s e-mail: elmakki.amiri@usmba.ac.ma introduction the topic of emotions has largely been left in the shadows with the exception of anxiety which has been extensively studied in education (dewaele & li, 2020; macintyre, 2017; teimouri et al., 2019). in this regard, swain (2013) pinpointed that “emotions are the elephants in the room – poorly studied, poorly understood, seen as inferior to rational thought” (p. 195). yet, since the emergence of pp, emotions has been attracting academic interest, triggering a surge of interest among researchers, and prompting a more in-depth exploration of positive emotions. this marked a significant shift in psychology’s focus, moving beyond merely addressing life’s challenges to actively cultivating the most enriching aspects of human experience. the aim was to foster a fresh perspective on the subject matter (seligman, 2018). the introduction of pp into applied linguistic research revolutionized the field by shifting the focus into the important role of neglected positive emotions (e.g., enjoyment, joy, pride, love and hope) and negative emotions (e.g., boredom, shame, anger) (see dewaele & macintyre, 2014; kruk & zawodniak, 2018; putwain et al., 2018; macintyre et al., 2019; macintyre & vincze, 2017; boudreau et al., 2018; teimouri, 2018; amiri & el karfa, 2023). since the turn of the third millennium, few studies investigated the joint predictive effects of teachers’ enjoyment, anxiety and boredom on students’ emotions, academic achievement and motivation (e.g., alberth, 2022; joelle et al., 2008; li et al., 2019; amiri et al., 2023;jin & zhang, 2018). however, research on how the three aforementioned teachers’ emotions jointly predict students’ enjoyment is hardly available. given this, such study may make a noteworthy contribution to the scarcity of empirical research on the role of teachers’ emotions in different contexts. the current study aims at investigating the independent and joint predictive effects of pte, pta, and ptb on se in higher education settings. literature review positive psychology in education needless to say that cognitive research has been the core focus of applied linguistics research, relegating the exploration of emotions to a secondary position. it is until recently, particularly around the start of the third millennium, that scholars have started to show interest in investigating positive and negative emotions within teaching and learning processes. despite extensive investigations into anxiety and its various roles in the classroom setting, other aspects of this subject have been largely overlooked and remain relatively under-researched (dewaele & li, 2020). over the past decade, there has been a growing fascination with emotions, particularly in educational environments where both students and teachers experience a wide range of positive and negative emotions. numerous studies have emerged in prominent psychology journals since seligman and csikszentmihalyi’s (2000) groundbreaking special issue of american psychologist on pp. it is worth noting that pp has received considerable attention in educational contexts, but positive emotions have largely been overlooked. however, in recent years, there has been a significant increase in research, resulting in a substantial body of literature that provides valuable insights. the introduction of pp, along with its underlying theories like the control-value theory cvt (pekrun, 2006; pekrun et al., 2007) and the broaden-and-build theory of pa ge 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 6-15, 2023 emotions (fredrickson, 2001, 2003, 2006), into applied linguistics sparked researchers’ interest in examining positive emotions (e.g., enjoyment, hope, joy, happiness) more comprehensively. consequently, psychology has shifted its focus from solely addressing life’s challenges to fostering the best aspects of existence, ultimately seeking a fresh understanding of this matter. teachers’ enjoyment, anxiety and boredom in recent years, there has been a growing fascination with the examination of achievement emotions, largely attributed to pekrun’s development of the cvt in 2006. the cvt represents one of the most extensively studied theoretical frameworks concerning achievement emotions, focusing exclusively on academic emotions and achievement settings within a three-dimensional taxonomy. the insights derived from the cvt have shed light on the substantial influence emotions have on students’ learning, performance, engagement, and even their personality development. as a result, a diverse range of emotions such as enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom, have captured the attention of academics in various educational contexts, including pedagogical, linguistic, cultural, and social aspects. consequently, a noticeable increase in researchers exploring emotions in educational environments has occurred, as the learning environment’s impact on students’ academic achievement is widely acknowledged (amiri & elkarfa, 2021). it is worth noting that several researchers (e.g. kruk et al., 2022; derakhshan et al., 2022; dewaele & macintyre, 2016; boudreau et al., 2018; putwain et al., 2018) have extensively examined three academic emotions, namely enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom. their influential contributions have triggered an “emotional turn” and kindled the interest of other researchers in the field, leading to broader discussions on the significance of various academic emotions explored through different frameworks (dewaele & li, 2020). however, studies on the joint predictive effects of teachers’ enjoyment, anxiety and boredom on students’ emotions are scarce. it should be stated here that the previously mentioned emotions are three of the frequently experienced emotions in academic context (goetz et al., 2007; see li & wei, 2022; tsang & dewaele, 2023). enjoyment within general psychology, enjoyment received relatively little attention in research (dewaele & macintyre, 2016). however, with the rise of pp and the broadenand-build theory, numerous scholars have directed their focus towards this topic (dewaele & alfawzan, 2018). enjoyment is considered a pleasant activating positive emotion (fredrickson & cohn, 2008; frenzel et al., 2007), particularly among teachers (sutton & wheatley, 2003). importantly, several researchers, such as izard (1977), plutchik (1980), and ekman scherer (1982), have classified enjoyment as a basic emotion. in order to fully grasp the concept, csikszentmihalyi (2008) distinguished between enjoyment and pleasure. they stressed that pleasure refers to the contentment experienced from fulfilling routine and biological needs, like food, rest, sleep, and sex. it is associated with satisfying basic desires. on the other hand, enjoyment, which is an essential component of flow experiences, surpasses planned, expected, or imagined experiences. it emerges after enjoyable events and is not dependent on routine needs, making it more enduring compared to pleasure. moreover, the cvt posits that enjoyment can foster more creative approaches among students, as greater enjoyment is linked to higher achievement. considering the reciprocal relationship between academic achievement and academic emotions, creating an atmosphere that cultivates greater enjoyment becomes crucial for academic success. anxiety notably, anxiety is the most extensively studied emotion in the realm of second and foreign language learning (dewaele & macintyre, 2014; macintyre, 2017; boudreau et al., 2018). in the context of language learning and teaching, anxiety can be described as “the feeling of tension and apprehension specific to second language situations, including speaking, listening, and learning” (macintyre & gardner, 1994, p.284). it encompasses negative emotional states and worries (macintyre, 1999), making it a psychological concern (spielberger, 1983) that often arises during second language acquisition. the significance of anxiety in teaching and learning became evident with the influential work of horwitz et al. (1986), who developed a well-known scale for its measurement. furthermore, anxiety has been found to exert influence over other essential skills like motivation and self-esteem, consequently affecting students’ proficiency (crookall & oxford, 1991). in summary, for the vast majority of students, anxiety proves to be a hindrance to academic achievement. boredom academic boredom is a prevalent emotion commonly encountered in educational settings (li, 2021; amiri et al., 2022). the definition of boredom poses a challenge, as scholars in the field hold divergent views on its general meaning. some consider it to be related to underlying mental processes (eastwood et al., 2012), while others associate it with disengagement and attention deficit (fahlman, 2009) when individuals experience it. this negative emotion can have detrimental effects on psychological vigilance (pekrun et al., 2010) and leads to decreased interest and concentration (nett et al., 2010) during specific activities or tasks. significantly, putwain et al. (2018) distinguish between trait boredom and state boredom. the former is regarded as an intrinsic aspect of human nature, while the latter is considered a situational and momentary experience. in the context of foreign language learning, trait boredom is experienced when learners perceive the environment pa ge 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 6-15, 2023 as lacking stimulation and engagement (bench & lench, 2013). according to cvt, academic boredom and academic achievement share a reciprocal relationship, where lower performance and success correspond to greater levels of boredom. emotional contagion process and mechanisms emotional contagion refers to the “process in which a person or group influences the emotions or behavior of another person or group through the conscious or unconscious induction of emotion states and behavioral attitudes” (schoenewolf, 1990, p. 50). as such, crossover theory, in its original conceptualization, looked at the consequences of work-related stress and pressure on other people (e.g. bolger et al., 1989). this study was the first to give direct quantitative evidence of stress contagion among married couples. both work-to-home and home-to-work contagion have been demonstrated in the study. it is until recently that such a theory has developed to cover both positive and negative emotions including well-being, joy, flow, sadness, depression, and anger (becker et al., 2014). although some studies on emotional crossover processes contributed to bringing the topic to academic contexts, it is still largely overlooked. in his study, bakker (2005) investigated flow among 178 music teachers and 605 of their students. the study yielded that flow is contagious; the higher the frequency of such experiences among their students, the more flow experiences music teachers reported. students in fact tend to imitate their happy and cheerful teachers. in a similar vein, moskowitz & dewaele (2021) investigated the crossover of happiness from teachers to students. they used an online questionnaire to collect data from 129 adult students. they were asked how they perceive teacher happiness and the impact of their perception on their own motivation and attitudes. the results of statistical analyses showed that students’ perceptions of different aspects of teachers’ happiness correlate positively with their motivation and overall attitude (positive emotional contagion). interestingly, in the literature, three main mechanisms underlying the emotional crossover phenomena have been proposed. in their article “the importance of teachers’ emotions and instructional behavior for their students’ emotions an experience sampling analysis”, becker et al. (2014) shed some light on these mechanisms stating that emotions may be captured in a variety of ways. first, emotional contagion could be automatic, uncontrollable and unconscious. this mechanism was proposed by hatfield et al. (1992) and is referred to as primitive emotional contagion. it refers to the “tendency to automatically mimic and synchronize facial expressions, vocalizations, postures, and movements with those of another person and, consequently, to converge emotionally” (hatfield et al., 1994, p. 5). hatfield and her colleagues provided considerable evidence to support their proposition. they stated that because of such facial, verbal, and postural input, people tend to (a) imitate the facial expressions, voice expressions, and postures of others around them, and (b) “catch” other peoples’ emotions. the majority of this imitation occurs without any conscious or purposeful thinking. they argued that some kinds of emotional contagion are the product of even more basic associative processes; people can catch other people’s emotions if their answers trigger an unconditioned emotional reaction in them (unconditioned emotional response). people constantly replicate and coordinate their movements with the facial expressions, postures, voices, and instrumental actions of others when they are conversing. importantly, they claimed that one or more of the following factors might have an impact on people’s emotional experiences. the first factor is the central nervous system commands that direct such imitation/ occurrence. the second has to do with the afferent feedback from such verbal postural, facial, or imitation/synchrony. the third is the selfperception procedures in which people infer their own emotional state from the emotional displays and actions elicited by another person’s emotional condition. furthermore, westman and vinokur (1998) proposed the second mechanism that shows that crossover processes might be explained by empathy on the receiver’s part. sympathetic reactions can occur in the transfer of emotions, stress, or well-being since interaction partners generally know each other well. moreover, conscious emotional contagion is a third mechanism in crossover processes. unlike primitive emotional contagion, conscious emotional contagion focuses intensively on social comparison processes in which individuals actively seek for emotions as a sort of social data (hennig-thurau et al., 2006). it entails intentionally seeking out emotions in order to gather social knowledge. for instance, people who are attending their first opera and are unsure of what emotions are suitable may notice how others display their emotions and tend to use them as clues for their own conduct (becker et al., 2014). research questions rq1. what are perceived teachers’ levels of enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom during classes? rq2. what are the independent effects of pte, pta, and ptb on se in higher education settings? rq3. what are the joint predictive effects of pte, pta, and ptb on se in higher education settings? methodology participants a total of 760 university students participated in this study. they were enrolled in a public university, morocco, at the time of the study. there were 313 (41.2 %) males, 426 (56.1 %) were females, 20 (2.6 %) preferred not to say, and one (0.1 %) missing. the average age was 21.07 (sd = 3.59). they were from five different disciplines. a total of 600 participants were from english studies, while the rest were from applied linguistics (39), translation studies (49), cultural studies (20), and language, communication and society (52). they were asked and pa ge 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 6-15, 2023 instructed to fill an anonymous questionnaire with three main sections, including tpe, tpa, tpb, and se. instrument the main questionnaire that was adopted to measure the independent and dependent variables was comprised of four sections. the first part was devoted to collect basic demographic data including age, gender, grade, and major. the second section comprised an adapted version of the short version of the achievement emotions questionnaire (aeq-s) (bieleke et al., 2021) that was used to assess pte, pta and ptb. the items in this scale consist of six affirmative statements with five response options ranging from “1. always” to “5. never”. the scale measured three achievement emotions experienced during class: enjoyment (2 items; e.g., my teachers probably enjoy being in class) anxiety (2 items; e.g., my teachers feel nervous in class), and boredom (2 items; e.g., my teachers probably get bored). as such, to assess students’ academic emotions of enjoyment (dependent variable), the class-related emotions items of the aeq-s were used (two items). student participants were instructed to indicate how they feel during classes. the items in this scale consist of two affirmative statements (see appendix a) with five response options ranging from “1. always” to “5. never”. the scale assessed se experienced during class (i enjoy being in class and i enjoy participating so much that i get energized). two questionnaires were disregarded and excluded as they were not properly completed. data analysis the data obtained from 760 university students using questionnaires were analyzed, through conducting pearson correlation and multiple regression analyses, to address the rq2 and rq3 using statistical package for the social sciences 26.0 (spss) software package. a regression analysis with pte, pta, and ptb as independent variables and se as the dependent variable was performed. the purpose of such equation modeling was to examine the intricate connection between the dependent and independent variables and determine the combined predictive effect of the three perceived teacher emotions on students’ se. in order to achieve this objective, pte, pta, and ptb were simultaneously incorporated into a single regression model to predict students’ se. besides, an examination of quantitative data was conducted, involving the inspection of data to perform a descriptive analysis of the fundamental features of the data (creswell & plano clark, 2018). to address the rq1, descriptive statistics (means, standard deviation, minimum and maximum and variance) were determined for all study variables. normality tests were also calculated. histograms and q-q plots showed normal distribution for all study variables. results and discussions descriptive statistics to address rq1, the issue was explored through looking at the means of the study variables, as shown in table 1 below. based on the findings presented in table 1, overall means revealed that participants, across all subjects, generally expressed high levels of enjoyment (m = 2.10, sd = 0.80), and rarely experienced anxiety m = 3.80 (sd = 0.80) and boredom m= 3.83 (sd = 0.81). as such, students also generally reported strong levels of enjoyment m = 2.15 (sd = 0.81). table 1: descriptive statistics of perceived teacher’s enjoyment, anxiety, boredom and students’ enjoyment study variables n min max m sd var st st st st st st pte 760 1.00 5.00 2.10 .80 .64 pta 760 1.00 5.00 3.80 .80 .64 ptb 760 1.00 5.00 3.83 .88 .77 se 760 1.00 5.00 2.15 .86 .75 valid n (listwise) 760 to assess the association among study variables, a pearson product-moment correlation analysis was performed. additionally, a multiple linear regression analysis was conducted, with se as the dependent variable and pte, pta, and ptb as the independent variables. correlation between perceived teacher enjoyment, anxiety, boredom and students’ self-reported enjoyment table 2 below is the correlation matrix that shows a table 2: pearson product–moment correlations among the study variables (n = 760) variables pte pta ptb se .29** -.10 -.17** note. **correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). list of correlation coefficients for every combination between independent variables (pte, pta, and ptb) and the dependent variable (se). pte was positively and significantly related to se, r(756) = .29, p < .01. as such, surprisingly, pta and se correlation was not statistically significant, and thus might have occurred by chance r(756) = -.10, p = .17. in addition, as expected, a significant negative correlation was identified between ptb and se r(756) = -.17, p < .01. regression of students’ enjoyment on perceived teacher’s enjoyment, anxiety and boredom tolerance hover between .78 and .90 and variance inflation factor (vif), which detects multi-collinearity (correlation pa ge 10 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 6-15, 2023 between predictors in a model) in regression ranges from 1.11 to 1.28, which does not exceed the problematic amount cutting off point of 5 (chatterjee & simonoff, 2013; james et al., 2013; o’brien, 2007). this suggests that there was a small amount of collinearity among the predictors, which increased the reliability of regression results. as such, the model was significant, f(3, 756) = 24.61, p < .001, explaining 9% (r2 = .9) of the variance in the outcome variable (students’ enjoyment). it should be noted also that perceived teacher enjoyment (β = .27, t = 7.02, p < .001) and boredom (β = -.08, t = -2.07, p < .001) were the only predictors that contributed uniquely and significantly to the model. perceived teacher’s anxiety, on the other hand, was not a significant predictor (β = .05, figure 1: the joint predictive effects of perceived teacher enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom on students’ self-reported enjoyment table 3: multiple regression analysis for the study variables predictors unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta (constant) 1.65 .23 7.29 .000 perceived teacher’s enjoyment .29 .04 .27 7.02 .000 perceived teacher’s anxiety .06 .04 .05 1.38 .167 perceived teacher’s boredom -.08 .04 -.08 -2.07 .039 t = 1.38, p = .17) (see table 3 above). put it differently, perceived-teacher anxiety offered nothing uniquely in terms of predicting students’ enjoyment. dependent variable: students’ enjoyment in addition, a durbin watson (dw) statistic test for autocorrelation was 1.89, which suggested that dw test values are not cause for concern, and thus indicating no autocorrelation in the regression model. furthermore, a scatterplot (figure 3) was created to examine the assumption of constant variance (homoscedasticity) of the residuals, or error term. a roughly rectangular distribution with most of the scores were clustered in the center, which indicated no violation of linearity assumption. that is, while the value of the predictor variables varies, the error term does not change significantly. a p-p plot indicated a normal distribution of the residual value (figure 2). figure 2: a scatterplot of the regression residuals discussion the first rq addressed pte, pta, ptb and se levels. consistent with our expectation, results showed that both teachers and students experienced a high level of enjoyment m = 2.10 (sd = 0.80) and m= 2.15 (sd = 0.86) for teachers and students respectively. as such, teachers rarely experienced anxiety (m = 3.80, sd = 0.80) and boredom (m = 3.58, sd = 0.80). furthermore, building upon previous studies (e.g., jiang & dewaele, 2019; li, 2021; li & dewaele, 2021) that have consistently found a higher prevalence of positive emotions compared to negative emotions among teachers and students in academic environments, the current research further substantiates this trend and offers valuable insights into the prevalence of both positive and negative emotions. the second rq dealt with the independent effects of pte, pta, and ptb on se in higher education settings. our findings revealed that pte and ptb were significantly linked to se, while pta had no significant effect on se. consistence with previous research (see bakker, 2005; frenzel et al., 2009; frenzel et al., 2018; moskowitz figure 3: dependent variable: students’ enjoyment pa ge 11 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 6-15, 2023 & dewaele, 2021; talebzadeh et al., 2020), teachers’ emotions were found to be contagious and thus affect students’ emotions and their academic achievement. this indicates that students who perceived their teachers as enjoying their classes tended to experience enjoyment in the classroom more, and students’ perception of teachers as bored had detrimental effects on their enjoyment during classes. the third rq concerned the combined predictive effects of pte, pta, and ptb on tei. when the multiple regression analyses used to predict the dependent variable (se) was conducted, the effect of pte remained at a medium size and was much larger than that of ptb, suggesting that se was more predicted by pte than by ptb. as such, the effect of ptb was increased within the regression model compared to the independent effect. pta was found to be insignificant. this indicates that se may be more subject to teachers’ positive emotions than negative emotions. yet, ptb may have detrimental effects to students’ overall well-being and academic achievement. importantly, previous studies (e.g., li & han, 2022; dewaele, 2021; dewaele et al., 2022) revealed different results when it comes to predicting students’ proficiency. for example, dewaele et al. (2022) investigated the effect of enjoyment, anxiety and boredom on students’ proficiency. they found that anxiety was the only predictor of proficiency, while enjoyment predicted nothing unique within the model. having said that, dewaele (2021) concluded that both anxiety and enjoyment significantly and uniquely predicted proficiency. this suggests that different variables (e.g., age, culture, gender) interfere in determining the linearity between emotions and other variables. taken together, the findings imply that establishing clear boundaries in the emotional relationship between teachers and students is vital for fostering a positive and personal relationship in the classroom. the emotional boundaries of teachers are highly sensitive and necessitate their active involvement in creating a safe environment that promotes emotional well-being (aultman et al., 2009). this involves implementing suitable norms and standards to guide their interactions (shutz, 2014). limitations and future directions undoubtedly, the outcomes of this study have significantly added to the limited body of empirical research concerning the examined matter, effectively addressing a crucial gap in the existing literature on teacher-student emotions. alongside the valuable theoretical and practical implications, it is important to acknowledge certain limitations that can guide future investigations. to begin with, instead of examining emotions specific to particular subjects, this study focused on assessing generalized emotional traits, thereby overlooking the assumption of domain specificity in academic emotions as proposed by goetz et al. (2007). the participants were drawn from five different disciplines, all of which utilized english as the language of instruction. while the study respected the notion of context-specific emotional effects by conducting it within a single context, it failed to consider the perspective that emotions should be organized in domain-specific ways. consequently, the study only assessed three academic emotions—enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom—that are highly significant for both students and teachers according to pekrun et al. (2002). this limitation also implies that the generalizability of the findings may be restricted to these three emotions. in future studies, it would be crucial to include other academic emotions such as anger, hope, and hopelessness in regression models to determine their influence on students’ emotions and the extent to which they account for variances. theoretical and pedagogical implications the findings of this study on the links between teachers’ emotions of enjoyment, anxiety and boredom and se in moroccan universities revealed several enlightening implications for researchers and practitioners. theoretical implications the findings of this study have provided valuable insights into the pervasive nature of teachers’ emotions in academic settings and their potential impact on emotional contagion in education. these results contribute to the expanding research on this topic and shed light on previously unexplored aspects, particularly the relationship between students’ and teachers’ emotions and how they mutually influence each other within the classroom. this study’s contribution can aid in the advancement of models and theories concerning the emotional dynamics of teaching and learning, offering fresh perspectives on the subject matter. furthermore, an important theoretical implication to consider is the formulation and construction of future hypotheses pertaining to the role of teachers’ emotions in predicting students’ emotions. notably, the analysis and discussion chapters of this study revealed that anxiety did not uniquely or significantly predict outcomes in the four multiple regression models. thus, it is recommended that future research statistically explore the predictive effects of teachers’ anxiety in diverse educational contexts, across different age groups and disciplines. practical implications the practical implications of the study findings primarily target teachers, offering actionable insights that can be directly implemented in the classroom to enhance teaching practices and improve student outcomes. the results suggest that in classroom settings, where emotions like enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom coexist, enjoyment emerges as the most influential positive predictor of students’ enjoyment. placing greater emphasis on cultivating enjoyment becomes a key factor in fostering a more effective teacher-student relationship. this knowledge empowers teachers to develop strategies for effectively managing emotions in the classroom and create a positive and supportive learning environment by pa ge 12 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 6-15, 2023 displaying a sense of enjoyment, enthusiasm, and passion during instruction. in this regard, teachers can make informed decisions regarding the adoption of relevant techniques, approaches, and methods that contribute to their professional development and positively affect students’ learning experiences during classroom interactions. conclusion the present paper sought to investigate the impact of perceived teacher enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom on students’ enjoyment. the study also explored how pte, pta, and ptb se. the study yielded that teachers generally reported a medium level of enjoyment and a low threshold of anxiety and boredom. as such, the regression model explained 9% (r2 = .9) of the variance in the outcome variable (students’ self-reported enjoyment), with both pte and ptb making distinct and significant contributions to the overall model, whereas pta did not emerge as a significant predictor. importantly, the influence of teachers’ emotions on students’ academic performance and emotions in higher education is highly significant, there is a considerable lack of research on this subject. therefore, the current study significantly contributes to addressing the scarcity of empirical investigations concerning the role of teachers’ emotions. given this, the findings of the current study offer empirical evidence of the independent and joint predictive effect of pte, pta, and ptb in shaping se. the findings provide useful theoretical and practical implications for researchers and practitioners. references alberth (2022). predicting sense of classroom community from foreign language enjoyment and anxiety in an english as a foreign language classroom. international journal of emotional education, 14(1), 38-52. amiri, e., & el karfa, a. 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(1998). unravelling the relationship of distress levels within couples: common stressors, empathic reactions or crossover via social interaction? human relations, 51(2), 137-156. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1023/a: 1016910118568. pa ge 1 pa ge 10 4 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) influence of mobile online battle arena (moba) addiction on psychological discomfort cañamo greg adrian d.1*, lantaco trishia nicole g.1, omblero hazel d.1, claire lynn culajara1 volume 2 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v2i1.2840 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: may 15, 2024 accepted: june 11, 2024 published: june 14, 2024 an american psychological association study indicates that engaging in video games can improve a variety of cognitive abilities, including problem-solving, memory, spatial navigation, and reasoning. however, significant studies on the detrimental impacts of gaming, such as addiction, depression, and aggressiveness, have been found in several studies. nevertheless, there is a lack of exploration of the effect of specific game genre addiction on the psychological well-being of students, not only in the philippines but also around the world. the researchers used a quantitative, predictive design for this study. a total of 350 respondents participated in the study. in terms of moba usage, the average engagement level among college students was x ̄ = 3.04, sd = 1.25. the study findings suggest that college students, on average, reported mild levels of psychological discomfort (x̄ = 2.27, sd = 0.742). despite their involvement in moba activities, there appears to be a baseline level of psychological discomfort among participants. the researchers concluded that there is a positive significant correlation between moba addiction and psychological discomfort. regression analysis, conducted with a significance threshold of 0.05, revealed that only the “withdrawal” subscale of moba addiction exhibited a predictive relationship (p = 0.03) despite the significance of these findings, it is essential for future studies to address potential biases in participants’ responses. additionally, it is recommended that future researchers conduct qualitative inquiries to provide a comprehensive understanding of the variables involved. keywords moba, psychological wellbeing, multiplayer online battle arena, addiction 1 department of arts and sciences psychology program, university of mindanao digos college, digos city, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: t.lantaco.61366.dc@umindanao.edu.ph introduction background of the study gamers can interact with one another through gaming, which goes beyond just a fun pastime and becomes a virtual community as players work together to accomplish common goals. nevertheless, excessive gaming poses mental and physical health risks to players (harvard health, 2020). according to the world health organization’s 11th revision of the international classification of diseases (icd-11), gaming addiction is defined as a collection of noteworthy behavioral patterns that cause problems in a number of important spheres of life, including social, educational, professional, personal, and relationship. internet gaming disorder (igd) is included in the research appendix of the dsm-5 due to evidence of significant harm. while the workgroup acknowledged the increasing evidence indicating the potential for significant impairment in individuals with internet gaming disorder (igd), they highlighted the lack of sufficient data to officially classify it as a mental disorder. the inclusion of igd in section iii of the dsm-5 aims to encourage further research that could solidify its status as a distinct mental disorder in future revisions of the dsm (petry, rehbein & o’brien, 2015). based on statistical data, the prevalence of gaming addiction in southeast asia was 10.1% (95% confidence interval: 7.3%-13.8%). (c. lee, et. al., 2020). meanwhile, between 1.7% and 10% of the american population is affected by video game addiction, with 21% of u.s. gamers spending over 20 hours per week playing mobas (miller, 2024). mobile online battle arena (moba) is an online game sub-genre under real time strategy that consists of two teams, with each team consisting of five players. to destroy the opponent’s primary object (referred to as ancient, vain, etc.) while preserving the team’s main object, each player employs magical skills (hero). if the primary object of the opponents is destroyed, one team is deemed the winner. mobile legends, glory of kings, and dota are some examples of this type of game (intan & amalia, 2020). unlike traditional real-time strategy games, there’s no building or unit construction in moba. instead, its strategy centers on individual character growth and teamwork during battles (mora-cantallops & sicilia, 2018). 554 million people were playing online games as of the end of december 2021. a total of 709,000 apps, or 28.2% of all apps, are game apps. the chinese mobile game “glory of kings” is the most downloaded app among chinese college students as it has a high rating (huang, 2021). in the philippines, the esports scene has a massive community of more than 43 million active gamers, steadily increasing by 12.9% each year since 2017. this growth is fueled by the widespread availability of smartphones and mobile internet. at the forefront of the gaming scene is mobile legends, a hugely popular moba game (ycp solidiance, 2021). casual online gaming can positively contribute to players’ social connections and personal psychological growth. pa ge 10 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 104-113, 2024 online games have been shown in earlier research on their emotional effects to have the ability to reduce stress and depression while increasing happiness (ari et al., 2020; pine et al., 2020). previous research indicates that games can foster reflection on an individual’s personal development and values, augmenting their sense of selfawareness, particularly for those who perform well in online gaming (li et al., 2023). nevertheless, as noted by castillo et al. (2022), multiplayer online games encourage active interaction among players and contribute to enjoyment. their research, conducted in bansalan, davao del sur, highlights a significant correlation between sociality in multiplayer online games and the overall gaming experience, indicating a robust connection between social interactions and gaming enjoyment. even though playing video games can seem to have a positive effect on a person, research in this area frequently centers on online game addiction, which is one of the most serious behavioral addictions (lopezfernandez, 2018). it may result in a number of medical and psychological issues, including poor sleep, sadness, anxiety, and even death, much like other addictions (li et al., 2023). it is characterized as an irresistible tendency to immerse oneself in video games which could cause damage to various life aspects (ivanova, 2023). ‘escapism’ can be defined as the pursuit of escaping from real life into another fictional world (marques, uchida, aguiar et. al., 2023). markovic (2023) indicated in their article that when a player’s extreme immersion in a game is associated with escapism, they may have a higher chance of developing internet gaming disorder. gaming withdrawal is also a factor associated with internet gaming disorder (igd). irritability, anxiety, and sadness are withdrawal symptoms that happen when someone is made to discontinue their use of the internet for gaming (cleveland clinic, 2022). lastly, as highlighted in kowalik, delfabbro & king’s (2024) study, a key component of addictive illnesses, such as gaming disorder (gd), is impaired control (ic). impaired control refers to the sensation of losing control and the inability to resist urges when engaging in specific activities like gaming. as previously implied, gaming addiction can cause psychological discomfort such as depression, anxiety, and stress. depression is characterized by a lingering feeling of emptiness, melancholy, or the inability to enjoy life, sometimes seemingly for no apparent reason (goldman, 2024). meanwhile, anticipating a future worry is called anxiety. it is a typical reaction to stress. however, when the anxiety becomes excessive, it would cause impairment to daily activities (american psychiatric association, 2023). stress, however, is a typical human response that spurs us to confront challenges and perils in our daily lives. everybody experiences stressful times. however, how people respond to stress determines how it affects their psychological health. because so many students spend a great deal of time, money, and effort on these platforms, teachers are against online gaming because it significantly affects students’ social connections, academic performance, physical and mental health, and ultimately leads to the dreadful epidemic of online gaming addiction (li et al., 2023). shouman, elez, ibrahim et. al. (2023) observed in their investigation that psychological well-being ratings decreased as internet gaming disorder levels rose, suggesting the negative effect of igd to psychological well-being of students. in the philippines, numerous parents’ express concerns about their children being excessively focused on mobile phones and developing addictions to certain games, instigating the need to address the issue (kapoor & subida, 2022). according to a study conducted by goh, jones, and copello (2019) exploring the impact of online gaming on the psychological wellbeing of dota 2 players, the research reveals that an increased amount of playing time is linked to diminished psychological well-being. despite the widespread popularity of moba games, there is a lack of sufficient local studies examining potential risk factors among youth. consequently, there’s an ongoing necessity to gather current knowledge in this research domain, influencing future directions for research, practice, and policy. the rapid evolution of the online gaming scene in recent years, such as the transition from computer games to mobile games, also underscores a significant gap in the literature that warrants further exploration (t’ng, ho, & pau, 2022). another literature gap that the researchers of this study seek to fill is the lack of exploration of the effects of a widely known specific game genre— moba—on the psychological well-being of students in the philippines. the purpose of this research is to investigate the correlation between college students’ psychological health and moba addiction in order to add to the body of information regarding internet gaming disorder (igd), as it is included in the dsm-5 under the “conditions for further study” section. research objectives this study specifically seeks to determine the following: 1. what is the level of moba addiction of the respondents in terms of: 1.1 preoccupation 1.2 tolerance 1.3 loss of control 1.4 withdrawal 1.5 escaping adverse moods 1.6 playing for long periods of time 1.7 deception/covering up 1.8 losing relationships or opportunities 1.9 persistence despite problems 1.10 giving up other activities 2. what is the level of psychological discomfort of the respondents in terms of: 2.1 depression 2.2 anxiety 2.3 stress 3. is there a significant relationship between moba pa ge 10 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 104-113, 2024 addiction and psychological discomfort of the respondents? 4. what is/are the predictors of the relationship between moba addiction and psychological discomfort? conceptual framework figure 1: schematic diagram showing the variables of the study figure 1 shows the relationship between the two variables in this study, which are moba addiction as the independent variable and psychological discomfort as the dependent variable. the moba addiction variable in this study refers to how much the participants played moba recently and how much it affected their everyday lives. this addiction level is assessed through several indicators: preoccupation, indicating an excessive focus on online/offline gaming; tolerance, reflecting the need for increasing time investment in gaming; loss of control, where individuals struggle to manage their gaming habits; withdrawal, involving unpleasant symptoms (irritability anxiety, or sadness), experienced when gaming is restricted; escaping adverse moods, referring to using games to alleviate negative emotions, playing for long periods of time, meaning spending extended periods of time gaming; deception, described as deceiving others about gaming habits; losing relationships/opportunities, described as jeopardizing relationships, jobs, or educational opportunities due to gaming, persistence despite problems, characterized as persisting with gaming despite knowing it causes problems; and giving up other activities, which refers to abandoning previous hobbies and interests in favor of gaming (luo et al., 2022). meanwhile, the psychological discomfort variable refers to how psychologically healthy the respondents were at the time of the survey. the following indicators are used to gauge the degree of psychological discomfort: depression, which is characterized by a persistently poor mood, loss of pleasure, or lack of interest in activities (world health organization: who, 2019); anxiety, a mood that manifests as tense feelings, racing thoughts, and bodily symptoms as elevated blood pressure (apa, 2022); and stress, defined as a condition of anxiety or mental strain brought on by a challenging circumstance (world health organization; who, 2023). methodology a thorough discussion of the research design, participants, instruments, design and procedure, ethical considerations, and the limitations of the study. research respondents the samples from this study were taken from the population of a certain university in the davao region. the researchers utilized the purposive sampling method to select respondents that are most likely to yield appropriate and useful information; in this case, respondents who play moba were appropriate for this study, (s. campbell, et. al., 2020). a total of 350 respondents were given survey questionnaires to answer, with their voluntary participation and autonomy to withdraw from the survey when they were not comfortable. table 1: frequency distribution on the demographics (n = 350) profile f % gender male 189 54 female 158 45 age non-binary 3 0.9 17 5 1 18 49 14 19 95 27 20 107 31 21 2 15 23 9 3 pa ge 10 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 104-113, 2024 24 9 3 25 2 0.6 27 1 0.3 28 1 0.3 year level grade 12 14 4 first year 117 33 second year 145 41 third year 58 17 fourth year 16 5 department arts and sciences 41 12 criminal justice education 110 31 teacher education 25 7 technical programs 46 13 accounting education 35 10 business administration 79 23 senior high school 14 4 the year level with the most respondents was the second year (n = 145, 41%), followed by the first year (n = 117, 33%), then third year (n = 58, 17%), and fourth year (n = 16, 5%), with the least participants from grade 12 (n = 14, 4%). meanwhile, the majority of the respondents on the gender demographics were males (n = 189, 54%), followed by females (n = 158, 45%), with the least respondents from the non-binary (n = 3, 0.9%). additionally, the age with the most respondents was 20 years old (n = 107, 31), followed by 19 (n = 95, 27%), then 21 (n = 52, 15%), 18 (n = 49, 14%), 23 and 24 (n = 9, 3%), 17 (n = 5, 1%), 25 (n = 2, 0.6%), with the least respondents from the ages 27 and 28 (n = 1, 0.3%). finally, the department with the most respondents was the criminal justice education (n = 110, 31%), followed by the business administration (n = 79, 23%), then technical programs (n = 46, 13%), arts and sciences (n = 41, 12%), accounting education (n = 35, 10%), teachers education (n = 25, 7%), and the department with the least respondents was the senior high school (n = 14, 4%). research instruments the researchers utilized questionnaires with cronbach’s alpha coefficients exceeding 0.80 to ensure data reliability. the game addiction questionnaire, a 6-point likert scale, was adapted from gonzales-bueso et al. (2013), comprising 15 questions with an alpha coefficient of 0.884. it encompassed 10 indicators including preoccupation, tolerance, loss of control, withdrawal, mood regulation, prolonged play, deception, social or occupational impairment, persistence, and neglect of other activities. meanwhile, the psychological discomfort questionnaire, adapted from s.h. and lovibond (1995), featured 42 questions across three indicators: depression (α = 0.91), anxiety (α = 0.84), and stress (α = 0.90). permission was sought from the original authors prior to questionnaire adaptation. a pilot test was conducted on the university’s population to evaluate the reliability and validity of both questionnaires. results indicated a cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.884 for the gaming addiction questionnaire and 0.959 for the psychological table 2: psychological discomfort mean interpretation mean interval description interpretation 1.00 – 1.75 normal the discomfort level is normal. 1.76 – 2.51 mild the discomfort level is mild. 2.52 – 3.26 moderate the discomfort level is moderate. 3.27 – 4.00. severe the discomfort level is severe. table 3: mobile online battle arena (moba) addiction mean interpretation mean interval description interpretation 1.00 – 1.82 normal there is no moba addiction. 1.83 – 2.66 low moba addiction is low. 2.67 – 3.50 average moba addiction is average. 3.51 – 4.32 above average moba addiction is above average 5.17 – 6.00. very high moba addiction is very high. pa ge 10 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 104-113, 2024 discomfort questionnaire, suggesting high levels of reliability and validity within the specific population. the moba addiction questionnaire employs a 6-point likert scale, ranging from 1 (never) to 6 (very often). conversely, the psychological discomfort questionnaire utilizes a 4-point likert scale, ranging from 1 (did not apply to me at all) to 4 (applied to me very much or most of the time). below are the mean interpretations for each questionnaire. below are the mean interpretations of each questionnaire. design and procedure the researchers utilized the descriptive-predictive research design to gather data from a large sample size to ensure the reliability and validity of the findings. before distributing the questionnaires, the researchers sent letters of permission to conduct the study, signed by the course’s adviser and favorably endorsed by the dean. during the sampling phase, the researchers distributed the questionnaires and the informed consent which consisted of the ethical considerations of the study. the distribution of the questionnaires lasted from february 9 to 16, 2024, and was conducted in two ways: physically and digitally. digitally, they created google forms with the informed consent on the first page, and the questionnaires on the following pages. there were 89 respondents online. the researchers ensured that the accounts used to handle the google forms were accessed by no one but them to keep the data from leaking. meanwhile, during the physical survey, the researchers distributed the printed informed consent and questionnaires around the school. before distributing the papers, they would ask the students if they played moba games. when the latter answered “yes”, the researchers gave them informed consent and asked if they had time and were willing to participate in the survey; otherwise, the students were not asked any more questions by the researchers. when the students finished reading the informed consent and gave their voluntary participation, the researchers then gave them the questionnaires. when the respondents finished answering, they were given tokens by the researchers for their participation. lastly, after collecting the answered questionnaires, the data was tabulated and analyzed by the researchers with the help of the jamovi software, utilizing the statistical treatment needed, as determined by the study’s objectives. statistical treatment during the analysis of the data, the researchers began by inputting the raw data from both questionnaires into microsoft excel. then, they calculate the mean scores per respondent in each subscale of the two questionnaires. after that, they transferred the age, department, and year level of the students, together with the mean per subscale to the jamovi app. the researchers then used the descriptive tool to calculate the overall mean of both questionnaires and to determine the normality of the data. they utilized shapiro-wilk and found out that the data was not normally distributed (p = 0.002) relative to the alpha level of 0.05. considering this finding, the researchers decided to use a nonparametric tool for a correlation study, which is the spearman correlation coefficient (p=0.05). since there is a significant relationship between the variables (p = 0.019), the researchers also conducted a regression analysis to determine the predictors of the dependent variable, psychological discomfort (p = 0.05). ethical considerations to ensure the safety of both oneself and any potential respondents, the researchers in this study complied with the rules set forth by the research ethics committee. voluntary participation consent-obtaining procedures ought to be seen as voluntary. it makes sense that the researchers asked the respondents to sign an informed consent form, indicating their voluntary involvement and consent. privacy and confidentiality before and following the survey, the researchers made sure that the information provided by the respondents would be kept private. they made the name section of the questionnaire optional so that individuals wouldn’t have to fill it out. additionally, upon retrieving the questionnaires from the respondents, the researchers placed them into a sealed container. to prevent losing the papers, one researcher put it in a place in their home that only they could reach. informed consent process before giving out the questionnaires, the respondents were given informed consent and were given time to read it. the researchers made sure that the respondents knew their autonomy to withdraw from the study if they felt uneasy upon participating. when the participants were done reading, they were asked to sign if they were willing to participate in the study risks the respondents were unable to experience negative effects from the study. the goal of the research was to pursue beneficence and non-maleficence. as they conducted the survey, the researchers were aware of several possible risks, such as the possibility that some respondents’ confidentiality would be compromised in the event that the data was misplaced -which was close to impossible since the researchers keep the data safe all the time -and the loss of time that the respondents could have used to learn in class. benefits the researchers aimed to maximize the benefits of participating. after answering the questionnaires, the respondents were given a token of appreciation at the end of the experimentation as compensation for the time they provided for the study. pa ge 10 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 104-113, 2024 plagiarism there are no depictions in the report that could encourage plagiarism. researchers made sure that the recommended authors’ and experts’ research concepts and findings were properly cited. permission from organization or location the researchers have gotten the approval from the dean to conduct their study in the university. additionally, they also asked the professors to use the room to conduct the study to moba player students during a portion of their class time. limitations there were few factors that might have contributed to the limitations of this study. first, was the environment; since the data gathering was conducted all around the campus, the varying environment in which the students answered the questionnaires might affect their responses. additionally, the number of participants may not be sufficient to generalize the findings in this study. results and discussion this chapter includes illustrations of the data, conclusions, interpretation, discussion, and data analysis based on respondents’ responses about their current psychological state and degree of game usage. the respondents’ psychological discomfort, respondents’ level of game usage, and regression analysis for variables predicting participants’ psychological discomfort are the subheadings under which the tables are arranged. also reflecting an average level (x ̄ = 2.75, sd = 1.68). this suggests that respondents’ level of moba addiction falls within the average range. the overall moba addiction score was also found to be average (x̄ = 3.04, sd = 1.25). the result indicating escaping adverse moods as the highest-scoring indicator supports the conclusions drawn by melodia, canale & griffiths (2020), who found escapism to be a predictor of internet gaming disorder and a mediator of various psychological factors, such as anxiety, in problematic online gaming. similarly, wang et al. (2022) demonstrated that individuals with high-risk internet gaming disorder are significantly affected by escapismbased motivation. while escaping adverse moods had the highest mean score, it’s noteworthy that other indicators were also interpreted as average, suggesting a need to explore similar studies or articles linking them to gaming addiction. for instance, preoccupation has been associated with gaming addiction, according to willacy (2023), as it involves constant thoughts about past and future gaming sessions, potentially leading to addiction. furthermore, the study by dahl and bergmark (2020) provided evidence of persistent symptoms of problematic internet use, particularly in gaming addiction, despite variations. this implies that students may primarily play moba games to escape from stressors such as academic pressure. however, since all indicators were interpreted as average, it suggests that gaming addiction may be influenced by these indicators equally, rather than being predominantly driven by a single factor. table 5 presents the level of discomfort experienced by table 4: level of mobile online battle arena (moba) addiction of the respondents indicator mean std. deviation preoccupation 3.34 1.48 tolerance 3.23 1.39 loss of control 3.26 1.62 withdrawal 2.82 1.52 escaping adverse moods 3.47 1.47 playing for long periods of time 2.93 1.42 deception 2.78 1.68 losing relationships or opportunities 2.92 1.59 persistence despite problems 2.75 1.68 giving up other activities 2.86 1.59 overall 3.04 1.25 table 5: level of psychological discomfort of the respondents indicator mean std. deviation depression 2.18 0.790 anxiety 2.27 0.729 stress 2.35 0.708 overall 2.27 0.742 table 4 presents the mean scores for each indicator of the moba addiction questionnaire. the findings reveal that the indicator escaping adverse moods had the highest mean score, indicating an average level of escapism (x̄ = 3.47, sd = 1.47). conversely, the indicator persistence despite problems had the lowest mean score, the respondents. the highest mean is observed in the indicator ‘stress’, which interprets to mild deficiency (x̄ = 2.35, sd = 0.708), while the lowest mean is from the indicator ‘depression’, also translating to mild deficiency (x̄ = 2.18, sd = 0.790). overall, the level of psychological discomfort among the respondents is interpreted as ‘mild’ (x ̄ = 2.27, sd = 0.742). although stress received the highest mean score among the three indicators, it is noteworthy that all indicators were interpreted as mild. therefore, while not severe, all of them warrant attention. various studies have concluded that stress is one of the primary indicators of psychological discomfort among students (kumar, mandal, bharti, 2020; dhanabhakyam, and sarath, 2023; schneiderman, ironson, and siegel, klainin-yobas, et. al., 2021). this could be attributed to the experience of discomfort due to academic and nonacademic activities, leading to a decline in psychological well-being and possibly resorting to unhealthy habits. pa ge 11 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 104-113, 2024 meanwhile, tiwari and tripathi (2015) concluded that students with high depression may have a low positive relation and self-acceptance dimension of psychological well-being, indicating that depression can diminish psychological well-being by fostering negative thoughts that distort social and personal perspectives. additionally, individuals with high anxiety may struggle to let go of their concerns, potentially leading to physical and psychological exhaustion (bruce, 2022), suggesting that anxiety can contribute to psychological discomfort due to constant worrying about future situations. furthermore, the mild overall mean of psychological discomfort may indicate that students are not primarily experiencing psychological discomfort because of multiplayer online battle arena (moba) activities.). with a weak positive correlation coefficient of r = 0.125, table 6: spearman correlation coefficient analysis between the variables independent variable overall psychological discomfort moba addiction r p-value remarks 0.125 0.019 significant table 7: regression analysis for variables predicting respondents’ psychological discomfort (n = 350) predictor β se t p intercept 2.03 0.106 19.23 <.001 preoccupation -0.03 0.049 -0.63 0.530 tolerance 0.05 0.055 0.83 0.410 loss of control -0.01 0.039 -0.21 0.835 withdrawal 0.09 0.034 2.61 0.009 escaping adverse moods -0.01 0.042 -0.24 0.807 playing for long periods of time -0.02 0.046 0.50 0.619 deception -0.002 0.037 -0.06 0.951 losing relationships or opportunities 0.04 0.042 0.94 0.346 persistence despite problems 0.04 0.038 -1.20 0.231 giving up other activities 0.03 0.039 0.87 0.384 r² 0.0507 f 1.81 the results demonstrated a significant p-value (p = 0.019), which was smaller than the 0.05 correlation coefficient. this suggests that moba addiction may have an impact on students’ level of psychological discomfort. it may also be possible that other factors aside from moba addiction contributed to the psychological discomfort that the students felt. similar research discovered a link between game addiction and psychological discomfort (moore, satel & pontes, 2022; labana, et. al., 2020; new, rodriguez & santos, 2020; navarro & generalao, 2022; kapoor, kumari & marietta, 2023; calvario, 2024). table 7 shows the regression analysis for variables predicting the psychological discomfort level of the respondents. the table shows that the 5% of the variance is explained by one predictor, f (df1 = 10, df2 = 339) = 1.81, p = 0.058. specifically, “withdrawal” (β = 0.09, t = 2.61, p =.009) is positively associated with psychological discomfort. ‘withdrawal’ predictor has the highest estimate (β = 0.09). this implies that when the withdrawal symptoms of the participants increase by one value, the expected increase in psychological discomfort is 0.09, suggesting that it had the strongest impact on psychological discomfort compared to other predictors. the 5% variance of withdrawal may mean that other factors aside from moba addiction affects the psychological discomfort of students. moreover, the findings may suggest that students experience psychological discomfort when they withdraw from gaming, potentially due to conflicting emotions. these emotions arise from their simultaneous desires to play games to satisfy their wants and to stop playing to eliminate the unhealthy habits caused by gaming. kaptsis et al. (2016) concluded that game withdrawal can affect an individual’s psychological discomfort, often manifesting as “irritability” and “restlessness” following the cessation of gaming. research by esposito et al. (2020) found that young people with gaming addictions were more likely to experience irritability or low mood compared to those without such issues. furthermore, the study by yen, lin, and wu (2022) indicated that individuals with internet gaming disorder experience more severe withdrawalrelated symptoms than regular gamers. on the other hand, preoccupation (β = -0.03, t = -0.63, p = n.s), tolerance (β = 0.05, t = 0.83, p = n.s), loss of control (β = -0.01, t = -0.21, p = n.s), escaping adverse moods (β = -0.01, t = -0.24, p = n.s), playing for long periods of time (β = pa ge 11 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 104-113, 2024 -0.02, t = 0.50, p = n.s), deception (β = -0.002, t = -0.06, p = n.s), losing relationships or opportunities (β = 0.04, t = 0.94, p = 0.346), persistence despite problems (β = 0.04, t = -1.20, p = n.s), and giving up other activities (β = 0.03 , t = 0.87, p = n.s) were not significant predictors of psychological discomfort. conclusions in conclusion, this research has proven that moba addiction indeed influences the psychological discomfort of university students. this provided insights on the issues that have to be addressed, and ways to address them. ‘escaping adverse moods’ as the one with the highest mean (x̄ = 3.47, sd = 1.47) among the predictors suggests the prevalence of students who use gaming as a way to escape from real life problems. on the other hand, the indicator ‘withdrawal’ predicts the psychological discomfort of university students (p = 0.009, t = 2.61). this implies that among university students, those who exhibit withdrawal behaviors are more likely to experience psychological discomfort. this could be due to various reasons, such as the lack of social support, feelings of isolation, and reduced engagement in activities that promote well-being and mental health. although moba addiction is known to be a contributing factor, the results of the linear regression analysis indicate that gaming withdrawal, the sole predictor in this model, accounts for only 5% of an individual’s psychological discomfort. the remaining 95% of this discomfort is likely due to other external factors, such as life circumstances or various reallife challenges affecting the respondents’ psychological well-being. given the significant findings of this paper, it can contribute to understanding internet gaming disorder within the dsm-5 framework. while the disorder may not be widely recognized at present, insights from this research could lead to its formal acknowledgment in future updates of the dsm-5. by highlighting both the positive and negative effects of gaming and distinguishing between healthy and problematic behaviors, the study provides valuable evidence that could inform updates to the diagnostic criteria. recommendations after examining the outcomes and previously drawn inferences, the following suggestions are formulated from this study. for students who engage in moba gaming, moderation is advised, and they are encouraged to seek healthier alternatives to fulfill their dopamine cravings while minimizing the potential risks to their psychological well-being. parents are urged to actively manage their children’s gaming habits and intervene promptly to safeguard their well-being. educators should cultivate supportive environments and offer assistance, including consultations, for students grappling with mental health issues. school administrators are encouraged to arrange seminars and school events that educate students about the benefits, risks, and strategies for gaming responsibly, aiming to prevent addiction. in future research concerning gaming addiction and students’ discomfort levels, it is prudent to gather respondents in a single location to ensure consistency when exploring identical variables. this precautionary measure aims to minimize external influences that could affect their participation, thus reducing the likelihood of obtaining inconsistent responses. additionally, due to the study’s limited scope, qualitative investigations into similar topics are recommended to gain a deeper understanding of variables like moba addiction and its correlation with real-life aspects. furthermore, when replicating this study, it is advisable to select respondents who meet the criteria for gaming addiction to achieve more conclusive results. finally, to enhance the reliability and validity of the findings, it is suggested to expand the study’s scale by involving two or more colleges. such additional studies would offer more comprehensive insights into gaming, addiction, and their impact on students’ discomfort levels. acknowledgements the researchers would want to express their gratitude to everyone who assisted the proponents in finishing this study. above all, we are grateful to god, the almighty, for providing us with the knowledge, courage, abilities, and chance to carry out this research, as well as for his many blessings throughout the endeavor. second, we would like to express our profound gratitude to ms. claire, our advisor, for her crucial counsel, support, opinions, recommendations, and provisions that made this study possible to complete and successfully. being able to work and study under her direction was a huge honor. we would also like to acknowledge the unending love and encouragement of our families and friends, who have provided us with emotional and moral support throughout this challenging journey. we also want to express our gratitude for the unwavering love and support we have received from our family and friends, who have helped us both morally and emotionally during this difficult path. finally, we would like to extend our sincere appreciation to the university for supplying the tools and spaces required to complete this study. references ari e., yilmaz v., elmastas dikec b. 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(2021b). internet gaming disorder increases mind-wandering in young adults. frontiers in psychology, 11. https://doi. org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.619072 pa ge 1 pa ge 84 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) interrelating the emotional styles and social intelligence of university students raven kyle o. gonzaga1*, jenelyn c. abrenilla1, marc loyd e. dumanhog1, claire lynn b. culajara1 volume 2 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v2i1.2790 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: may 07, 2024 accepted: june 10, 2024 published: june 14, 2024 emotional styles and social intelligence are significant factors in maintaining a healthy wellbeing and good interpersonal relationships, which contribute to one’s mental health. due to the changing circumstances, a decline in students’ mental health was evident. this study delves into the correlation between emotional styles and the social intelligence of university students, providing insights into how emotional well-being influences social relationships. a total of 375 university students participated, providing a diverse sample for a comprehensive investigation into these variables. the analyzed data revealed that the level of emotional styles is moderately evident among university students, emphasizing social intuition as the highest. on the other hand, there is a slightly high level of social intelligence, particularly the social information processing dimension. pearson r analysis showed a positive correlation between the variables (p= <0.001; r=0.472). furthermore, linear regression analysis highlights social intuition (p=0.041; t=2.049) and sensitivity to context (p=0.003; t=2.953) as significant predictors of social intelligence, emphasizing the importance of understanding nonverbal cues and contextual sensitivity in interpersonal interactions. with these results, the research recommends exploring additional factors, such as empathy and self-regulation, on the dimensions of emotional styles that could significantly influence social intelligence. moreover, this research might consider increasing the sample size to include more diverse representations from the lgbtq+ community in their demographic profile. keywords correlation, emotional styles, social intelligence, university students 1 university of mindanao digos college, digos city, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: r.gonzaga.60071.dc@umindanao.edu.ph introduction healthy emotional well-being leads to a healthy social relationship. maslow (1943) defined socializing as how interpersonal relationships are developed, preserved, and strengthened. through this, individuals can learn the language, information, social skills, norms, values, and customs needed to fit in and become a part of a group or community (hoppner, 2017). moreover, it is significant for people, especially students, as it can aid them in becoming more emotionally and intellectually competent (valiente et al., 2020). amidst its benefits, socialization is influenced by various factors throughout life (stryzhakov, 2022). these include biological factors, fundamental cognitive functions, cultural background, ecological elements, and understanding of other people’s traits and behaviors (hockenbury & hockenbury, 2010). furthermore, a study by amaliya (2022) found that mental health influences socialization. in relation, one facet of mental health is emotional well-being — one’s capacity to be aware and manage emotions, as well as to cope with challenges throughout life (sissons, 2022). it comprises a positive affect balance and a cognitive assessment of overall life satisfaction (keyes, 2003). lamothe (2019) further discussed that good emotional health contributes to a person’s resilience to stress, creating deeper relationships, more energy, and higher self-esteem. kesebir et al. (2019) developed the emotional style questionnaire (esq) to measure one’s healthy emotionality. additionally, murphy (2021) defined emotional styles as the distinctive ways that individuals feel and express their emotions, including the capacity to identify, regulate, and interpret them. davidson (2012) also defined emotional style as our predictable and habitual response to any momentary emotional state. six dimensions of the esq were developed – outlook, resilience, social intuition, self-awareness, sensitivity to context, and attention – predicated on a conceptual structure derived from research on emotion conducted in neuroscience, that contributes to happy and healthy emotional well-being. a study by basson and rothmann (2017) reported that flourishing students were more likely to have a higher outlook, or the ability to sustain positive emotions over time, through various adaptive positive emotion regulation strategies. relating to this, the study by cohn et al. (2009) provided a conclusion that positive emotions are a predictor of an individual’s resilience, or the capacity for long-term, sustained happiness, and life satisfaction. this also relates to the study of rustamov et al. (2023) which concluded that social connectivity was proven to be an important component in boosting psychological resilience, which in turn improves the psychological well-being of individuals. furthermore, social intuition, or the extent of sensitivity to nonverbal social cues, was found to have a positive correlation with emotional intelligence subscales such as emotional awareness and empathy skills (turan et al., 2019). moreover, kesebir et al. (2019) further explained that highly socially intuitive people are skilled at interpreting nonverbal signs including body language, tone of voice, and facial expressions, as well as inferring social insights based on other people’s emotional states, thus, low levels are likely to predict more acute well-being since failing pa ge 85 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 84-92, 2024 to interpret other people’s emotions accurately might have serious repercussions for interpersonal interactions. furthermore, improving one’s self-awareness, or the capacity to recognize the physical cues that represent one’s emotions, was found to enhance group cooperation skills (campbell et al., 2022), boost the positivity of the positive appraisal, and raise the negative response to the negative evaluation (fenigstein, 1979). people who have a high level of sensitivity to context, or the extent to which our social setting influences our emotional and behavioral reactions, understand how to adjust and react to the unspoken guidelines and standards that govern various social contexts (kesebir et al., 2019) moreover, attention denotes the capacity to block out external cues and maintain concentration and the majority of students think that multitasking allows them to do more work in less time and that it is a must to cope with the demands of college life (strom et al., 2023). in addition, a person’s age was found to be significantly correlated with outlook, resilience, self-awareness, and sensitivity to context, while gender emphasized that women scored higher than men driven by social intuition and context sensitivity (kesebir et al., 2019). on the other hand, marlowe (1986) identified social intelligence as the capacity to comprehend and respond correctly to the emotions, ideas, and actions of others— including oneself—in social contexts (eshghi et al., 2013). studies concluded that one’s life and career success is closely linked to social skills, which have grown in relevance compared to academic abilities (gibb, 2014; tadjer et al., 2018). silvera et al. (2001) developed a self-report scale that measures the three areas of social intelligence – social skills, social awareness, and social information processing. riggio et al. (1990) defined social skills as any skill or combination of abilities that a person could use to establish, nurture, and uphold connections or communication with others. social skills are important for students as they play a crucial role in developing their everyday interactions with classmates, families, and teachers at school (cheung et al., 2017), bridging a positive correlation with self-esteem (riggio et al., 1990) and a predictor of life satisfaction among college students (rezaei & mousanezhad jeddi, 2018). in addition, goleman (1995) defined social awareness as the capacity to recognize, comprehend, and address the needs of others (hubbard, 2021). chater et al. (2023) further identified social awareness as the individual’s ability to behave in a way that is appropriate for the time, location, and circumstances. social awareness has been linked to improved resilience and the ability to create profound relationships, both of which may reduce negative consequences in later life (dennis, 2022). furthermore, iatsevich et al. (2017) defined social information processing as the capacity to decipher both verbal and nonverbal cues about interpersonal relationships. chater et al. (2023) further defined social information processing as an individual’s capacity to comprehend articles that contain explicit messages as well as hidden ones, empathy, and verbal or nonverbal cues related to interpersonal relationships. it necessitates self-control, observation, and the capacity to adjust one’s actions per social perception and comprehension of other people’s intentions (hansen & ulrey, 2009). correlational studies were found between emotional styles and social intelligence. ross et al. (2023) stated that emotional health is associated with the quality of relationships and the capacity for love, indicating that it influences social interactions. likewise, positive and productive connections with others are more likely to be maintained when we learn to constructively regulate our feelings (main, 2020). in relation, friendship selection patterns are influenced by emotional well-being, indicating that socializing behavior is influenced by an individual’s emotional state (elmer et al., 2017). additionally, various studies have found that the indicators of emotional style and social intelligence are also correlated. the study by zbihlejova & birknerova (2022) reported that the social intelligence factors and coping strategies, or an individual’s resilience, are correlated with each other. in addition, a significant correlation between emotional regulation, social awareness, and social skills was found (rezaei & mousanezhad jeddi, 2018). furthermore, studies have shown that social intuition positively correlates with social intelligence (novikova & belyak, 2022; nuradinov et al., 2023). however, this is opposed by the study of garipova and makhubrakhmanova (2019) stating that the two variables have no causal relationships. in the study of bala et al. (2019), post-establishing social skills education, significant improvements in self-awareness, empathy, effective communication, and interpersonal relationships were evident and stated in the study. in the philippines, yobas et al. (2016) concluded in the study that interaction with friends, family, and significant others, self-efficacy, and awareness were significant indicators of psychological well-being, noting that mindfulness was the strongest predictor. the study of muring (2022) also claimed that social competence, or the capacity of an individual to interact socially, and emotional intelligence are positively correlated. it was noted that university students experienced emotional challenges during the covid-19 lockdown due to feeling academically and socially isolated (visser & law-van wyk, 2021). however, the students’ psychological needs, specifically their emotional well-being, must still be addressed even post-pandemic (cajachagua castro et al., 2023). this continuing problem resulted in university students further developing mental health issues (amitage, 2023; lipson et al., 2022; venable & pietrucha, 2022). the college student mental health report disclosed that over 51% of 1,000 college students experienced a decline in their mental health during their tertiary education (bryant & welding, 2023). furthermore, a survey revealed that 44% of the students experienced depressive symptoms and 15% had suicidal thoughts among 133 college campuses in 2021-2022 (bowe, 2023). in addition to pa ge 86 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 84-92, 2024 this, students from the philippines also experienced the same problem during and after the pandemic (alibudbud, 2021; malolos et al., 2021; mendoza et al., 2021; serrano & reyes, 2022). these findings highlight the need to raise public knowledge and comprehension of mental health and wellness issues, as well as the significance of eradicating judgment and providing assistance to those who are struggling with mental health issues (r.t. villarino & m.l. villarino, 2023). even though the discussion of emotional well-being is being addressed nowadays, related studies between emotional styles and social intelligence are limited. local-related literature was not evident due to the limited sources. thus, the study sought to discover the correlation between the emotional styles and social intelligence of university students. this study is significant in aiding their emotional well-being as well as managing interpersonal relationships. moreover, it can aid the mental health organizations and the school administration in generating activities and plans to solve these matters. this study can also aid future researchers in generating local studies regarding these problems. research questions the study generally aimed to determine the following: 1. to determine the level of emotional style of the university students, in terms of: 1.1 outlook; 1.2 resilience; 1.3 social intuition; 1.4 self-awareness; 1.5 sensitivity to context; 1.6 attention. 2. to determine the social intelligence level of the university students, in terms of: 2.1 social skills; 2.2 social awareness; 2.3 social information processing. 3. to identify if there is a significant relationship between the emotional styles and social intelligence of university students. 4. to identify which domain of the emotional styles influence the social intelligence of university students. materials and methods research respondents the study exclusively involved university students from all year levels and departments during the school year 2023 2024, within the davao region. the researchers employed a simple random sampling method, which is crucial for making statistical inferences about a population and ensures high internal validity by minimizing the impact of potential confounding variables through randomization. the respondents comprised 375 college students from a population of 3,868, calculated and validated using slovin’s formula. shown in table 1 is the frequency distribution of the university students by sex and department. regarding research instruments the instruments administered in this study included the emotional styles questionnaire (esq) and the tromso social intelligence scale (tsis). in addition, the researchers sought permission from the authors for the questionnaires to be utilized. the emotional styles questionnaire (esq), developed by kesebir et al. (2019), is a 24-item self-assessment tool measuring six dimensions of emotional health, namely: outlook, resilience, social intuition, self-awareness, sensitivity to context, and attention. moreover, it consists of a 7-point likert scale labeled as (7) strongly agree, (6) somewhat agree, (5) agree, (4) neither agree nor disagree, (3) disagree, (2) somewhat disagree, and (1) strongly disagree. previous studies evaluated the reliability of the questionnaire revealing a high internal validity (α=.92), with its subscales: outlook (α=.89), resilience (α=.88), social intuition (α=.78), self-awareness (α=.73), sensitivity to context (α=.75), and attention (α=.85) (kesebir et al., 2019). on the other hand, the tromso social intelligence scale (tsis), developed by silvera et al. (2001), is a 21item self-report questionnaire evaluating an individual’s social intelligence through its three subscales: social information processing, social skills, and social awareness. furthermore, it also consists of a 7-point likert scale labeled as (7) describes me extremely well, (6) describes table 1: frequency distribution of the respondents by sex & department profile f % sex male 160 42.7% female 215 57.3% department dcje 95 25.3% das 87 23.2% dae 33 8.8% dtp 38 10.1% dte 58 15.5% dba 64 17.1% total 375 100.0% sex, it showed that most respondents were females (n=215, 57.3%), while the minority consisted of males (n=160, 42.7%). moreover, per department, most respondents were from the department of criminal and justice education (dje) (n=95, 25.3%). following this, recorded responses include the department of arts and sciences (das) (n=87, 23.2%), department of business administration (dba) (n=64, 17.1%), department of teacher education (dte) (n=58, 15.5%), and department of technical programs (dtp) (n=38, 10.1%). additionally, the department of accounting education (dae) (n=33, 8.8%) has the lowest out of pa ge 87 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 84-92, 2024 me moderately, (5) describes me slightly, (4) neither describes me well nor poor (3) describes me moderately, (2) describes me slightly, (1) describes me extremely poor. prior studies revealed a high internal validity of each subscale encompassing social information processing (α=.81), social skills (α=.86), and social awareness (α=.79) (silvera et al., 2001). moreover, interpretations were developed by the researchers in assessing the mean scores of emotional styles and social intelligence of the university students. with the data acquired from google form surveys. as it showed a reliable index, the researchers proceeded to the proper survey activity. before administering the questionnaires to the respondents, the researchers made sure to raise awareness about the informed consent attached on the first page of the paper. hence, data were gathered from 375 university students. the data gathered were meticulously tabulated and analyzed using jamovi software, with statistical significance set at p < 0.05. findings were interpreted in light of the study’s primary objective, offering insights into the interplay between emotional styles and social intelligence among university students and suggesting avenues for future research. statistical treatment the researchers employed a range of statistical tools to examine the data gathered. to test the normality of the data, the shapiro-wilk test was used. the analyzed data was found to be normally distributed as the p-value is above 0.05. moreover, the pearson r correlation was utilized to determine the significant relationship between emotional styles and social intelligence. to specify the dimension predicting the social intelligence of university students, the researchers used linear regression, all were computed through the jamovi software. results and discussion emotional styles of the university students indicated in table 4 is the analyzed data gathered to assess the university students’ emotional styles according to the six criteria: outlook, resilience, social intuition, self-awareness, sensitivity to context, and attention. the overall level of emotional styles implied that university students exhibit good resilience to stress, creating deeper relationships, positive attitudes, and increased self-worth (schutte et al., 2002; lamothe, 2019). out of the six indicators, social intuition (x ̄=4.71, sd=0.917) has the highest mean score implying that they possess immediate understanding without conscious reasoning (mccrea, 2010) and may deduce information based on their judgments (plesa, 2024), which indicates that it is very evident among university students. likewise, socially intuitive individuals were found to be highly sensitive to the emotions of others and understand their perspectives on a situation (turan et al., 2019). moreover, outlook (x ̄=4.55, sd=0.973) and self-awareness (x̄ =4.49, sd=0.939) are also observed among the university students. on the contrary, the level of sensitivity to context (x̄ =4.17, sd=1.036) is found to be moderately evident, indicating that the actions of university students may frequently be interpreted as insensitive or improper due to their lack of sensitivity to the surrounding environment (kesebir et al., 2019). in addition, these individuals are found to be less likely to seek out and reflect on peer evaluations, refraining from conforming to society (chen et al., 2016). this implies that while they possess the capacity to empathize and acknowledge what other people feel, they often struggle to interpret social cues. table 2: emotional styles mean interval interpretation mean interval description interpretation 6.16-7.00 strongly agree completely evident 5.30-6.15 somewhat agree extremely evident 4.44-5.29 agree very evident 3.58 4.43 neither agree nor disagree moderately evident 2.72-3.57 disagree somewhat evident 1.862.71 somewhat disagree slightly evident 1.00-1.85 strongly disagree not evident table 3: social intelligence mean interval interpretation mean interval description interpretation 6.16-7.00 describes me extremely well very high 5.30-6.15 describes me moderately moderately high 4.44-5.29 describes me slightly slightly high 3.58 4.43 neither describes me well nor poor neither high nor low 2.72-3.57 describes me moderately slightly low 1.862.71 describes me slightly moderately low 1.00-1.85 describes me as extremely poorly very low design and procedure this study employed a quantitative approach with a descriptive-predictive research design, intending to determine the correlation between emotional styles and social intelligence of university students. by utilizing a comprehensive literature review, and validated questionnaires, including the emotional style questionnaire (esq) and the tromso social intelligence scale (tsis), the researchers were able to gather data from 375 respondents. before the proper survey, the researchers ensured to address the research adviser and the university’s dean of the college for utilizing the students as respondents of the study. then, the researchers conducted a pilot test with n=50 respondents, pa ge 88 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 84-92, 2024 social intelligence of the university students indicated in table 5 is the analyzed data gathered to assess the university students’ social intelligence according to the three criteria: social skills, social awareness, and social information processing. the analysis suggests that, on average, university students have a slightly high level of social intelligence, showing that university students can understand and respond correctly to the feelings, ideas, and behaviors of others (eshghi et al., 2013). specifically, social information processing (x̄ =4.75, sd=1.020) has the highest mean score, implying that university students can adjust their actions per social perception and comprehension of other people’s intentions (hansen & ulrey, 2009) by deciphering both verbal and nonverbal cues (ialsevich et al., 2017). moreover, upon exhibiting appropriate responses in social situations, individuals with high intuition and judgment personalities possess rational and controlled thinking and consider possibilities without immediate judgment (edwards et al., 2002). however, both social skills (x̄ =4.43, sd=0.831) and social awareness (x̄ =4.29, sd=0.963) fall within a neutral range and are perceived to be average, with room for improvement. this indicates that university students have minimal capacity to recognize, comprehend, and address the needs of others (goleman, 1995; hubbard, 2021) and thereof, have neither high nor low ability to behave in a way that is appropriate for the time, location, and circumstances (chater et al., 2023). emotional styles of university students influence their social intelligence. the study’s findings are reinforced by several research studies that illuminate the relationship between emotional well-being and social dynamics. ross et al. (2023) highlighted the significant impact of emotional health on the quality of relationships and the capacity for love, indicating its profound influence on social interactions. additionally, main (2020) emphasized the importance of constructive emotional regulation in fostering positive and lasting social connections. furthermore, elmer et al. (2017) illustrated how emotional well-being affects friendship selection patterns, suggesting its role in shaping individuals’ social behaviors and network formation. moreover, muring (2022) discovered a positive association between emotional well-being and social competence, suggesting that individuals with better emotional health tend to navigate social interactions more effectively. this association is further supported by research indicating that mindfulness and self-efficacy play facilitating roles in promoting emotional well-being and enhancing social competence (klainin-yobas et al., 2016). regression analysis table 4: level of emotional styles of university students indicator x̄ sd outlook 4.55 0.973 resilience 4.42 0.907 social intuition 4.71 0.917 self-awareness 4.49 0.939 sensitivity to context 4.17 1.036 attention 4.24 0.956 total 4.43 0.792 table 6: pearson r correlation analysis between the variables independent variable overall social intelligence emotional styles r p-value remarks <0.001 significant table 5: level of social intelligence of university students indicator x̄ sd social skills 4.43 0.831 social awareness 4.29 0.963 social information processing 4.75 1.020 total 4.49 0.789 correlation between emotional styles and social intelligence table 6 summarizes the pearson r analysis between university students’ emotional styles and social intelligence. the results showed a significance with a p-value (<0.001), that is less than the 0.05 significance, with a moderate positive correlation coefficient of r=.47, thus rejecting the null hypothesis. this indicates that the table 7 shows the regression analysis for variables predicting the social intelligence of students. it indicates two significant factors predicting students’ social intelligence. linear regression, with the coefficients of correlation applied with the significance, was tested at the level α=0.05. these subscales were resilience (p=0.776), self-awareness (p=0.512), attention (p=0.393), outlook (p=0.118), social intuition (p=0.041), and sensitivity to context (p=0.003), from the highest value to the lowest value, respectively. results revealed that 23% of the variance is explained by the six predictors, f(6, 368)=18, p<0.001. specifically, social intuition (β=0.12, t=2.049, p=0.041) and sensitivity to context (β=0.14, t=2.953, p=0.003) are positively associated with social intelligence. on the other hand, outlook (β=0.09, t=1.563, p=0.118), resilience (β=0.02, t=0.285, p=0.776), self-awareness (β=0.04, t=0.656, p=0.512), and attention (β=0.05, t=0.846, p=0.398) are negatively related. this suggests that individuals who are aware of subtle social cues and are attuned to their social environment tend to possess higher levels of social intelligence (mcghee et al., 2015; van bavel et al., 2016; yamashita et al., 2016; waddup et al., 2021). the study found that being good at understanding nonverbal social cues predicts how well someone can handle social situations (novikova & belyak, 2022; nuradinov et al., 2023). this means people who can read others’ body language tend to be better at managing relationships. it also showed that being good at this skill is linked to being pa ge 89 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 84-92, 2024 more aware of emotions and being empathetic (turan et al., 2019). additionally, people who are naturally intuitive in their personalities tend to be better at processing social information (mega & volz, 2017; garrison & melendy, 2022). the study also pointed out the importance of being sensitive to social rules in handling relationships and different situations (waddup et al., 2021; ibañez & manes, 2012). lastly, it suggested that changing how people see others’ feelings and thoughts could improve their social skills (lieberman, 2006). table 7: regression analysis predictor estimate (β) se t p outlook 0.0946 0.0603 1.568 0.118 resilience 0.0190 0.0666 0.285 0.776 social intuition 0.1241 0.0606 2.049 0.041 self-awareness 0.0411 0.0627 0.656 0.512 sensitivity to context 0.1409 0.0477 2.953 0.003 attention 0.0501 0.0846 0.846 0.398 conclusions this study investigated the relationship between emotional styles and social intelligence among university students. this research analyzed various dimensions of emotional expression and social adeptness to uncover nuanced patterns and connections. initially, the research revealed that university students generally exhibit moderate levels of emotional styles. based on the results, students generally cope well with stress and don’t often get overwhelmed by negative feelings. however, they sometimes struggle to act appropriately based on their understanding of others’ emotions. evaluations of social intelligence underscored students’ competence in socializing and communicating effectively. while students excel in communication and interpersonal connections, there is scope for improvement in their capacity to recognize and address the needs of others. notably, individuals with strong emotional regulation skills also demonstrate enhanced social abilities. however, there appeared to be a discrepancy in their proactive engagement and sensitivity to others’ needs. the research also uncovered a positive link between emotional styles and social intelligence, underlining the crucial role of emotional well-being in deepening one’s comprehension of others. furthermore, linear regression, underscored the importance of understanding nonverbal cues and managing behavior in improving overall social intelligence. this implies that being able to interpret nonverbal cues and regulate one’s behavior significantly contributes to enhancing overall social intelligence. in conclusion, these results highlight the significance of fostering empathy and improving emotional self-regulation among university students. by increasing their emotional understanding and carefully considering their responses before acting impulsively, students can strengthen their relationships and handle social situations more effectively. this understanding offers valuable direction for interventions aimed at advancing students’ socio-emotional growth and cultivating nurturing academic and social atmospheres within universities. recommendations based on the gathered data and analyzed results, researchers propose the following recommendations and suggestions: in the realm of mental health, it is recommended that agencies like the philippine mental health association (pmha) integrate programs aimed at improving emotional awareness, regulation, and expression for individuals seeking assistance. these agencies can empower individuals to navigate their emotions more effectively and enhance their overall wellbeing. furthermore, in the academic sphere, university administrators are encouraged to collaborate with the university’s guidance and counseling services and student organizations to facilitate workshops or seminars. these sessions should tailor-fit social skill-building activities designed to enhance emotional and social intelligence. this can include activities such as perspective-taking, problemsolving tasks, team-building exercises, and mindfulness exercises. parents and guardians should be equipped with awareness and tools to facilitate open conversations with their children about emotional well-being. this not only strengthens the parent-child bond but also empowers children to express themselves authentically and seek assistance when facing emotional challenges. future researchers with similar interests should consider using this research study as a reference. however, it’s crucial to remain mindful of the study’s limitations and identify any existing gaps. researchers are encouraged to explore additional factors of emotional styles such as empathy and self-regulation which may contribute to the influence of social intelligence. additionally, employing a larger and more inclusive sample size, which includes the lgbtq+ community, will provide more accurate insights and findings. acknowledgements we extend our heartfelt gratitude to all those who participated and contributed, may it be directly or indirectly, in the completion of this research journey. each individual has played a significant role and for that, we are deeply thankful. pa ge 90 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 84-92, 2024 references alibudbud, r. 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(2022). analysis of the links between social intelligence and coping strategies of business managers in terms of development of their potential. societies, 12(6), 117. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc12060177 pa ge 1 pa ge 93 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) examining the health-promoting lifestyle of college students: a quantitative analysis novielen jean b. dacay1*, janna grace rañon1, claire lynn culajara1 volume 2 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v2i1.2823 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: may 12, 2024 accepted: june 10, 2024 published: june 14, 2024 lifestyle is gradually shaped by an individual’s daily routine, behavior, and mannerisms. college students develop their lifestyles customary to academic demands and other influences that may construe healthy or unhealthy routines. this study the healthpromoting lifestyle profile of college students in the davao region using a quantitative analysis approach, which considers gender, department, and year level. the study utilizes the health-promoting lifestyle profile ii (hplp-ii) as its primary tool. a total of 350 students were randomly selected and their responses were subjected to a shapiro-wilk test for normality. the results revealed in table 4 found significant differences between the different demographic groups and their varying significant effects to hplp. respectively, in terms of gender, the significant difference in hplp was determined by f (2, 22.3) = 10.2, p <0.001 with an effect size, etasquared (η2) 0.056, indicating a small size effect. moreover, the significant differences in department reported an f (3,99.5) = 4.82, p = 0.003 with an effect size, eta-squared (η2) 0.040, indicating a small size effect. furthermore, the year level differences was revealed by an f (5, 135) = 0.952, p <0.001 with an effect size, eta-squared (η2) 0.087 indicating a medium size effect. the data indicates that year level is the most influential demographic profile of respondents. future researchers can explore a qualitative assessment of the dimensions of hplp to determine the habitual engagements of students in distinct facets of healthy lifestyles. anent to the study, it may be possible to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the factors that contribute to the promotion of healthy living practices amongst college students. keywords health-promoting, student lifestyle, hplp-ii, college student health, mental health 1 university of mindanao digos college, digos city, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: n.dacay.60274.dc@umindanao.edu.ph introduction lifestyle is multifaceted and has been defined in various scientific studies (boldrer et al., 2023). it refers to the conglomeration of routines, behaviors, and mannerisms that have an impact on an individual’s holistic health. according to the constitution of the world health organization (who), health is not just the absence of disease in the body but also the state of an individual’s complete physical, social, and mental wellbeing. college students represent a significant population with unique lifestyle behaviors. the college period is a crucial time in early adulthood, where habits pose developments in physical, sexual, psychological, and social relations that may adopt healthy or unhealthy mechanisms. however, incorporating healthy habits is challenging for college students due to schedules, workloads, and stress that come with constant demands, greatly affecting their routines, behaviors, and engagement in healthy lifestyles (dungog et al., 2021). a cross-sectional study by alothman et al. (2024) indicated that various factors, including age, college major, and lifestyle behaviors, influence differences in lifestyle. college students represent a unique population with distinct lifestyle behaviors that are influenced by various factors. based on the reports of the world health organization, it was found that a considerable 60% of an individual’s health and overall well-being is determined by their conduct and behavior. the crucial importance of lifestyle stewards an individual’s wellbeing; worldwide, college students live sedentary and unhealthy lives (alflayyeh & alotaibi, 2023). a recent study conducted in the philippines (dungog et al., 2021) revealed that the lifestyle of college students was deficient in several critical factors, including exercise, nutrition, water intake, rest, and overall physical condition. despite the lack of sufficient studies addressing the assessment of healthy lifestyles among college students in the country, the literature has emphasized the importance of implementing programs designed to promote healthy lifestyle behaviors in tandem with addressing the students’ health status. the pivotal transition to college constitutes behavioral changes that alter lifestyle; a period marked by biological development, significant social role shifts, and changes in health-related behavior. with this, the health-promoting lifestyle profile initially developed by walker, et al in 1987 is a scale designed to measure the health-promoting lifestyle behaviors of people, thus, in the present study to assess the lifestyles of college students in the university, the study utilized the dimensions of health-promoting lifestyle profile (hplp) as the rudimentary factors for evaluation. its dimensions were subjected to successive validity, drawing out the six (6) conceptually accepted subscales as its psychometric measuring tool for lifestyle. the current model explicated in 1995 is named the health-promoting lifestyle profile hplp ii (adult version) prompted by factors measuring adult engagement in healthy lifestyle (nursing, s. o. 1995). in a confirmatory factor analysis study by davis and de guzman (2022), the hplp pa ge 94 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 93-103, 2024 and its psychometric dimensions were scrutinized for their reliability and validity in measuring the health promoting behaviors of nursing students. although the study drew out a recommendation for a 12-factor model, the 6-factor model demonstrated strong evidence of reliability and validity. the 52-item scale comprised of its dimensions (spiritual growth, interpersonal relations, nutrition, physical activity, health responsibility, and stress management) construe to further examining health-promoting behaviors of college students. the hplp dimensions provided a framework for evaluating the various aspects of health-promoting behaviors that college students engage in on a habitual basis. in the forthcoming paragraphs, each dimension of the hplp is provided with relevant references to substantiate the factors, demonstrated on how college students are immersed with the factors in a habitual basis. on the subject of physical activity, an analysis by van sluijs et al. (2021) has documented that young individual between the ages of 10-24 years old, which is approximately 81% of adolescents in the world, are associated with a decline in physical activity thus adverse effects are associated with its gradual decline. silva et al. (2022) conducted a systematic review to identify the barriers that hinder university students’ engagement in physical activities. the findings of their study revealed that lack of time, lack of motivation, and a dearth of accessible places are the primary hindrances to physical activity. sánchezhernando et al. (2021) further assert that the rise of the digital age has exacerbated this issue, as students increasingly spend more time on screens, leading to a reduction in daily physical activity. with regards to the nutritional needs of college students, it is common to have recently progressed from adolescence to adulthood and to be in a state of relative youth and good health. this may result in a tendency to overlook the importance of maintaining good health (jang, 2016 & chao, 2023). consequently, students may consume nonnutritious food items. additionally, the transition to university life, with its busy and demanding schedule, may prompt students to turn to easily accessible, readyto-eat meals such as fast food, canned goods, or instant noodles. in a 2022 study conducted by grajek et al., found that technological and cultural advancements have brought about a shift in dietary habits, which has resulted in the adoption of new food choices and preferences. the fast-paced lifestyle, the pursuit of selfactualization, and resulting overstimulation and lack of time have contributed to an increase in the consumption of highcalorie and processed foods. in addition, spiritual growth is considered in the assessment of the holistic healthpromoting lifestyle of an individual, especially in college students. this pertains to an individual’s development is characterized by their capacity to transcend, connect, and foster growth. the process of spiritual growth includes the realization of one’s full potential, the identification of one’s sense of purpose, and the pursuit of one’s life goals (walker et al., 1996). spiritual growth, therefore, is an individual’s selfreflection, learning, and growth. spiritual intelligence influences an individual’s problem-solving capacity and general goal setting (emmons, 2000, das & sahoo, 2023) which are beneficial cognitive factors that sustain healthpromoting behaviors for college students. the holistic importance of spirituality is admitted in equipping college students to have elevated capacities for resolving and managing stress, having a realistic perception of self, and dealing with everyday events, positively (sogolitappeh, et al, 2018 & joseph et al, 2021). more to the subject is interpersonal relations indicating a healthy lifestyle. interpersonal relationships formed in school are considered the particular social context affecting the development of college students. (jiang et al, 2021). according to the results from the study of sun (2023), interpersonal relationships positively correlate with safety awareness and college student planning within college students. this enables a formation of positive psychological resolve significantly affecting their attention, their management of social anxiety, and overall positive attitude in dealing with their emotions. in the matter of health responsibility, according to walker et al. (1996), health responsibility refers to an individual’s obligation to take charge of their own well-being. this involves being accountable for one’s health and adopting a proactive approach towards maintaining it. in essence, health responsibility requires individuals to recognize that they play a crucial role in promoting their own health and that it is their responsibility to do so. it is, therefore, imperative that individuals take the necessary steps to safeguard their health by making informed decisions and engaging in healthy behaviors. study suggests that it is generally attributed to females being more healthconscious and perceived as more responsible. this claims that male adolescents enhance their healthpromoting habits, including regular health checkups, maintaining a balanced diet, practicing activities like yoga and meditation, and avoiding health risks, to improve both physical and mental well-being (bishnoi et al., 2023). furthermore, concerning stress management among university students, findings from a 2019 survey by the american college health association reveal a significant portion of students experiencing heightened stress levels, with 34.2% identifying stress as a major obstacle to their learning. this heightened stress can escalate into severe mental health challenges such as anxiety, depression, and self-harm (silver, 2019). the distinct differences in lifestyle often have implications across demographic groups, including gender, department, and year level. the present study aims to identify the lived lifestyle of college students, including their adherence to healthy lifestyle dimensions, and analyze the significant differences across each demographic group. such an integrative approach has the potential to inform interventions and direct programs aimed at promoting health. alflayyeh et al. (2023) claimed that lifestyle greatly impacts college students’ health yet receives inadequate global attention. pa ge 95 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 93-103, 2024 further research revealed a significant connection between college students’ academic achievements and a healthy lifestyle (al‐momani, 2021). corresponding inhibitions to practicing healthpromoting behaviors are necessary to be addressed to render college students capable of longer run after university. therefore, it is imperative to set intentional objectives to address this issue, starting with local initiatives. schools can organize events and activities that encourage and support students in leading healthy lives. teaching health-related topics in college settings is a cost-effective way to help students adopt healthy lifestyles, given their developmental stage. the significance of this study extends beyond college students to psychology practitioners, counselors, and other stakeholders. the goal is to promote humanfocused welfare, and the results of this study can be integrated into the university’s community engagement agenda in the davao region to inform future operational plans. identifying the population that needs interventions can reinforce the dimensions of healthy lifestyles, leading to a consolidated approach to achieving this goal. finally, the data and findings of the present study can be utilized to make psychological recommendations for college students’ lifestyles. research objectives the course of the study aimed to garner data that will meet the objectives, as follows. 1. to determine the demographic distribution of the study, in terms of: 1.1 gender 1.2 department 1.3 year level 2. to draw out the level of health-promoting lifestyle profile (hplp) of the respondents. 2.1 spiritual growth 2.2 interpersonal relations 2.3 nutrition 2.4 physical activity 2.5 health responsibility 2.6 stress management 3. to assess the significant difference between the health-promoting lifestyle profile of college students, in terms of: 3.1 gender 3.2 department 3.3 year level materials and methods research respondents the study exclusively involved college students from the university in davao region, enrolled for the second semester of the school year 2023-2024. the researchers utilized a simple random sampling technique, commonly employed in making statistical inferences about a population (mohajan, 2024). moreover, the simple random sampling method allowed the researchers to statistically measure a subset of individuals selected from a larger group or population to approximate a response from the entire group. a total of 350 college students were included in the study corresponding the sample size through slovin’s formula for a 5% margin of error with a 95% level of confidence with a total population of 3,868 college students in the premise. research instrument the present study employed the health-promoting lifestyle profile ii (hplp ii) as a primary assessment tool to gauge health-promoting behavior. the 52-item questionnaire consisted of six dimensions, namely spiritual growth, interpersonal relations, nutrition, physical activity, health responsibility, and stress management. responses to each item were rated on a 4-point scale (4 = routine, 3 = sometimes, 2 = often, 1 = never), with higher scores indicating more frequent engagement in health-promoting behavior among the college students. developed by walker, sechrist, and pender in 1995, hplp ii has undergone extensive reliability and validity testing, with results consistently showing its refined psychometric properties (guzman, 2022). the researchers were eager to request authorization from the author to employ the material in their study. consequently, followed through by composing a message sent via electronic mail (e-mail). moreover, the researchers conducted a pilot study on a sample of 50 respondents to evaluate the contextualized relevance of hplp-ii in the philippine context, specifically in the university setting in the davao region. to ensure the internal consistency of the questionnaire, the researchers computed cronbach’s alpha for each item, with the coefficient reaching 0.941, indicating high reliability. a cronbach’s alpha coefficient closer to 1 is indicative of a higher level of internal consistency. table 1 shows the index used to evaluate the mean scores of the dimensions conglomerate to hplp-ii of the college students at the university in davao region. the mean interval is displayed in the first column, while its table 1: index component to health-promoting lifestyle of college students mean interval description interpretation 3.26-4.00 routinely the health-promoting lifestyle is met routinely. 2.51-3.25 sometimes the health-promoting lifestyle is met sometimes. 1.76-2.50 often the health-promoting lifestyle is met often. 1-1.75 never the health-promoting lifestyle is met never. pa ge 96 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 93-103, 2024 descriptive equivalence for interpretation is shown in the second and last columns. the dimensions of the scale were employed as the basis for factors requisite to a healthy lifestyle that are observed for presumptive differences in gender, year level, and department to be illustrated in the following tables that address the objectives of the study. design and procedure the researchers esteem its objectives and the information sought in the category of quantitative research, construed in its nature a descriptive-comparative correspondence: a statistical method focused on arranging, analyzing, interpreting, and presenting numerical data. quantitative research is concerned with quantifying and explaining a phenomenon more objectively. moreover, the ability to conduct quantitative research in huge populations or under well-regulated circumstances is a significant advantage (mohajan, 2020). the researchers accumulated relevant literature and utilized validated questionnaires sourced from prominent researchers, walker et al. (1995), focusing on health-promoting lifestyle behaviors of people. data collection involved a dual approach: traditional distribution of printed questionnaires and the utilization of modern technology through google forms, ensuring accessibility and ease of participation for respondents. to uphold ethical standards, the researchers obtained permission letters signed by the adviser and endorsed by the dean of the university before administering the questionnaires. additionally, participants were provided with letters outlining the research’s ethical considerations. following data collection, the researchers systematized and analyzed the gathered information using jamovi to conduct comprehensive analyses aligned with the study’s primary objectives. statistical treatment pertinent to the quantitative approach, the researchers transcribed the data from the resolved questionnaires using jamovi, a statistical software, to realize the significant differences among independent variables (gender, year level, department) and the dependent variable (hplp-ii). statistical methods that were carried out for the succession of the study were also assessed, as follows: the average (mean) from the collected resolved questionnaires were analyzed per dimension of the health-promoting lifestyle profile of the college students. the mean of every dimension discloses the data for the first objective of the study which attests to the levels of health-promoting behaviors of the respondents. moreover, in this study, the standard deviation follows the mean for every dimension and precedes to identifying differences within the independent variables (iv). this allowed the data to ascertain the intervals of the iv within the genders, departments, and year levels and the dispersed values concerning the mean. the researchers followed the sample size requirement for the field. the consideration of the total college population consisted of 3,868 college students which required a sample size of 350 respondents, with a confidence level of 95% and a margin error of 5% for the representation. the course of analysis was addressed for the shapiro wilk p, which is a hypothesis test that determines the normality of the data inputs. the researchers were able to analyze the data and demonstrated the normal distribution with a shapirowilk p = <0.001 corresponding to the criteria for a parametric test. consequently, the anova particularly tested the differences between the means of the hplpii of the different classifications of populations. more to the procedure, the data were subjected to a post-hoc test. thus, the tukey’s honest significant difference (hsd) test was selected as an appropriate method for this purpose. the hsd test was administered to determine any statistically meaningful differences among the variables. this post-hoc test is commonly used to compare the means of multiple groups and is known for its high level of accuracy and reliability. the findings of this analysis will be crucial in interpreting the results of the study and drawing valid conclusions. results and discussion demographic profile of the college students the study utilized the hplp survey questionnaire to gather relevant data to address the research questions and objectives. the survey was administered to a diverse group of participants to ensure that the demographic distribution of the study was representative of the target population. the demographic distribution report presents information on the characteristics of the 350 respondents. table 2 illustrates how individuals are distributed based on gender, department, and year level. respectively, it indicates that 44.3% identify as male, 53.1% as female, and 2.6% as lgbtq+. this suggests table 2: frequency distribution of gender, department, and year level profile f % gender female 155 44.3 % male 186 53.1 % lgbtq+ 9 2.6 % department dtp 48 13.7 % dba 52 14.9 % dte 72 20.6 % das 59 16.9 % dcje 91 26.0 % dae 28 8.0 % year level second year 155 44.3 % first year 118 33.7 % third year 41 11.7 % fourth year 36 10.3 % pa ge 97 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 93-103, 2024 that most respondents identify as male or female, while a smaller percentage identifies as lgbtq+. similarly, the survey was disseminated to all departments of the university, and the findings indicated that the department of technical programs (dtp) garnered 48 respondents, accounting for 13.7% of the study; the department of business administration (dba) recorded 52 respondents, representing 14.9% of the total number of respondents; meanwhile, the department of teacher education (dte) had 72 respondents, making up 20.6% of the overall representatives of the study. moreover, the department of arts and sciences (das) recorded 59 respondents, accounting for 16.9% of the total number of respondents. the department of criminal justice education (dcje) had 91 respondents, which is equivalent to 26% of the total number of respondents. lastly, the department of accounting education (dae) recorded 28 respondents, accounting for 8% of the overall representatives in the study. furthermore, the respondents categorized by their year level as follows: with 155 individuals representing the second-year students, making up the largest group at 44.3% of the total number. the subsequent group comprised of first-year students, with 118 respondents, representing 33.7% of the respondents. the third-year students accounted for 41 respondents, which is 11.75% of the total number. lastly, fourth-year students totaled 36 individuals, representing 10.3% of the respondents. levels of health-promoting lifestyle of college students the data presented in table 3 represents the mean (x̄) per-indicator obtained from the responses of the population’s representatives. the data is derived from the six subscales of the health-promoting lifestyle profile, which serve as indicators of healthpromoting behavior. these subscales include health responsibility, physical activity, nutrition, spiritual growth, interpersonal relations, and stress management. the subscales have been identified as reliable measures of health-promoting behaviors and provide a comprehensive understanding of the factors that contribute to healthy living. the scoring interpretations of the subscales are determined by employing the scale that was devised by walker et al (1995). the subscale showing the highest level (x̄ = 3.08, sd=0.510) in the survey results was the respondents’ spiritual growth. this suggests that the practice of spiritual growth is prevalent among college students attending the university in the davao region. the dimension is defined by an individual’s development in transcending, connecting, and developing. such development encompasses the maximization of one’s potential, the discovery of a sense of purpose, and the pursuit of one’s life goals (walker et al., 1996). the findings imply that practicing spiritual growth has a positive impact on the mental health, healthy minds, and quality of life of college students, as noted by satpathy and samanta (2020). furthermore, the results indicate that college students have developed the necessary skills to manage stress, possess a realistic perception of self, and can handle everyday events more effectively, as per sogolitappeh et al. (2018) and joseph j et al. (2021). notably, spiritual care is a challenging area to learn and practice (cone & giske, 2017; rykkje et al., 2021; weathers et al., 2016). however, incorporating spiritual intelligence into the curriculum can be a deliberate effort to ensure success (das & sahoo, 2023) and promote health-promoting behaviors that sustain the lifestyles of college students. table 3: health-promoting lifestyle profile of college students subscale (x̄) std. deviation description health responsibility 2.17 0.630 the health-promoting lifestyle is met often. physical activity 2.42 0.623 the health-promoting lifestyle is met sometimes. nutrition 2.51 0.506 the health-promoting lifestyle is met sometimes. spiritual growth 3.08 0.510 the health-promoting lifestyle is met sometimes. interpersonal relations 2.89 0.447 the health-promoting lifestyle is met sometimes. stress management 2.71 0.444 the health-promoting lifestyle is met sometimes. hplp overall mean 2.63 the health-promoting lifestyle is met sometimes. on the other hand, the findings of the study indicate that the respondents demonstrated a lack of concern for health responsibility (x̄ = 2.17, sd = 0.630). health responsibility, as defined by walker et al. (1996), pertains to an individual’s sense of responsibility for their own well-being. these results suggest that participants only occasionally prioritized health-promoting factors, including their attention to health education and professional assistance for their health status. according to chao (2023), this phenomenon may be attributed to the perception of college students regarding their young and healthy bodies, leading them to neglect their health. the over-all mean reveal that health-promoting behaviors are met sometimes (x ̄ = 2.63) among college students, indicating that their health profile is frequently, albeit not consistently, attended to. it is common among adolescents to encounter impediments when it comes to sustaining a healthy lifestyle, as tomy et al (2019) have noted. stress has been identified as the most significant barrier, followed by diet, for college students. in addition, college students are known to have high stress levels, inadequate sleep, unhealthy dietary habits, and sedentary pa ge 98 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 93-103, 2024 lifestyles (alzamil et al, 2019, almutairi et al, 2018, and al-qahtani, 2022). research has shown that the absence of physical activity can have a proportional impact on one’s health, mood, and stress management (schultchen, 2019) all of which make it challenging to engage in health-promoting behavior due to the ripple effect from dimension to dimension. the present study has produced significant antecedents regarding the healthpromoting routines and behaviors of college students. based on these findings, health interventions can be strategically targeted towards dimensions that are susceptible to low levels of engagement in such habits. by implementing interventions derived from the study, it is possible to address the global issue of neglected health habits among college students (alflayyeh, et al., 2023) starting in the locale. significant differences in hplp on different demographics an analysis through anova was performed to investigate the extent to which the demographic groups (independent variables), gender, department, and year level affect the health-promoting lifestyle profile of college students in the university. table 4: significant differences in hplp on different demographics sum of squares df1 df2 mean square f p η2 gender 3.06 2 22.3 1.531 10.2 <0.001 0.056 department 2.21 3 99.5 0.736 4.82 0.003 0.040 year level 4.76 5 135 0.952 6.52 <0.001 0.087 the results revealed in table 4 found significant differences between the different demographic groups and their varying significant effects to hplp. respectively, in terms of gender, the significant difference in hplp was determined by f (2, 22.3) = 10.2, p <0.001 with an effect size, eta-squared (η2) 0.056, indicating a small size effect. moreover, the significant differences in department reported an f (3,99.5) = 4.82, p = 0.003 with an effect size, eta-squared (η2) 0.040, indicating a small size effect. furthermore, the year level differences was revealed by an f (5, 135) = 0.952, p <0.001 with an effect size, eta-squared (η2) 0.087 indicating a medium size effect. the data indicates that year level is the most influential demographic profile of the respondents. this finding is consistent with the research conducted by marendi et al (2024), which demonstrated that older college students are better equipped to cope with college stressors than their younger counterparts. as a result, higher-year students are better able to manage the challenges associated with college life, indicative of better health-promoting practices. in 2010, diez and fortis conducted a study to determine the socio-demographic variables that predict healthy behaviors. the research revealed that interventions aimed at promoting healthy behaviors should be tailored to each demographic group as they exhibit different characteristics that influence their health-promoting behavior. additionally, a study by anderson (2023), discovered that distinct lifestyle patterns exist among college students. moreover, castro et al (2020) addressed that a proportion of college students in the university have higher levels of sedentary lifestyle comparable to the total population of adolescence and young adults, suggesting a precedence of varying lifestyles from different demographic groups. nevertheless, it is imperative to conduct further research to gain a deeper understanding of the factors that significantly influence the health-promoting lifestyle profile (hplp) of college students. a comprehensive analysis has a possibility to determine which factor can report a large effect on hplp of college students. furthermore, subsequent to the anova, the study tests the differences between the means of the different classification by demography, thus evaluated through the tukey’s honest significant difference (hsd) post-hoc test, as follows. in table 5, a gender-based association of healthpromoting lifestyle profile (hplp) reported expounded the results of its significant difference (p < 0.001) in hplp. the result of the study identified prominent mean difference between male and female (0.175***), and male and lgbtq+ (0.327*). table 5: hplp differences in terms of gender male female lgbtq+ male mean difference 0.175*** 0.327* p-value <.001 0.038 female mean difference 0.152 p-value 0.484 lgbtq+ mean difference p-value pa ge 99 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 93-103, 2024 in adolescence, different genders associate themselves with different habits, challenges, and routines that embody their lifestyle (bishnoi, et al, 2023). the practices they engage in at this stage, including their healthpromoting behaviors, may be enduring throughout adulthood. more to the claims of bishnoi et al suggests that male adolescents enhance their health-promoting habits, including regular health checkups, maintaining a balanced diet, practicing activities like yoga and meditation, and avoiding health risks, to improve both physical and mental well-being. male university students typically exhibit healthier lifestyles, characterized by increased exercise and better stress management, while female students prioritize stronger relationships (núñez et al., 2020). moreover, mustafa et al. (2021) highlights a disparity in physical activity levels between genders, with males showing a greater tendency to engage in regular physical activity, such as exercising five times a week and achieving their target heart rate during workouts, compared to females. in addition, the difference suggests precedence in the study of singh r, b., (2021), as there is a notable difference in spirituality between working females and males. the research indicates that males generally exhibit lower levels of spirituality compared to females. however, despite this difference, the study found that the overall life satisfaction levels of working males are comparable to working females, who tend to have higher levels of spirituality. according to (craft, carroll, & lustyk, 2014), it is important to examine the quality of life, physical activity, and motives of various genders. more to the study, the reasons for physical activity may vary according to gender and may include weight loss, increased self-esteem, psychological well-being, and maintaining physical fitness. additionally, to achieve the best health outcomes for each gender, the gender difference needs to be differentiated between different types of physical activity, including strength, endurance, flexibility, and balance. in table 6, the departmental classification of hplp reported a significant difference (p <0.001) elaborated through tukey’s hsd particularly assessing the variations in the mean values of every department. table 6: hplp differences in terms of department dtp dba dte das dcje dae dtp mean difference -0.0339 -0.0783 0.0941 -0.243*** -0.00333 p-value 0.998 0.881 0.803 0.005 1.000 dba mean difference -0.044 0.1280 -0.210* 0.03058 p-value 0.988 0.492 0.022 0.999 dte mean difference 0.1725 -0.165 0.7500 p-value 0.108 0.070 0.951 das mean difference <0.338*** -0.09746 p-value <.001 0.877 dcje mean difference 0.24011* p-value 0.045 dae mean difference p-value the most identifiable difference was found in department of criminal justice education (dcje) and department of arts and sciences (das) (-338***), followed by dcje and department of technical programs (dtp) (-0.243**), also with dcje and department of accounting education (dae) (0.24011*), and lastly with dcje and department of business administration (dba) (-0.210*). a consistent difference was found in dcje. according to the institutional objectives for the department (2023), the dcje program integrates learning focused on the mission to equip the students in delivering efficient skills in crime prevention, crime detection, and investigation, harbingers to physical training and activities of which other departments (das, dtp, dae. dba) do not consider as priority for conduct. the goals of various programs offered at the college are distinguished by their focus on interrelations, communication, and research. for example, the dtp program seeks to promote technological competency by imparting training on technological disciplines and developing information technology (it) skills among students. similarly, the dae program aims to affiliate students with professional organizations and provide them with financial and business education components related to accounting. the dba program emphasizes technological advancements and entrepreneurial facets, and it immerses college students in communication and technology-focused learning ventures. a study conducted by castro and colleagues (2020) revealed that the sedentary lifestyle of college students is primarily caused by increased computer use, which is pertinent to the objectives of das, dtp, dae, and dba. in addition, studies provide evidence that physically active students had a superior quality of life than their non-active counterparts; in this example, sports-inclined departments were distinguished from students in other pa ge 10 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 93-103, 2024 departments. (çiçek, 2018 & alothman, et al. 2024). recent studies indicate that physical inactivity can have a significant impact on an individual’s health, mood, and stress management. the interrelatedness of these dimensions creates a ripple effect, which can further compound the challenges of engaging in health-promoting behavior. schultchen (2019) highlights the importance of physical activity in maintaining an overall healthy lifestyle. furthermore, the extreme difference in dcje and das attested the results of the study of gilan et al (2021), wherein medical sciences students have the highest hplp score on interpersonal relations and physical activity addressed as the lowest attended health-promoting behavior. researchers of the present study infer that the literature is pertinent to the representatives from the bachelor of science in psychology, under das. in a recent study by edelmann et al (2022), it was found that sedentary behaviors among individuals in different fields of study were distinctively organized. these fields include natural sciences, mathematics, social sciences, media, medicine, and education, among others. the study showed that such behaviors were primarily characterized by extended periods of sitting during lectures, seminars, and studying, with minimal physical exertion. the findings of this study suggest that the nature of academic work may contribute significantly to a sedentary lifestyle across different fields. in addition to çiçek, (2018) & alothman, et al. (2024), their study presented evidence that physically active students had a superior quality of life than their non-active counterparts; in this example, sports-inclined departments were distinguished from students in other departments. also, the data presented in table 7 reveals a significant variance in the healthpromoting lifestyle profile (hplp) based on the classification of year level (p = 0.003). the table reveals significant mean differences between second year and first year (0.132 *), and within fourth year and second year (-0.2124 *). table 7: hplp differences in terms of year level second year first year third year fourth year second year mean difference -0.132* 0.0121 -0.2124* p-value 0.031 0.998 0.018 first year mean difference 0.1439 -0.0806 p-value 0.178 0.700 third year mean difference -0.2245 p-value 0.059 fourth year mean difference p-value the result of the study corroborates the claim that different year levels encounter distinct phases in life, necessitating different tasks, academic performance, and capacity, and levels of pressure. additionally, parande et al. (2021) report that age is a significant factor in stress management and health responsibility. furthermore, other studies reveal that the year of study is a contributing factor to health-promoting lifestyles (alzahrani et al., 2019, muller, el-ansari, el, 2022). conclusions the study examined the health-promoting lifestyle profile of college students in a university in the davao region. demographic distribution of respondents was ensured through simple random sampling to uphold the validity of representation. demographic profiles such as gender, department, and year level categorized the respondents. the survey data revealed that the male demographic comprised the highest number of respondents, while the lgbtq community had the lowest representation. the department of criminal justice (dcje) had the highest number of respondents among departments, whereas the department of accounting education (dae) had the fewest. additionally, second-year students constituted the highest number of respondents, with fourth-year students having the lowest representation. the study results indicated that college students exhibit moderate tolerance towards practicing spiritual growth. this suggests a developing sense of purpose in their pursuits and effective stress management, contributing to a positive outlook on daily circumstances. however, college students tend to pay less attention to their health responsibilities, a common trend among young and healthy adolescents who may overlook such responsibilities. while the overall health promoting lifestyle profile (hplp) of students in the region is moderately met, routine practice is lacking. recognizing the significant impact of a health-promoting lifestyle on current and future health underscores its importance in student development. the findings of the study can inform future interventions targeting the assessed dimensions. moreover, the study concluded that significant differences exist in health-promoting lifestyles among college students, particularly concerning gender, department, and academic year level. among demographic groups, year level was identified as the most influential profile affecting hplp among college students. additionally, health-promoting behaviors such as health responsibility, physical activity, nutrition, interpersonal relations, spiritual growth, and stress management were found to be influenced by the demographic profiles of respondents, indicating that different characteristics lead to varied habitual practices. pa ge 10 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 93-103, 2024 recommendations the study effectively fulfilled its objectives by investigating the health-promoting lifestyle profile of college students in a university located in the davao region. however, there are areas where further attention and analysis could be beneficial for future endeavors. for students and readers, increasing awareness of health-promoting behaviors can serve as motivation to prioritize their well-being. understanding the significant impact these behaviors can have on long-term health, starting from college years and extending into adulthood, underscores the importance of cultivating healthy habits regardless of individual differences in approach. for the university and its organizations, the study’s findings offer valuable insights into the lifestyle patterns of the student population. this information can inform the development of targeted interventions aimed at promoting healthy behaviors among students. recommendations can be directed towards the university’s community extension center and other relevant departments to design programs tailored to meet the specific needs identified in the study. to future researchers, while the study focused on the dimensions of the hplp-ii, there remains a need to explore other factors influencing students’ engagement in health-promoting behaviors. additionally, the findings suggest that demographic factors may not be the sole determinants of such behaviors, highlighting the importance of considering individual traits and characteristics. future research could delve deeper into the relationship between personality types and healthpromoting lifestyles to provide a more comprehensive understanding of these dynamics. furthermore, future studies could expand on the findings by examining how health-promoting behaviors relate to various aspects of students’ lives, such as academic performance and overall well-being. understanding these connections can provide valuable insights for developing holistic approaches to support student success and thriving. acknowledgements we, the researchers, novielen jean dacay, janna grace rañon, and claire lynn b. culajara rpm, lpt, mspsy would like to express our deepest gratitude to the incomprehensible value of every prayer, lending hands, and indelible lessons we have received that enabled us to fulfill this academic undertaking. to god, the father almighty, our abba, the provider of our resources in strength, knowledge, understanding, and grace to carry through each day. the blood has guided and sustained us in every step and every aspect of the way. thank you, abba, for the people you sent that interceded in our favor; to our family; to our friends, may we be more equipped and educated – and find confidence there to manifest our dreams; to our significant loved ones that we shared the burden with. everything we are and everything we will become and achieve; all is by grace and alone for his glory! references al-momani, m. m. 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(2023, september 12). department of criminal justice education um digos college. retrieved from https://www.digos.umindanao.edu. ph/department-of-criminal-justice-education van sluijs, e. m. f., ekelund, u., crochemore-silva, i., guthold, r., ha, a. s., lubans, d. r., ... katzmarzyk, p. t .(2021). physical activity behaviours in adolescence: current evidence and opportunities for intervention. thelanc e t ,398 (10298) ,429–442 . https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(21)01259-9 pa ge 1 pa ge 22 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) life after bars: a narrative-case study of ex-convicts vionizer r. bidola1*, rosalinda de leon1, ella ignacio1, mary jane mori1, samantha nicole valdez1, jover bernabe1 volume 2 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v2i1.2554 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: february 05, 2024 accepted: march 15, 2024 published: march 19, 2024 in the philippines, ex-convicts face severe hurdles during reintegration, including public stigma, restricted work opportunities, insufficient support, and discriminatory behaviors, all of which impede a smooth return to society. this qualitative narrative case study investigates the psychological, social, and economic aspects of ex-convicts’ lives after jail. the life course perspective is used as the study’s theoretical framework, acknowledging the importance of personal, societal, and historical elements in individual development. six successfully reintegrated participants, each with a minimum five-year prison sentence, constituted the basis for in-depth interviews conducted in a quiet and secure atmosphere using snowball sampling. the study sought to explore ex-convicts’ issues, coping methods, life realizations, and viable therapeutic programs. the findings highlight the numerous challenges, such as societal stigma, economic constraints, and disrupted social bonds. coping methods, which include spiritual rehabilitation and emotional acceptance, emerge as critical components of the reintegration process. life realizations become transforming forces, characterized by a dedication to positive change and social contributions, which is frequently motivated by familial support and a desire to protect loved ones. for effective reintegration, the study underlines the importance of public acceptance, tailored interventions, and support networks. it finds that addressing these issues, as well as encouraging familial stability, boosting community involvement, and engaging employers, are critical to reducing recidivism and facilitating long-term rehabilitation. recommendations urge for coordinated efforts from families, communities, and businesses, emphasizing the importance of a complete strategy to assisting ex-convicts on their path to successful society reintegration. keywords mental stability, person deprive of liberty (pdl), reentry programs, second chance jobs, social inclusion, spiritual recovery 1 mary the queen college of quezon city, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: vionizerbidola@gmail.com introduction life after imprisonment can be challenging for many individuals. reintegrating into society after being incarcerated can be difficult and often involves facing multiple barriers such as stigma, lack of employment opportunities, and difficulty finding housing. however, there are resources available to help individuals adjust to life after bars. these may include programs such as job training, substance abuse counseling, and mentoring services. many nonprofit organizations, community groups, and government agencies provide support to help individuals successfully re-enter society and reduce the likelihood of reoffending. it’s essential to recognize that life after bars can be a difficult and complex process and that everyone’s journey will be unique. with the right support and resources, however, individuals who have been incarcerated can go on to lead fulfilling and productive lives. this study aims to understand the life stories of exconvicts as they navigate the challenges of reentry into society after serving time in prison. specifically, it seeks to answer the following questions. 1. what are the difficulties faced in life after the bars of ex-convicts in terms of a. psychological b. social c. economic? 2. what are the coping strategies and support systems of ex-convicts to rely on to overcome the challenges they face during reentry? 3. what are the life realizations of ex-convicts? 4. based on the result, what informative intervention programs aimed to support their successful reentry into society? literature review with over 2 million people incarcerated, the united states has the highest incarceration rate in the world. this equates to about 25% of the total prison inmates worldwide. the incarceration rate in russia is also very high: over 600,000 people are in prisons or detention centers, which is 4% of the total prison population worldwide. conversely, many european countries have significantly lower incarceration rates. in norway, the incarceration rate is only 75 per 100,000 people, compared to over 700, per 100,000 in the united states. globally, men are significantly more likely to be imprisoned than women, and men account for over 95% of the world’s prison population. the most common reasons for incarceration worldwide are drugrelated, property-related, and violent crimes. the use of pre-trial detention varies widely across countries, with some countries relying heavily on pre-trial detention to manage their inmates. about 600,000 people-about 1,600 a day-are being released from state and federal prisons to return to their communities. the transition from prison to the community may seem trivial. these statistics highlight the significant differences in incarceration rates and practices pa ge 23 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 22-32, 2024 across countries and regions. they also underscore the need for sustained efforts to reform criminal justice systems and reduce reliance on incarceration to solve crime and social problems. physical and mental impacts the psychological impact of returning to prison after serving a sentence can be significant, as individuals may experience a range of emotions and challenges as they adjust to life outside of prison. everyone has faced the challenges of transitioning prisons since they transitioned from confinement to freedom on the streets. from different political perspectives, however, the ageold problem of prisoner rehabilitation is gaining more and more importance. increasing numbers of prisoners are being released and returning home after more time behind bars, leaving them less prepared for life outside and less reintegrated. upon return, they may find it difficult to reconnect with work, home, and possibly family, and continue to suffer from drug addiction and health problems. most are re-arrested and sent back to prison for new offenses or probation violations. and this cycle of displacement and return of large numbers of people, especially men, is increasingly concentrated in a small number of communities already facing enormous social and economic problems. american psychologist craig haney states: “prison is downright painful, and inmates often suffer the long-term effects of pain, deprivation, and highly unusual patterns and norms of life and behavior. others.” psychological responses to these states include learned passivity and dependence, over-vigilance accompanied by compulsive interpersonal distrust, psychological detachment, and self-alienation, emotional denial that can lead to emotional flattening, including exploitative attitudes toward others because of the values imbued the prison subculture, decreased self-esteem, and reactions to post-traumatic stress or “traumatization” (aspe, 2001). incarceration can trigger or worsen general health and depressive symptoms for a short time (esposito et al., 2017). while those who come into contact with prisons are more likely to experience health problems, and some people may see improvement in prison after mandatory health care, incarceration often does little to alleviate long-term health problems. the length and agony of imprisonment can encourage the emergence of new problems. those issues could be exacerbated by conditions in some prisons, which the us department of justice says violate the eighth amendment. constitution (u.s. department of justice, civil rights division, 2019). while the health-based leaving model is widely used, focusing on the reintegrated population where the impact of health on adult roles and recidivism becomes acute. the us department of justice investigated a health-based model of desistance with a sample of individuals transitioning from prison to the community. they provide an important complement to research that has examined the effects of incarceration on health by highlighting the reverse process from a lifecourse framework, regardless of whether health problems are the direct result of the stressors of confinement or of some other source. researchers in the literature tend to separate these dimensions of health and examine one or the other individuals in a study. this may make sense given the complexities of mental and physical health and the inherent difficulty of measuring either alone. however, the science of medicine and psychiatry has produced findings that indicate physical health problems trigger depressive symptoms, or perhaps why many ex-offenders are depressed in the first place (novisky & porter, 2016) – worsening existing depression. studies have shown a negative impact of incarceration on infectious diseases and stress-related morbidity. individuals who experienced long incarceration are likely to suffer from long-term health problems (porter & demarco, 2018). long-term incarceration has serious lifelong consequences (wakefield & apel, 2016), including the added penalty of reduced life expectancy—an effect that appears to be particularly strong in the us (wildeman, 2016). health problems related to incarceration do not develop throughout life. according to western (2018), ex-convicts are victims of a lifetime of incarceration. violence: both while incarcerated and after being released; racial inequality, unemployment, difficulty re-entering the social cycle, mental illness, and chronic pain are all issues. studies have assessed trauma experienced by prisoners or exprisoners throughout life stages with more emphasis on childhood trauma (bowen et al., 2018). according to experts, the long-term effects of incarceration can result in post-traumatic stress disorder (ptsd), “waking nightmares,” and long-term trauma. among different forms of trauma, interpersonal trauma including physical abuse, sexual abuse, and emotional abuse was consistently associated with higher odds of both axis i (anxiety, depression, ptsd, adhd, psychosis, etc) and axis ii (personality disorders) mental disorders among prisoners and ex-prisoners. studies have also found a positive link between post-imprisonment trauma and higher odds of mental disorders after release from incarceration to the community (sommer et al., 2017). painful incarceration experiences are difficult to forget and can have longterm mental health consequences. solitary confinement, abuse, deprivation, harsh living conditions, and elevated levels of stress and anxiety can all befall prisoners. as a result, prisoners are likely to experience significant mental health issues after their release, which can persist after release and impact their ability to reintegrate into society. (alarabiya news,). marie byrne is a professional counselor, runs the jumeirah wellness clinic, and volunteers with the emirates foundation, which provides free mental health support. there are social consequences such as severe physical inactivity and severe depression. even in everyday life, there are reactions that others do not consider normal. ex-convicts may react violently to a situation in which they perceive no threat. or they cannot pa ge 24 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 22-32, 2024 handle confrontations or problems that make them feel insecure and extremely withdrawn. according to byrne, the most difficult effects are often not the “live” hangover, but the unconscious effects of the night. the current problem is having nightmares and unknowingly reliving some of your experiences in your sleep and waking up in horror and fear without finding a way to fix the problem. a grown man after his release from prison feels like a child, insecure and unable to form informed judgments and decision-making strategies for rebuilding his life after prison. many prisoners cannot process the loss and are filled with anger, sadness, or regret at missed opportunities. it’s an emotional whirl, a kind of psychological prison. expectations for a return to normal life should be very realistic and gradual. the shock and pain can leave the nervous system in a constant fight-orflight state. trauma is also known to impair a person’s ability to regulate their emotions, endure “normal hardships,” and feel safe and confident. victims’ remedies are deemed more effective, especially in cases involving negligence or third-party liability, as they promote safety measures and potentially reduce criminal activities. in complex cases like sexual offenses, they offer an alternative to criminal prosecution, aiding compensation and societal control (abubakar, 2023). this review emphasizes the significance of considering victims’ perspectives and the potential role of victims’ remedies in the rehabilitation of ex-convicts. it aims to shed light on post-prison support systems and contribute to comprehensive understandings of life after incarceration. the government must consider the physical limitations of ex-offenders and how the stressed community might put additional strain on their mental health after being released. it is important to emphasize that the manifestations of physical and mental health after imprisonment can lead to difficulties in family relationships, employment, and income, failure to reintegrate can have serious consequences for recidivism and lead to re-incarceration. economic stability and role of employment fulfilling the adult role is important for criminologists because it can trigger desistance processes toward an ex-convict. conviction brings both collateral and direct effect. every year, over 600,000 people make the difficult transition from prison to the community, and while there are numerous challenges, the barriers to finding work are particularly severe (carson, 2018). employment assists formerly incarcerated people in gaining economic stability after release and reduces their likelihood of returning to prison, promoting greater public safety to the benefit of all. despite the overwhelming benefits of employment, people who have been incarcerated are largely excluded from the labor market (couloute & kopf, 2018). statistics reveal that ex-convicts have a slimmer chance of being employed after their release. it is very likely that some of these critical dynamics are affected by health issues. for some ex-prisoners, employment is a crucial turning point. ex-convicts find it difficult to successfully reintegrate into mainstream society because of the stigma attached to their individuality. those who are limited by health conditions find it more difficult to find and potentially maintain employment because of the stigma associated with mental status after incarceration or physical lacking (western, 2018). in addition, physical ailments can impair work performance, which is particularly important for ex-prisoners as they are often confined to physically demanding industries such as construction, warehouse, and factory work (western et al., 2015). wiafe (2021) discovered that the majority of small and medium enterprises (smes) were unwilling to hire ex-convicts. ex-offender workers who suffer from depressive symptoms have higher rates of absenteeism and poorer job performance, which can increase the risk of being fired. some ex-offenders attempted to find work in order to supplement their income but were unsuccessful. those who were employed were fired once their past was revealed to their employers. employers, if not all, are reluctant to hire ex-convicts because of their criminal past. it is unfair that ex-prisoners are denied a decent living after their release from prison because of the stigmatization of their criminal past. such ex-convicts suffered an identity crisis for not being able to engage in legitimate employment to take care of their needs (brunton-smith & mccarthy, 2016). most ex-convicts experience depression because of being unemployed. erstad (2018) states that employment is a high factor associated with recidivism as employers will most likely not hire those with any sort of background on their record. former prisoners require meaningful, dignified jobs that will sustain them and secure their financial wellbeing. according to a 2017 study from the university of michigan law school, employers in new york and new jersey were 60% more likely to call back applicants who did not have records, even if the records detailed only minor crimes, such as a single nonviolent felony two years prior (cox, 2019). according to cox, even if previously incarcerated people find a place of employment, they are vulnerable to abuse. employers understand how difficult it is for people with a criminal record to find work. this can result in an unbalanced power dynamic in which the employer may feel empowered to exploit them at work or engage in illegal practices such as wage theft. the estimated unemployment rate of formerly incarcerated people who want to work but face structural barriers to finding work, particularly in the period immediately following release. for those who are black or hispanic, particularly women, being “formerly incarcerated” reduces their employment opportunities even further. this continuous labor markets punishment creates a counterproductive system of release and poverty that harms everyone involved: employers, taxpayers, and, most importantly, formerly incarcerated people seeking to break the cycle (couloute & kopf, 2018). based on an experiment conducted in the swedish pa ge 25 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 22-32, 2024 labor market. ex-offenders faced the most discrimination in high-skilled, female-dominated occupations. they contended that ex-offenders are more likely to come into contact with male-dominated populations and lowskilled groups because offenders tend to be male with less education. as a result, they expected employers in maledominated, low-skilled occupations to be more accepting and tolerant of ex-offenders. ex-offenders were not discriminated against in any of the low-skilled maledominated occupations included in our study, according to the findings of the field trial. ex-offenders would face less discrimination in large cities than in small towns. large cities typically have higher crime rates, which means that the burden of ex-offenders is higher. these elements, when combined, would lead to a greater acceptance of exoffenders in large cities. the outcome may not be entirely surprising, given that, while crime rates in large cities are higher than in small towns, areas within large cities are more likely to have job availability than others. they have high crime rates, making comparisons between large and small towns irrelevant. eventually, the findings show that female ex-offenders are treated in the recruitment process in the same way that male ex-offenders are. the study demonstrates that ex-offenders face significant barriers in the labor market and in society, even when the traces of crime are less severe (lng & ahmed, 2017). in the face of stigma, yin (2018) discovered that exconvicts lacked marketable skills that would allow them to find work. aside from a lack of available structures to promote skill acquisition, some ex-convicts had lost marketable skills due to incarceration because the prison did not provide them with the opportunity to sharpen or learn new skills. this was the foundation of ex-convicts’ difficulties reintegrating into society after their release. the majority of ex-convicts were not ready to work since prison did not prepare them for the mainstream job market. according to yin, almost no rehabilitation practice exists in almost all penal institutions, making it difficult for inmates to reintegrate into mainstream society (baffour, 2021). the consequences of a lack of rehabilitation structures in most ghanaian prisons are reflected in family acceptance, economic status, and the fco’s acceptance of former inmates. the majority of inmates did not participate in vocational training programs due to a lack of interest and training opportunities. certain statistics also reveal the vast majority of ex-convicts’ economic circumstances. this issue is complicated by the fact that these ex-convicts have been incarcerated for many years. they did nothing in prison to improve their chances of success after they were released. according to yin (2018), in prison, “they eat, walk, and sleep.” they fail to pay their bills. what can one expect from them once they are released? they have internalized a culture of incarceration with no opportunity for skill development. they have developed a shared institutionalized laziness personality. in general, the data indicated that life was difficult for some ex-convicts to the extent that prison was thought to be a better option than living as a free citizen. social status and family conflict societies are so reluctant to commit a crime that they are willing to distance themselves from the deemed criminal in order to feel safe. a single error, on the other hand, is enough to permanently stigmatize a criminal offender. it is hostility that goes beyond wanting to be safe and, at the same time, causes ex-offenders to recidivate. exoffenders are considered for life sentences because they are subjected to neglect and restrictions because most perspicacity stigmatizes individuals who were sent to prison for constant deviance. ex-offenders experienced being an outcast in their community. people let them feel that they are not accepted in society. there are some who are not treating them well, and they also experience negative attitudes from the people around them (rade et al., 2016). because of their criminal history, they may face stigma and discrimination, which may lead to feelings of loneliness, guilt, and low self-esteem. there is open shaming and discrimination that severely limits the exconvicts’ chances of receiving their rights to a good and meaningful life. criminals frequently mentioned stigma as a problem, and it was established as a significant barrier to reintegration. furthermore, respondents who witnessed criminals as unwilling to improve, as well as those who felt more morally outraged by the crimes they had committed, preferred social distance more. criminals are labeled as lifetime criminals because it is an unavoidable stigma for convicted individuals (tan et al., 2016). they can internalize and absorb those stigmas, which have been found to be riskier for mental health and development to antisocial behavior and environmental avoidance (moore et al., 2016). ex-offenders are people who are vulnerable to a variety of factors. their conviction was even more threatening because it reinforced the feeling of being forced to resort to violence and other incarceration difficulties such as abuse, which can later affect their ethical decision-making. the abhorrent conviction of young people, particularly those whose lives after prison cannot be reintegrated into society, will handicap them for unemployment, which forces them to survive in other ways. aside from the problems that lead to re-offending, social reintegration is difficult because they are perceived as traumatized individuals who will resort to violence at any time (maruna, 2020). the stigmatized ex-convict is hesitant to engage with those who share less of their stigma. ex-offenders preferred to be associated with criminal friends in order to gain acceptance, recognition, and other material benefits from their in-group. family members play an important role in the re-entry of those ex-prisoners. they are the ones who provide support such as shelter, food, clothing, and guidance from avoiding criminal behaviors. families affect position outcomes that can help them make a successful transition from prison to the community (michigan department of corrections, 2018). few ex-convicts were fortunate to have families with the resources to reintegrate them into the family and community, their institutionalized personality of indolence has become an impediment. the pa ge 26 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 22-32, 2024 family is willing to help ex-convicts reclaim their “spoiled” identities through job training; ex-convicts, on the other hand, lack the inner drive and motivation to complete the apprenticeship. improved family relations and acceptance of ex-convicts helped to reduce reoffending rate (brunton-smith & mccarthy, 2016). however, very few ex-convicts were accepted by their families. even so, they became a burden to their respective families. their livelihoods became dependent on family members whose meager income could hardly sustain the household. in addition, the return of an ex-convict meant that family members assumed new roles of taking care of them. introspectively, the ex-convicts were very conscious of the burden they had placed on their various families, but they had resigned to their fate. indeed, there may be several parallels between conflicts among family members of formerly incarcerated people with mental illnesses and conflicts among recently released psychiatric patients. goffman’s concept of courtesy stigma—the negative result of associating with a stigmatized person—is especially relevant here because family members of former prisoners with mental illnesses may be stigmatized twice because of their family member’s mental illness and status as a former prisoner (van der sanden et al., 2016). this is a global issue in which ex-offenders are being denied the opportunity to address the heavy burdens of challenges they are carrying because rehabilitation has been redefined by stigmatization to punishment. instead of comprehensive rehabilitation of those who are given a new chance, confinement is used. the issue of abuse, worst violations, superiority, and inferiority became prominent (muthee, 2020). murray bowen’s family systems theory suggests that family members are emotionally connected, but sometimes they struggle to accept ex-offenders due to their lack of understanding, trust, care, and love. ex-offenders should be accepted in the family, community, and society, and each family member has a responsibility to help them understand their life experiences and make positive changes. family members should not treat ex-offenders as insignificant individuals, but should assist them in starting a new life. poverty, economic marginalization, religious extremism, and prison overcrowding emerged as major drivers of radicalization among youth in isiolo county. despite government efforts at the national and county levels to combat this issue, challenges persist within the prison aspect of the criminal justice system. these challenges hinder the effectiveness of measures aimed at preventing youth radicalization in isiolo county (james & pontian, 2022). most ex-convicts in the philippines still face prejudice based on their status orientation, although the country understands the need to accommodate ex-convicts. to prevent abuse or maltreatment, the commission on human rights proposed continuing its philippine human rights plan for the prisoners/inmates sector (preda foundation, 2016). according to the bureau of jail management and penology (2017), the philippines is one of the countries with the most inmates in the world. in fact, the philippines ranks 12th overall. as a result of this data, the commission on human rights and the bureau of pardons and parole work together to follow up on the records of those inmates ready for signatures and approval from the president’s office. according to the bureau of jail management and penology, only 804 of the 1,927 detainees with medical conditions are considered non-recidivists, or those who will not relapse into previous criminal habits. according to the data, there are 3,384 individuals deprived of liberty (pdls) who are 60 years old or older and charged with minor offenses. (cabrera & nonato, 2020). president marcos has directed the department of justice (doj) to continue releasing inmates who are eligible for parole in order to decongest the country’s jails. president marcos issued the decision during a cabinet meeting at malacañang on january 10, 2023. throughout july and december 2022, the agency freed nearly 3,000 inmates. (flores, 2023). citing his experience as governor of ilocos norte, marcos stated that most offenders linger in jail because they cannot afford the services of decent lawyers. by digitizing the probation and parole administration’s systems, the doj accelerated the processing of qualified convicts’ release. the barriers faced by ex-offenders ex-offenders in the philippines face multiple obstacles in their journey to reintegrate into society. these challenges encompass psychological, physical, employment-related, and social aspects. comprehensive support systems and initiatives are necessary to address these barriers and promote successful reintegration, thereby improving the overall well-being of ex-offenders and reducing the likelihood of re-offending. correctional facilities cannot even hold a huge population, so incarceration and recidivism rates rise. despite some failures of the judiciary to protect the innocent from conviction, criminal suspects struggle to survive. in addition, the local problem includes stigmatization, which significantly affects the perception of the life of ex-offenders. since they have little contact with their immediate family during their incarceration, this potential becomes an open wound in the relationship that causes many problems. so, getting out of prison is also a reminder to them that their families are already broken, that no home is ready to take them, and that their job skills don’t matter at all. jones and narag (2019) stated that the philippines has recently overtaken the haitian prison, which operates at a capacity of 80–100 inmates per cell. society may be concerned with eliminating deviant and delinquent behaviors, but it also needs to be aware of how these individuals begin their lives while influenced by factors associated with crime. ex-offenders face life sentences for exposure to negligence and restraint, as most ideas stigmatize people who are sent to prison for constant distraction. this underscores the fact that social distancing and restraint pa ge 27 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 22-32, 2024 are likely to be punishments even after your conviction. it is certainly difficult to counteract all of these factors. the ex-offenders face challenges as they resume life after being released from prison. ex-offenders’ difficulties and struggles are two distinct determinants identified in the study as driving forces behind uncontrollable challenges they perceive as typical difficulties and struggles. another fact they consider a difficulty they cannot escape the loss of their wife and the stigmatization of a former prisoner because criticism and humiliation on the part of people are inevitable, regardless of whether they choose to ignore them or listen. starting over is difficult for a variety of reasons, including being penniless, and lacking capital. difficulties in both categories affect individuals, families, and society. most challenges demonstrate everyone’s ability to amplify or mitigate problems. these difficulties are relevant to the strategies of ex-offenders motivated by the desire to survive life outside of prison. the absorption of the stigma, on the other hand, is a series of criticisms and humiliations that the ex-offenders accepted as their reality from the start (palgan & apolinario, 2022). imprisonment in society is a painful experience. however, the agonies of imprisonment are not limited to the loss of physical liberty. significant hurts stem from frustrations or deprivations that led to the withdrawal of freedom, such as a lack of heterosexual relationships, isolation from the free community, withholding of goods and services, and so on. so, no matter how painful these frustrations or deprivations are in terms of thwarted goals, discomfort, boredom, and loneliness, they carry more pain like a set of threats against the prisoner’s foundations. the individual’s image of himself as a valuable person begins to waver and dim. prisoners also lost society’s trust, status, citizenship, and material possessions, all of which were important components of their self-perception. no research has addressed how ex-offenders cope with the challenges of life outside of pubs within the limits of the law and how stigmatization occurs against them. rotating the camera means seeing the positive while focusing on a complex issue. ditto for the “no panacea” to figure out what kind of influence the person is supposed to have on crime, is the lack of research and interest in how ex-offenders overcome challenges. it was only found that crime in manila in the philippines is associated with some demographic covariates such as population density, percentage, young males, education, marriage, and immigration (mojica et al., 2017). when the ex-convict’s family was separated from the exoffender, they faced a variety of difficulties. because of their loved one’s situation, the majority of them felt pain and loneliness. they also had difficulty socializing with others and with their family. some people can socialize well because their community was open about the issue and accepted by society. not all families and the people around them accept ex-offenders in the same way. some people have difficulty trusting others and simply forget what happened (janer, et al., 2019). coping accessories towards successful reintegration society has imperceptibly enforced the act, stigmatizing them as lifelong criminals. it signals urgency by emphasizing that ex-offenders are no different from the rest of the population, who make decisions based on their needs. therefore, there are ex-offenders who move on with their lives, regaining their self-esteem, developing a healthy personality, and interacting with family, friends, and others. against the background of the intertwining of emotional, discursive, and material forms of work, successful reintegration becomes more difficult. for those hosting low-income families along with the community and who lack institutional support. family unit is a dynamic social support system that is willing to accept inmates’ reintegration into society. life at home is not automatic. as a support network, members used a variety of personal, symbolic, and financial resources to repair relationships and establish new roles, challenge stigmatizing social norms, and restore daily routines and practices. through the family accounts, we will continue to advocate for formerly incarcerated parents. conversations between families on the brink of transformation with community workers and legislators. (bertulfo et al., 2016). filipinos are stereotyped as family-oriented people. they believe in strong family values, which allows them to have close relationships with their children. being in each other’s company gives them the strength to carry on with their lives, through thick and thin, failures and disappointments (marie, 2018). additionally, research (de guzman et al., 2020) postulated the positive effects of a negative prison climate, particularly for older filipino prisoners. in addition, prison experiences could help or hurt you. to cope with the prison environment, participants chose to become subjective, accept the consequences of their actions, remain employed, and continue to engage in religious activities (flores-barolo & vicente, 2019). pansag et al., (2016) suggested that a former convict watcher’s coping strategy gives him the opportunity to live longer. based on studies, results revealed the significance of the immediate family’s bond that diverts offenders’ attention from other people to their immediate people. as motivated and enforced by them, ex-offenders give importance to the meaning of living life anew as a contribution to their family and as a way to prevent children and families from any form of risk impact. this explains the motivation of the mission of a crime as being influenced by friends. it also explains that with several challenges, ex-offenders’ approaches are induced by the need to change their behavior (palgan & apolinario, 2022). to address these challenges and promote successful reintegration, the literature emphasizes the need for comprehensive support systems. this includes government initiatives, such as rehabilitation programs and livelihood initiatives provided by the bureau of jail management and penology (bjmp). additionally, pa ge 28 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 22-32, 2024 reducing social stigma, providing access to healthcare, employment opportunities, and strengthening family support are crucial factors in facilitating the reintegration process and reducing recidivism rates. materials and methods the qualitative narrative-case study approach was utilized in this study, which includes an in-depth assessment and analysis of a single case or circumstance, with the goal of capturing the unique experiences, viewpoints, and insights of ex-convicts. this method was widely used in qualitative research because it produced rich, detailed, and contextualized data that helped researchers get a better understanding of complicated occurrences. it also aided researchers in understanding the case’s social, cultural, and historical circumstances, as well as revealing the subjective experiences and perspectives of the exconvicts involved, notably in subjects such as psychology, sociology, and anthropology. researchers used snowball sampling to choose participants for this study, which focuses on the experiences of ex-convicts who have reformed and reintegrated into society after a history of incarceration. individuals who have agreed to share their stories and insights into their post-release life, including challenges and successes, were selected. due to the sensitive nature of the research issue, six (6) participants are required to suffice this study. participants for this study are as follows: a.) filipino, b.) either male or female, and c.) have served at least (5) five years in prison. the study aims to avoid stigma by excluding age and reason for incarceration as selection criteria, allowing participants of all ages to share their experiences. this exclusion criteria acknowledges the valuable insights of people with diverse criminal backgrounds into the reintegration process. these requirements would make it possible to investigate in depth the successful reintegration experiences of filipinos who had previously served time in prison, giving important insights into their post-incarceration lives and the factors that led to their reformation. to achieve the purpose of this narrative case study, the questionnaires were crafted in alignment with the study’s objectives and the literature reviewed. the interview guide was unstructured, validated by professionals, and enriched with potential followup questions to gather more in-depth information when required. in addition, the interview questions were translated into tagalog to enhance participants’ understanding and enable them to respond more effectively and freely, expressing their thoughts and experiences in a way that best conveyed their intentions. the data collection was reflective to allow participants to express their experiences reflectively. an in-depth interview guide was used to learn about the participants’ experiences. the researchers interviewed each participant face to face, and all conversations were recorded. the research participants were interviewed in a quiet, disturbance-free environment where they felt safe. the researchers transcribed the participants’ recorded interviews. the data collected were analyzed using thematic analysis. to answer the research objectives, common themes were grouped and analyzed. after developing themes, the researchers conducted a member check with the participants to ensure the legitimacy or validity of the interpretation of all collected data. participants can assess the sufficiency of the data and preliminary results and confirm specific parts of the data using member checking. the researcher supervised the process, asked questions, actively listened, documented responses, adapted to the circumstance, maintained ethical standards, assured objectivity, created rapport, explained uncertainties, and assessed the data obtained. researcher also displayed adaptability, responded to the dynamics of the interview, and developed favorable interactions with participants. following the transcription of the interview, the researchers were responsible for pulling major findings and insights from the interview, assuring the research’s reliability and validity. the researcher owed it to the participants who were expected to provide this knowledge to consider their rights strictly. the researcher thought it was critical to build trust between the participants and herself and respect them as autonomous beings, allowing them to make sound decisions. consent, confidentiality and anonymity, privacy, dissemination of results, and the right to withdraw from the study are all ethical measures in this study. result and discussion upon analyzing the transcriptions of the interviews with the participants, the results of the gathered data were then coded and themed from the six participants who were interviewed. six participants underwent in-depth face-to-face interviews, all of whom were ex-convicts. the findings revealed that most individuals had multiple incarcerations and have multiple reasons for being incarcerated, with drug-related offenses being the primary cause of their legal troubles. four participants linked their drug-related activities to family abandonment. prior incarceration with drug-related led them to reoffending, driven by financial difficulties, physical dependency, and isolation. the purpose of this research is to learn about the lives of ex-convicts as they reintegrate society after serving time in prison. difficulties faced in life after the bars of ex-convicts prisoners and ex-convicts frequently face a variety of challenges and difficulties, both while incarcerated and after their release. these difficulties can have a serious impact on their ability to reintegrate into society and lead productive lives. adjusting to prison life adjusting to prison life can be extremely difficult for newly incarcerated individuals, particularly those incarcerated pa ge 29 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 22-32, 2024 in their younger years. the prison environment is vastly different from the outside world, and inmates frequently face a variety of challenges as they adjust. the most common difficulty that newly incarcerated people face is being separated from their loved ones. these people experience feelings of isolation, loneliness, disconnection from the outside world, and hopelessness. they feel abandoned, depressed, alone, and have a sense of being “one of them,” and they develop a shared prison culture in order to survive alone inside the prison cell. inmates feel powerless because they lack basic necessities like food and financial resources, and they have little control over their daily routines and meals. overcrowding and unsanitary conditions in prison exacerbate the sense of powerlessness. this powerlessness leads them to feelings of hopelessness, helplessness, and a lack of purpose in life. the threat of violence and physical assault exacerbates inmates’ powerlessness, leaving them vulnerable to harm and unable to defend themselves. prisons’ harsh and violent environment, including dungeons and physical beatings, contributes to the prison culture in which violence is used to assert power and control. this culture frequently involves violence, physical confrontations, and a mindset in which inmates may feel the need to engage in conflicts to protect themselves, assert their identity, and secure resources. re-integration: freed but still chained several factors contribute to the difficulty of starting over, individuals who have been released from incarceration still face significant challenges and constraints in reintegrating into society. despite their physical freedom, they may continue to experience barriers that hinder their full participation in social, economic, and personal spheres. proclivity to recidivism relapse into substance abuse, insufficient rehabilitation and reintegration, and emotional and relationship challenges, such as marriage and family breakdown, are all significant factors in ex-convict criminal behavior and recidivism. when it comes to their situation, social judgment plays a crucial part in them returning to their old and wrongdoings. stigmatization causes them to be rejected for their desired job, and being bullied by their coworkers causes them to be financially unstable and unable to support themselves and their families’ basic needs. the allure of wealth and the ease of making money through criminal activities can motivate ex-convicts to return to their old ways, which can be difficult. employability and workforce participation ex-offenders face significant barriers to employment and workforce participation. they have trouble finding work because of the stigma associated with their criminal record, as well as workplace bullying. a sense of purposelessness can lead to a relapse into criminal activities such as hiring guns and drug pushing. if ex-convicts cannot find legal work or face significant obstacles, the cycle of incarceration may continue. finding employers who allow ex-convicts to reintegrate into the workforce is a relief because it gives them a chance to survive in this judgmental society. housing and safety individuals transitioning from incarceration require assistance in rebuilding their sense of self-worth and spiritual well-being in order to successfully reenter society. one of the challenges they faced was finding stable housing and ensuring personal safety. being held in prison for a long time and being released may be a new experience for them, but it’s more like they were like a baby learning to walk or a bird learning to fly. having someone they can rely on can help them stay physically and mentally safe from their own negative thoughts. stigmatization judgment and prejudice are another significant barrier to successful reintegration, particularly in communities where the perception of ex-convicts is negative. stigmatization is a common problem for people with criminal records. it’s disheartening to see that the stigma surrounding ex-convicts isn’t just limited to society at large; even some of their former peers behind bars may doubt their capacity for change, brushing off their efforts at transformation as insignificant. this stigma result in social avoidance and labeling, making it difficult for them to integrate into society and form positive relationships. feels looked down on and shunned, which can harm their self-esteem and impede their reintegration. acceptance and relying on support systems coping mechanisms and strategies are essential tools that people use to navigate and overcome the numerous challenges they face in life, including those encountered in prison or during the period of reintegration after incarceration. a strong sense of self-acceptance and openness helps individuals let go of stigma and embrace their circumstances. government intervention programs, such as non-formal education, high school diplomas, and theology, have positive outcomes. drug-related rehabilitation programs teach essential life skills and reject negative influences. religious and pastoral education can be incorporated into rehabilitation programs to help inmates develop new skills and perspectives. ex-convicts find solace and transformation through their faith and spiritual beliefs, which they view as a source of redemption and hope. healthy family relationships are essential for ex-convicts in their successful reintegrating into society, providing financial stability, emotional support, and open communication. positive reinforcement from family members motivates ex-convicts to make positive changes and stay on the path of rehabilitation. overall, a supportive and supportive environment can help ex-convicts overcome their challenges and achieve their full potential. pa ge 30 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 22-32, 2024 life realizations metaphorical reflections on personal growth emphasize the journey from struggle and insignificance to a renewed and admirable existence. the most important lessons learned from these adversities include not passing judgment, gaining wisdom from life’s challenges, discovering purpose and meaning through faith, and acknowledging the presence of a higher power. the transformation from being a burden and troublemaker to a valued partner positively contributes to the community. conclusion the difficulties faced by ex-convicts both during incarceration and upon reintegration into society are multifaceted and deeply challenging. while adjusting to prison life presents its own set of obstacles, the process of reintegration often proves to be equally daunting. ex-convicts encounter barriers that can perpetuate cycles of incarceration and hinder individuals from fully participating in society. however, amidst these difficulties, there are glimmers of hope and opportunities for positive change. coping mechanisms, including self-acceptance and reliance on support systems, prove to be essential in navigating the complexities of post-incarceration life. government intervention programs, rehabilitation initiatives, and religious or spiritual beliefs offer avenues for personal growth and transformation. moreover, the importance of healthy family relationships cannot be overstated in the successful reintegration of ex-convicts. families provide vital emotional support, financial stability, and motivation for positive change. through open communication and reconciliation, ex-convicts can rebuild relationships and find strength in familial bonds. the journey from incarceration to reintegration is not without its challenges, but it also presents opportunities for growth, redemption, and meaningful contributions to society. by addressing systemic barriers, fostering supportive environments, and promoting acceptance and understanding, we can empower ex-convicts to overcome obstacles and realize their full potential as valued members of our communities. references abubakar, a. a. 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(2018, november). religion as an organizing principle in ankaful maximum security prison, ghana. university of cape coast institutional repository. https://ir.ucc.edu.gh/xmlui/ handle/123456789/3918 pa ge 1 pa ge 39 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) exploring science learning anxiety in the new normal: an exploratory factor analysis niño jay d. degorio1, patricia anne nicole e. diaz1, clauden v. ando1, tomas jr a. diquito1*, conrado jr panerio1 volume 1 issue 1, year 2023 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v1i1.2128 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: september 25, 2023 accepted: october 22, 2023 published: october 30, 2023 this study utilizes descriptive and exploratory research design to determine the factor structure of science learning anxiety in the new normal. qualitative data collection was carried out first by interviewing twenty (20) participants from different strands of the senior high school department of um digos college. the identified items were transformed into a questionnaire for the quantitative phase and implemented to the two-hundred thirty-five (235) senior high school students. statistically, four factors of science learning anxiety in the new normal were explored, these are; attitude, learner’s interaction towards assessment and activities, learning environment, and disappointment. from this result, conducting a confirmatory analysis is recommended to confirm the dimensionality of science learning anxiety in the new normal and to review the explored factors in different contexts. keywords science learning anxiety, science in the new normal, learning anxiety, science education 1 university of mindanao digos college * corresponding author’s e-mail: tomasdiquito23@gmail.com introduction science is among the most important subjects for students’ cognitive growth and creativity. however, some students consider it a complex discipline to learn. correspondingly, learners have misconceived perceptions toward science, which negatively impacts their academic performance, and their academic success suffers. mallow (1983) termed anxiety in science as an aversion to scientific ideas, situations involving science, and experts in the field of science. it can also be described as a tension impeded by the use of apparatus in academic and scientific disciplines—people who have long-term science anxiety likely to have negative views toward science. moreover, students’ enthusiasm for scientific lessons, punctuality, and career choices are all highly impacted by science learning anxiety (karakaya, avgin & kumperli, 2016, as cited by baysen & baysen, 2022). the study of fia, fosu-ayarkwah, & obuobi-ayim, (2022) showed that the students experienced some level of anxiety about science in relation to homework, entering a science classroom, solving science problems, and even having a bad attitude towards the science teacher. according to the study, the lack of infrastructure as well as inadequate teaching and learning material are some of the factors that cause science anxiety. the study found that students with science anxiety had lower academic results, less interest in science in general, were less likely to pursue science programs in the future and even missed school. with this in mind, this study aims to look into the factors contributing to scientific learning anxiety in the modern environment so that administrators and teachers can create interventions, if necessary, to enhance science education. the current situation affected by the pandemic brought by covid-19 virus has required schools in other countries to suspend classes to stop the virus from spreading, posing a significant challenge to the regular schooling of over a million students worldwide. to address the new challenge of the crisis, united nations educational, scientific, and cultural organization (2020) stated that the new regular education strategy was that institutions were forced to move toward asynchronous training and away from traditional face-to-face learning. it is worth noting that long-term isolation has caused numerous difficulties for students participating in online education (bao, sun, meng, shi, & lu, 2020). moreover, the world health organization (2020) has also voiced concern over the pandemic’s psychosocial and mental health effects. anxiety plays a role in new strategies during pandemic such as self-isolation and quarantine. studies on covid-19 effects and lockdowns on chinese college students found a significant adverse impact on students’ psychological well-being and high anxiety levels (bao et al., 2020). junior high school students reportedly had low well-being and trouble at school due to their concern throughout the crisis. in addition, covid-19 endangers students’ health and causes anxiety and depression, which can impair learning engagement in isolated students (liang, ren, cao, hu, qin, & mei, 2020). another of the most significant affective components that affect how well students perform is anxiety. additionally, it is crucial to assist pupils in succeeding more and having a pleasant attitude towards science classes. hassan (2008), as cited by ucak & say (2019) claims that students who experience little science anxiety are more motivated to succeed in school and seek careers in science. also, students who have low levels of science anxiety and stress perform better and have more positive attitudes toward science. additionally, lack of role models, poor experiences, exam anxiety, the social environment, the teacher’s attitude, inappropriate activities for the pa ge 40 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 39-49, 2023 learner’s level, the wrong interpretation of the lesson, and other factors can all contribute to science anxiety (ucak & say, 2019). meanwhile, the study of demetillo, melitant, & nabua (2023) found that students reported high levels covid-19 perceived anxiety. the emotional domain of stress was the most common. the common stress indicators included feelings of anxiety, irritation, forgetfulness, unorganization, sweaty hand, and sleeping difficulties were also experienced by almost all students throughout the academic year during the outbreak of covid-19 pandemic. also, the online environment can also lead to a greater level of online science anxiety. this is due to the fact that online learners may feel inadequate, have a fear that they will fail, think negatively, lack concentration, be low on self-efficacy and perform poorly. some students may worry about the negative consequences of failing or lack of computer-related skills. others might prefer to avoid technology and think social interaction with others and communication with their instructors is important (phanphech, tanitteerapan, mungkung, arunrungrusmi, chunkul, songruk, & kinoshita, 2022). in the philippines, approximately 28 million students across all levels are required to stay at home and comply with the country’s health and quarantine protocols due to the spread of a contagious virus that poses a threat to their health and well-being. the shift from traditional to online-blended learning modes of instruction has had a significant impact on students’ learning due to the widespread problem of inadequate access to the internet (unesco, 2020). limited exposure to technology, along with the uncertainty surrounding the impact of the pandemic on their education and the safety of themselves and their families, has led to increased levels of anxiety and stress among students (cao, fang, hou, han, xu, dong & zheng, 2020). a local study conducted by diez, ebro, dequito, & diquito (2021) found that students from um digos college have encountered difficulties in adapting to the new normal setting, mainly due to slow internet connections and technical problems with the learning management system, which have contributed to negative experiences in the new learning environment. this finding supports the idea that the appearance and spread of covid-19 have caused considerable concern among people, leading to heightened levels of anxiety (roy, tripathy, kar, sharma, verma, & kaushal, 2020). in this digital, fast-changing age, science education plays an important role in the economic and social growth. this knowledge breakthrough aims to develop a new paradigm of scientific skills, which can be used as a bridge for countries to achieve their promising global economic growth. (morales (2017). science education inspires people from all over the world to fight for quality and excellence in science education. it is important to improve science education in order to meet the global standards of competence. globally, it is clear that there are challenges in providing a quality science education. this is evident by the drastic drop in interest among students in science careers. norway, denmark germany, and the netherlands experienced a gradual decline in interest of 40%, 20 %, 20 %, and 6 % respectively. mnanka (2017) found that only 25-26% students in developing nations pursued physics or chemistry. this is also reflected by the fact that the number of graduates who studied physical sciences has decreased by half (global science forum report, 2009). the philippines has experienced this global phenomenon on a dramatic scale. in 2015, the commission on higher education, (ched) reported a small number of students who are enrolled in secondary schools specializing on science. of these, two were specialized on biological science and two on physical science. this phenomenon of a small number of students in science education has implications for the department of education (fuente, 2019). the goal of science is to teach students scientific literacy. but the country faces serious challenges in ensuring quality in science education. the philippines’ students are lagging far behind other countries in the trends international mathematical and science study (timss) of 2009 and in the latest result in programme for international student assessment in science. this was the first year that the country participated in pisa. the philippines also ranked 67th among 140 and138 countries in terms of global competition in quality science in 2016 and 2017 during the world economic forum. following the covid-19 outbreak, there may be an increase in students who have a low level of performance due to mass dropouts, a reduction of average learning levels across the board, a widening in the distribution of student learning abilities due to the unequal effects on different populations of the crisis, or even a significant decrease in learning levels. it is estimated that as a direct result of the closure of schools, 25% more students will fall below a basic level of proficiency required to effectively and productively participate in society. increasing students’ interest in science education is not just a challenge for scientific organizations and professional scientists but it is also a challenge for the various higher education institutions (heis) that provide secondary education with emphasis on science concept, not just in the philippines but all over the world. the phenomenon of declining trends in students’ interest in science and the shortage of studies on the perception of students’ mental health in the field of science education, particularly on what causes student anxiety during the pandemic have prompted researchers to look into a variety of factors that may contribute to anxiety related to science learning. research objective the main objective of this study is to examine the type of anxiety experienced by students who are taking online scientific courses in the new educational system. however, the overall aim of this research is to tackle the following query: 1. to establish the structure of factors that contribute to anxiety related to science learning in the new normal. pa ge 41 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 39-49, 2023 literature review science education in the pandemic the covid-19 pandemic is a public health emergency that affects all countries worldwide (united nations office for the coordination of humanitarian affairs, 2020). the global epidemic of covid-19 has an impact on education around the world. the world health organization said that unless a vaccination is discovered, no life will return to normal. in consequence of the epidemic, various governments around the world ordered kindergartens, schools, and colleges to close affecting 2.37 million students. as a result, the advancement of instruction has been altered (xinhua net, 2020). different educational institutions are required to undertake distant learning as an alternative to direct teaching in order to continue the educational process through video conferencing software and modules (international labor organization, 2020). due to the immediate implication of science and technology on today’s world and the future, there has been an increased importance on industrial, scientific, and technical breakthroughs in modern nations. it has been observed that scientific procedures influence all human interactions that serve an important part in all countries’ national growth, economic development, and scientific advancement. as a result, science education has been seen as critical for knowledge economy and intellectual development, particularly in developing cultures. schools have encouraged children to acquire science-related disciplines as the relevance of science and technology has grown. moreover, science branches such as biology, chemistry, physics, sustainability, and environmental science are all researched in all forms of sciences (abbasi, moeini, shahriari, ebrahimi, & khoozani, 2018). science anxiety the scientific, technological, and global advancements of the 21st century have made it necessary for science education at all levels of education to perform well. in fact, both tella (2007) and ochonogor (2011) conducted similar research and determined that students’ performance in scientific classes in secondary and high school education was inadequate and could not improve over the last decade. there appears to be a blind spot in science education, leaving society defenseless in the face of a pandemic, which enacts crucial considerations for the science educators’ community. public anxiety and fragile confidence in science have increased in recent years (pietrocola, rodrigues, bercot, & schnorr, 2021). almost everyone experiences anxiety such as fear and concern as an emotional response to everyday situations that are a natural part of life (bamber & schneider, 2016). however, some people have extreme sensations of uneasiness that do not lessen with time and negatively disrupt dayto-day living, according to the national institute of mental health (nimh, 2016). these more severe or long-lasting emotions of anxiousness are referred to be anxiety. anxiety is described medically as an unusual or overwhelming sense of apprehension and fear (merriamwebster, 2018). according to the nimh, roughly 30% of adolescents and adults have anxiety, and women are more likely than males to report anxiety. seventy-five percent of people with anxiety have their first episode by the age of 22, and only approximately one-third of those with anxiety obtain some therapy (american and depression association of america, 2018). student anxiety has emerged as a major issue for american schools and institutions. notably, anxiety among college students has increased in recent years (center for collegiate mental health, 2017). according to studies, the complexity and difficulty of science course content is a typical cause of student worry, and mallow invented the term “science anxiety” in 1978 to express the apprehension people can experience when learning science. high levels of anxiety appear to have a harmful impact on kids in general. while there are inconsistent findings about the association between anxiety and performance, a meta-analysis of over a hundred published research investigating the relationship between anxiety and academic performance revealed an overall negative relationship. furthermore, anxiety has been proven to have a negative impact on student grade point averages (vitasari, wahab, othman, herawan, & sinnadurai, 2010) and exam performance (ballen, salehi, & cotner, 2017). anxiety may be especially harmful for science students, as it has been found to have a negative influence on student performance and retention in science, technology, engineering, and math (england, brigati, & schussler, 2017). as a result, anxiety may be a relevant component to investigate when discussing ways to develop more equitable active learning classrooms (cooper & brownell, 2020). methodology respondents the research was carried out at the university of mindanao digos college, specifically in the senior high school department, during the academic year 20212022. the study comprised two distinct phases, each requiring a separate set of participants. the sample was comprised of authentic students from umdc digos city’s shs institution, enrolled in any of the following academic strands: science technology, engineering, and mathematics (stem); accountancy, business and management (abm); humanities and social sciences (humms); general academic strand (gas) and currently studying for at least one semester. the participants were required to have utilized the institution’s online education platform, be available for an interview, and agree to represent their respective academic strands. a total of twenty (20) participants were included in the study (refer to matrix 1). results of the qualitative phase were gathered, analyzed, and transform into questionnaires. in the selection of the quantitative phase, the following criteria were used: the participant is a bona fide student from the shs institution of umdc digos city, davao del sur, in the pa ge 42 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 39-49, 2023 sy 2021-2022, under any academic strands: stem, abm, humss, and gas. the participant is currently enrolled for a minimum of one semester, has used the institution’s online education platform, is willing to answer the survey, and is willing to be the representative from each academic strand enrolled. a total of two-hundred thirty-five participants were gathered (see matrix 2). using the stratified random sampling technique, two hundred thirty-five (235) respondents were gathered. stratified random sampling divides a population into groups with similar characteristics (taherdoost, 2016). this method is employed to ensure that the different segments of a population are equally represented. this study, in particular, was conducted to determine the sample size of the um digos college – shs department. pens and notebooks supported transcribing the data collected from the in-depth interviews (deterding & waters, 2021). furthermore, the researchers have made a semi-structured interview questionnaire as a guide in the qualitative phase of this study. results of the qualitative phase were used to create a question being used for the quantitative phase of this study. a total of forty-five (45) questions were generated. research design and analysis the mixed-method approach used in this study combines quantitative and qualitative descriptive methodologies. an approach to study that blends qualitative and quantitative methods is known as a mixed methodology (creswell, 2009). this research, in particular, makes use of an exploratory research design. this design is two types of methods that start with a qualitative investigation of phenomena and to be followed by gathering data for quantitative method. additionally, descriptive research was used in this study to gather data by identifying conditions present during the study. nassaji (2015) stressed that a phenomenon’s characteristics and the objective of a descriptive study should be described. it can be applied in this study since it aims to determine the experiences among shs students in learning science in the new normal. mccombes further asserts that various techniques can be used to examine one or even more variables, and the researcher measures and records the variables without changing them (mccombes, 2022). the researchers investigated the participants’ thoughts and opinions to better understand this phenomenon by learning about their experiences and challenges. as a result, this study disclosed the experiences and corresponding lessons and implications, as well as the determination of the effects of learning science as perceived by science students in the new normal. the key terms formulated interpretations and themes will be used to create a qualitative result when interpreting and analyzing the data gathered (lochmiller & lester, 2017; lester et al., 2020). the researchers utilized the descriptive approach used by colaizzi (1978) because it is simple and can be processed logically for exploring the fundamental structure of the experience of senior high school students of um digos college. to ensure and guarantee that all transcribed and translated data were genuine and accurate and presented with the participants’ signatures, the researchers confirmed that the transcribed and translated data were returned to the participants for verification. two statistical tools were also used to analyze the data and tabulate the collected information. the researchers used the kaiser-meyer olkin test to evaluate the appropriateness of the sampling size. in order to establish whether the initial correlation coefficient was an independent variable, it was necessary to verify the null hypothesis and ensure that the statistical significance of the test was 0.05 or less as indicated by the p-value. the use of bartlett’s test of sphericity helped to determine whether the correlation matrix 1: the distribution matrix of participants in the qualitative phase code name grade level strand participants 1-3 grade 11 gas participants 4-5 grade 12 gas participants 6-8 grade 11 stem participants 9-10 grade 12 stem participants 11-13 grade 11 abm participants 14-15 grade 12 abm participants 16-18 grade 11 humms participants 19-20 grade 12 humms matrix 2: the distribution of respondents in the quantitative phase grade level & strands frequency % grade 11 86 36.6 grade 12 149 63.4 total 235 100 humms 81 34.5 abm 82 34.8 stem 61 26.0 gas 11 4.7 total 235 100 instruments in the qualitative phase, the use of google meet, a recorder, a pen, notebooks, and an interview guide are the instruments needed to conduct an in-depth interview. google meet, a video communication service suitable for audio and video conferencing, is one application that can be used (singh & soumya, 2020). in line with this, google meet is used because it can be accessed freely with its flexible features. moreover, over the last 30 years, audio recordings are now a standard technique for creating transcripts from in-depth interviews and group discussions (lee, 2004 as cited by rutakumwa, mugisha, bernays, kabunga, tumwekwase, mbonye, & seeley, 2020). aside from this, one study claimed that pa ge 43 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 39-49, 2023 matrix was an identity matrix, indicating a lack of correlation between variables. the results of the kmo measure and bartlett’s test of sphericity indicated that factor analysis could be performed on the data. based on the exploratory factor analysis carried out, the sampling adequacy measure was 0.832, indicating that the kmo measure was more than adequate. the reliability of the data was assessed using cronbach’s alpha, which had a ratio of 0.869, considered acceptable and reliable. additionally, bartlett’s test of sphericity yielded a result of 4813.792, and the coefficient was determined to be significant (0.000). overall, the results of the kmo and bartlett’s test of sphericity suggested that factor analysis could be conducted on the data. results and discussions factor loading of science learning anxiety in the new normal table 1 presents the factor structure of science learning anxiety in the umdc context. the 45 attitude-related items were arranged according to their underlying dimensions, resulting in four distinct factor groupings. to determine the significance of standardized factor loadings, tapia, salvador, and rodriguez (2020) found that factor loadings should be 0.4 or higher, given a sample size of at least 200 respondents. cronbach’s coefficient of reliability was also used to further test the four-factor groupings’ reliability. the first four components demonstrated excellent internal consistency, as evidenced by their very high cronbach’s alpha statistics, which confirms the high reliability of the attitude groups. consequently, item_2, item_3, item_4, item_5, item_6, item_16, and item_33 were excluded from the analysis due to their insufficient significance and reliability. after analyzing the data presented in the table below, the first factor analyzed had 14 items with high factor loadings, such as item_11 (0.705), item_17 (0.506), item_19 (0.458), item_21 (0.699), item_25 (0.647), item_29 (0.453), item_30 (0.587), item_31 (0.515), item_32 (0.538), item_38 (0.553), item_39 (0.538), item_40 (0.662), item_43 (0.779), and item_45 (0.742). this factor relates to the students’ attitudes towards science learning in the new normal and is named attitude. the cronbach alpha value of 0.896 and 17.629% of the total variance show that these items have high internal consistency and reliability. the second factor studied includes 12 items with 12.601% of the total variance. the items are item_12 (0.545), item_13 (0.418), item_14 (0.524), item_18 (0.646), item_22 (0.667), item_23 (0.583), item_24 (0.52), item_26 (0.675), item_28 (0.614), item_34 (0.702), item_35 (0.673), and item_42 (0.582). this factor examines how students perform tasks using various assessment modes and activities. therefore, it is labeled as learner’s interaction with assessment and activities, with an internal consistency of 0.869 determined by cronbach’s alpha and 5.339 eigenvalues, indicating high reliability. in addition, the third factor analyzed in this study comprised 6 items, including item_20 (0.505), item_27 (0.638), item_36 (0.556), item_37 (0.547), and item_41 (0.594). this factor pertains to the learning environment of students during their science classes in a blended learning approach. thus, it was labeled as learning environment, with a high internal consistency and reliability of 0.739. lastly, the fourth factor examined in this research included three items: item_10 (0.550), item_8 (0.481), and item_9 (0.633). this factor is related to students’ emotional response to low-score assessments. hence, it was named disappointment and demonstrated a high level of reliability with an internal consistency of 0.707, determined through cronbach’s alpha. table 1: factor loading of science learning anxiety in the new normal item factors 1 2 3 4 11 i feel nervous whenever i take major science examinations. 0.705 17 science is difficult because of complex concepts. 0.506 19 i give more effort to understanding scientific concepts. 0.458 21 i feel exhausted if i am bombarded with different scientific concepts during the day. 0.699 25 i got easily distracted in the virtual class. 0.647 29 i feel disappointed if my science teacher did not provide examples, especially in difficult concepts. 0.453 30 i easily got confused whenever difficult concepts are introduced. 0.587 31 i feel disappointed whenever my science teacher did not discuss the difficult concepts more. 0.515 32 i got easily tempted to open facebook ad other social media platforms resulting in low performance in science. 0.538 38 it is difficult to conduct scientific research in this new normal education. 0.553 39 i don’t like the teacher giving simple examples during the discussion but giving difficult situations during examinations. 0.538 pa ge 44 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 39-49, 2023 40 i feel stressed if i can’t answer questions during oral recitations on the virtual platform. 0.662 43 sudden internet problems during online classes added a burden to my learning. 0.779 44 sudden interruptions by my family members during online classes affected my ability to concentrate during online classes. 508 45 too noisy surroundings added difficulty to my learnings during online classes. 0.742 12 i feel nervous whenever i take a virtual science laboratory experiment. 0.545 13 i love memorizing science formula. 0.418 14 i enjoy concluding virtual experiments. 0.524 18 i don’t like having small mistakes in understanding science concepts. 0.646 22 i don’t like it if my science teacher is always present in the virtual class. 0.667 23 i don’t like virtual performance assessments in science. 0.583 24 i don’t like passive science teachers. 0.52 26 the virtual class is not appropriate for science subjects. 0.675 28 i don’t like the knowledge-based science assessment in this modality of learning. 0.614 34 i got frustrated in applying the scientific method in the virtual classroom. 0.702 35 i got frustrated whenever my science teacher gives us assignments on weekends. 0.673 42 i don’t like to watch my cp/laptop screen longer. 0.582 20 i don’t like it if my science teacher is strict. 0.505 27 my mental health is affected by learning difficult science concepts in the remote learning. 0.638 36 i don’t like oral recitation in the virtual classroom. 0.556 37 i feel isolated during this modality of learning. 0.547 41 i played mobile games during virtual classes resulting in low performance in science subject. 0.594 10 i feel disappointed if i got low scores in the science examination. 0.55 8 i motivate myself to learn new science concepts. 0.481 9 i feel disappointed if the examination contents are difficult and not covered in my study guide. 0.633 eigenvalues 7.469 5.339 2.773 2.592 % variance 17.629 12.601 6.545 6.117 reliability by cronbach’s alpha 0.896 0.869 0.739 0.707 cronbach a 0.869 kmo 0.832 bartlett’s test of sphericity 4813.792, p=0.000 attitude based on the first explored factor, that respondents having negative assumptions towards science in the new normal. thus, students feel nervous, exhausted, distracted, and confused when dealing complex and difficult science concept. consequently, because of its complexity, science continues to be a difficult subject for secondary students, as evidenced by some students’ poor achievement. the primary cause of the learner’s underachievement is the manner in which the subject is taught. additionally. based on the respondents, views regarding technologies for online learning in the new normal showed that they have different emotional responses during the adoption of a new teaching methodology. they experienced various feelings such as nervousness, exhaustion, distracted, disappointment, confusion, temptation, stress, and difficulty that triggered their learning anxiety in science concepts. according to osborne, sengupta & rodriguez (2019), regarding the endeavor of school science and its effects on society, attitudes are defined as “held feelings, beliefs, and values. people frequently perceive it as a belief that expresses their values and emotions and is frequently manifested in behavior. as the years passed, it was discovered that students performed poorly in science. ucak and say (2019) also found that anxiety can come from the environment, including the attitude of family members, teachers, students’ perceptions of lessons, social media, fear of exams, and lack of role models. based on the study, attitude is the main issue because pa ge 45 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 39-49, 2023 when students are not interested in learning science, they lack the motivation to learn. learner’s interaction towards assessment and activities the study revealed and based on the learner’s interaction towards assessment and activities, the result showed that the respondents experienced negative feelings during their interaction through virtual settings, such as feeling nervous while conducting a virtual science experiment and virtual performance assessment in science class. they most likely frustrated in applying scientific method in the virtual classroom. they don’t like passive discussion without interaction during virtual classes. therefore, this resulted in less effective discussions. as opposed to the conducive learning environment, the students’ worry may have a greater impact on their effective outcomes. different researchers have defined communication apprehension as a reluctance to communicate, which may be caused by fear and anxiety or lack of communication skills (aeni, jabu, rahman & strid, 2017). consequently, students experience challenges during class participation due to their expression of anxiety symptoms. the more anxious and apprehensive they feel, the more difficult it becomes for them to concentrate on their studies. also, students having frustrations on the new mode of instruction that greatly affects the mastery of the subject matter among students. rehman & ahmad (2020) argue that long-term isolation could lead to psychological tension and boredom among those who are isolated. this supports the result, which clearly shows that students are distracted during virtual classes by the bad influence of playing mobile games. hence, the respondents got low grades in their science classes. learning environment respondents showed that they are greatly affected by online-based learning systems in the new normal, that they experienced struggles towards their mental health, such as encountering strict science teachers, disliking oral recitation, and feeling isolated while learning complex science concepts that affect their mental health. in primary school science education, the attitudes of teachers toward science and teaching science play a crucial role. studies have shown that negative attitudes of teachers can hinder students’ learning and eventually diminish their interest in science. this can be attributed to a lack of confidence in teaching science and providing limited opportunities for students to learn, as transmissive pedagogies are relied on and less time is devoted to teaching science in the curriculum (riegle-crumb et al., 2015). according to a research study conducted by mcdonald, klieve, and kanasa (2021), negative attitudes from strict and unsupportive teachers, as well as a belief of not being intelligent enough to do science, had adverse effects on the participants’ attitudes. yildirm and uskun (2018) also discovered that students may experience higher levels of learning anxiety due to the need to adapt to new learning environments and technology-based education, which may prompt teachers to provide more time for assignments and exams. however, distance learning delivered solely online may result in lower satisfaction with the course and academic grades compared to traditional in-person instruction, as found by roth, pierce, and brewer (2020). furthermore, implementation of distance learning may lead to reduced socialization and communication among students in comparison to a conventional classroom setting, as reported by mckenna (2018). as a result, the covid-19 quarantine can cause various psychological impacts such as fear of infection, disorientation, annoyance, shortage of supplies, and inadequate information, according to brooks et al. (2020). in addition, isolation and limited social interactions caused by stay-at-home orders during the pandemic could lead to anxiety and depression, as noted by hiremath et al. (2020). disappointment the study showed that the disappointment of the respondents on what they experienced while the new teaching method was implemented was having difficulty learning science concepts. moreover, it also involves the emotion of students toward low-score assessments. having a low score on science examinations because some of the contents were not entirely covered in the study guide can also cause disappointment. thus, the challenges of the respondents can lead to disappointment which can affect their mental health. furthermore, there have been previous studies on college students’ stress and anxiety. previous studies uncovered several enduring issues, including “accommodation challenges,” fear about the future, and anxiety over passing exams (unger & meiran, 2020). this is how respondents’ mental health suffers from disappointment. students face tremendous pressure when it comes to studying. society, family, and finances all require adapting to new circumstances. if they cannot, tensions may arise figure 1: explored science learning anxiety in the new normal framework pa ge 46 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 39-49, 2023 over the validity problem. this is an emotional feeling (phanchamlong et al., 2022). in addition, the remote online exam handling difficulties during covid-19. this is not all. since it brings disappointment because of online testing (wahid & farooq, 2020). therefore, students’ disappointment in science learning concepts and online exams can greatly affect their mental health in the time of a new normal mode of learning. conclusions the main objective of this study is to determine the factor structure of science learning anxiety in the new normal education brought by the covid-19 pandemic. based on the result of the study, four domains of science anxiety was explored, these domains are attitude, learning interaction towards assessment and activities, learning environment, and disappointment. the result of the study highlighted the various dimensions associated with science learning anxiety among senior high school students in the new normal education. these explored dimensions can significantly affect the learning process of students towards learning science in the new modality of learning. recommendations the researchers have acknowledged that their findings are limited in scope and should be recognized as such. based on their initial findings and conclusions, the researchers recommend that future researchers perform a confirmatory factor analysis to confirm the dimensionality of science learning anxiety in the new normal. additionally, further research should be conducted on science learning anxiety in the new normal to determine if the indicators of science learning anxiety identified in this study are present in the new mode of learning. references abbasi, s., moeini, m., shahriari, m., ebrahimi, m., khoozani, e. k. 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(2018). risk factors affecting obesity development in high school students: a community-based case-control study. turkish archives of pediatrics/türk pediatri arşivi, 53(3), 155. https:// doi.org/10.5152/turkpediatriars.2018.6566 pa ge 1 pa ge 16 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) head over heels: romantic relationship ensuing conflict among peer interactions of dycian freshmen class renedict b. de leon1*, jazel jr b. sevilla1 volume 1 issue 1, year 2023 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: august 04, 2023 accepted: september 11, 2023 published: september 26, 2023 it is the very nature of human individuals to feel love and be loved, the need for intimacy and romantic love from their fellow and love from their friends. from there, people slowly learned and grew as individuals. hence, all people yearn to be held by someone, to have a partner with whom they may spend the rest of their lives. the objective of this study is to explore and understand the conflicts that may ensue in entering romantic relationships towards their peer interactions. anchored in this study are duck’s model of relationship breakdown, aristotle’s theory of friendship, and the social penetration theory. specifically, it sought to answer the following questions: 1. what are the perspectives of the informants about: a. romantic relationship, b. friendship. 2. what are the conflicts that may arise in entering a romantic relationship to their peer relationship? 3. what are the remedies to the conflicts that may ensue while engaging in a romantic relationship in regards to their peer interaction? semi-structured interviews and non-probability sampling were used in the study, which was qualitative phenomenological research. significant statements were chosen from the verbatim transcripts of the interviews. then, in order to identify the emerging themes, these were divided into theme clusters. the following themes emerged from the interviews: matter of choice, inevitable connection, conventional stressors, and relationship key factors. the researchers’ findings were as follows: 1. a. romantic relationship can be seen as a choice to make, b. friendship is built through inescapable connections made from the very start; 2. conflicts arising are the common stressors in a relationship; and 3. there are key factors to mitigate these ensuing conflicts as entering romantic relationships impacts peer interactions. keywords romantic relationship, peer interactions, conflict, dycian 1 college of arts and sciences, dr. yanga’s colleges, inc. bocaue, bulacan, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: renedictdl@gmail.com introduction it is the very nature of human individuals to feel love and be loved. the need for intimacy and romantic love from their fellow and love from their friends. from there, people slowly learned and grew as individuals. hence, all people yearn to be held by someone, to have a partner with whom they may spend the rest of their lives. sometimes people believe they have found them only to discover later that they are little more than buddies. in fact, individuals frequently confuse romantic love and friendship love (esperas, 2022). however, even though they both make human individuals joyful and happy, romantic love and friendship love are two separate and not mutually exclusive ideas. an interpersonal relationship that incorporates physical or emotional intimacy with another person or people is referred to as an intimate relationship. it should even be a non-sexual relationship involving family, friends, or acquaintances, despite the fact that an intimate relationship is typically a relationship. in fact, as mentioned by cherney et al. (2019), loyalty, encouragement, and trust are the foundations of all interpersonal relationships. love can also serve as the foundation for close bonds. maintaining all connections requires mutual respect and reciprocity of these traits. the expression “relationships and family” has a wide range of connotations for different people. furthermore, intimate connections between individuals are supported through emotional ties and exchanges. these connections frequently develop out of and are bolstered by shared experiences. moreover, a relationship where comprehension of one another’s feelings outweighs disagreements and where love for one’s partner comes before ego. a meaningful, genuine relationship is one in which both parties make an effort to make the other feel good on a daily basis (robinson, 2023). while it is frequently great, fulfilling, and enjoyable, a romantic relationship can also be difficult or complicated. it may be a little different from other relationships in this regard. hence, this study would ultimately focus on exploring and understanding the perspectives of three facets of love in the perspective of the freshmen class of dr. yanga’s colleges, inc.: the friend, the boyfriend/girlfriend, and the one who treasures both of these two people. according to researchers, people enjoy talking about love because it evokes memories—both happy and unhappy—that are designed to be recalled. additionally, people can explore and share their own stories and experiences of love that have truly gotten the best of many, in whatever shapes it may take (shaw, 2016). theoretical underpinnings duck’s model or duck’s model of relationship breakdown according to psychologist duck (1980,1982), this model highlights the phases that people go through after a pa ge 17 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 16-27, 2023 relationship ends; it includes five stages, which are as follows: the intra-psychic stage is the first stage in this process, this occurs when a person, after spending considerable time considering the causes of their dissatisfaction and potential solutions, admits to themselves that they are unhappy in their relationship. however, they do not yet express them openly. this is also when people start weighing the benefits and drawbacks of remaining in that relationship. the individual reaches a point where they realize, “i cannot stand this any longer,” at the conclusion of this stage. the second phase, known as dyadic, happens when a person addresses their partner and expresses their displeasure. at this stage, the partner initiating the breakup has a number of concerns; common objections involve the partner’s dedication to the relationship. the unsatisfied partner also reconsiders their current connections. at this point, the threshold is reached: ‘i would be justified in quitting’. in this third phase point, the unhappy partner addresses their concerns with their partner and informs their social network. duck claims that it is much more difficult for a couple to rebuild their relationship at this time because their difficulties have been made public, but it is still possible. certain cases lead to friends and family taking sides, starting meddling in the couple’s relationship, and providing advice, making reconciliation difficult. this stage usually results in the breakup of the relationship, and the threshold is ‘i mean it.’ at the end of a relationship, each partner tries to minimize their flaws while emphasizing their strengths, a process known as grave dressing. the attempt to make oneself look good while making one’s partner look awful prepares one for a new relationship. they try to show themselves they are trustworthy and loyal to attract a new partner. at this point, the threshold is ‘it is time to start a fresh life.’ duck and his colleague rollie introduced the resurrection phase to the model in 2006. they proposed that at this point, people move past the sorrow and distress of the relationship’s dissolution and achieve personal development. tashiro and frazier (2003), who studied 92 students who had experienced a breakup, also corroborate this notion. despite their distress, they also achieved personal progress. they also discovered that when people concentrated on the problem rather than their own personal shortcomings, they felt better. for example, a long-distance couple split up when one of them cheated on the other. rather than focusing on personal weaknesses, individuals may believe that their acts are motivated by their long-distance relationships. with the mentioned theory, its interconnectedness to this study reveals that when the conflict is formulated at any moment in time, duck’s model becomes involved. as a result, when a person has a breakup, he or she will go through the stages of the relationship. aristotle’s friendship theory friendship is a reasonable morality or indicates goodness, and it is also the most essential component of living. nobody would regard living without friends more highly, whether he had all the other advantages. there are, however, some opposing viewpoints on friendship. some argue that it is an issue of similarity. aristotle’s perspective believes that having friends has already become a part of everyone’s lives, and one cannot possibly survive without them. he also stated that one of the reasons why people have friends is because they have something in common or have comparable interests in life. where the term “compatibility” appears. he additionally proposed three types of friendship first, utility is backed by friendship in which utility is a transient thing that changes depending on the circumstances. as a result of the removal of the bottom for friendship, the relationship itself disintegrates, because it was what kept it alive. such people do not spend much time together because they do not always like one another and hence see no reason for such an association unless it is mutually beneficial. second, friendship is based on pleasure. the friendship between the young is thought to be based on pleasure since the young lives are governed by their emotions, and their primary focus is on their own pleasure and the opportunity of the moment. their tastes change as kids get older, therefore they are quick to create and break friendships; because their attachment varies just as the things that satisfy them do, and this type of delight changes quickly. also, the young are prone to falling for erotic friendship, which is mostly influenced by emotions and supported pleasure. that is why people drift in and out of friendship so swiftly, frequently altering their attitudes within the same day. third, perfect friendship is based on kindness. only friendship between those who are good and similar in their goodness is perfect. to these people, all wish good for the opposing good, and they are all excellent. people who want the best for their friends are the most genuine friends because one loves the opposite for what he is, not for any incidental quality. as a result, their relationship will survive as long as they continue to be good; and goodness is a lasting trait. also, each party is both absolutely and for his friend, because the great are both good and valuable to everyone. figure 1: duck’s phase model of relationship breakdown pa ge 18 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 16-27, 2023 this hypothesis has the most influence on how people now perceive friendship in a variety of ways. as a result, this may influence how friendship affects a romantic connection and vice versa. social penetration theory to explain how information exchange functions in the growth and disintegration of interpersonal relationships, social penetration theory was established. altman and taylor (1973) defined social penetration as the bonding process that takes a relationship from superficial to more intimate. self-disclosure, the deliberate process of sharing knowledge about oneself, is especially used to achieve social penetration (derlega, metts, petronio, & margulis, 1993). to a point, self-disclosure improves intimacy in partnerships. social penetration can occur in a variety of circumstances, including sexual relationships (e.g., taylor & altman, 1975, 1987), friendships, social groups (such as religious organizations or football clubs), and work ties. the theory has also been used in contexts of computer-mediated communication such as online dating and virtual teams. furthermore, the onion model is an excellent analogy for expressing how social penetration theory works, focusing on social penetration as a method in which people “peel back” layers of personal information until they reach the essence through interpersonal interaction. it takes time to get to know someone’s “core self,” the most intimate aspects of them. the public image is a person’s exterior layer that is apparent to many others. the private self is a person’s innermost layers that are only gradually exposed to significant persons through disclosure. the layers of the social penetration hypothesis are superficial layers, middle layers, inner layers, and core personality. superficial layers contain relatively shallow information such as clothing and music preferences. political opinions and social attitudes are included in the middle levels. spiritual ideals, deep fears, ambitions, goals, imaginations, and secrets are all part of the inner layers. the most intimate detail about a person is contained in the core personality. there must be an exchange of knowledge for connections to flourish. the variety of the topics discussed and the depth of closeness that leads to these interactions are critical to social penetration. in a nutshell, social penetration theory and its relatedness to this academic paper boil down to the fact that one of the two friends entered a romantic relationship. the friend may want to open up and disclose what he/she is feeling when his/her friend enters a romantic relationship. however, he/she may just choose to permanently guard and limit the closeness that these two friends have according to this theory. for example, karl and alex have known each other since they were freshmen. their friendship was typical of most guys in that they hung out and made fun of each other. karl started dating jenny a few months ago. because karl and alex were such good friends, he wanted to confide in alex but was hesitant to do so because they had not truly talked about feelings previously. if he admits to these feelings, he opens himself up to some heavy-handed humor or psychological manipulation. karl might be wary of revealing his actual feelings. perhaps he will isolate this aspect of his life for the duration of the school year. the main objective of this study is to understand and explore whether committing to a romantic relationship could ensue conflict among peers in society. hence, it particularly answers the following questions: 1) what are the perspectives of the informants about a) romantic relationship, and b) friendship; 2) what are the conflicts that may arise in entering a romantic relationship to their peer relationship? 3) what are the potential remedies to the conflicts that may ensue while engaging into a romantic connection in regards of their peer interaction? methodology research design this academic paper cultivated the usage of a qualitative methodology in which it gathers and analyzes nonnumerical data (such as text, video, or audio) in order to better comprehend ideas, views, and experiences. it can be utilized to gain in-depth insights into a topic or to generate fresh research ideas (bhandari, 2020). furthermore, it is used often to learn more about how people see the world. while there are numerous ways to qualitative research, they all have the flexibility of preserving rich meaning when evaluating data. given that this study focuses on the conflicts that may arise in entering romantic relationships regarding peer interactions. the researchers firmly believe that a descriptive phenomenological approach is greatly suited to properly designing the exploration of romantic relationships and its brought about circumstances in someone’s peer relationship. descriptive phenomenology is the study of how phenomena are deliberately experienced (giorgi, 2006, 2008, 2009, 2012; vagle, 2018). descriptive phenomenology investigates how events are experienced as they enter a person’s awareness. uncovering a basic framework that defines “things as they are” by peeling back the layers of relationships, thoughts, feelings, and behavior (husserl, 1913, 1983). descriptive phenomenology does not aim to develop or demonstrate theories, nor does it seek to present individual truths; rather, it seeks to pinpoint the fundamental core of psychological mechanisms required for the phenomenon under study to be consciously lived (englander 2016; moustakas, 1994). moreover, semi-structured sets of questions were used to give a more engaging and dynamic manner of dialogue. this was followed by asking a follow-up question, especially if the answer of the informant piqued the researchers’ interest and could somehow elevate the interaction to a higher level of conversation. research locale the researchers’ chosen location was dr. yanga’s colleges pa ge 19 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 16-27, 2023 inc., where dycians are noted for their maturity, it was demonstrated by the researchers’ initial study. according to a recent survey, 5 out of 5 educators coming from the same department believed that 1st year college dycians are already adept at dealing with this type of relationship. furthermore, dyci is a well-known school for instilling principles in their students (such as being missiondriven, altruistic, god-centered, innovative, and socially responsible). since they learned the values mentioned above, it became their advantage to implement everything they learned and incorporate it into their daily life. research participants the primary focus of this study is on dyci’s freshmen class. they were selected for their expertise and comfort in answering or providing a different perspective on the specific subject. and they are already of legal age to deal with such a situation. the sample methods employed are quota sampling and purposive sampling. first, informants were sub-grouped based on their descriptive conjunction in quota sampling. which is 5 for those who have both friends and lovers, 5 for those who are friends, and 5 for those who are lovers. also, purposive sampling requires researchers to develop their own standards for selecting respondents. as a result, the following are the criteria: 1.) must originally be from dr. yanga’s colleges, inc. high school department, 2.) must have already experienced or be experiencing the situation/circumstances, and 3.) must be at least 18 years old, and 4.) coming from the freshmen class of dyci irrespective of college program. remember that gender was not used to select informants. data gathering procedure after designing the research instruments, it was handed over to the researcher adviser to ensure the validity and reliability of the researcher-made questions. this was critical to the data collection so that the sets of questions offered to informants were devoid of prejudice. eventually in order to effectively carry out the interviews, letters of consent were given to the senior high school department, particularly to the administrators and faculty members, and the series of interviews took place once authorized. during the data collection process, an audio recorder was employed to record the answers from the informants. following that, all acquired data were transcribed for interpretation and analysis. finally, the answers obtained from the informants were thematized in order to meet the study’s goal. data analysis as stated by giorgi (2009), establishing a phenomenological method consists of four stages: (1) reading the transcriptions numerous times, (2) discerning meaning units, (3) arranging meaning units into meaning structures, and (4) synthesis. furthermore, the purpose of the researchers is to describe the phenomenon as exactly as possible while eliminating any pre-determined framework and being truthful to the facts. the interpretation of the transcribed interviews obtained from various people was based on the informant’s perspective and experiences. furthermore, the study’s participants think thoroughly, and they ensured that they are familiar with the questions posed to the informants before conducting the investigation. the analysts ensured that the topic is on point and that the responses are relevant to the research issue. the hidden messages of the informants’ answers produced meanings that are analyzed by the fundamental structure; they evaluate the study if the informants’ statements may link to their own experiences that are trustworthy to share an enthusiastic study. ethical considerations the participants’ dignity and confidentiality are the researchers’ top priorities while collecting data. the integration of beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice all throughout the study is strongly advocated by researchers. a consent form had to be completed by each participant before the interview began. this confirms to participants the sole goal of this academic study and signifies their consent to partake. • beneficence the results of the study were advantageous for both the researchers and the informants. • non-maleficence no informants were put into harm all throughout the interview. • justice researchers safeguard the avoidance of unfairness in handling gathered data. • equity the researchers made sure that the informants were all treated fairly. • respect if the chosen informant refused to take part or answer in the study, the researchers respected the person’s decision. • privacy the identity and information of the informants were used solely for the study alone and were all kept confidential. results and discussion this chapter answers the questions posed in the problem statement. the answers provided by each of the informants have been thoroughly analyzed and interpreted in order to fully grasp the concepts and themes that are critical and pertinent to the objectives of this study, which is to understand and explore the conflicts that may substantially arise during the course of a romantic relationship and their impact on their peer relationship. to answer the research questions, the researcher first gathered noteworthy statements, which were then organized into various categories. matter of choice it became clear from all the informants’ statements of the significance and justification of the concept of a “romantic relationship” that it is a question of individual choice. informants claim that choosing to enter romantic relationships is a conscious decision. they emphasized that to really commit to a romantic relationship, there must be a great deal of intimacy. in order to achieve this, pa ge 20 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 16-27, 2023 a person must decide to totally invest in the relationship in order to develop a strong connection and trust in their partner. furthermore, informants stated that entering romantic partnerships is a normal element of being an adult or an event that youngsters frequently encounter. entering such a relationship additionally involves deciding what to prioritize, considering the implications at various points, and keeping it private and intimate only to those who are involved. the informants set things straight that romantic relationship is indeed about a strong bond and connection making each other familiar with their background and preferences. to cite: “siguro kailangan munang sobrang magkakilala at tsaka may background siguro bago maging kayo dapat nagtitiwala ka sa kanya.” (i guess you need to get to know each other a lot first and also maybe have a background before you can be together, you should have a trust on him). (tb1, line 1-3) “siyempre pag sinabing romantic relationship madami satin naiisip agad yung 2-person pambabae at lalaki talaga ayun doon papasok yung mga intimacy.” (of course, when we say romantic relationship, many of us immediately think of the 2-person female and male, that is where intimacy comes in.) (f4, line 272-274) “sa romantic relationship naiintimate kayo sa isa’t isa at mas iba yung closeness ninyo kasi uhm… nagsimula kayo sa pagkakaibigan yun lang.” (in a romantic relationship, you become intimate with each other, and your closeness is different because you started as friends). (p3, line 394-396) as mentioned above, romantic relationships are founded through familiarizing each other and the intimacy that it upholds for both parties. fittingly, as stated by barton, et al. (2013), the more intimate partners are aware of one another’s struggles, stresses, thoughts, and emotions, the simpler it is for a pair to form an emotional bond. moreover, they also uttered that being trustworthy counts the best in a romantic relationship. “mas maganda kasi yung ganong open lalo na yung trust andon sa inyong dalawa.” (it is better to be open like that, especially when there is trust between the two of you). (f4, line 298-299) clearly seen above, the importance of being open is a fundamental reason why trust is being established, especially in such a romantic relationship. truthfully, as mentioned by courtney (2023), this is because trust is integral to all other aspects of a relationship, including openness, transparency, vulnerability, and respect. additionally, informants supported the idea that although such relationships are common among teenagers, it is still up to them to decide whether to engage in them or not. to testify: “para sakin ang romantikong relationship ay ano parang normal lang na isang kabataan na ano yung iba na pinapasok lang nila basta basta hindi nila iinisip ito bago sila pumasok.” (for me, a romantic relationship is something that seems normal to a young person who just enter into it without thinking thoroughly). (f1, line 148-150) truly, falling in love romantically with somebody has been a usual part of teenage life. however, as mentioned by informants, someone should not enter such a relationship without thinking of it thoroughly. hence, informants affirmed: “kumbaga sa isang romantikong relation kumbaga hindi porket sinabing romantic lagi na kayong dapat sweet sa isat isa siyempre may ibat iba kaming natutunan na hindi porket lagi dapat kayong magkakasama dahil saming dalawa yung may point na hindi talaga lagi kami magkakasama dahil busy din kami senior high din kami na magkacollege na kami siyempre masiniintindi namin yung magiging future namin at siguro kapag nagkaroon na kami ng stable na job na hindi na kami umaasa sa magulang namin para gawin yung mga bagay na gusto namin.” (in a relationship, not because it is romantic you should always be sweet to each other. of course, there are multiple lessons, you do not always need to be with each other because for the two of us there is really a point in time where we are not on each other’s side. it is because we are first year college, and it is being clear to us about our future and maybe once we have a stable job already, we do not have to depend on our parents anymore just to do things we want). (p1, line 334-343) “yung romantic relationship kasi isa siyang seryosong bagay na karamihan ngayon sa kabataan ngayon masyado siyang big deal sa mga kabataan ngayon kasi madami ng kabataan na pumapasok sa romantic relationship table 1: matter of choice emergent theme theme cluster formulated meanings matter of choice strong bond • deep connection and knowing someone’s background. trustworthiness • someone to rely on. part of adulthood • usual crisis and experiences of teenagers. thinking thoroughly • considering both pros and cons of it. • looking to a bigger and wider future. setting priorities • understanding what needs to focus on. personal business • making it only between the people concerned. • should not be made public. pa ge 21 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 16-27, 2023 na hindi muna pinagiisipan kaya madami yung mga taong nasasaktan kaya yung romantic relationship isang sagradong bagay na dapat pinagiisipan munang mabuti para kasi iyon sa future mo iyon yung magdadala sa future mo yun yung makakasama mo habambuhay.” (the romantic relationship is a serious thing that most of the young people today take as a big deal because there are many young people who enter into a romantic relationship without thinking about it first, so there are many people who are hurt, so the romantic relationship is a sacred thing that people should think of carefully because it is what would determine their future with the person that they will be with). (tb2, line 42-49) “ang romantic relationship para sakin ay hindi ito biro na hindi basta basta pinapasok kailangan muna pagisipan dahil isa itong malaking commitment at pagsubok para sayo dahil kailangan mo ito bigyan ng oras na kahit marami kang ginagawa dapat balance pa rin.” (romantic relationship for me is not a joke that most people just vehemently enter. it should be carefully considered because it has a significant commitment and challenge for us since we have to allot time to it even if we have a lot of things to do, but should still be balanced). (tb3, line 98-102) as articulated above, indeed a romantic relationship matters the most when a great deal of willingness is put into it and its foundation is not shallow and superficial. it is better to look at a bigger picture where the present is not only seen but the future is also being considered. it is crucial to have realistic expectations for the future and to consider any difficulties and hurdles that can develop in the relationship (darak, 2020). moreover, informants asserted that in entering such a relationship, priorities should be set. “hindi pa sa ngayon kasi marami pang priorities aside sa studying meron pang families at iba pa.” (i do not think about it yet because there are many priorities aside from studying, there are families and so on). (f1, line 168-169) “para sakin may dalawang epekto yung romantic relationship pwedeng makasama sayo like don ka na magfocus instead na sa mga priority mo or pwede makabuti sayo like using it to be inspired in achieving your goals.” (for me, a romantic relationship has two effects, it can be a bad influence like it would distract a person’s focus on their priorities. it can possibly be good in a way that it becomes a person’s inspiration). (f5, line 308-311) as declared above, a romantic connection ought to be considered what must be valued and should serve as motivation rather than a hindrance to achieving ambitions. furthermore, informants believe that getting into romantic relationships should at the very least be done in private. “para sakin yung romantikong relation hindi siya dapat ginagawang public ayon lang.” (as for me, romantic relationship should not be publicly displayed). (p2, line 377-378) there are matters that need not be publicized and put out in front of many people. hence, making the relationship intimate only to the involved person even makes the relationship worthwhile without hesitation of being judged. as disclosed by jacobsen (2022), couples will not be disclosing their flaws, fears, and vulnerabilities to the outside world, couples who keep their relationships private can appreciate and honor one another. inevitable connection informants further shared their own personal viewpoints on friendship and peer relationships. they talked about how essential it is to have close companions who listen to them and who are perpetually supporting them in their decisions. likewise, because these connections are inevitable this kind of relationship develops spontaneously and requires barely anything. in the words of informants, this indicates that peer relationships and friendships do not have to be forced; rather, they might develop naturally as a result of a feeling of connection. consequently, the concepts that arose from the informants’ table 2: inevitable connection emergent theme theme cluster formulated meanings inevitable connection accepting criticisms • open to what the friends have to say. • adopts remarks to grow. foundation of life • fundamental part of human life. • building a long-lasting relationship. one call away • willing to be there on the sidelines. • ready to be a companion. togetherness • facing problems and circumstances hand-in-hand. comfortability • confident to share secrets and feelings with each other. • knows each other’s true personality. compelling reasons for friendships include being open to receiving criticism from peers, acknowledging that they have been an individual’s life’s foundation, being merely a call away, being together, and, lastly, feeling at ease around each other. the informants believe that friendships come with the reality that one needs to accept their flaws, and friends are there to critique and let them know the truth to develop pa ge 22 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 16-27, 2023 and grow. as stated: “sinosupport ko naman yung romantic relationship ng mga friends ko as long alam nila kung ano ang tama at mali at kung hanggang saan ang limitation nila at tsaka lagi ko sila nireremind hanggang dito lang din muna na dapat nirerespeto niyo din ang isat isa tas wag niyo madaliin yung mga bagay kasi dadating at dadating din naman doon.” (i support the romantic relationship of my friends as long as they know what is right and wrong and what is their limitation and i always remind them that they should respect each other and do not rush them. those things will come eventually). (f2, line 190-195) indeed, having friends who would never tolerate lavish acts of wrongful doings, but would always remind of boundaries and limitations is what truly makes a friend, a real friend. as revealed by the costa rica news (2022), people can grow and get better, and friendship is the best and most trustworthy support system for doing so. because of this, friendship is a quality that is enhanced by consistent and genuine treatment; it shows up in affection and mutual support but most definitely not in apathy or disdain. furthermore, informants acknowledged that friends are the foundation of life making the world a better place to live in. to quote: “for me yung friendship isa siya sa pinakamatatag na hahawakan mo siya as you go through life kasi ito yung magiging foundation mo bukod sa family kasi diba tayo sa family parang hind naman lahat open di din tayo nakakapagopen kasi sa friends parang lahat nabebend out natin yan kahit ano paman yan parang all throughout the day pwede natin imessage yung friend natin ng uy ganto ng yari nung araw ko yun so parang yung friendship kasi sakin siya yung stress reliever kasi nakakatulong ito kung paano natin nahahandle yung problems at iba pang struggles.” (for me, friendship is one of the strongest components to hold on as you go through in life as it will serve as your foundation apart from your family. because in our family not everyone is open, we vent out everything to our friends. also, we can message them all throughout the day like, ‘hey this is what happened to me this day,’ making friendship as my stress reliever as they get to helped me in handling problems and struggles). (f2, line 174-183) “lahat tayo dapat magkaroon ng friendship siyempre part na ito bilang isang istudyante.” (we should be engaged in friendship, it is a part of being a student). (f3, line 252-253) “ang kaibigan ang mas mahalagang magkaroon dahil para sakin ang kaibigan ang mas masaya at matibay na kahit ano mangyari andiyan ang kaibigan mo para suportahan ka, gabayan ka o maging parte ng pamilya.” (a friend is the most important thing to have because a friend is more happy and strong that no matter what happens they will be there to support you, guide you or be part of the family). (tb3, line 112-115) “yung friendship isa siyang foundation sa buhay mo yung mga kaibigan mo yung friendship yun yung makakasama mo sa pagharap sa mga problema sa buhay mo.” (friendship is a foundation in your life, your friends are the friends that will be with you in facing the problems of your life). (tb2, line 50-52) informants fully think friendship has been playing a key part in their lives, as indicated above in obvious phrases. in light of the preceding, friends provide people with further reasons to be joyful, serve as stress-relievers, and foster relationships that last a lifetime. moreover, friends being such a one-call-away is what friends are all about for some informants. to testify: “sa pagkakaibigan naman masasandalan mo kumbaga one call away ganon.” (as for friendship, they are the ones you can lean on like it is one call away). (p2, line 379-380) “ang friendship para sa akin ito yung handang makinig sa iyo tuwing kinakailangan mo ng kausap katulad ng kapag marami kang problema sa kanila mo ilalabas at nandyan din sila para damayan ka sa tuwing may hindi ka magandang nararamdaman.” (friendship for me is the one who is willing to listen to you whenever you need someone to talk to, like when you have a lot of problems you voice out to them and they are also there to empathize with you whenever you are not feeling good.) (tb4, line 103-107) it matters a lot to have a friend who will be there for you when your life feels like it is falling apart. similarly, they emphasized that friendship is about being together. together, they faced difficulties, problems, and whatever the world threw at them. to cite: “parang relation na mas pinapagtibay ng panahon na kahit na lagi kayo nagaaway na hindi dahilan ng laging pagaaway dahil sa misunderstanding titigilan mo na siya kausapin dahil pwede naman ito ayusin o pagusapan.” (it is like a relationship that gets stronger with time that even if you always fight, it is not a reason to always fight just because of a misunderstanding, you eventually stop talking to him because it can be fixed or talked about). (p1, line 344-347) “iba kasi yung friendship sa pagsinabing romantic pang dalawahan pag sinabing friendship siyempre may tampuhan pero iba parin talaga pag sinabing pagkakaibigan.” (friendship is still quite different from romantic love, which only involves two people. this is because when we say friendship, it does not matter whether you are bickering). (f4, line 275-277) “para sakin yung friendship doon mo makikita yung halaga ng isang kaibigan kung gaano kayo magtatagal at paano ninyo malalagpasan ang mga pagsubok together.” (for me, friendship is where you can see the value of a friend, how long you will last and how you can overcome trials together). (f5, line 312-314) as mentioned above, friends are about staying and sticking together amidst problems and misunderstandings. from there, a true friend will show his/her true colors making pa ge 23 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 16-27, 2023 the relationship even more worthwhile and happy. no matter how long time passes, true friends will remain. hence, true to the saying, “good friends look out for one other; close friends understand each other; but true companions endure beyond words, distance, and time.” eventually, peers can be determined depending on how comfortable and compatible people are with one another. the ability to express their actual persona. “nasasabi ninyo sa isat isa yung nararamdaman ninyo tsaka komportable kayo kasi magkaibigan kayo.” (you can tell each other what you feel and you are comfortable because you are friends). (p4, line 397-398) in a nutshell, comfortability means everything for a long-lasting peer relationship. in fact, as uttered by morin, et al. (2020), friends feel at ease around close friends because they know they will have many more interactions with them. a single embarrassing moment is unimportant because they believe there will be many more opportunities to succeed. conventional stressors informants highlighted struggles that may have emerged because of starting romantic relationships with their peer contacts. this may differ because many have claimed that it is completely based on what they experienced and how they truly felt in various situations. as a result, the theme of conventional stressors that have been mundane concerns in a romantic relationship, and their potential influence on their peer relationship, arises. accordingly, themes were concentrated, and time was the most common problem in circumstances, especially when demand is not reached. the same thing happens when misunderstanding often occurs, even when someone must choose between being with his/her partner or a friend, and the irritation of bringing up irrelevant stories and topics inside the peer circle. informants noted that a lack of time is a prevalent cause table 3: conventional stressors emergent theme theme cluster formulated meanings conventional stressors time • lack of time to bond with peers. • division of time peers and romantic relationship. misunderstanding • certain cases that need to choose who to be with. • a disagreement and thinking of not being loved anymore. irrelevant issues • bringing up insignificant issues to the group. • irritation that it brings to the circle of friends. of conflict in romantic relationships, which has an adverse effect on their peer relationships. to cite: “meron parang pag umenter ka ng relationship may mga time na parang mas dadami yung time na inaalot mo sa boyfriend mo kaya mababawasan yung time.” (there are changes because when you enter a relationship there would be a time that allotted time with your boyfriend will increase). (tb1, line 19-21) ‘siyempre talagang may pagbabago kasi yung time kunwari parang dati puro friends lang ang kasama pero nung nagkaroon sila ng special someone o napasok sila sa isang romantic relationship parang nagkaroon din ng konting na bawas sa time ng friendship.” (of course, there is a change because time before seems to have only been with friends, but when they had a special someone or entered into a romantic relationship, it seems like there was a little reduction in the time of friendship). (f2, line 196-200) “yung time ko sa mga kaibigan ko oo medyo nagkakaroon ng conflict pero don yun nga sinasabi ko naiintindihan nila kasi nga alam nila pumasok ako sa relationship na yon at kailangan din yun sa buhay iyon dadating at dadating talaga sa buhay natin iyon kaya kailangan intindihin mo yung side nila.” (when i was with my friends, yes, there was a bit of conflict, but just like what i said, they understand because they know that i entered into that relationship and that’s necessary in life, that will come and really come in our life, so you have to understand their side). (tb2, line 88-92) “meron magbabago kasi papasok ka sa romantic relationship so kailangan mo ng time management para sa lahat ng bagay at may commitment ka na hindi mo pwedeng kalimutan.” (something will change because you are entering a romantic relationship, so you need time management, and you have a commitment that you cannot neglect). (tb3, line 139-141) “oo, kasi katulad nga sa oras kailangan mo ng time management na kapag may date kami ng boyfriend ko tapos bigla may mag aaya so hindi ako makakasama kasi nauna yung boyfriend ko eh.” (i need to manage my time, there are instances when my boyfriend and i have a date, but then suddenly, someone asks me out and i cannot say yes because my boyfriend came first to invite). (tb4, line 145-147) “hindi naman mawawala ang pagbabago gaya ng kaunting oras na makasama sila or mas may oras siya kaysa samin na mga kaibigan niya kaya ganon.” (there will always be a change like less time to be with them or more time with him than my friends). (f5, line 320-322) as expounded above, when someone engages in a romantic relationship, having insufficient time with peers causes tension. this indicates that time management should be prioritized in order to mitigate the loss of pa ge 24 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 16-27, 2023 peer relationships. as determined by pace (2022), a lack of significant quality time may cause the relationship to fall out of love and end their relationship. a severe absence of quality time in relationships can erode its basis and damage any existing bonds. someone who does not spend enough quality time together might overlook whether they love each other. spending time with another is vital for growing and blossoming a relationship into something much more significant. that is why it is critical to recognize why relationships require quality time. the informants also open up about the sad reality of being misunderstood in a such relationship. others claimed that they even have to lie just to let others not feel bad about the situation. this circumstance often leads to being misunderstood, making the friendship a bit on the rock. to testify: “oo, kasi ano parang minsan may instances na nagaaya sila tapos sasabihin ko hindi ako pwede im with my partner parang ganun naglilie tapos namimisunderstand nila na ayoko na sa kanila.” (yes, there are instances that my friends would invite me and then i would say, “i am not allowed to,” but in reality i am with my partner, forcing me to lie and then they would misunderstand that i do not want to be with them anymore). (tb 1, line 27-30) “meron kaming misunderstanding pero naayos namin naman ito at hindi na namin ito pinagusapan.” (we had a misunderstanding, but we fixed it and we didn’t talk about it anymore). (tb 2, line 39-40) just like any other relationship, misunderstanding has been the usual and typical reason for a declining number of friendships going to waste. nonetheless, as mentioned, what matters the most is still constant communication, making the relationship safe from any possible destruction or loss. suitably, as stated by williams (2022), effective communication is essential for the continued development of a friendship. moreover, informants also uttered their irritation to their friends when bringing up irrelevant issues and stories about their romantic relationship problems when he/she is with his/ her friends. to testify: “merong changes pagmagkasama sila siyempre parang nandon yung kwekwento niya yung about sa kanila pero ang dapat yung paguusapan ninyo about sa friendship ninyo.” (there are changes when they are together, of course it seems like his story is about them, but what you should be talking about is your friendship). (f4, line 288-290) as enunciated above, peers get frustrated when a friend who is involved in an intimate relationship unexpectedly talks about his/her lover. this throws his/her friend off for a moment because they expect them to be discussing their friendship in relation to who he/she was with. furthermore, conflicts emerge when their companion repeatedly opens up about his/her romantic quarrels, which do not interest them in the very first instance. relationship key factors for informants, it is additionally essential to seek a remedy to the perennial issues with conflict that arise while establishing a love connection. for them, this not only prevents someone’s peer relationship from being wrecked but also makes committing to a love relationship worthwhile. they hold that there must be vital components to any connection, whether a romantic one, a friendship, or any other kind, to make it valuable. therefore, demonstrating respect in any form is crucial for a relationship, especially when a conflict is about to arise. furthermore, reducing potential disputes would be greatly aided by an awareness of the circumstance. in a similar vein, decision-making support emerged as well, although this is not a justification for poor decisions. in addition, keeping things private prevents the connection from declining. even being open-minded has a significant role in finding a resolution to a problem that crops up in a relationship and in experiencing true happiness. informants understand the call-in showing respect for a table 4: relationship key factors emergent theme theme cluster formulated meanings relationship key factors showing respect • understanding the situation someone’s in. • showing support for the decision being made. keeping private matters • making things confidential and not shared to others. open mindedness • considers those from other spectrum. • empathetic towards other. worthwhile relationship. in respecting someone’s decision it signifies the trust that people put in them. also, the understanding that underlies within it and the situation they are in forcing them to make that decision. to testify: “sakin wala ok lang kasi parang nirerespeto ko naman sila tas nagbibigay din naman sila ng respeto sakin na parang hindi sila gumagawa ng bagay na maoout of place ako para iparamdam sakin na hindi ako belong at kapag magkasama sila hindi naman nila pinapaano sakin na parang hindi ako belong dun sa relationship nila kasi sa group of friends ko kasi kahit mayroong boyfriend/ girlfriend parang isang barkada pa din kami parang hinihiwalay nila yung relationship nila kapag silang dalawa nalang pero kapag magkakasama kami parang isang barkada kami.” (it is okay with me because i seem to respect them and they also give me respect as if they do not do things that would make me look out of place, to make me feel like i do not belong, and when they are together they do not make pa ge 25 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 16-27, 2023 me do things like i do not belong to their relationship because i am in my group of friends because even if i have a partner, we are still like a friend. it is like they separate their relationship when it is just the two of them, but when we are together, we are like a friend). (f2, line 205-214) “based on experience naman kasi para sakin kakausapin ko muna yung friends ko kumbakit ganon yung nagging sitwasyon pero irerespeto ko kung ano yung ano niya kasi parang special someone din naman iyon kaya kagaya ng sabi ko kanina parang respetuhan lang kung may boyfriend/girlfriend dapat irespeto mo iyon kasi kaibigan mo siya kaya tinatanggap mo yong papasok sa buhay niya.” (based on my experience, i will talk to my friends first about the situation, but i will respect what he has because he seems to be someone special, so like i said earlier, it seems like if you have a partner, you should respect it. that is because he is your friend, so you are accepting him into his life.) (f2, line 229-235) “oo naman kasi kung san sila magiging masaya siyempre kung saan ito susuportahan ko sila.” (whatever the source of their happiness, i will support them). (f3, line 256-257) “siguro malulungkot ako pero iintindihin ko yung side nila kumbakit maspinili nila mapalayo sakin pero bago muna mangyari yun papaliwanag ko muna yung side ko tapos papakinggan ko yung side nila para maintindihan ko baka maayos pa.” (maybe i will be sad, but i understand their side no matter how hard they choose to stay away from me but before that happens i will explain my side first and then i will listen to their side so i can understand maybe it will be alright). (tb2, line 83-87) “never ako magiging against sa kaibigan ko kasi may sarili din siyang buhay at pagiisip na alam naman niya kung ano ang tama at mali at kung ano ang gagawin, andito ako para sumuporta sa lahat ng magiging pasya niya at sa tama hindi sa maling gawain.” (i will never be against my friend because he also has his own life and thinking that he knows what is right and wrong and what to do, i am here to support all his decisions and the right not the wrong thing). (tb 3, line 108-111) as stated above, respect plays a significant role in maintaining a good foundation for every relationship. thus, this would also be crucial in times when conflicts seem to arise, especially when peer relationships are being affected. as disclosed by esperas (2022), each relationship has its highs and lows, thrilling instances and dull ones, and even times when one simply wants to give up. but if respect were the most significant component in a relationship, it would be much simpler to triumph over difficulties in life together. when love, trust, and patience are added to respect, the relationship can be sure that will last. in the same spirit, informants stressed the need of maintaining the privacy of intimate details in every connection. limitations and boundaries should be understood properly in order to avert any instances of unconcerned affairs in a relationship. to attest: “may isang tao kasi pero diba dapat may time kami sa isat isa pero meron kaming isang kaibigan na personal usapan pero sumisingit talaga siya habang naguusap kami na wala naman siyang karapatan na malaman yung pinaguusapan namin.” (we should still have time for each other. there was this one friend of ours who really insist in butting in to our intimate conversation in which he does not have the right in the first place to know what we are discussing). (p1, line 356-360) as claimed above, it is necessary to limit the disclosure of intimate information to those in the connection who need to know. only the parties involved should deal with, discuss, and decide on it. moreover, informants also discussed maintaining an open mind when thinking about a relationship. with this, the relationship would advance and be conflict-free whether it was a romantic or peer relationship. as declared: “oo, kilala ko na sila kasi sobrang liit lang naman yung circle of friends ko at sobrang maarte ako sa pagpili ng kaibigan kasi parang pag ka alam ko sa sarili kong hindi maganda yung magiging epekto mo sakin chaka parang parehas tayong magiging toxic sa isat isa parang magigive way na ko o parang magistep away na ko para hindi natin madamage ang isat isa.” (i have known them already given that i do only have a very small circle of friends, and i am very picky in choosing friends. because if i know that a person’s influence to me would not be good and vice versa, and that we would be toxic to each other, i would give way and step away to avoid damaging each other). (f2, line 184-189) “hindi kasi bakit ka maiingit sa buhay ng ibang tao kung alam mo naman may sarili kang buhay chaka napakapangit magkaroon ng inggit sa sarili kasi bakit mo kailangan mo icompare yung sarili mo sa ibang tao basta ayaw ko yung concept ng inggit pang dinodown mo yung sarili mo na ito lang ang kaya mo na ito lang ang meron ka sila meron ganito ganyan, parang ang pangit ng concept ng inggit kaya hindi ako naiingit sa friends ko.” (why would you be envious of other people’s lives if you know that you have your own life? it is very ugly to be envious within yourself because why do you need to compare yourself to other people? as long as i do not like the concept of envy, you are putting yourself down this is all you can do this is all you have they have this and that, it seems the concept of envy is not good so i do not envy my friends). (f2, line 215-222) “hindi, sa part ko hindi kasi ano parehas sila both side naiintindihan niya yung sitwasyon ko na kung meron may nauna kung meron kasabay na gawain alam nila kung ano ang uunahin ko siyempre yung naunahan mong sagutin pero kung pwede siyang isama naiintindihan ng friends ko kasi very open kami na kasama siya ok lang.” (not on my part, on both sides, he understands my situation, that if there is a priority, if there is a concurrent task, they know what i will prioritize, of course, the one that you agreed upon first, but if my partner can come, my friends would pa ge 26 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 16-27, 2023 understand because we are very open with him). (tb2, line 72-77) “oo naman. hindi naman maalis. kasi pag may isa sa kaibigan mo may romantic relationship masaya ka na doon kung ano meron siya.” (it cannot be removed because when one of your friends has a romantic relationship, you are also happy for them). (f4, line 281-283) as evidently mentioned above, having an open-minded perception creates a significant amount of peace and tranquility in a relationship. ultimately, as stated by adetayo (2021), being open-minded is having a willingness to consider or accept other viewpoints. this can access novel ideas and viewpoints by broadening thinking and cultivating more openness. conclusions as this academic study has reached its culmination, the researchers came to the conclusion that there are underlying issues that can occur in a person’s peer relationship when entering a romantic commitment. thence, it’s vital to bear in mind that: • romantic relationships are anchored in a realization that it is a matter of choice where a strong bond should be founded, trustworthiness should be transparent, it is part of adulthood, should think thoroughly, must set priorities, and keep personal business intimate. • on the other hand, friendships or peer relationships are built via inescapable connections such as openness in taking critiques, retaining friendship as a cornerstone of life, being just a phone call away, working through difficulties together, and comfort with one another. • conflicts that may possibly ensue in entering romantic relationships towards their peer interaction may be understood when time, misunderstanding, and irrelevant issues are slowly appearing. • however, the aforementioned conflicts can be mitigated or can be aided through remedies such as respect, keeping private matters, and open-mindedness. recommendations the following recommendations have been proposed in light of the research’s findings: for couples. it is noteworthy that in entering romantic relationships, there are underlying consequences. although these consequences might not be avoided, couples should still do their best to mitigate these conflicts that may arise. for friends. a strong foundation of knowledge about each other is what separates friendships from romantic relationships. one should realize that someone’s peer serves as their foundation at least once in their life and that there should be no conflicts that would put the connection on the line. for future researchers. researchers acknowledge that the sheer nature of this academic study has a gap. researchers advise greater research on romantic partnerships that began as friendships in order to solve some of these issues. researchers would also like to suggest increasing the number of informants, and the themes that arose may be used to create a quantitative study. references adetayo, a. (2021, september 17). why you should keep an open mind before and after you get into a relationship. pulse nigeria. https://www.pulse. ng/lifestyle/relationships-weddings/why-youneed-an-open-mind-for-a-happy-longlastingrelationship/6cfp8qs altman, i., & taylor, d. (1973). social penetration: the development of interpersonal relationships. new york, ny: holt derlega, v. j., metts, s., petronio, s., & margulis, s. t. (1993). self‐disclosure. newbury park, ca: sage. duck’s phase model of relationship breakdown. studysmarter. (n.d.). https://www.studysmarter. co.uk/explanations/psycholoagy/relationships/ ducks-phase-model-of-relationship-breakdown/ englander, m. (2016). the phenomenological method in qualitative psychology and psychiatry. international journal of qualitative studies on health and well-being. 11(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.3402/qhw.v11.30682 esperas, f. m. (2022, may 21). 6 reasons why respect is important in a relationship. inspiring tips. https:// inspiringtips.com/reasons-why-respect-is-importantin-a-relationship/ giorgi, a. (2006). concerning variations in the application of the phenomenological method. the humanistic psychologist, 34(4), 305–319. https://doi.org/10.1207/ s15473333thp3404_2 giorgi, a. (2008). concerning a serious misunderstanding of the essence of the phenomenological method in psychology. journal of phenomenological psychology, 39(1), 33–58. https://doi.org/10.1163/156916208x311610 giorgi, a. (2009). the descriptive phenomenological method in psychology: a modified husserlian approach. duquesne university press. giorgi, a. (2012). the descriptive phenomenological psychological method. journal of phenomenological psychology, 43(1), 3–12. https://doi.org/10.1163/156916212x632934 husserl, e. (1983). ideas pertaining to a pure phenomenology and to a phenomenological philosophy (f. kersten, trans.; 1st ed.). martinus nijhoff. (orig. pub. german, 1913) morin, d. a., b.sc., v. s., life, h., alyson, sss, dumz, kharan, shanon, alao, m., bryan, magno, j., jackson, p., anonymous, sander, v., jan, u., blanche, kanne, d., james, dani, … kirstin. (2022, september 16). how to stop feeling uncomfortable around people (+examples). socialself. https://socialself.com/ blog/uncomfortable-around-people/ moustakas, c. (1994). phenomenological research methods. sage pace, r. (2022, may 3). 15 reasons why quality time is so important in a relationship. marriage advice expert marriage tips & advice. https://www.marriage.com/ advice/relationship/relationships-need-quality-time/ pa ge 27 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 1(1) 16-27, 2023 relationships: duck’s phase model of relationship breakdown. tutor2u. (2018, april 8). https://www. tutor2u.net/psychology/reference/relationshipsducks-phase-model-of-relationship-breakdown staff, t. (2022, may 13). what true friendship is and why it does not tolerate bad deeds. the costa rica news. https://thecostaricanews.com/what-true-friendshipis-and-why-it-does-not-tolerate-bad-deeds/ taylor, d. a., & altman, i. (1975). self‐disclosure as a function of reward–cost outcomes. sociometry, 38, 18–31. taylor, d. a., & altman, i. (1987). communication in interpersonal relationships: social penetration processes. in m. e. roloff & g. r. miller (eds.), interpersonal processes: new directions in communication research 257–277. thousand oaks, ca: sage vagle, m. d. (2018). crafting phenomenological research (2nd ed.). routledge. williams, p. m. (2022, june 25). take online courses. earn college credit. research schools, degrees & careers. study.com | take online courses. earn college credit. research schools, degrees & careers. https:// study.com/learn/lesson/good-communicationfriends-types-strategies-importance/ pa ge 1 pa ge 13 2 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) paving the path to permanence: filipino hei instructors’ experience of balancing work and studies in pursuit of permanent teaching positions prospero b. genosas iii1*, arvin john m. abadiez1, henry e. lemana ii2, rona c. apolinario1 volume 2 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v2i1.3363 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: august 09, 2024 accepted: september 03, 2024 published: september 07, 2024 while the commission on higher education of the philippines mandates graduate degrees for college instructors, the lived experiences of these educators pursuing them amidst demanding schedules and unclear career goals remain under-researched. hence, this study explored the lived experiences of suc instructors pursuing graduate degrees as part of the minimum job requirement. through online posting, a total of 12 participants were recruited from different state colleges and universities in the philippines. eight participants were interviewed in-depth, and the other 4 participants had focus group discussions. themes emerged, focusing on challenges regarding time management issues, an overwhelming workload, and job security concerns. these challenges underscore the urgent need for interventions to support these educators. regarding their coping mechanisms, they observed help-seeking behavior and strategic rest for well-being. as to their insights, institutional financial support transcends. conclusively, the main essence of completing their graduate degree is to achieve knowledge to feel empowered and as a path to permanence. these themes highlight the need for a specific intervention addressing time management, career planning, help-seeking behavior, financial literacy, and motivation regulation. keywords suc instructors, job requirement, graduate degree, hei 1 davao de oro state college, philippines 2 university of the immaculate conception, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: prospero.genosas@ddosc.edu.ph introduction in today’s competitive job market, a graduate degree has become increasingly important, with journalists dubbing it the new bachelor’s degree (blagg, 2018). the motivations for pursuing this advanced degree are diverse. some, like students in hong kong (jung & li, 2021), seek personal growth and a climb up the career ladder. background factors also influence these decisions. students from various genders, ages, socioeconomic situations, and academic backgrounds are driven by different goals (durso et al., 2016; jung & lee, 2019). even within professions, the need for continuous learning is evident. physicians, for instance, are increasingly pursuing advanced degrees to stay relevant in a rapidly evolving medical field (lubin, 2024). ultimately, the decision to pursue a graduate degree is multifaceted, shaped by both personal aspirations and external pressures. earning a graduate degree is a demanding journey. the relentless coursework, research, and projects pile up, forcing students into a constant balancing act (salmons et al., 2023). unlike professors with flexible workloads, graduate students juggle work deadlines, academic assignments, personal needs, and the desire for social connection (pope-ruark, 2022). this constant prioritization becomes a daily tightrope walk fueled by stress and anxiety. the financial burden of the program adds another layer of pressure. however, despite the challenges, the rewards of a graduate degree make the pursuit worthwhile. the global call for more postgraduate students creates a complex situation for universities (masduki, 2022). while enrollment numbers rise, a surprising gap exists in understanding why some part-time graduate students, especially at public universities, abandon their studies while others push through (rotem et al., 2021). in africa, adult learners in postgraduate programs face additional hurdles like limited computer skills, research experience, and internet access, contributing to longer completion times (motseke, 2016). additionally, south africa’s higher education system adds another layer of complexity. a surge in student demand for graduate degrees clashes with a new government funding model that differentiates between research and coursework programs (de klerk, 2023). conversely, a qualitative study in taiwan found that graduate students dissatisfied with their studies lacked prior motivation and preparation (chang et al., 2022). on the other hand, a survey in turkey indicated that students were mostly positive about obtaining a graduate degree despite acknowledging challenges (kaplan & cosgun, 2023). similarly, research on aspiring school administrators found that their primary motivators were personal and professional growth rather than financial gain (orsuwan & siriparp, 2023). this aligns with the potential motivations of faculty pursuing graduate degrees, who may seek to enhance their knowledge, skills, and career prospects. the philippines is complex for state universities and colleges (suc) instructors pursuing graduate degrees. while a graduate degree is mandatory for faculty (cmo no. 52, s. 2007), a recent policy requiring research publication adds another hurdle (cmo no. 15, s. 2019). this reinforces the pressure on instructors to invest in professional development, aligning with cagasan & pa ge 13 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 132-145, 2024 belonias’ (2020) finding that career advancement is a key motivator for graduate studies. skills development, job promotions, and personal/professional growth contribute to career advancement. however, a significant gap exists in research exploring the specific experiences of suc instructors who are in the course of pursuing their graduate studies. the study could shed light on the experiences of suc instructors pursuing graduate degrees to create policies that better support suc instructors in their academic pursuits, balancing professional development with their teaching duties. ultimately, this study aims to improve the overall experience of suc instructors pursuing graduate degrees, potentially leading to a more qualified and motivated teaching force in the philippines. the study aimed to understand faculty members’ experiences pursuing a graduate degree to secure a regular position at a state university or college. furthermore, the study investigated the motivations behind their pursuit and the challenges it created. faculty who juggled work and studies, faced financial strain, or experienced negative impacts on well-being were all areas this research explored. ultimately, the goal was to identify ways to support faculty in their academic pursuit. research questions 1. what challenges are suc instructors facing pursuing master’s degrees in compliance with their employment minimum requirement? 2. what are the coping mechanisms of suc instructors pursuing master’s degrees in compliance with their employment minimum requirement? 3. what are the insights of suc instructors pursuing master’s degrees in compliance with their employment minimum requirement? 4. what is the essence of the phenomenon for the participants? literature review mcclelland’s needs theory and education mcclelland’s needs theory, also known as the acquiredneeds theory, posits that individuals’ specific needs are acquired over time through life experiences (siok et al., 2023). mcclelland’s needs theory provides a valuable lens through which to examine the motivations of college instructors pursuing master’s degrees. this theory proposes three primary needs that drive human behavior: the need for achievement (nach), the need for power (npow), and the need for affiliation (naff) (clayton & ritter, 2023). academic hardiness, a concept rooted in resilience (judkins et al., 2020), is crucial for educators, especially those pursuing a master’s degree (abdollahi et al., 2020). academic hardiness allows them to persevere as they navigate the ever-changing educational landscape with new teaching methods, student demands, and social contexts (plutzer et al., 2020). teachers high in need for achievement might be particularly driven to pursue a master’s degree, and their hardiness helps them manage the complexity of this additional workload (tu & chen, 2019). similarly, those high in the need for power can benefit from this resilience as they navigate the demanding professional environment (abdollahi et al., 2020). ultimately, academic hardiness allows educators to overcome challenges, stay dedicated to their subject matter, and provide their students with higher education (chen & tu, 2019). it becomes a cornerstone of their professional identity and contributes to their well-being and job satisfaction. teacher commitment, a key factor in successful educational reforms (cansoy et al., 2022), reflects dedication to the school and students (christ et al., 2022). teachers high in the need for achievement might be driven to excel in their roles, leading to a strong commitment to teaching and student success (poekert et al., 2020). similarly, those high in the need for affiliation might find fulfillment in their relationships with students and colleagues, fostering a more substantial commitment to the school community (ju et al., 2021). teacher commitment encompasses various aspects, including identification with the school’s goals (ju et al., 2021), a willingness to adapt to changing practices (wang et al., 2021), and a strong emotional attachment to the teaching profession (liu & bellibas, 2018). despite potentially fulfilling needs for achievement or affiliation, teaching is demonstrably stressful (sadeghi et al., 2021). multiple stressors like disruptive students, heavy workloads, and emotional demands (agyapong et al., 2022) can lead to burnout, especially when coupled with insufficient resources (spector, 2022). this highlights the importance of teacher support systems (mulhollan & o’connor, 2016). mcclelland’s needs theory and employment status regular and temporary employment statuses differ (augustsson & rasmusson, 2018). while regular employees get all the benefits they can enjoy with the organization, temporary employees are compelled to meet the demands set by the organization to seal their fate. on the other hand, regular employees tend to focus on community and organizational perspectives, safeguarding a cohesive unit, while temporary employees are more task-oriented and self-focused. additionally, employment type significantly impacts health-related quality of life, with temporary workers generally experiencing lower quality of life than regular workers. regular workers have higher subjective health status than non-regular workers (sohn, 2011). factors influencing health status include economic status, age, gender, education, and marital status (chambel & castanheira, 2007). on the other hand, employment status and career development are crucial aspects that impact individuals differently. research highlights the significance of finding talents with development potential based on personal backgrounds and education statuses for career advancement (wang et al., 2019). in canada, the emphasis pa ge 13 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 132-145, 2024 on employment status as the primary indicator of success in career counseling is challenged, suggesting the importance of considering outcomes like further training for long-term financial productivity through employment equivalence measurements (conger & hiebert, 2007). the debate around the employability of graduate studies in academia (underdahl et al., 2023) highlights the multifaceted motivations for pursuing them. while a need for achievement might drive some educators and a desire for a traditional academic career path (robson, 2023), others might be motivated by a need for power and seek advancement opportunities within the academic system (billett, 2022). regardless of motivation, ensuring graduates are well-equipped for the job market is crucial (fellows, 2023). partnerships between universities and employers (masduki et al., 2022) can bridge skill gaps and prepare graduates for successful careers, aligning with the growing emphasis on adaptability in today’s workforce (billett, 2022). conversely, teacher turnover, a major issue in education (ingersoll & tran, 2023), is partly fueled by occupational stress (carroll et al., 2022). while mcclelland’s needs theory suggests teaching could fulfill needs for achievement or affiliation, the reality can differ. factors like heavy workloads and emotional demands (agyapong et al., 2022) lead to burnout (kim et al., 2020; rave et al., 2022), impacting not only teacher well-being (tai et al., 2019; gurrea, 2021) but also student learning (febriantina & aliyyah, 2020; toropova et al., 2019; bin abdullah, 2021). this highlights the need for support systems that address these stressors, ultimately creating a more stable and effective teaching force (marks, 2023). materials and methods research design this study delved into the lived experiences of faculty pressured to complete a graduate degree (i.e., master’s degree) using a qualitative method, specifically transcendental phenomenology. this approach, pioneered by husserl (moustakas, 1994), has been a cornerstone of qualitative research and aimed to understand human experience. in the context of transcendental phenomenology, researchers strived to bracket or set aside preconceived notions (epoche) to gain a clearer understanding of the phenomenon itself. this allowed the genuine meaning of the experience to emerge organically, capturing its unique essence for the participants. by employing this approach, the study sought to explore the unfiltered experiences of faculty members who had navigated the journey to obtain a master’s degree. as larsen & adu (2021) suggested, phenomenological studies aimed to describe these lived experiences, making transcendental phenomenology a well-suited method for this research. research participants to ensure a well-rounded understanding of the experiences of completing a master’s degree, this study recruited faculty members from state universities and colleges across various employment types. this included faculty on service contracts and those who held regular temporary positions. the research was able to ask for the participation of eight instructors for in-depth interviews and four instructors for a focus group discussion. the research aimed to capture a broader spectrum of experiences by including diverse participants. data sources the study utilized two qualitative data collection methods to gain a deeper understanding of faculty experiences: in-depth interviews and focus group discussions. these in-depth conversations allowed participants to share their unique perspectives and experiences surrounding the pressure of completing a master’s degree. a semistructured interview guide was crafted to explore the experiences of participants. this guide aimed to delve into the lived experiences of participants. questions are anchored on the four research questions, with follow-up questions to areas where researchers wished to obtain richer data. as such, the transcendental phenomenological method was observed. it underwent a validity test to ensure the interview guide effectively elicited the intended information. data collection this research followed a series of steps to ensure a rigorous and ethical data collection process. first, an interview guide was developed, exploring faculty experiences with open-ended questions. this guide was pilot-tested and refined for clarity and effectiveness. second, experts reviewed the guide to establish validity in eliciting the intended data. following validity checking, recruitment began. online postings detailed the study’s purpose, eligibility criteria, and participation details. once participants were recruited, interviews and focus groups were scheduled at their convenience. informed consent was obtained before each session, ensuring participants understood the research and their rights. data collection involved conducting in-depth interviews and focus group discussions. all sessions were audiorecorded with participant consent to ensure accuracy and facilitate later analysis. transcripts were created from the recordings for data management. these transcripts were anonymized to protect confidentiality and securely stored. member checking was incorporated to ensure participant experiences were accurately reflected in the findings. data analysis inductive thematic analysis was used to analyze the qualitative data gathered. this qualitative data analysis method involves reading through data (like transcripts from interviews or focus groups) and searching for significant patterns (delve et al., 2020). the researcher employed inductive thematic analysis following the steps outlined by braun and clarke (2006). in their 2006 paper, braun and clarke enumerated the steps involved in thematic analysis: pa ge 13 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 132-145, 2024 (1) familiarization with the data, (2) initial coding, (3) collating codes with supporting data, (4) searching for themes, (5) reviewing themes, and (6) writing the narrative. trustworthiness of the study the researchers outlined and detailed the participant selection process to ensure the study’s trustworthiness. this included specifying how participants were recruited and whether they represented various institutions and academic disciplines. furthermore, the researchers employed multiple data collection methods, such as interviews and focus groups, to gain a well-rounded understanding of the phenomenon under study. well-developed, open-ended interview questions were essential to encourage participants to share rich and detailed responses. as such, the questionnaire underwent rigorous validation by experts to increase the likelihood of encapsulating the participants’ experiences. regarding transparency and credibility, the researchers acknowledged their biases and how they might have influenced the study design and interpretation of findings. therefore, involving multiple researchers in data collection and analysis helped minimize bias and ensured a more comprehensive understanding of the instructors’ experiences. additionally, providing detailed descriptions of the participants, including their subject areas and experience levels, allowed interested parties to assess the applicability of the study’s conclusions to other contexts. finally, the researchers reported the findings in detail to enable other researchers to replicate the methods and evaluate the trustworthiness of the findings. ethical considerations in this study, ethical principles were paramount to protect participants’ rights and well-being (creswell et al., 2006). researchers ensured informed consent by thoroughly explaining the project, potential risks and benefits, and participants’ right to withdraw at any time (millum & bromwich, 2021). confidentiality and privacy were upheld by anonymizing and storing data securely (resnik, 2018). respect for participants was emphasized through voluntary participation, sensitivity to their experiences, and withholding unwanted treatment based on their responses (kosche et al., 2021). researchers also ensured ethical data collection and analysis by being transparent in their methods and avoiding data manipulation (mbanaso et al., 2023). triangulation mitigated researcher bias (mbanaso et al., 2023). finally, the potential impact on the academic community was considered. researchers built trust and rapport, were mindful of power dynamics, and ensured the research would benefit the community (mosurska & ford, 2020). results and discussion the research participants comprised 12 suc instructors (nine females and three males); nine were single, and three were married. their ages ranged from 24 to 38 years old. notably, all participants were self-funded with no scholarships, and six were family breadwinners. on their graduate program stage, six were in the crucial thesis writing stage, three were in their second year, two were nearing completion with final defenses scheduled, and one had temporarily halted studies for the current semester. four instructors were studying at state colleges and universities, while eight were pursuing their graduate degrees in private institutions. table 1: profile of the participants code name sex status graduate program stage enrolled schools r1 female single thesis writing state university r2 female single thesis writing private institution r3 male single second year state college r4 female single second year private institution r5 female single not enrolled in the current semester private institution r6 female married thesis writing private institution r7 female single for final defense private institution r8 female married thesis writing state university fgd1 female single for final defense private institution fgd2 male single thesis writing private institution fgd3 male married second year state university fgd4 female single thesis writing private institution challenges of suc instructors pursuing their master’s degree to comply with employment minimum requirements table 2 presents the themes of the challenges of suc instructors completing their master’s degree in compliance with the minimum job requirement. the tables also show sample narratives from the participants, providing statements that validate the themes while presenting the evidence. as indicated in the second column, core ideas are the main analytic description of themes. pa ge 13 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 132-145, 2024 table 2: challenges of suc instructors pursuing master’s degree narrative core ideas emerging themes r1. “my struggles stem from two key factors: time management…” “i wear many hats and have numerous priorities…” competing demands the clock is ticking, but you’re stuck r2. “…balancing teaching deliverables with master's degree requirements became a constant source of confusion.” balancing teaching requirements r3. “…challenged to know what to finish first and the unrealistic goal of finishing the degree as it requires two years to finish the academic requirements.” difficulty prioritizing tasks and the unrealistic expectation r4. “...right? it is difficult to do both tasks, admin and teaching, at the same time.” “...and we are not robots, so there are times i did not get enough sleep just to do all things…” “...offices require our submissions abruptly.” extending work time to complete tasks r5. “…encountered pursuing my master's degree and as an instructor is time management because it is very hard to study and to work at the same time…” “it is hard to balance time.” difficulty in managing time effectively r7. “when balancing my work and masters, it is difficult to manage time. when it comes to school activity, sometimes i feel burnedout but at the end of the day i really tried my best to meet al.,l the deadlines.” feeling burnt out despite the best efforts fgd 1. “…you can’t get the requirements done because you are busy with your workload.” too much workload fgd 2. “it’s confusing which one to prioritize because both are important. if one is neglected, the other might be affected. there are also accreditation requirements that need to be complied with, which makes it even more difficult when combined with the thesis.” difficulty of prioritizing between work tasks and academic requirements fgd 3. “it's really difficult to juggle master's degree tasks and work. you have to pass academic requirements to complete the degree and secure a regular item (job position), but i also need to handle my workload, or i might lose my job. it's confusing which one to prioritize.” struggle to manage both work and studies r1. “as a faculty member, there's always another task waiting, making focused work even more challenging.” constant workload that faculty members face under an avalanche r2. “…the administrative workload felt excessive, especially for a new faculty member still adjusting to the role.” feeling of excessive administrative work r3. “i am torn between meeting the deadlines for my master’s degree and my admin tasks.” conflict managing deadlines r4. “it is draining to be a teacher, a student plus with office designation. …whole day, even at night, i am stressed and drained to meet the requirements.” draining tasks r5. “…there are a lot of requirements to be submitted, and there are a lot of deadlines to meet as an instructor. as a student, there are a lot of requirements to submit.” overwhelming number of deadlines r6. “…we have a lot of tasks like office tasks, not only teaching.” non-teaching responsibilities faculty members have r7. “…my class starts in the morning. in the evening, i have to prepare all my powerpoint presentations, and if there are tasks that need to be done in my master’s, i cannot do them because i cannot remove my focus from my work.” division of time for across teaching, lesson preparation, master's degree coursework pa ge 13 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 132-145, 2024 r8. “having a designation because there are some assignments that really require your time and extensive preparation for some tasks assigned.” significant time investments for specific tasks a constant cloud of uncertainty r1. “…i was informed about the consequences of not completing my master's within the allotted timeframe. essentially, my position could be advertised if a qualified applicant applies. the pressure from this potential outcome is significant – maybe around 90% of my overall stress.” stress on losing job r3. “…i am pressured since we have signed the memorandum of agreement to finish our master’s degree within a year. this creates a loop of pressure to comply with the employment requirements and the demands of graduate school.” pressured with memorandum of agreement r4. “...there is too much pressure we bring every day, and we strive just for our plantilla items not to be posted.” fear of losing employment r6. “second challenge is finishing my masters degree at the right time.” “that is also the reason why i have some doubts as to the status that i shall have after my item will be posted.” time impacting job security r7. “and if i lose my job, how will i continue my masters?” losing a job due to unfinished studies theme 1: the clock is ticking, but you’re stuck this emerging theme concluded that suc instructors wear many hats (r1), juggling teaching responsibilities with the demands of their graduate studies (r2, r3, r4, r5, r7, fgd2, fgd3). this balancing act leads to constant confusion about priorities, with work and academic requirements vying for attention. the pressure is further amplified by unrealistic expectations for degree completion and additional deadlines associated with accreditation. focus groups highlight the struggle even more, with instructors mentioning conflicting deadlines and the ever-present threat to job security if the degree isn’t finished quickly. these combined factors paint a picture of overwhelmed and burnt-out instructors struggling to manage their time effectively while striving to succeed academically and professionally. suc instructors pursuing master’s degrees face a unique set of challenges. faculty members, especially new ones, face many tasks with varying deadlines and intensities, such as teaching preparation, research, service activities, and administrative responsibilities (tam et al., 2018). studies on faculty time allocation have shown variations based on gender, rank, and family status, impacting the distribution of time for teaching, research, and service activities (skog & petterson, 2016). effective time management is crucial for faculty members to navigate these tasks efficiently, prioritize goals, and avoid feeling overwhelmed or experiencing burnout (gurrea, 2021; ju et al., 2021). mcclelland’s needs theory offers a valuable lens to further understand these challenges. faculty members with a high need for achievement (nach) might be driven to pursue a master’s degree, but the intense workload can exacerbate existing time management issues. their desire for excellence in coursework can conflict with existing responsibilities, leading to overwhelming feelings. theme 2: under an avalanche instructors described a constant stream of tasks, from teaching to administrative duties (r1, r2, r4, r6). this burden is especially heavy for new faculty members adjusting to their roles (r2). the pressure to meet deadlines for their studies and work creates a constant struggle (r3, r5). instructors juggle teaching, lesson preparation, and master’s coursework, often feeling unable to focus enough on any area (r7). pursuing specific designations within the faculty can further exacerbate this feeling, as these designations require additional time commitment for assigned tasks (r8). the overwhelming workload of instructors, particularly in academic settings, is a pervasive issue with detrimental effects on their well-being and job performance (agyapong et al., 2022; carroll et al., 2022). studies highlight that academic staff still face excessive and poorly regulated workloads despite existing workload clauses in collective agreements, leading to unhealthy and unreasonable work demands (kanwal et al., 2023; febriantina & aliyyah, 2020). faculty members with a high need for achievement (nach) might be particularly susceptible to feeling overloaded. this overload is exacerbated by the unbounded nature of academic roles, work-to-home spillage, and the conflict between teaching and research responsibilities, putting faculty members at risk for burnout and various health issues (kyung-nyun, 2019). additionally, the high workload experienced by teachers in secondary education and universities negatively impacts their quality of life, often resulting in a lack of personal time, stress-related risks, and physical health problems (collie & mansfield, 2022). theme 3: a constant cloud of uncertainty job security emerged as a major concern for suc pa ge 13 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 132-145, 2024 instructors pursuing their master’s degrees. discussions revealed a constant fear of losing their position if they didn’t finish the program on time (r1 & r6). this fear stemmed from factors like being informed about job openings if a qualified applicant with a master’s degree applied (r1 & r4) and signed agreements with deadlines attached to their employment (r3). the pressure was further amplified by the worry of losing their job security, which could hinder their financial ability to continue their studies (r7). this created a stressful cycle where the pressure to finish the degree quickly for job security could impact their academic performance. shoes et al.,. (2022) found that job insecurity hinders employees from performing effectively. because they are stressed about losing their jobs, it takes more effort for them to maintain a high level of job performance. job security for instructors is a multifaceted issue influenced by various factors. research in english studies emphasizes the importance of job security for teaching-track faculty, advocating for improved working conditions, compensation, and academic freedom (lamos, 2016). faculty members with a high need for achievement (nach) might be particularly motivated to pursue a master’s degree to enhance their job security. effective probationary periods are crucial for organizations to ensure a good fit between newcomers and the organization, enhancing efficiency and return on investment while neglecting entry-point training programs can lead to a disconnect between workers and their roles (gordon et al., 2022; johan, 2022). coping mechanisms of suc instructors pursuing their master’s degree to comply with employment minimum requirements table 3: coping mechanisms of suc instructors pursuing master’s degree narrative core ideas emerging themes r1. “i can definitely learn from the journeys of others. their stories give me insights into how to approach my own studies. i can identify strategies that worked for them and potentially adapt those to fit my situation.” value of learning from the experiences of others strength in unity, not isolation r2. “i usually ask for help from my classmates, who are always in the planning stage, and none of us could complete the thesis.” importance of collaboration with classmates r3. “i received plenty of help from my colleagues. they are really good at balancing work and giving consultations simultaneously. they also offered free advice on easily accomplishing my tasks as an instructor and with my designation. their words helped me survive the workload. because of the help i received from them, i have time to comply with my master’s requirements.” crucial role of colleagues in offering help r6. “i also have collaborative learning with my classmates. we have this group chat wherein we can ask some questions and they will provide answers. in this way, they also help me study theorems.” value of collaborating with classmates through group chats r7. “of course, one of my coping mechanisms is my friends as they give me motivation that i can finish my masters while working. they are my rock when it comes to emotional stability.” importance of friends as a source of motivation and emotional stability r8. “i reach out to other people especially when there is an extensive need for my designation. i reach out to people to interact and simply chit chat with them at the same time ask for assistance whenever i have difficulties in my designation and in the task that was given to me.” reaching out to others for help fgd1. “my co-workers are very supportive. they help a lot with thesis writing and academic requirements. when i ask questions, they really answer.” receiving concrete help from colleagues fgd2. “they are sensitive in a way that they are ready to help with your tasks because they understand the difficulty of handling both academic requirements and workload.” supportive nature of colleagues fgd3. “there are many times when i struggle with academic requirements and ask for their help, and they are always willing to assist. this has been a great help to me despite the challenges i face.” continuous support received from colleagues fgd4. “when i have questions about my thesis, like my thesis title, they help organize it. this was a big help because without them, i would struggle to formulate it.” value of receiving targeted support from colleagues pa ge 13 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 132-145, 2024 r1. “i prioritize making time for relaxation. this helps me shift gears when i'm overloaded with tasks and prevents me from getting overwhelmed by unfinished work.” preventative measure to avoid feeling overwhelmed pausing to bloom, not wilting away r2. “if i am really bombarded with tasks, i rest. i will leave the workplace, walk around to give myself time to rest and then after some hour, i will be back to my desk.” resting to recover mental clarity r3. “i usually read books whenever i find the workplace not healthy anymore. i pause simultaneously, read books, scan some files, and browse social media, trying to find entertaining content like funny memes. i do these all to boost my mood.” improve mood and provide a mental break r4. “there are times that i cry suddenly, and just talking to my husband i feel rested. hence, we go out camping and do outdoor activities to recharge.” outdoor activities with family fgd1. “but the most important thing is to rest because if you're tired, you need to rest to regain energy.” rest to regain energy fgd2. “we need to rest despite the challenges and busyness. we need to unwind to have the energy to handle tasks and challenges.” unwind to face challenges fgd3. “rest is what i need. we are bombarded with tasks and academic requirements throughout the weekdays, so i allocate weekends as rest days to recharge.” rest to recharge theme 4: strength in unity, not isolation instructors rely on various forms of help-seeking behavior to navigate their challenges. this includes learning from the experiences of others (r1) to develop effective study strategies. they find support from classmates through group chats for studying and collaborating on tasks (r2, r6). many instructors highlight the crucial role of colleagues who offer guidance, advice, and emotional support (r3, fgd1, fgd2, fgd3). instructors also utilize their networks, reaching out to peers with specific expertise for help with tasks and designations (r8). many instructors highlight the crucial role of colleagues who offer guidance, advice, and emotional support (ibrahim & nat, 2019). instructors also utilize their networks, reaching out to peers with specific expertise for help with tasks and designations (daumiller et al., 2021). instructors high in the need for affiliation (naff) may be particularly drawn to the sense of belonging and camaraderie fostered by strong professional networks. for instance, a study on effective learning strategies in higher education highlights that students who engage in group discussions and collaborative tasks tend to develop a better understanding and retention of the material (qureshi et al., 2021). this method allows students to share diverse perspectives and approaches, leading to a richer learning experience. theme 5: pausing to bloom, not wilting away instructors viewed rest not as leisure but as a tool to prevent burnout and maintain productivity. they described various techniques for incorporating rest, like prioritizing relaxation time to shift gears and avoid feeling overwhelmed by work (r1, r4). taking short breaks by leaving the workplace and walking around was another strategy to clear the mind and return refreshed (r2). for others, rest involved engaging in activities that boosted their mood, such as reading or browsing for entertainment (r3). the focus group discussions echoed these sentiments, highlighting the need to prioritize rest despite workload demands (fgd1, fgd2). allocating dedicated rest periods, like weekends, was seen as crucial for recharging energy to handle academic and work challenges (fgd3). sonnentag et al.,. (2022) found that engaging in specific activities during breaks, like leisure pursuits, socializing, or physical exercise, led to higher levels of positive emotions and more positive behavior at work, as supported by the study of sonnentag, s., & fritz, c. (2015) on the importance of non–working time as a crucial aspect of recovery for employees as they face job stress. accordingly, this is a helpful tool for employees to relax and have time to recover from stressful experiences. this suggests that taking breaks strategically and participating in such activities can help employees better handle work-related stress and maintain a positive emotional state while on the job (spagnol, 2023). building a strong support network is crucial for suc instructors. those high in the need for power (npow) might find leisure pursuits or socializing helpful for emotional regulation, allowing them to return to work feeling more in control. insights of suc instructors pursuing their master’s degree to comply with employment minimum requirements pa ge 14 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 132-145, 2024 table 4: insights of suc instructors pursuing master’s degree narrative core ideas emerging themes r3. “it would also be best to offer scholarships, especially for struggling instructors. it is not a secret that the expenses required to finish a master’s degree are quite expensive.” scholarships as a form of financial aid bridging the gap between potential and barriersr4. “the expenses expected in graduate school is not a secret, and helping us through financial support can go a long way.” “the institution is quite well generous to those who are working on their second doctorate degrees… how about us pursuing masters… they can give us financial support, right?” financial aid from the institution r6. “…it would be better for the institution to curate a support for graduate students. i understand that it is the minimum requirement and that there are a lot of graduate students who are experiencing financial difficulty. so, a scholarship from the institution or something like than can really help.” address financial challenges fgd1. “financial support from the institution is crucial, even with terms and conditions like return of service. it would help us a lot financially.” importance of financial aid fgd2. “institutional support would greatly help us achieve our master's degrees. financial support, like scholarships, would be beneficial.” scholarships as a form of financial support fgd4. “they already help financially through our salaries, but sometimes it's not enough.” salary insufficient to cover expenses theme 6: bridging the gap between potential and barriers suc instructors acknowledged their existing salaries (fgd4) but highlighted the significant financial burden associated with graduate studies (r3, r6). scholarships or similar financial aid programs were seen as crucial support (r3, fgd1, fgd2). the instructors were willing to accept conditions attached to such support, like the return of service agreements (fgd1), acknowledging the potential benefits of such programs in alleviating their financial strain. moreover, scholarships and financial aid programs are viewed as crucial forms of support by suc instructors (r3, r4, fgd1, fgd2). the financial strain of pursuing graduate studies is a significant concern among suc instructors. research found that graduate students often face financial challenges, impacting their overall well-being and academic success (soria & horgos, 2017). however, programs can alleviate the financial burden associated with graduate studies, enabling instructors to focus more on their academic pursuits and reducing stress related to financial worries (soria & horgos, 2017). instructors high in the need for achievement (nach) might be particularly motivated to pursue a master’s degree despite the financial burden. a study by abarca and santos (2018) highlighted the struggles of teachers pursuing their advanced degrees. one of the challenges they face is financial strain, and they need support from institutions like scholarships and financial assistance. essence of pursuing a master’s degree table 5: essence for suc instructors to pursue a master’s degree narrative core ideas emerging themes r1. “confidence… i need to be more knowledgeable in the class.” being more knowledgeable knowledge as power r4. “it helps me obtain more knowledge and understanding especially when i am in the academe.” obtain more knowledge r6. “it would help me feel confident whenever i teach my students, because i am not just a bachelor's degree holder but also one step higher” “additional learning and achievement as a teacher.” feel confident with knowledge acquired r7. “it would be nice if i gained more knowledge than them in terms of educational status as this will empower us.” being empowered with knowledge fgd2. “one important reason for my studies now is that i’ve learned a lot that is a great help to my career as a teacher.” learnings as aid to career fgd3. “not to brag, but i can see that i’m growing in my career by studying for my master’s. i’ve learned many things that i hadn’t encountered in my undergraduate studies, so it’s a big help to my career.” growing in learning pa ge 14 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 132-145, 2024 r1. “i really want to be permanent in my employment.” permanent as main motivator path to permanence r3. “improving the process of the designated office under my watch, i don’t want to be selfish or something, but i want to take advantage of my hard work by getting the permanent position.” reaping the word through permanence r4. “as a family-oriented woman, i need this job security to feed my family, and one way to assure the flow of finances is to secure a permanent position.” job security assures finances r6. “for my job, since it is the minimum requirement for me to be permanent in this job, then i must say, completing my master's degree is a must.” meeting job requirement fgd1. “of course, first and foremost, i need to finish my master’s so that i can become permanent and not have to worry anymore.” free from worry fgd3. “the goal and motivation is really to finish so that my position will no longer be posted. i can get a permanent plantilla item.” fgd 4. “of course, it’s really important to finish so that the item will truly be mine, and it won’t be posted or replaced.” theme 7: knowledge as power throughout their academic experiences, suc instructors highlight the importance of knowledge in fostering confidence. (r1) the instructor acknowledges the need for more knowledge to feel confident in the classroom. similarly, the instructor (r4) emphasizes how a master’s degree provides a crucial boost in knowledge and understanding, which is essential for thriving within the academic environment. (r6) builds on this by directly linking increased knowledge to a feeling of confidence while teaching. instructors view it as additional learning and achievement, empowering them in the classroom (r7, fgd2, & fgd3). conclusively, suc instructors see gaining more knowledge as empowerment, potentially leading to a stronger position within the educational system. teachers pursuing a master’s degree face challenges related to knowledge and skill development (sarigoz, 2022; billet, 2022; journell & tolbert, 2016). this pursuit might be driven by a need for achievement (nach) in mcclelland’s theory. however, the challenges can be significant. for instance, instructors seeking to enhance their subject matter expertise (stotko et al., 2005, as cited by journell & tolbert, 2016) might be motivated by this need for achievement yet struggle to keep up with the ever-evolving educational landscape. effective programs that address both knowledge gaps and practical skills like critical thinking and technology integration (sadeghi et al., 2021; niess & gillow-wiles, 2016) can ultimately help instructors achieve their academic goals and become more effective educators (daumiller et al., 2019). theme 8: path to permanence the pursuit of a master’s degree among suc instructors is heavily influenced by the desire for job security, as evidenced by their experiences. statements like “i really want to be permanent in my employment” (r1) and “need to finish my master’s so i can become permanent” (fgd1) directly express the anxiety of impermanent positions and the longing for stability. this motivation extends beyond personal well-being, as in statements like “improving the process... i want to take advantage of my hard work by getting the permanent position” (r3). here, the instructor connects job security with the ability to make a lasting impact on their role. furthermore, comments like “as a family-oriented woman, i need this job security to feed my family” (r4) highlight the critical role a permanent position plays in financial stability and family support. interestingly, statement (r6) offers a complementary perspective. it acknowledges the master’s degree as an external requirement enforced by the institution to achieve permanency. job security for college teachers, particularly those on teaching tracks, is a complex issue with multifaceted benefits. research by lamos (2016) highlights the importance of job security in promoting fair working conditions and academic freedom, which can be particularly motivating for instructors who are high in mcclelland’s need for achievement (nach). studies by colak and altinkurt (2022) further emphasize the negative impact of job insecurity on teachers’ well-being. knowing they have a permanent position (achieved through tenure) can alleviate these anxieties and allow instructors to focus on their teaching and research with less stress. while tenure systems face criticisms (zhang & horta, 2023), the sense of security they provide aligns with the needs of many instructors and ultimately contributes to a more supportive academic environment (shoss et al., 2022). conclusion suc instructors pursuing graduate degrees face many challenges, including workload overload, job security concerns, and financial strain. individual needs for achievement, affiliation, or power can exacerbate these. however, effective interventions can be designed to address these challenges. tailored programs offering time management strategies, fostering support networks, and providing financial aid can alleviate stress and promote well-being. additionally, graduate programs that bridge pa ge 14 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 132-145, 2024 knowledge gaps while equipping instructors with practical skills can empower them to succeed as academics and educators. ultimately, institutions can cultivate a more qualified and thriving faculty by creating a supportive environment that addresses both the challenges and needs of suc instructors. this study lays the groundwork for future research that can comprehensively explore the experiences faced by suc instructors pursuing graduate degrees. quantitative data on workload, stress, and job security concerns can be gathered through surveys. additionally, research based on mcclelland’s needs theory could identify instructors’ specific needs. the effectiveness of counseling strategies like time management or support groups needs to be evaluated to determine the most helpful interventions. longitudinal studies tracking instructors’ careers can reveal the long-term impact of graduate degrees. comparative studies across universities can identify best practices regarding financial aid, workload expectations, and tenure requirements. finally, research on the potential impact of instructor well-being on student learning outcomes can inform strategies for supporting instructors and students for a more positive learning environment. references abarca, m., & santos, j. 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(2023). research agendas and job dissatisfaction among hong kong academics. higher education, 85(1), 103-122. https://doi. org/10.1007/s10734-022-00824-w pa ge 1 pa ge 14 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) comparing writing speed and quantity with sign pens and ballpoint pens: an experimental analysis chris shantana siton1*, shaenly christell bao1, angel micah rejas1, bea athena cabang1, claire lynn b. culajara1 volume 3 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v3i1.4190 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: december 09, 2024 accepted: january 11, 2025 published: january 31, 2025 this study investigated the impact of sign pens and ballpoint pens on writing performance, with a focus on writing speed and quantity. participants of the study were 20 college students who took part in a within-subject experiment, rewriting a 587-word story under controlled conditions with both pen types. writing speed was assessed in words per minute, and the total quantity of words was recorded as well. statistical tools, such as paired sample t-test and wilcoxon rank test in which results show for speed of writing is that sign pens significantly outperformed the ballpoint pen (p = 0.004, d = 0.740) as well as for the quantity of writing which also revealed great amount of effect (p = 0.020, d = 1.00). both writing speed and quantity revealed significant difference when using sign pens than ballpoint pens. these finding are beneficial for students, educators, and pen makers, highlighting the significance of ergonomic and effective pen designs in academic fields. future studies should look into additional variables including grip comfort, hand fatigue, and writing clarity to better understand the function of writing tools in academic performance. keywords ballpoint pen, quantity, sign pen, speed, writing 1 university of mindanao digos college, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: chrisshantanasiton@gmail.com introduction the right pen is more than simply a choice; it is the engine that drives your writing performance. the impacts of writing tools on performances seem to be the area of interest in lots of educational studies. while the choice of pen might be that insignificant, current studies that were conducted indicated that there are some considerable impacts on writing speed and quantity of writing among individuals. those types of pens also hold an important impact in writing performance. high-quality writing develops not only through mastery of writing, but also from clear structure and meaning. effective writing expresses the author’s intended meaning and is appropriate for the target audience and environment (graham, 2021). the choice of writing tools can influence that clarity as well as accuracy of information. a suitable pen improves the comprehension of the writing, making the intended message more accessible and compelling for the audience. in contrast, an inappropriate pen could hinder the flexibility and readability of the writing, influencing how well the meaning is conveyed. it was considered that the writing performance of a pen was assessed not only by the pen design but also by the tip and ink components. an inappropriate pen especially those pens that have a poor ink-flow, can hinder writing performance by having a negative impact on the writing experiences (hase, 2022). in such languages that need intricate strokes, particularly in writing chinese, the shape, size and weight of writing speed comfort affects writing efficiency of it (micunovic, 2020). pen designs specifically in the grip section, it keeps the pen stable and under control while writing, and the ink type, which helps to keep the ink from smudging and enables the user to move quickly across the page (peter warrior: pen & pencil expert, 2023). these features are essential to those individuals who are engaging in extended writing task, as a well-designed grip reduces hand fatigue and provides more significant handwriting consistency. this emphasizes that it stands out for their unique qualities and versatility that both serve the same fundamental purpose which brings distinct personalities to the act of writing. in some cases, the writing style of the ballpoint pen and the ink’s rheology differ from those of the sign pen. the study revealed that certain pen designs, specifically those with a cross-section, were chosen by the participants mainly because of their comfort and speed leading to a more effective writing. on the other hand, those pens that had a triangular design were less comfortable to use. it was concluded that pen designs really have a relevant factor that adds to the writing proficiency of an individual (hase, 2022). in selecting a pen for fast handwriting, the most essential factors are smooth ink flow and quick drying times. ballpoint pens usually have a thicker, oil-based ink that dries fast but requires more pressure to write. primarily due to ballpoint’s simple design, it does not cost that much which is why it is commonly used in educational settings, but it requires a lot of effort and pressure that leads to fatigue when writing. inexpensive ballpoint pens may have inconsistent ink flow, making writing unpleasant and uncomfortable while they perform best on smoother paper. gel pens, on the other hand, employ water-based ink that is smoother and more fluid to write with. gel pens’ ink dries faster than ballpoint ink, increasing speed and reducing smearing, making it an excellent alternative for those who need to write quickly (reynolds, 2024). the various kinds of pens have been widely connected with educational purposes. to compare their writing pa ge 15 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 14-19, 2025 performance, particularly the cost and efficiency of sign pens with ballpoint pens, it is necessary to investigate how these two universal writing tools are used. ballpoint pens have grown in popularity among customers since they are substantially less expensive than sign pens and use less air pressure to transfer ink onto paper (lee et al., 2023). however, since its introduction in 1984, gel pens have grown in popularity due to qualities like a smooth writing experience, quick-drying ink, ecologically friendly components, and brilliant, long-lasting color (ni et al., 2020). sign pens remain widespread due to their smooth ink flow and ability to produce clear, bold lines. their practical application and professional design make them essential instruments in both educational and professional settings, influencing writing efficiency and overall performance. there are studies that tend to believe that it is all about gripping force in a pen, however, children who have been shown to have obvious gripping issues from a kinematic standpoint may be candidates for direct grip intervention. children may be asked to modify their manipulation and grip manner as needed (lin et al., 2022). many individuals have different ways to grip in handwriting performance. researchers have proposed the use of various parameters, such as grip-to-grip ratio, which refers to the pattern of force applied from the grip and pen tip, and variations in the amount of force, which represent the stability of the force applied over time, in addition to directly using force to describe the amount of force applied to the act of writing. these parameters aim to demonstrate how force behave when applied by digits (lin et al., 2022). other studies focus on another aspect, such as gripping, that can affect the writing skills of an individual. however, this study focuses on another aspect, such as how the type of writing can affect the writing speed and quantity. writing tools have significant effects on students’ academic performance for a reason that they affect how quick and effective human finish writing tasks. some studies shown that writing performance sometimes vary in different types of pen that is used during the task. some scholars believe that because of new technological advancements and creative instructional methods that are constantly changing instruction, education in the twentyfirst century is more dynamic than it was in the past (mokhetsengoane & pallai, 2023). knowing how various pen kinds affect writing performance is essential as it enables students to choose appropriate tools for the task at hand. students are given a variety of assessments to determine their comprehension of the subjects and ideas covered in the lessons they must study and write, as well as to help teachers enhance their methods and materials for the teaching-learning process. for this reason, educators keep searching for efficient methods to gauge their students’ performance (cristobal, 2022). this study aims to highlight how pen choice affects writing speed and quantity, providing valuable insights for educators, students, pen manufacturers, and future researchers in fostering improved academic outcomes. research objectives this study examines college students who use ballpoint pens to those who use other types of pens to determine the speed and quantity of words they have written. using the data collected from 20 college students, this research aims to answer these following questions: 1) does the type of pen influence the writing speed among college students? 2) does the type of pen affect the quantity of writing among students? 3) is there a significant difference in writing performance between two types of pens? materials and methods the participants of this study were college students (n=20). all of the participants are first-year students of a school in davao region. all of the participants that are convenient at the scheduled time of the experiment have experienced both of the experimental variable. the participants are mixed male and female that ages 18-23 years old. instrument a story posted in brainly, an educational website, was used for the participants to rewrite using both sign pens and ballpoint pens. all of the participants rewrite the same story in order to have consistency and uniformity in writing, in order to minimize the variability in the data that is being collected for both pens. the participants were given 10-minutes to rewrite a 5-paragraph story that consist of 587 words. the writing speed was measured by the quotient of how many words the participants rewrote per minute and how long the participants took the task (number of words/ minutes). the writing speed was measured by scale that is based on how many words they have rewritten on a given time; 1 (very slow) if the participants rewrite only 0-60 words, 2 (slow) if the participants rewrite 61-120 words, 3 (neutral) if 121-180 words were rewritten, 4 (fast) if 181-240 words, and 5 (very fast) if 241-587 were finished. the data collected for writing speed and quantity of writing that was written using sign pens and ballpoints was compared using the paired sample t-test since both of the data collected using sign pens and ballpoint pens came from the same participants. in data analysis, cohen’s d was used for measuring writing speed for both pens since the data that is collected was normal. however, for the quantity of writing, the data shows that it deviates from the normal distribution. therefore, the wilcoxon rank was utilized. procedure and design this study has two independent variables: sign pen and ballpoint pen. it utilizes a within-subject design. all of the participants will experience both pens when rewriting the story. participants are asked to rewrite words from the story provided by the researchers. the data collected for pa ge 16 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 14-19, 2025 sign pens and ballpoint pens are analyzed using a paired sample t-test to compare the difference between them. in the first part of the experiment, the participants are ensured that they have enough space and are comfortable in their writing area. it is also ensured that the testing environment was well-ventilated and is free from noise. after ensuring the participants comfortability, the researchers then proceed on introducing the study’s purpose and objectives. they were also notified about the things they need to do, and that they have to rewrite within 10-minutes per pen. next, in the second part, after ensuring that the participants understand the things they need to do, the 10-minutes timer started. the participants then proceed to rewriting the words that is indicated in the provided story using the ballpoint pen first. then after the timer goes off the participants are given enough time to rest their hands to minimize the error that might occur due to the participants worn-out hands. in the final part of the experiment, the participants were then rewriting the content of the story using the sign pen with the same environmental condition, that is comfortable and noise free. after the 10-minutes, the sheets that participants rewrite on were collected to compare the results of sign pens and ballpoint pens. this study uses quasi-experimental research design with a within-subject research approach to assess the difference between sign pens and ballpoint pens in terms of writing speed and quantity. this study utilizes quasi-experimental research design considering that participants are not randomly selected for what condition they are assigned to. quasi-experimental research design is used to assess the impact of an intervention in settings when random assignment is not feasible. while it incorporates comparison groups to evaluate outcomes, the absence of randomization presents limitation in controlling for potential errors (handley et al., 2018). additionally, all of the participants make use of the same condition at the same time. along with this, a within-subjects approach is also utilized, where each participant experience both of the pens this is to reduce variability in the results collected. this approach is used for smaller participants which allow researcher to control individual differences and reduced the cost while conducting the study (simply psychology, 2023). combination of the two allow the results to reduce its variability and possible errors that may occur for it enables the participants to experience all of the condition, experiencing sign pens as well as for ballpoint pens, at the same moment of time with the same environmental condition. results and discussions speed of writing table 1 shows the normality of the data for writing speed. it was assessed using a shapiro-wilk test. the test results showed no significant departure from normality, w=0.974, p=0.834. the results indicates that the assumptions of normality were not violated for this variable. table 1: normality test (shapiro-wilk) w p speed of sign pen – speed of ballpoint pen 0.974 0.834 table 2 shows the descriptive statistics for speed of writing that revealed higher mean of sign pen m=20.5 (sd=4.52, se=1.011) than in ballpoint pens m=19.3 (sd=3.99, 0.892). the results indicates that the participants wrote faster when using sign pens. this suggests that the sign pens speed up the writing compared to the ballpoint pens. each condition has 20 participants (n=20). table 2: descriptives of writing speed n mean median sd se speed of sign pen 20 20.5 19.9 4.52 1.011 speed of ballpoint pen 20 19.3 18.6 3.99 0.892 table 3: paired samples t-test statistic df p effect size speed of sign pen speed of ballpoint pen student’s t 3.31 19.0 0.004 cohen’s d 0.740 table 3 shows the result for paired sample t-test that was used to determine if there are difference in terms of speed of writing between sign pen and ballpoint pen. results revealed that the writing speed using sign pen (m=20.5, sd=4.52) was significantly higher compared to the scores obtained of the ballpoint pen (m=19.3, sd=3.99, t(19) = 3.31 p=0.004 , d=0.74.). with these results, it can be argued that the sign pen may have a significant and considerable impact on the speed of writing within a span of ten minutes. in which, the decision was made to reject the null hypothesis. quantity of words written table 4 shows the normality test for quantity of words written. in which the shapiro-wilk test was conducted to find the normality of the data. for the quantity of words pa ge 17 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 14-19, 2025 written, the results revealed a significant deviation from normality, w=0.580, p=<.001. the results indicates that the assumption of normality deviates significantly from normal distribution. table 4: normality test (shapiro-wilk) w p quantity of sign pen – quantity of ballpoint pen 0.580 <.001 table 5 shows the descriptive statistics of quantity of words written, which revealed that the mean of sign pens was m=3.90 (sd=0.788, se=0.176), while the mean for the ballpoint pens was m=3.60 (sd=0.681, se=0.152). the results indicate that the participants wrote a greater quantity of words when using the sign pen compared to the ballpoint pen. this highlights that the sign pen can produce a greater quantity of words written than ballpoint pen. all of the data collected from both of the condition gathered from 20 participants (n=20). table 5: descriptives of quantity of words written n mean median sd se quantity of sign pen 20 3.90 4.00 0.788 0.176 quantity of ballpoint pen 20 3.60 3.50 0.681 0.152 table 6 shows the results of paired sample t-test, which aimed to investigate whether there is a difference in the quantity of words written between using sign pen and ballpoint pen. the findings indicated that the quantity of words written using sign pen (m=3.90, sd=0.788) was significantly higher than that with the ballpoint pen (m=3.60, sd=0.681, w=21.0 p=0.020, d=1.00). these results suggest that the use of a sign pen could have a considerable and notable effect on the quantity of words written within a ten-minute frame. the decision was made to reject the null hypothesis. table 6: paired sample t-test statistic df p effect size quantity of sign pen quantity of ballpoint pen wilcoxon w 21.0 ᵃ 0.020 rank biserial correlation 1.00 discussion the objective of this study is to identify if sign pens differ from the ballpoint pens in terms of writing speed and quantity of words written. along with the controlled environment and a with-in subject design, the result reveals significant difference (p=0.004; es= 0.740) which signifies almost large difference in speed between both pens. additionally, it also reveals the significant the significant difference in the quantity of writing (p= 0.020, es = 1.00) with large effect size. one of the reasons is because the ink streak texture of the ballpoint pen is not as smooth as the sign pens (lee et al., 2023b). sign pens quality differs from the ballpoint pens, in cases of ink stroke, comfortability, light weight and ink quality. in a study conducted by moore and buzzini (2020), about analyzing the difference between strokes of pens that it reveals that it is hard to identify which of those strokes are sign pens and ballpoint pens, showing little to no difference between sign pens and ballpoint pens. however, participants who used sign pens wrote at a faster pace and with more than those who used ballpoint pens. this is in line with previous studies, which found that gel pens and sign pens provide smoother and faster writing due to their fluid ink flow and lower resistance compared to ballpoint pens’ thicker ink (peter warrior: pen & pencil expert, 2023). furthermore, another study found that pens with faster ink flow gave a far smoother writing experience by significantly minimizing hand fatigue, making them helpful for tasks, particularly long writing work (lee et al., 2023). similarly, another study shown that ink composition and flow have a considerable impact on writing performance, with smoother ink types lowering hand fatigue during long-term writing jobs. these findings support the premises that, due to their design and ink qualities, sign pens are better suited for long-term and high-pressure writing tasks (linc_seo, 2024). these studies show evidence that sign pens are more comfortable and efficient in writing compared to ballpoint pens due to their physical qualities and smooth stroke when using. the study’s findings are consistent with the findings of other studies, which stated that rollerball pens with similar ink flow to sign pens outperformed ballpoint pens in terms of writing speed as well as satisfaction among users. however, there are some discrepancies in the endurance and dependability of ballpoint pens compared smoother ink types in adverse conditions such as rough surfaces or extreme temperatures. the study revealed that the advantages of sign pens may be context-dependent, favoring smooth surfaces and regulated situations (sharif et al., 2019). however, in this study researchers conducted the experiment providing the participants smooth table pa ge 18 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 14-19, 2025 and comfortable space for writing, with similar pen each and a paper to write on, reducing the extraneous variables affecting the experiment’s result. the better quality of sign pens made the difference between ballpoint grow large in terms of writing speed and quantity of words written. this study has some limitation that can affect or change the result of this experiment if implemented. first, the time that the experiment has been done, since this experiment uses within-subject design it is possible that on the second condition, which is the sign pen, the participants are already experiencing fatigue and hand numbness due to exhaustion in which if it does not cause any errors the differences between sign pens and ballpoint pens grew larger. second, the use of pens is limited only in writing, researchers does not explore the application of pens in other writing surfaces or task, such as in artistic work or in note-taking. lastly, the researchers only use two specific brand of pen, other brands may also produce different kind of results. the result highlights the large difference between sign pens and ballpoint pens in terms of writing speed and quantity. this is beneficial to the writers for their preference in terms of writing tool to provide efficiency and productivity. this could also provide teachers and students a choice of pen when they are task to write long phrases that is needed to be done at a short period of time for a reason that sign pens are able to make the work done faster and more efficient compared to the ballpoint pens. it can also help pen manufacturers to decide which type of pen they will produce more in order to satisfy the costumers need for efficient and productive type of pen. it is also suggested for future researchers to look beyond the physical aspect of the pens, and analyze and study emotional and physical comfort the pens brings to the user that make them write faster in sign pens compared to ballpoint pens. it is also advised to broaden the range of the participants to find out if the result of this study is applicable to all. conclusion the study’s objective is to identify if there is a significant difference between sign pens and ballpoint pens in terms of writing speed and quantity of words written within the given time. after the experiment and analyzing the result, this study found out that sign pens can be distinguished from ballpoint pens performance in writing. this shows that sign pens are more efficient and provide productivity to the users for the reason that sign pens have more smooth strokes than ballpoint pens. this only proves that type of pen contributes to writing efficiency, such as writing speed and quantity. when doing a writing task, it is important to have writing tools that will lessen your time taken on completing it. this research will help users decide on which type of pen they need to use on the task that they are responsible. teachers, students, and writers can make this study beneficial to them in understanding the difference between sign pens and ballpoint pens and the efficiency of both pens brings. acknowledgements the completion of the research could not have been accomplished without the participation and cooperation of the people who willingly help us to be able to complete this research. our deepest gratitude to our family, friends, participants, adviser, institution and partner for their unending support and guidance in making this research experiment. references cristobal, j. (2022). test construction principles violated in selected summative tests in english. american journal of arts and human science, 1(2), 33–39. https:// doi.org/10.54536/ajahs.v1i2.317 graham, s. (2021). a walk through the landscape of writing: insights from a program of writing research. educational psychologist, 57(2), 55–72. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/00461520.2021.1951734 handley, m. a., lyles, c. r., mcculloch, c., & cattamanchi, a. (2018). selecting and improving quasi-experimental designs in effectiveness and implementation research. annual review of public health, 39(1), 5–25. https:// doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040617-014128 hase, a. (2022). evaluation of writing performance for different types of ballpoint pen ink by acoustic emission sensing. lubricants, 10(3), 44. https://doi. org/10.3390/lubricants10030044 lee, j., murad, s., & nikolov, a. (2023). ballpoint/rollerball pens: writing performance and evaluation. colloids and interfaces, 7(2), 29. https://doi.org/10.3390/ colloids7020029 lin, y.-c., hsu, c.-h., lin, c.-f., hsu, h.-y., liu, j.w., yeh, c.-h., & kuo, l.-c. (2022). pen-grip kinetics in children with and without handwriting difficulties. plos one, 17(6), e0270466. https:// doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0270466 linc_seo. (2024). ball pens: grip comfort, ink color, and writing style. linc. https://linclimited.com/ blog/bal l -pens-g r ip-comfor tink-color-andwriting-style/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&fbcl id=iwy2xjawhvrxzlehrua2flbqixmqab hbu1pyvd-bvpmqsq12aewzhu7tqzch uzuq4xqxcnwfroc59ike4fxl3qkw_aem_ xqc4hhule95uhurj0nwlbw micunovic, i. (2020, september 24). the art of chinese calligraphy. meer. https://www.meer.com/en/63496the-art-of-chinese-calligraphy mokhetsengoane, s. j., & pallai, p. (2023). effective teaching in the 21st century: investigating barriers and solutions from one university in assam, india. american journal of arts and human science, 2(1), 19–25. https://doi.org/10.54536/ajahs.v2i1.1390 moore, c., & buzzini, p. (2020). a review on poroustipped writing instruments: current market trends, properties, and analytical methodologies. journal of pa ge 19 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 14-19, 2025 the american society of questioned document examiners. https://journal.asqde.org/articles/267?_rsc=khg8o ni, y., he, n., lü, y., zou, n., song, h., li, h., & zhao, p. (2020). study of ink aging: targeting triethylene glycol in carbon-based black gel ink strokes on paper. forensic science international, 311, 110296. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2020.110296 warrior, p. (2023). speed writing essentials: choosing the perfect pen (2024). pen vibe. https://penvibe.com/speedwriting-essentials-choosing-the-perfect-pen/ warrior, p. (2023). the best 3 pens for fast handwriting. pen vibe. https://penvibe.com/the-best-3-pens-for-fasthandwriting/ reynolds. (2024). the best gel pen for smooth, fast, and smudgefree writing. reynolds. https://www.reynolds-pens. com/blogs/the-best-choice-for-smooth-fast-andsmudge-free-writing-reynolds-racer-gel/?fbclid=iw zxh0bgnhzw0cmteaar3b7hgy9isnghax2pt7 u9cvegsji5alu5jershs4akvuh8bh4kn8ixw46y_ aem_x9x4u7hclvoxkemlf5vrqw sharif, m., batool, m., chand, s., farooqi, z. h., tirmazi, s. a. a. s., & athar, m. (2019). forensic discrimination potential of blue, black, green, and red colored fountain pen inks commercially used in pakistan, by uv/visible spectroscopy, thin layer chromatography, and fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. international journal of analytical chemistry, 2019, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/5980967 simply psychology. (2023). within-subjects design: examples, pros & cons. https://www.simplypsychology.org/ within-subjects-design.html statistics solutions. (2024). paired sample t-test. statistics solutions. https://www.statisticssolutions.com/freeresources/directory-of-statistical-analyses/pairedsample-t-test pa ge 1 pa ge 30 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) an experimental analysis of empathy: comparing animal and human responses to emotional distress hanah bianca b. dacillo1*, sara g. camacho1, danzel dave v. tamara1, claire lynn b. culajara1 volume 3 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v3i1.4391 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: december 07, 2024 accepted: january 12, 2025 published: february 12, 2025 this study seeks to elaborate on the emotional response of humans towards other humans and animals. in these circumstances, a video presentation has been utilized as the source of the specific details that will be used in an assessment to be answered by the participants. to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the study, 20 college students were carefully selected. these participants were screened to exclude individuals with a history of traumatic experiences involving animals or humans, minimizing potential biases that could influence their emotional responses. a paired sample t-test was utilized since the researchers used a within-subject design. the p-value of 0.001 is below the threshold of 0.05. this signifies a statistically significant difference in empathy scores between the two groups, with participants exhibiting greater empathy towards animals than humans, as indicated by the positive t-statistic. based on these findings, the null hypothesis was rejected, stating no difference in empathy scores between humans and animals. keywords animal, emotional distress, empathy, human 1 department of arts and sciences, psychology, university of mindanao digos college, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: h.dacillo.61685.dc@umindanao.edu.ph introduction do humans feel more empathy for animals or their fellow humans? empathy refers to the capacity to emotionally resonate with the feelings of others, encompassing feelings of sympathy and concern. according to gamble et al. (2024), empathy is a core aspect of human social cognition that plays an essential role in social interactions and is, therefore, integral to our emotional well-being. the growing connection between humans and animals has prompted researchers to explore the links between empathy towards other humans and empathy towards animals. moral philosophers, including kant, have long suggested that there is a positive correlation between compassion for animals (human-animal empathy) and compassion for people (human-human empathy) (cardoso et al., 2022). it is generally thought that individuals who possess a high level of empathy towards humans are likely to extend that empathy to animals as well, meaning they can emotionally relate to the feelings of animals. for example, people who exhibit violence towards animals and show low levels of empathy towards them may also show similar aggressive behavior and lack of empathy towards humans. while human-centered and animal-centered empathy is based on similar psychological processes, they are distinct and affected by different influences. research indicates that pet owners tend to show greater empathy towards animals but may exhibit lower empathy towards humans than those without pets. furthermore, a correlation between humanand animal-centered empathy was noted among those who adopted a pet, but not in those who gave one up. this suggests that while human-centered empathy can be connected to animal-centered empathy, they are fundamentally different (giacomin et al., 2023). past studies on empathy have produced varying results. some research emphasizes more intense emotional reactions towards animals, whereas other studies concentrate on empathy for other humans. these differing results raise interesting questions about the essence of human empathy. a study by gómez-leal et al. (2021) examined the connection between emotional intelligence (ei) and compassion for both people and animals, and their research showed that human and animal empathy are positively correlated. while the association between ei and empathy for animals depended on the participants’ prior experience with pets, the results also supported the notion that ei is favorably connected to empathy for people. another study by gu et al. (2024) investigates the triadic relationships between pro-animal sentiments, empathy for animals, and empathy for humans using a cross-sectional survey approach indicating that (a) higher frequency and quality of contact with companion animals significantly predicted more empathy with humans and other animals as well as more positive attitudes toward animals; (b) older participants exhibited more empathy with humans than younger participants, but younger participants exhibited more empathy with animals than older participants; (c) empathy with animals fully mediated the relationship between attitudes toward animals and empathy with humans. and lastly, a study by faner et al. (2024) that investigates the link between pet attachment, animal empathy, and prosocial view towards humans, proposes that animal empathy mediates the relationship between pet attachment and prosocial views. while empathy for both humans and animals has been extensively studied, there is a gap in research regarding how distressing situations specifically impact people’s empathy toward humans vs. animals. our study aims to assess participants’ emotional states before the pa ge 31 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 30-33, 2025 experiment to control for personal biases that may influence their responses. an experiment on empathy towards animals versus humans in response to distressing videos could reveal how emotional reactions differ based on the subject’s species, offering insights into the factors influencing empathy in emotionally charged situations. this research could inform strategies to enhance empathy in educational, therapeutic, and advocacy contexts, highlighting the role of emotional stimuli in shaping compassionate behavior toward both humans and animals. this study seeks to elaborate on the emotional response of humans towards other humans and animals. in these circumstances, a video presentation has been utilized as the source of the specific details that will be used on an assessment to be answered by the participants to answer the following questions: 1. does the student’s empathy lean more on the wellbeing of animals or humans? 2. is there a significant difference in the level of empathy between humans and animals? 3. does the distressing situation have a significant impact on the student’s empathy? it aims to explore how experiencing a distressing situation affects individuals’ empathy towards both animals and humans. by assessing participants’ emotional reactions and empathy levels when they observe the suffering of either group, the research seeks to uncover the influence of distress on empathetic responses across different species. ultimately, this research endeavors to enhance the understanding of the relationship between distress and empathy in interactions between humans and animals. the study offers significant insights into human psychology ethics, and social behavior. by understanding how humans emotionally respond to different beings, researchers can uncover valuable information that can be applied to various fields. the findings could provide valuable insights for understanding the nature of empathy: such as comparing emotional responses to humans and animals, ethical implications, psychological insights, educational applications, animal welfare, public health, and environmental conservations. materials and methods participants the participants in this study consisted of 20 college students from diverse academic years, courses, and genders, selected through purposive sampling. a preassessment was conducted to ensure that participants had no prior traumatic experiences related to the death or abuse of a pet or loved one, nor had they witnessed or experienced human cruelty. this screening was implemented to eliminate potential biases that might affect the study’s outcomes. instrument the researchers used an empathy towards animal scale with 11 items using a fivepoint scale, as well as the perspective-taking scale and the emphatic concern scale with seven items each also utilizing a five-point scale that assesses the level of empathy participants feel toward both animals and humans. procedure and design this study uses an experimental design with a withinsubjects approach. in this experiment, the same participants are exposed to varying conditions to observe how they respond to emotional distress in both humans and animals. this approach helps minimize the influence of individual differences, as each subject reacts to both human and animal emotional distress scenarios. additionally, by lowering subject variability, the withinsubjects design enhances the reliability of the results. while keeping an effective and controlled structure, this experimental design enables a more thorough understanding of empathy across species. before the research begins, the space will be carefully set up to be peaceful, quiet, and distraction-free, and each participant will have a comfortable seat. all required equipment, such as computers, speakers, and projectors, will be meticulously set up beforehand to avoid any technological disturbances. the first step in the procedure is recruiting volunteers, who are then given a preassessment to see if they are a good fit for the research. to preserve the integrity of the study by using deceit, 20 qualified college students will be chosen following the evaluation and provided a brief summary of the research, purposefully leaving out the title and purpose. every participant will be asked for informed permission, guaranteeing they are completely aware of the work at hand and the dangers and advantages involved. this thorough planning and ethical consideration will make a successful and scientifically sound study possible. once the participants are settled, they will receive a brief overview of the study’s objectives, with the purposeful use of deception to ensure the collection of genuine emotional responses. the introduction will include a casual greeting, such as, “hello everyone! good afternoon/morning! we’re excited to have you here today for our study. you’ll be watching a short video featuring some scenarios of humans and animals in their daily lives. it will only take about 10 minutes of your time. so during the video, we kindly ask that you put your phones down and enjoy the video fully. afterward, we’d love for you to share your thoughts by completing a quick questionnaire. thank you so much for being here and for your cooperation!” afterward, the lights will be turned off to create a calm atmosphere for the viewing session, where participants will watch a compilation of videos featuring both human and animal hardships, as well as neutral and positive scenarios. once the video ends, each participant will complete a test questionnaire measuring their emotional responses, guided by the researchers. finally, participants will be thoroughly debriefed on the study’s true purpose and given the opportunity to ask any questions they may have. pa ge 32 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 30-33, 2025 ethical considerations participants will receive an informed consent form before the study begins. this form will explain the purpose of the research, the procedures involved, and any potential risks. participants must sign this form before taking part in the study. to protect confidentiality, all collected data will be kept anonymous, and no identifying information will be shared. participation in the study is completely voluntary, and participants have the right to withdraw at any time without facing any penalties. after the study concludes, participants will be debriefed about the true purpose of the research and will have the opportunity to ask any questions they may have. results and discussion results a shapiro-wilk test was conducted to assess the normality of the data for empathy on animals and humans. the results indicated no significant deviation from normality for both conditions (w = 0.965, p = 0.643), suggesting that the normality assumption was not violated for either variable. table 1: normality test (shapiro-wilk) w p empathy on animals empathy on humans 0.965 0.643 note. a low p-value suggests a violation of the assumption of normality table 2: descriptives n mean median sd se empathy on humans 20 49.4 48.5 3.42 0.766 empathy on animals 20 45.9 46.0 4.30 0.962 table 3: paired sample t-test statistic df p effect size empathy on empathy on student’s 3.72 19.0 0.001 cohen’s d 0.831 animals humans t note. hₐ μ measure 1 measure 2 ≠ 0 descriptive statistics revealed that the mean score for empathy in humans was m = 49.4 (sd = 3.42, se = 0.766), while the mean score for empathy on animals was m = 45.9 (sd = 4.30, se = 0.962). the median scores for empathy in animals and humans were 48.5 and 46.0, respectively. each condition included n = 20 participants. this study was carried out to examine the differences in empathy levels for humans compared to animals. a paired sample t-test was employed due to the within subject design used by the researchers. the p-value of 0.001 is below the threshold of 0.05. this signifies a statistically significant difference in empathy scores between the two groups, with participants exhibiting greater empathy towards animals than humans, as indicated by the positive t-statistic. cohen’s d value of 0.831 reflects a large effect size, suggesting that the distinction in empathy scores between animals and humans is considerable. on these findings, the null hypothesis, which stated that there is no difference in empathy scores between humans and animals, was rejected. discussion this study analyzed the empathy between humans and animals and found a significant difference between the two groups, as indicated by the paired sample ttest (p=0.001). statistical analysis supported this significant difference, suggesting that humans have a greater empathy for animals, as cameron et al. (2022) point out that people appear to sympathize with animal suffering but ignore it when it conflicts with human interests, and faner et al. (2024) suggest that pets can serve as both a stable base and a safe haven, offering reliable comfort and being sought after in times of distress, which may contribute to greater empathy for animals. stronger pet bonds are associated with more empathy for animals, which in turn leads to more prosocial views of people. research from a variety of demographic groups has confirmed this link, showing that emotional attachment to dogs fosters compassionate behavior (front psychol, 2024). furthermore, prato-previde et al. (2022) research shows that people’s characteristics—like their personalities, attitudes, empathy, attachment styles, and beliefs about the mental capacities of animals—have a big impact on how people see, treat, and care for animals. this result is consistent with another study by barklam et al. (2024) that shows parents are more empathetic toward people than people without children. such related studies help explain the observed increase in empathy towards animals, particularly among participants who are young college students ranging from 18 to 23 years old. this study may possess certain limitations due to the exclusion of participants with traumatic experiences, which could have constrained the diversity of empathy responses captured. additionally, the research did not pa ge 33 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 30-33, 2025 adequately consider the cultural and societal factors that influence perspectives on animal welfare, potentially leading to a skewed interpretation of the findings. future researchers are encouraged to broaden the scope of their studies by incorporating a more diverse and representative population. continuous research is essential to deepen the understanding of human empathy, particularly concerning the relationships between humans and other animals. additionally, it is recommended that the emotional responses of participants be assessed by varying the intensity of video presentations and contrasting neutral content with distressing imagery. this approach may yield more nuanced insights into the emotional dynamics at play. conclusion this research aimed to explore the differences in levels of empathy between humans and animals, concentrating on how distressing situations affect emotional reactions. the results indicated that participants showed significantly greater empathy toward animals than humans, as evidenced by a paired sample t-test (t = 3.72, p = 0.001) and a substantial effect size (cohen’s d = 0.831). these findings imply that although empathy is a common emotional experience across species, individuals, especially younger adults, tend to respond more intensely to animals in distressing circumstances. the results are consistent with earlier studies that emphasize the impact of emotional connections, like those established through owning pets, on empathetic reactions. these findings highlight the need to comprehend how personal experiences, personality characteristics, and cultural elements affect differences in empathy. nevertheless, the research’s omission of individuals with trauma and its insufficient attention to cultural influences could have limited its applicability. the findings have significant implications for fields like psychology, education, and advocacy for animal welfare. they highlight the necessity of specific interventions aimed at building empathy in different settings, which encourages caring actions toward both people and animals. upcoming studies should aim to include a wider demographic and experiment with different levels of emotional impact in order to gain a deeper insight into the intricacies of empathy. this could result in more effective methods for nurturing emotional bonds between species and improving overall societal health. references barklam, e. b., & felisberti, f. m. (2024). the influence of pet owners’ empathy on perceptions of dog and cat distress vocalizations and caregiving behaviors. journal of applied animal welfare science, 1-15. cameron, c. d., lengieza, m. l., hadjiandreou, e., swim, j. k., & chiles, r. m. (2022). empathic choices for animals versus humans: the role of choice context and perceived cost. the journal of social psychology, 162(1), 161-177. cardoso, s. d., faraco, c. b., de sousa, l., & pereira, g. d. g. (2022). empathy with humans and with non-human animals: are there differences between individuals who have adopted and those who have relinquished a pet? journal of veterinary behavior, 49, 46-52. davis, m. h. (1983). measuring individual differences in empathy: evidence for a multidimensional approach. journal of personality and social psychology, 44(1), 113. does, w. (2015). measuring empathy: collaborative assessment project (mecap). faner, j. m. v., dalangin, e. a. r., de leon, l. a. t. c., francisco, l. d., sahagun, y. o., & acoba, e. f. (2024). pet attachment and prosocial attitude toward humans: the mediating role of empathy to animals. frontiers in psychology, 15, 1391606. gamble, r. s., henry, j. d., decety, j., & vanman, e. j. (2024). the role of external factors in affect-sharing and their neural bases. neuroscience & biobehavioral reviews, 105540. giacomin, m., johnston, e. e., & legge, e. l. (2023). exploring narcissism and humanand animal-centered empathy in pet owners. frontiers in psychology, 14, 1087049. gómez-leal, r., costa, a., megías-robles, a., fernándezberrocal, p., & faria, l. (2021). relationship between emotional intelligence and empathy towards humans and animals. peerj, 9, e11274. gu, x., xie, l., & bexell, s. m. (2024). the link between attitudes toward animals and empathy with humans in china: mediation of empathy with animals. anthrozoös, 37(1), 75-88. prato-previde, e., basso ricci, e., & colombo, e. s. (2022). the complexity of the human–animal bond: empathy, attachment and anthropomorphism in human–animal relationships and animal hoarding. animals, 12(20), 2835. pa ge 1 pa ge 11 4 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) the social comparison trap: association between fear of missing out (fomo) and self-esteem in college students claudine jade p. abellana1*, angela marie h. mendez1, gerlie mae v. subido1, claire lynn culajara1 volume 2 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v2i1.2807 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: may 12, 2024 accepted: june 10, 2024 published: june 15, 2024 fear of missing out (fomo) is an internalized belief that others may experience valuable events which one feels excluded. this study delves into the connection between fear of missing out (fomo) and self-esteem of students. its objectives include understanding the demographic makeup, levels of fomo, and self-esteem among students, and examining the correlation between fomo and self-esteem. validated scales were used to gauge fomo and self-esteem, employing descriptive-correlational research design implemented. this study involved 350 students, offering insights into their experiences with fomo and self-esteem. the results indicate that the students experience moderate levels of fomo, both in private and social contexts, alongside moderate levels of self-esteem, with signs of disagreement in self-competence and self-liking. spearman’s rho correlation analysis highlights a significant positive correlation between fomo and self-esteem, suggesting that higher self-esteem may be associated with slightly greater fomo experiences. the researchers recommend exploring potential mediating factors in the self-esteem and fomo relationship, such as social media addiction or personality traits keywords fomo, selfesteem, social comparison, student 1 department of arts and sciences psychology program, university of mindanao digos college digos city, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: cjadeabellana@gmail.com introduction the profound need for social connection marked by shared experiences is inherent to the human experience, present from infancy, and transcends the realm of social media platforms (mazlum & atalay, 2022). however, the constant accessibility of social media through portable devices has significantly expanded the avenues for connecting with others and sharing gratifying moments (fuster et al., 2017). young adults, especially, dedicate much of their time to social media for communication and interaction. despite its revolutionary impact on accessibility and interaction compared to any other point in history, this hyper-social phenomenon also presents negative consequences (parvaeiz et al., 2023). while online social media platforms facilitate the maintenance of social relationships, they can also become breeding grounds for social comparison, influencing selfworth (reyes, 2023). this propensity for social comparison arises from the unique affordance of social media, which allows users to browse and scroll through the lives of others without having to engage in social interactions (joinson, 2008; pempek et al., 2009). these platforms often showcase idealized versions of reality, presenting fertile ground for social comparison. as a result, research suggests social media use can trigger anxiety, loneliness, depression, and sensitivity to exclusion, along with poorer academic performance and overall well-being (alabri, 2022). consequently, a growing body of research views the fear of missing out (fomo) as a byproduct of social media, hypothesizing that scrolling through feeds intensifies these feelings (alabri, 2022; buglass et al., 2017; lai et al., 2016; yin et al., 2019). the philippines stands out for its pervasive social media culture. statistics indicate the philippines boasts one of the highest internet penetration rates in the asia-pacific region, with filipinos averaging 10 hours daily spent online, from social media engagement to streaming services and online gaming (statista, 2023). as of january 2024, internet users in the philippines reached 86.98 million, representing 73.6% of the population (datareportal, 2024). furthermore, the highest concentration of social media users lies within the 18– 24 age group (napoleoncat, 2024). this intense social media engagement raises concerns about the prevalence of fear of missing out (fomo), according to research by alutaybi et al. (2020). emerging in 2004, the concept of fear of missing out (fomo) encapsulates the internalized belief that others are experiencing valuable events or opportunities, leading to feelings of exclusion (sa’id & dewi, 2022). interestingly, this contemporary term reflects a fundamental human need: the desire for social connection and fulfilling experiences, evident from the earliest stages of life (fuster et al., 2017). fomo represents a unique concept specific to the social media landscape, wherein it manifests through the perception of missing out on social interactions, often leading to compulsive behaviors aimed at maintaining those connections (gupta & sharma, 2021). according to zhang et al. (2020), fear of missing out stems from a perceived threat to one’s self-concept, encompassing both public (social) and private aspects. the social dimension of fomo arises from the anxiety of missing out on social interactions and events within an individual’s social network. this social anxiety is linked to how individuals evaluate their social environment. it manifests as distress or fear of not being present at social pa ge 11 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 114-120, 2024 events, gatherings, or missing updates from peers on social media platforms (mazlum & atalay, 2022). conversely, fomo can also be driven by threats to the private self when individuals miss an opportunity to strengthen or protect their personal identity (zhang et al., 2020). this private aspect of fomo encompasses feelings of regret, discontent, fear, anxiety, disappointment, and being left behind, arising independently of social interactions or how others perceive them. in this sense, the fear associated with the private facet of fomo is centered on the individual themselves (mazlum & atalay, 2022). self-esteem, on the other hand, is the subjective evaluation of one’s worth, reflecting the positive or negative attitude an individual holds toward oneself. it encompasses how individuals perceive and value their own capabilities, qualities, and overall self-image (ryszewska-łabędzka et al., 2022). according to buchanan (2024), self-esteem has self-liking and self-competence factors. self-competence refers to an individual’s belief in their ability to achieve goals and overcome challenges. it encompasses feelings of confidence, capability, and efficacy. self-liking, on the other hand, reflects an individual’s inherent sense of worth and value as a person. it is associated with feeling good about oneself and having a sense of social belonging (schmitt & allik, 2005). studies suggest that young people today are particularly vulnerable to fear of missing out (fomo), social comparison, and social media addiction. the rise of social media platforms, filled with curated content from others’ lives, has fundamentally reshaped social interaction. users can easily compare themselves to these seemingly perfect portrayals, leading to a relentless sense of inadequacy (parveiz et al., 2023). this, in turn, can trigger fomo, where individuals become preoccupied with what they might be missing out on. fomo then shifts a user’s focus outward, potentially leading to a loss of self-esteem and a blurred sense of identity (du, 2023). a growing body of research across the globe has investigated the link between fear of missing out (fomo) and its negative impact on self-esteem, particularly in young people. one study by torres-serrano (2020) examined the complex interplay between these factors. the research revealed a negative correlation between fomo and self-esteem, meaning individuals with higher fomo tend to have lower self-esteem. this suggests that the constant comparison facilitated by social media, coupled with the pressure to stay perpetually connected and updated, may be detrimental to self-esteem. further supporting this notion, santos et al. (2023) found that both low self-esteem and high fomo are associated with online trolling behavior. individuals experiencing low selfesteem may be driven towards online environments to fulfill a need for social validation and external affirmation, potentially manifesting in the adoption of trolling behaviors. conversely, high fomo can exacerbate feelings of insecurity and cultivate a compulsive need for perpetual online engagement, which can also elevate the likelihood of engaging in trolling behavior. moreover, the philippines’ widespread internet and social media access led researchers to explore how these platforms influence fomo and self-esteem. a 2022 study by hernandez et al. found a positive correlation between social media use and fomo in filipino freshmen college students, suggesting that increased social media engagement heightens the fear of missing out on social events and opportunities. it implies that excessive social media use elevates the risk of developing fomo. similarly, reyes et al. (2023) examined the link between social media use, social comparison, and self-esteem in young filipino adults. their study revealed that social comparison mediates the association between increased social networking and lower self-esteem. in essence, their study found that greater social media engagement stimulates self-comparison, leading to decreased self-esteem. prior research has predominantly delved into the intersection of fear of missing out (fomo) and selfesteem independently. the literature has extensively explored fomo, particularly its association with social media usage, often overlooking a direct examination of its impact on students’ self-esteem. while international studies demonstrate a relationship between fear of missing out (fomo) and self-esteem, research within the philippines, specifically the davao region, remains limited. few studies, if any, have directly explored this relationship. in the contemporary world characterized by pervasive social media connectivity, the fear of missing out (fomo) has emerged as a significant concern, potentially undermining self-esteem. while existing research has shed light on the individual components of fomo and selfesteem, there is a critical need for more integrated studies that examine their intersection and broader implications for mental health. by deepening our understanding of these phenomena, we can work towards developing holistic approaches to address the challenges posed by fomo and promote positive psychological well-being among individuals across diverse socio-cultural contexts. research objectives the researchers aimed to clarify and provide a detailed explanation of the relationship between fear of missing out (fomo) and self-esteem. additionally, this study endeavors to investigate the following: 1. what is the demographic profile of students in terms of gender, year level, and department? 2. what is the level of fomo among students in terms of private and social? 3. what is the level of self-esteem of students in terms of self-competence and self-liking? 4. is there a significant relationship between fomo and the self-esteem of students? conceptual framework the conceptual framework of this study is shown above in figure 1. the independent variable is the fear of missing out (fomo), with two indicators: social and pa ge 11 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 114-120, 2024 figure 1: schematic diagram showing the variables of the study private. meanwhile, self-esteem is the dependent variable with two indicators: self-competence and self-liking. the visual representation in the schematic diagram illustrates the variables of the study, demonstrating how fomo, the independent variable, impacts self-esteem, the dependent variable, through its indicators. materials and methods research respondents using simple random sampling, the respondents (n=350) were randomly selected exclusively within the university in davao region across all gender, year level, and department during the academic year 2023-2024 (noor et al., 2022). in determining the sample size slovin’s formula was utilized, wherein 350 respondents were employed (anugraheni et al., 2023). research instruments gathering data was completed by utilizing the fear of missing out (fomo), (mazlum & atalay,2022) scale and the rosenberg self-esteem scale (rse) (buchanan, 2024) with the permission from the authors. fomo scale comprised a total of 17 items, with 8 items in the private factor and 9 in the social factor. this scale demonstrated commendable validity and reliability, evidenced by a cronbach’s alpha level of 0.88. on the other hand, buchanan (2024) assessed self-esteem through 10 items in the rse, dividing the construct of the tool into 2 parts, where the first 5 items were for self-competence and the remaining 5 items were for self-liking. this scale was recognized as one of the most extensively employed tools for gauging self-esteem with an excellent stability of guttman scale coefficient of 0.92 validity and reliability. above is the interpretation used to evaluate the mean scores of the fear of missing out scale (fomo) and rosenberg self-esteem scale (rse) of the students. the mean interval is presented, following the description column and the interpretation of the mean column. design and procedure in this descriptive-correlational study, it engaged a quantitative research approach to validate the relationship between fear of missing out (fomo) and self-esteem of students with the credibility of using a likert scale for the assessment. the researchers collected the data both in physical and online surveys. the researchers used the jamovi app to analyze the study’s objectives after collecting the data. statistical treatment in testing the normality of the data using shapiro wilk test, the researchers were able to conclude that the data was not normally distributed (w = 995, p-value = 326) indicating rejection of null hypothesis (shreshta, 2023). after establishing the results, spearman correlation coefficient was applied for evaluating the presence of a monotonic association within the study. (schober et al., 2018). conversely, linear regression was utilized and it was observed that none of the subscales of fear of missing out (fomo) were identified as predictors for the overall mean of self-esteem. therefore, the analysis in this methodology did not satisfy the linear pattern in the relationship between the subscales of fomo and selfesteem (hope, 2020). ethical consideration the researchers involved in this study followed the restrictions set forth by the university’s research ethics committee and closely upheld ethical standards to protect both the respondents and the researchers to ensure strict adherence to ethical codes during the research process (hasan et al., 2021). table 1: fear of missing out scale mean interpretation mean interval description interpretation 4.21 5.00 extremely true constantly experience fomo 3.41 4.20 very true frequently experience fomo 2.61 3.40 moderately true moderately experience fomo 1.81 2.60 slightly true occasionally experience fomo 1.00 1.80 not at all true rarely experience fomo table 2: rosenberg self-esteem scale mean interpretation mean interval description interpretation 3.26 4.00 strongly agree high self-esteem 2.51 3.25 agree moderate self-esteem 1.76 2.50 disagree low self-esteem 1.00 1.75 strongly disagree very low self-esteem pa ge 11 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 114-120, 2024 voluntary participation the respondents were given free will to give their consent in a voluntary procedure. they were informed that the consent forms provided should be signed to confirm their approval and involvement in this study. privacy and confidentiality the respondents were clearly aware that there is confidentiality of contact and personal information. they were ensured that only the researchers involved were aware of their identities and were given the right to secrecy and privacy. informed consent process the researchers took the time to ask for consent from the dean of the university for the approval of this study before distributing the consent to the respondents. it was demonstrated that the participation was voluntary and that the ethical procedures were followed. risks the respondents were not subjected to any adverse consequences because the study only pursued beneficence and non-maleficence. the data was only collected inside the university, where it was an advantage to be safe enough for them to participate. benefits the research may contribute to enhancing awareness among tfhe respondents. it enables them to recognize and understand themselves better, thus reducing the likelihood of experiencing fomo and its potential negative impact on their mental health. results and discussion the researchers provide a detailed examination that includes data collection, findings, data-derived interpretation, and discussions elucidating the findings.. the tables are categorized under several subheadings, including level of fomo among respondents, level of self-esteem among respondents, summary of spearman’s rho correlation between fomo and selfesteem, and regression analysis for variables predicting fomo and self-esteem (n=350). demographic profile of respondents table 3 presents the overall respondents of the conducted research comprising students studying in the university. department of technical program as dtp, department of teacher education as dte, department of arts and science as das, department of business administration as dba, department of accounting education as dae, and department of criminal justice education as dcje. reaching the goal of respondents’ recruitment, 350 students from the university took part in the study as respondents. out of 350 respondents, 56.6% identified as female, 42.0% as male, and 1.4% as lgbtq+ in which the majority, 46.9%, were 1st-year students (164 individuals), followed by 33.1% 2nd-year (116 respondents), 12.3% 3rd-year (43 respondents), and 7.7% 4th-year (27 respondents). moreover, regarding departments, the highest percentage, 32.0%, falls under dcje, followed by 21.1% in das, 12.6% in dtp, 12.0% in dte and dba, 12.9% in dba alone, and 8.6% in dae. the respondents were guaranteed that the information they provided would be securely maintained and would be disregarded once the study was completed. the level of fomo of respondents table 4 presents an overview of the statistical analysis outcomes employed to assess the levels of fear of missing out (fomo) among college students enrolled at the university, focusing on two distinct criteria: private and social. table 3: demographic profile of respondents profile f % gender male 147 42.0% female 198 56.6% lgbtq+ 5 1.4% year level 1st year 164 33.1 % 2nd year 116 12.3 % 3rd year 43 7.7 % 4th year 27 46.9 % department dtp 44 12.6 % dte 42 12.0 % das 74 21.1 % dba 42 12.0 % dae 36 10.3 % dcje 112 32.0 % table 4: level of fomo among respondents indicator x sd interpretation private 3.23 0.699 moderately experience fomo social 2.95 0.798 moderately experience fomo overall 2.75 0.560 moderately experience fomo according to the provided results, there is an overall total of (x = 2.75, sd = 0.560) for the level of fomo among respondents, described as “moderately true.” in per-item evaluation, private has a higher (x = 3.23, sd = 0.699), described as “moderately true,” which demonstrates that students partially undergo fomo privately. in contrast, social has a lower (x = 2.95, sd = 0.798), described as “moderately true,” which demonstrates that students pa ge 11 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 114-120, 2024 partially undergo fomo socially. this underscores that the level of fomo among respondents in both social and private settings experience fomo moderately. multiple factors can explain why students experience fear of missing out in a moderate level. excessive use of smartphones can be a factor to the reason why students experience fear of missing out moderately. according to qutishat and sharour’s (2019) study, smartphones and their apps are pivotal in worldwide communication. increased interaction with others through these devices reduces the fear of missing out, making them aware of the events of their loved once, reinforcing a sense of connection and feeling of inclusion. another factor based on sa’id and dewi’s (2022) study observed that people who have low to moderate levels of fomo (fear of missing out) feel at ease within their social media surroundings, experiencing no sense of isolation from the information or activities of others. both studies have comparable results. the level of selfesteem of respondents table 5 presents an overview of the statistical analysis outcomes employed to assess the levels of self-esteem among college students enrolled at the university, focusing on two distinct criteria: self-competence and self-liking. feelings of inadequacy and diminished self-worth. such repetitive exposure to idealized imagery and lifestyles may exacerbate feelings of inferiority, highlighting the profound impact of social media on individuals’ selfperception and psychological well-being. correlation between fomo and self-esteem table 6 indicates the spearman’s rho correlation coefficients between two variables: fomo (fear of missing out) overall and self-esteem overall. table 5: level of selfesteem among respondents indicator x sd interpretation self-competence 2.27 0.459 low self-esteem self-liking 2.18 0.499 low self-esteem overall 2.19 0.471 low self-esteem table 6: summary of spearman’s rho correlation between fomo and self-esteem independent variable self-esteem fomo r p-value remarks .298 < .001 significant according to the provided results, there is an overall total of (x = 2.19, sd = 0.471) for the level of selfesteem among respondents, described as “disagree.” in per-item evaluation, self-competence is higher (x = 2.27, sd = 0.459), described as “disagree.” self-liking, on the other hand, is lower (x = 2.18, sd = 4.99), described as “disagree.” this underscores that the level of self-esteem among respondents in both self-competence and selfliking is low. low self-esteem among students can be influenced by various factors, and these factors can interact in complex ways. according to vannucci et al. (2012), students frequently engage in comparisons with their peers, whether it be in academic achievements or social interactions, which can result in emotions of inadequacy and diminished self-esteem. according to findings by fardouly et al. (2015), an extensive engagement with social media platforms coupled with frequent comparisons to the carefully constructed portrayals of others’ lives may result in a decline in self-esteem. this decline in selfesteem can manifest due to the tendency of individuals to internalize perceived discrepancies between their own lives and the idealized representations often showcased on social media platforms, thereby fostering the correlation coefficient of 0.298 suggests a weak positive correlation between fomo and self-esteem. this suggests that if an individual’s self-esteem increases, their fear of missing out may also increase. the result was highly unexpected however it can be supported by a study conducted by (servidio et al., 2024). the increased fear of missing out (fomo) experienced by individuals often drives them towards increased engagement in social activities, particularly through the use of social media platforms, in order to mitigate feelings of exclusion. the more they feel included in a group, the higher their selfesteem gets. on the other hand, this finding contradicts the study of maes (2023), indicating that adolescents with an increased level of fear of missing out (fomo) tend to exhibit lower self-esteem. the result noted a significant relationship between two variables. this result is supported by a study by santos et al. (2023), which found that there is a relationship between self-esteem and fear of missing out linked to online trolling. conclusion the conducted research investigated the correlation between fear of missing out (fomo) and self-esteem among college students. the study encompassed 350 respondents from diverse departments and academic levels, with a predominance of female participants. it unveiled a moderate level of fomo experienced both privately and socially. furthermore, the research identified a prevalent issue of low self-esteem among participants, indicating a necessity for interventions aimed at bolstering self-concept and acknowledging support networks. spearman’s rho correlation analysis established a weak positive correlation between fomo and self-esteem, underscoring their interconnected nature. consequently, exploring mediating factors like social media addiction or personality traits is recommended. such an exploration holds promise in providing valuable insights for predictive analysis and targeted interventions addressing self-esteem concerns. pa ge 11 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 114-120, 2024 recommendation based on the established positive correlation, recommendations are formulated to enhance student well-being. for administrators, organizing seminars addressing fomo and self-esteem could empower students by promoting growth mindsets and encouraging mindful social media usage. for students, comprehending fomo can mitigate its detrimental effects on self-esteem and academic performance, while engaging in activities fostering a sense of belonging is encouraged. educators, equipped with insights into student challenges, can create supportive environments conducive to identifying and assisting students grappling with anxiety or feelings of inadequacy. psychology practitioners are urged to delve into the concept of “healthy fomo” to enhance selfesteem and develop interventions targeting positive behavioral changes. lastly, future researchers are encouraged to explore mediating factors in the fomo and self-esteem relationship, utilizing adjusted sample sizes to deepen comprehension in the digital era. acknowledgement the successful completion of the study was made achievable through the guidance and support, encompassing both mental and practical assistance of the people who walked through with us in the whole process of making this study. to our loved ones who provided assistance, love, care, and comfort that pushed us when we were having a hard time, from the bottom of our hearts, thank you. references alabri, a. 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(2020). fear of missing out scale: a self‐concept perspective. psychology & marketing, 37(11), 1619–1634. https:// doi.org/10.1002/mar.21406 pa ge 1 pa ge 51 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) the development of altruistic motivation in early-career social workers sora pazer1* volume 3 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v3i1.4068 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: november 20, 2024 accepted: december 22, 2024 published: april 24, 2025 altruistic motivation plays a pivotal role in the effectiveness and sustainability of social work practice. this study examines the development of altruistic attributes—empathy, intrinsic motivation, resilience, and systemic understanding—among early-career social workers (n = 87) with 3–5 years of experience. using quantitative methods, the research identifies significant positive trends and highlights key correlations between these dimensions. the findings demonstrate that professional experiences foster the growth of empathy and intrinsic motivation while emphasizing the protective role of resilience and the critical importance of systemic understanding. variations across employment sectors reveal unique challenges and opportunities, contributing to a nuanced understanding of professional development in social work. the discussion integrates these findings with existing literature and emphasizes the need for supportive environments to sustain altruistic motivation. implications for education, policy, and future research are also explored. keywords altruistic motivation, earlycareer social workers, empathy, intrinsic motivation, professional development, resilience, social work, systemic understanding 1 department of social work, iu international university of applied sciences, germany * corresponding author’s e-mail: sorapazer@gmail.com introduction altruistic motivation serves as a cornerstone of social work practice, embodying the profession’s commitment to service, justice, and the well-being of others. this intrinsic drive to prioritize others’ needs over selfinterest is critical in navigating the complex demands of contemporary social work settings (batson, 1991; miller, 2019). while altruism has been extensively studied in psychological and sociological contexts, its nuanced development within the professional trajectories of social workers remains underexplored. this study addresses this gap by analyzing how empathy, intrinsic motivation, and systemic understanding evolve in early-career social workers, contextualizing these factors within the broader frameworks of resilience and professional challenges. altruistic behavior is often conceptualized through the lens of empathy, which acts as a psychological mechanism that fosters prosocial behavior (decety & lamm, 2006). empathy enables individuals to vicariously experience the emotions of others, catalyzing compassionate responses that align with altruistic goals (eisenberg & strayer, 1987). social work professionals rely heavily on empathic engagement to build rapport, assess client needs, and implement interventions effectively. however, as highlighted by gerdes and segal (2009), the application of empathy in professional contexts is neither static nor automatic; it is shaped by environmental, personal, and organizational factors. empathy’s role in altruistic motivation is closely intertwined with intrinsic motivation, defined as the internal desire to engage in activities for their inherent satisfaction rather than external rewards (ryan & deci, 2000). in social work, intrinsic motivation often stems from a commitment to ethical principles and the aspiration to effect meaningful change (gagne & deci, 2005). understanding how these motivations develop and interact is essential for fostering sustainable practices in the field. social work operates at the intersection of societal systems and individual well-being, often exposing practitioners to structural inequities and emotional strain. the dual responsibility of addressing systemic injustices while providing direct support to vulnerable populations necessitates a robust combination of altruism, empathy, and resilience (ungar, 2013). professional challenges, such as high caseloads, bureaucratic constraints, and emotional labor, can both hinder and refine these traits over time (maslach & leiter, 2016). resilience, defined as the ability to adapt positively to adversity, emerges as a critical mediator in this process, enabling social workers to maintain their altruistic motivation despite external stressors (southwick et al., 2014). moreover, the systemic understanding required in social work extends beyond theoretical knowledge to encompass a practical comprehension of interrelated societal, cultural, and organizational dynamics. as bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological systems theory suggests, effective intervention in social work requires navigating multiple layers of influence, from individual client circumstances to broader sociopolitical contexts. this study examines the development of altruistic motivation in early-career social workers, emphasizing the interplay between empathy, intrinsic motivation, and systemic understanding. using a mixed-methods approach, we analyze data from 87 participants to identify patterns and correlations that illuminate how professional experiences shape these attributes. the findings contribute to a deeper understanding of how altruistic motivation evolves within the dynamic and often challenging environments of social work. while pa ge 52 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 51-57, 2025 existing research provides valuable insights into isolated components of social work practice, such as resilience (grant & kinman, 2013) and burnout (schaufeli & taris, 2014), there is a paucity of studies examining the integrative development of altruistic motivation. by addressing this gap, the present study not only advances theoretical knowledge but also informs practical strategies for enhancing professional development programs. for instance, promoting empathy through experiential learning and reflective practice could bolster intrinsic motivation, ultimately leading to improved outcomes for both practitioners and clients (davis, 2009). literature review the literature on altruistic motivation in social work is both extensive and fragmented, encompassing diverse theoretical perspectives and empirical studies. this section synthesizes existing knowledge, focusing on three interconnected domains: theories of altruism and empathy, intrinsic motivation in helping professions, and the role of resilience and systemic understanding in professional practice. by integrating these strands, we establish a comprehensive framework to analyze the development of altruistic motivation in early-career social workers. altruism, broadly defined as a selfless concern for the wellbeing of others, has been a central theme in psychological and sociological research (batson, 1991; hoffman, 2000). batson’s empathy-altruism hypothesis posits that empathic concern, arising from the ability to understand and share others’ emotions, motivates altruistic behavior. this theory is particularly relevant to social work, where practitioners frequently engage with individuals in vulnerable or marginalized situations. decety and jackson (2004) further emphasize that empathy is not merely an emotional response but a cognitive process involving perspective-taking and emotional regulation. empathy is both a professional skill and an ethical imperative in the context of social work. gerdes and segal (2009) highlight the unique role of empathy in fostering effective client-worker relationships, enabling practitioners to assess needs and develop tailored interventions accurately. however, they caution that empathy must be balanced with emotional boundaries to prevent burnout and compassion fatigue—two phenomena that disproportionately affect helping professionals (figley, 2002). intrinsic motivation, as defined by ryan and deci (2000), refers to the innate desire to engage in activities that are inherently rewarding. in social work, this motivation often stems from a commitment to social justice and a personal alignment with the profession’s core values (miller, 2019). gagne and deci (2005) extend this framework by exploring the interplay between intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, noting that external factors, such as organizational support and recognition, can either enhance or diminish intrinsic drive. research indicates that intrinsic motivation is closely linked to job satisfaction and professional longevity in social work (grant, 2007). for instance, perry et al. (2010) found that social workers with high levels of intrinsic motivation reported greater resilience and lower levels of burnout, even in high-stress environments. these findings underscore the importance of nurturing intrinsic motivation through supportive work environments and opportunities for professional growth. resilience, the capacity to adapt to adversity while maintaining psychological and emotional well-being, is a critical attribute for social workers (southwick et al., 2014). ungar (2013) identifies resilience as a dynamic process shaped by individual, relational, and contextual factors. in professional practice, resilience enables social workers to navigate the emotional demands of their roles, mitigating the risks of burnout and secondary trauma. equally important is systemic understanding, which encompasses the ability to analyze and address complex interactions within and between social systems (bronfenbrenner, 1979). social workers operate within a web of interconnected systems—individual, familial, organizational, and societal—that influence both client outcomes and professional effectiveness. as paat (2013) notes, a systemic perspective is essential for developing holistic interventions that address root causes rather than symptoms. the interplay between empathy, intrinsic motivation, resilience, and systemic understanding is central to the development of altruistic motivation in social work. empirical studies suggest that these attributes are mutually reinforcing: empathy enhances intrinsic motivation (gerdes & segal, 2009), resilience sustains motivation in the face of challenges (grant & kinman, 2013), and systemic understanding provides the contextual knowledge necessary for effective practice (paat, 2013). however, the dynamic nature of these interactions underscores the need for longitudinal research to capture their evolution over time. the concept of resilience in social work extends beyond individual capacities, emphasizing the role of systemic interventions in fostering sustainability and adaptability. lihanda et al. (2023) illustrate this through their exploration of social entrepreneurship strategies, highlighting the significance of systemic reforms, individual empowerment, and collective action in enhancing resilience. similarly, ungar (2013) underscores that resilience is shaped by dynamic interactions between individual and contextual factors, making systemic approaches critical for sustaining professional well-being. these strategies align with findings by gonzaga et al. (2024), who emphasize the importance of social intuition and emotional regulation in navigating complex social dynamics, further reinforcing resilience. together, these perspectives highlight the necessity of integrating personal and systemic dimensions, providing a robust framework for developing resilience and maintaining intrinsic motivation in social work practice. materials and methods this section outlines the research design, data collection, and analytical methods employed to investigate the development of altruistic motivation in early-career pa ge 53 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 51-57, 2025 social workers. by employing a quantitative approach, the study systematically examines the relationships between empathy, intrinsic motivation, resilience, and systemic understanding while situating these findings within the participants’ professional experiences. the study adopted a cross-sectional survey design to capture a snapshot of altruistic motivation among social workers with 3–5 years of professional experience. this approach allowed for the identification of patterns and correlations across key variables, providing insights into how specific attributes develop during the formative years of practice. a structured likert-scale questionnaire served as the primary instrument for data collection, supplemented by demographic questions to contextualize the findings. the design was informed by theoretical frameworks in altruism (batson, 1991; hoffman, 2000), motivation (ryan & deci, 2000), and resilience (ungar, 2013). these frameworks guided the selection of variables and the development of survey items, ensuring alignment with the study’s objectives. the sample consisted of 87 early-career social workers employed in various sectors, including youth and family services (42%), social counseling (28%), healthcare (18%), and other areas (12%). participants were predominantly female (65%), with male (33%) and non-binary individuals (2%) comprising the remainder. the mean age of participants was 29.4 years (sd = 2.7), reflecting the demographic characteristics of early-career professionals in the field. data were collected through an online survey distributed via professional networks, social media platforms, and organizational partnerships. the survey consisted of 20 items, grouped into five domains: empathy development assessed using statements such as “i find it easier to empathize with clients now than at the beginning of my career.” intrinsic motivation measured through items like “i feel motivated to help others regardless of external rewards.” professional challenges explored through questions such as “i often feel overwhelmed by the demands of my work.” systemic understanding evaluated via statements like “i can identify how different systems interact to affect client outcomes.” resilience assessed using items like “i can adapt to unexpected challenges without losing focus.” responses were recorded on a 5-point likert scale ranging from 1 (“strongly disagree”) to 5 (“strongly agree”). demographic questions captured participants’ age, gender, years of experience, and primary area of employment. quantitative analyses were conducted using statistical software to explore both descriptive and inferential aspects of the data. key methods included: descriptive statistics means, standard deviations, and frequency distributions were calculated to summarize participant responses. inferential statistics o a t-test was employed to assess the significance of changes in empathy development over time. o an anova test was conducted to examine variations in intrinsic motivation across different employment sectors. o pearson correlations were calculated to explore relationships between key variables, such as empathy and intrinsic motivation. results were considered statistically significant at a p-value of < 0.05, with additional emphasis on effect sizes to evaluate the practical significance of findings. the study adhered to ethical guidelines for research involving human participants. informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection, ensuring that they understood the purpose of the study, the voluntary nature of their participation, and their right to withdraw at any time. data were anonymized to protect participant confidentiality and stored securely in compliance with data protection regulations. the reliance on self-reported data may introduce biases, such as social desirability effects, which could influence participants’ responses. additionally, the cross-sectional design limits the ability to draw causal inferences about the development of altruistic motivation. future studies should consider longitudinal approaches to capture changes over time and triangulate survey data with qualitative methods for a more comprehensive understanding. results and discussions this section presents an in-depth analysis of the study’s findings, organized into demographic profiles, development of empathy, intrinsic motivation, systemic understanding, resilience, and the interplay between these dimensions. the results highlight key trends, significant correlations, and insights into the professional development of altruistic motivation in early-career social workers. tables are used to provide a structured presentation of the data, offering clarity and facilitating interpretation. the demographic profile of the participants reveals a representative sample of early-career social workers, with notable diversity in gender, age, and areas of employment. the majority of the participants identified as female (65%), followed by male (33%) and non-binary (2%). the average age of the participants was 29.4 years (sd = 2.7), reflecting a cohort primarily at the early stages of their professional careers. pa ge 54 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 51-57, 2025 the high percentage of female participants aligns with existing literature indicating a gendered trend in the social work profession (kreitzer et al., 2015). male and nonbinary representation, though smaller, provides valuable insights into the diverse experiences within the field. professional experiences. intrinsic motivation also demonstrated positive growth, with 42% of participants indicating a strong increase and 39% a slight increase. the mean score for intrinsic motivation was 3.9 (sd = 0.81), reflecting a generally high level of internal drive to engage in meaningful social work practices. table 1: gender distribution gender frequency percentage female 56 65% male 29 33% non-binary 2 2% table 3: employment sectors employment sector frequency percentage youth and family services 37 42% social counseling 24 28% healthcare 16 18% other sectors 10 12% table 2: age distribution statistic value mean age (years) 29.4 standard deviation 2.7 the narrow age range reflects the study’s focus on early-career professionals, allowing for a concentrated examination of their developmental trajectories. participants represented a variety of professional settings, with the largest proportion working in youth and family services (42%). social counseling (28%) and healthcare (18%) also featured prominently, highlighting the multifaceted nature of social work practice. the “other” category (12%) included areas such as community development and educational support. empathy, a cornerstone of altruistic motivation, showed significant positive development among participants. using a likert-scale question to assess empathy growth, 48% of respondents reported a strong increase, while 37% noted a slight increase. only 12% indicated no change, and a minimal 3% reported a decrease. table 4: empathy development response category frequency percentage strongly increased 42 48% slightly increased 32 37% remained unchanged 10 12% decreased 3 3% the mean empathy score was 4.2 (sd = 0.73), indicating a high level of empathic capacity among participants. a one-sample t-test revealed that this increase was statistically significant (t = 8.72, p < 0.01), suggesting that empathy development is a key outcome of early table 5: intrinsic motivation by sector employment sector mean score standard deviation youth and family services 4.1 0.72 social counseling 4.0 0.78 healthcare 3.7 0.89 other sectors 3.8 0.85 an anova test revealed significant variations in intrinsic motivation across employment sectors (f(4,86) = 3.72, p < 0.05). participants in youth and family services reported the highest levels of intrinsic motivation, while those in healthcare displayed slightly lower scores, possibly reflecting sector-specific challenges. systemic understanding, defined as the ability to navigate and analyze interrelated systems, showed moderate increases among participants, with a mean score of 3.8 (sd = 0.88). correlation analysis revealed a positive relationship between systemic understanding and professional challenges (r = 0.47, p < 0.05), indicating that exposure to complex work environments enhances this critical competency. table 6: systemic understanding by experience experience range (years) mean score standard deviation 3-4 years 3.7 0.82 5 years 4.0 0.89 participants with five years of experience reported higher systemic understanding, suggesting that professional exposure over time contributes to this skill. resilience emerged as a key factor in sustaining altruistic motivation, with a mean score of 4.1 (sd = 0.76). nearly 45% of participants indicated a strong increase in their resilience, while 38% noted a slight increase. table 7: resilience development response category frequency percentage strongly increased 39 45% slightly increased 33 38% remained unchanged 12 14% decreased 3 3% a series of pearson correlations highlighted significant relationships between key variables. empathy and intrinsic motivation showed the strongest positive correlation (r = 0.62, p < 0.01), emphasizing their interdependence. pa ge 55 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 51-57, 2025 resilience was also moderately correlated with empathy (r = 0.55, p < 0.01), reinforcing its role in sustaining altruistic engagement. interestingly, the small proportion of participants (3%) reporting a decline in empathy invites critical reflection. this finding could be indicative of emotional desensitization, a phenomenon observed in high-stress professions where repeated exposure to trauma diminishes empathic responses (bride, 2007). future research should explore whether this trend persists over time and identify interventions to counteract such declines. intrinsic motivation, with a mean score of 3.9 (sd = 0.81), emerged as a key driver of altruistic behavior. the findings corroborate self-determination theory (ryan & deci, 2000), which posits that intrinsic motivation flourishes in environments that satisfy basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. the strong correlation between empathy and intrinsic motivation (r = 0.62, p < 0.01) further supports the argument that these attributes are mutually reinforcing, as empathic engagement often enhances the internal satisfaction derived from helping others (gagne & deci, 2005). the observed sectoral differences in intrinsic motivation, particularly the lower scores among healthcare social workers, raise important questions. one possible explanation is the unique stressors inherent to the healthcare sector, such as time constraints, hierarchical structures, and exposure to life-and-death scenarios (dyrbye et al., 2017). these factors may dampen intrinsic motivation by creating environments that prioritize procedural efficiency over relational engagement. by contrast, sectors like youth and family services, which reported higher motivation levels, may offer greater opportunities for meaningful client interactions, thereby enhancing motivational alignment (grant, 2007). systemic understanding showed moderate development among participants, with a mean score of 3.8 (sd = 0.88). this finding reflects the increasing ability of early-career social workers to navigate and interpret the interconnections between individual, familial, and societal systems. bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological systems theory provides a useful framework for understanding this progression, emphasizing the importance of analyzing multiple levels of influence on client outcomes. the positive correlation between systemic understanding and professional challenges (r = 0.47, p < 0.05) suggests that navigating complex work environments enhances practitioners’ contextual awareness. however, this relationship is not without tension. as highlighted by paat (2013), systemic understanding requires both cognitive and emotional investment, which can be difficult to sustain in resource-constrained settings. the study’s findings align with research by healy and meagher (2014), who argue that structural barriers, such as high caseloads and bureaucratic inefficiencies, often hinder social workers’ capacity to fully apply their systemic knowledge. resilience: a buffer against adversity resilience emerged as a critical factor in maintaining altruistic motivation, with participants reporting high levels of resilience (m = 4.1, sd = 0.76). this finding table 8: correlations between key variables variables correlation (r) significance (p) empathy intrinsic motivation 0.62 < 0.01 empathy resilience 0.55 < 0.01 systemic understanding challenges 0.47 < 0.05 the results reveal a clear pattern of positive development in empathy, intrinsic motivation, and resilience among early-career social workers. the correlations between these variables suggest a dynamic interplay that underpins altruistic motivation. sector-specific differences, particularly in systemic understanding and intrinsic motivation, highlight the need for tailored professional development strategies. discussion this study aimed to explore the development of altruistic motivation in early-career social workers, focusing on empathy, intrinsic motivation, systemic understanding, and resilience. the findings reveal significant positive trends across these dimensions, shedding light on how professional experiences shape altruistic attributes in a challenging field. this discussion contextualizes these results within the existing body of research, highlights critical perspectives, and addresses the implications and limitations of the study. empathy: a cornerstone of altruistic motivation the marked increase in empathy among participants aligns with theoretical perspectives that underscore empathy as a foundation for altruistic behavior (batson, 1991; decety & lamm, 2006). the high mean score for empathy (m = 4.2, sd = 0.73) suggests that earlycareer social workers experience significant growth in their capacity to understand and share the emotions of others. this is consistent with findings by gerdes and segal (2009), who emphasize that empathy is not only an inherent trait but also a skill that can be cultivated through professional practice and exposure to diverse client populations. however, the mechanisms driving this empathy development warrant closer examination. theories of emotional labor (hochschild, 1983) suggest that social workers may consciously enhance their empathic abilities to meet the emotional demands of their roles. while this process can strengthen professional-client relationships, it also raises concerns about the risk of empathy fatigue or burnout (figley, 2002). this dual-edged nature of empathy development highlights the importance of organizational support and supervision in mitigating potential negative outcomes (newcomb et al., 2020). pa ge 56 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 51-57, 2025 aligns with ungar’s (2013) conceptualization of resilience as a dynamic process influenced by individual, relational, and contextual factors. the strong correlation between resilience and empathy (r = 0.55, p < 0.01) underscores the protective role of resilience in sustaining emotional engagement, even in the face of professional adversity. the literature highlights various pathways through which resilience can be fostered in social work practice. for example, southwick et al. (2014) emphasize the importance of social support networks, reflective supervision, and access to professional development opportunities. these elements not only enhance individual coping capacities but also create organizational cultures that prioritize wellbeing and sustainability (grant & kinman, 2013). nonetheless, the resilience reported by participants may also reflect adaptive mechanisms developed in response to systemic inadequacies. while this adaptability is commendable, it raises ethical concerns about the normalization of high-stress work environments. as baines (2017) argues, resilience should not be used as a justification for maintaining unsustainable workloads or inadequate resource allocation. the correlations between empathy, intrinsic motivation, resilience, and systemic understanding highlight the interconnected nature of these attributes. the strong relationship between empathy and intrinsic motivation suggests that social workers derive personal fulfillment from empathic engagement, which in turn fuels their commitment to altruistic practice. similarly, the link between resilience and systemic understanding indicates that the ability to navigate complex environments is bolstered by emotional adaptability. these findings contribute to a growing body of literature emphasizing the holistic development of professional competencies in social work (o’leary et al., 2013). however, they also point to potential areas of vulnerability. for instance, the reliance on intrinsic motivation as a primary driver of professional engagement may render social workers particularly susceptible to burnout in unsupportive environments. this underscores the need for systemic interventions that address both individual and organizational dimensions of well-being. the study’s findings have significant implications for social work education, practice, and policy. training programs should prioritize the development of empathy and systemic understanding through experiential learning, case-based instruction, and interprofessional collaboration. moreover, resiliencebuilding strategies, such as mindfulness training and peer support groups, should be integrated into professional development initiatives (kinman & grant, 2011). at the policy level, addressing structural barriers is essential to creating environments that support altruistic motivation. this includes reducing caseloads, increasing access to supervision, and ensuring equitable resource distribution. as healy and meagher (2014) note, systemic change is critical to enabling social workers to apply their skills and knowledge effectively, thereby maximizing their impact on client outcomes. while the study provides valuable insights, several limitations must be acknowledged. the reliance on self-reported data introduces the potential for social desirability bias, which may have influenced participants’ responses. additionally, the cross-sectional design precludes causal inferences about the development of altruistic motivation over time. longitudinal studies are needed to capture the dynamic interplay of these attributes throughout social workers’ careers. future research should also explore the role of cultural and organizational contexts in shaping altruistic motivation. comparative studies across different countries and sectors could provide a more nuanced understanding of how systemic factors influence professional development. conclusion this study highlights the significant development of altruistic motivation in early-career social workers, emphasizing empathy, intrinsic motivation, resilience, and systemic understanding as interconnected attributes. the findings demonstrate that professional experiences enhance these traits, while also revealing sector-specific challenges that shape their progression. by situating these results within the broader literature, the study underscores the critical role of supportive environments in fostering sustainable social work practices. future research and policy efforts should prioritize addressing structural barriers and promoting holistic professional development to empower social workers in their essential roles. references baines, d. 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(2013). resilience, trauma, context, and culture. trauma, violence, & abuse, 14(3), 255–266. https:// doi.org/10.1177/1524838013487805 pa ge 1 pa ge 1 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) gender differences in english language anxiety among moroccan university students: a cross-sectional study youssef baba khouya1* volume 3 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v3i1.3761 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: september 12, 2024 accepted: october 14, 2024 published: january 14, 2024 this study focuses on gender differences in english language anxiety among moroccan students. a structured questionnaire was employed for data collection by adopting a cross-sectional research design. the respondents comprised 240 university students; the questionnaire included respondents’ demographic data and the english language classroom anxiety scale (elcas). the study aimed to answer three research questions: (1) does gender significantly influence english language anxiety among moroccan students? (2) what variables cause male and female students’ english language anxiety? (3) how does english language anxiety affect male and female students’ academic achievement and wellbeing? the study affirms that the level of english anxiety significantly differs by gender, and the female students had higher english anxiety. some significantly identified factors include fear of negative evaluation and communication apprehension. the study thus advocates for tailored intervention to address gender-specific language anxiety and promote the student’s academic achievement and well-being. keywords communication apprehension, english language anxiety, gender differences, negative evaluation, test anxiety 1 hassan i university, morocco * corresponding author’s e-mail: youssef.babakhouya@uhp.ac.ma introduction english has become a significant tool of communication in the world today due to globalization. this critical skill paves the way for various educational and job opportunities. in the moroccan context, the importance of english is rising gradually, and it is regarded as one of the essential skills for education and career progression. however, most students have relatively high anxiety levels associated with learning and using english. this anxiety can impact their academic performance as well as their psychological well-being, acting as a hindrance to their success. the purpose of this research is first to explore gender differences in english language anxiety among moroccan students; second, to identify the possible causes behind this kind of anxiety; and third, to investigate the effect that anxiety has on students’ academic achievement and well-being. literature review english language anxiety foreign language anxiety is a specific form of anxiety, which students experience when they are learning and practicing a foreign language. horwitz et al. (1986) refer to this anxiety as a pattern of unusual feelings, thoughts, and attitudes related to classroom language learning. this kind of anxiety can significantly limit the learning and use of english by the students who have such a kind of anxiety. students who have english language anxiety tend to be anxious before they make a mistake or when others evaluate them in any way, which means they cannot engage optimally in activities in the class. in speaking tasks, they may freeze, refrain from raising their hands to answer questions, or even sometimes miss classes entirely on language. macintyre and gardner (1994) state that lack of adequate involvement in learning a foreign language precipitated by language anxiety results in poor achievements and low self-efficiency in the second language. besides, this anxiety not only transfers to their class performance but also to their attitude toward learning english. students might perceive themselves as less competent learners of languages; this may diminish their motivation to learn and practice. this can lead to a cycle where anxiety results in poor performance and causes more anxiety in turn. students must develop confidence and language abilities to get out of this cycle successfully. altogether, english language anxiety is a much more serious condition than a slight fear of having to speak in front of others. it can manifest itself in nearly every learner’s capacity to learn a new language whether it is oral or written language comprehension and production. teachers and educators must be aware of this anxiety and try as much as possible to create a friendly and motivating environment that can help diminish fear and apprehension. hence, it is possible to facilitate effective language learning among students by reducing language anxiety. gender differences in language learning studies have indicated that there are significant differences between males and females in language learning, more specifically, levels of learners’ anxiety. it was reported that female students generally claim to experience higher levels of language anxiety than male students. according to aida (1994), this difference could result from cultural values and norms regarding gender that put the male and the female in different standards. for instance, females may experience a higher drive to excel academically pa ge 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 1-6, 2025 and may carve negative evaluations more profoundly. these societal expectations put more pressure on female students, and as a result, they develop higher levels of anxiety towards learning and using english. young (1991) points out that such pressures increase the level of anxiety among female students, thus making them more sensitive to the stress that accompanies the process of learning a new language. thus, it impacts students’ classroom involvement, readiness to experiment with language, and confidence in their language competence. female students are more prone to experience fear of failure and other people’s judgments that negatively affect their language learning. understanding these gender differences is significant, particularly to educators and language teachers, because it underlines the importance of fostering learning environments that can help ease the anxiety that affects female learners. realizing these gender-based differences, it becomes possible to assist all students in feeling more self-reliant and competent in their language learning pursuits. factors contributing to language anxiety the factors identified as causal to language anxiety are fear of negative evaluation, communication apprehension, and test anxiety. fear of negative evaluation occurs when learners worry about being negatively evaluated based on their language performance. this fear can be especially experienced in class, where students are forced to speak or perform in front of other students and teachers. communication apprehension is defined as fear or anxiety associated with any communication with other persons, thereby making many students avoid speaking in class and/or using english. there is also test anxiety, which is another significant element that contributes to language anxiety. it pertains to avoiding language tests due to the belief that one will perform poorly, leading to a negative cycle that affects overall language learning. young (1991) suggests that strategies need to be adopted in these classes to reduce anxieties. teachers may significantly impact decreasing anxiety by creating a positive learning environment. further, oxford (1999) notes that previous negative experiences in learning languages may contribute to current anxiety. if students have had embarrassing or failed experiences regarding language-related experiences, these memories may affect their present attitude and increase anxiety. impact on academic performance these high levels of language anxiety can hinder students’ academic achievement. horwitz et al. (1986) reported that anxious students tended to avoid participating in class activities, thus limiting their chances of using their language abilities and further development. this leads to learning gaps and slower progress in language proficiency. in addition, anxiety could distract students from focusing on their assignments and exams, causing them to get poorer grades and academic results. as stated by macintyre and gardner (1991), feeling anxious about one’s language skills can create a cycle: the more anxious a student feels, the less they participate, and the less they participate, their language skills do not develop, and hence, the more anxious they feel. this cycle is not easy to break unless reinforced with inputs that help one to reduce anxiety and gain self-confidence. language anxiety influences not only the learning outcomes but also the interpersonal and emotional state of the learners, as well as their attitude toward learning languages. to sum up, english language anxiety is a complex problem that could impact students significantly on their learning and use of english. female students usually report higher anxiety because of societal and gender role expectations. fear of a negative evaluation, communication apprehension, test anxiety, and others are some factors causing language anxiety. these could lead to poor academic performance, avoidance behaviors, and poor results. therefore, supportive classroom practice and managing past negative experiences can reduce language anxiety and enhance students’ practical and successful language learning experiences. materials and methods study design a cross-sectional research design was employed to identify gender differences regarding english language anxiety among moroccan learners. this method can simultaneously gather data from many students from diverse backgrounds. by adopting such a design, we can know how anxious english-language learners are at the current level in various stages of education. therefore, the findings were useful for directly comparing males and females to determine their anxiety levels. furthermore, we were able to incorporate such demographic variables as age, education, and gender because of the cross-sectional design of the study. it is crucial to take a holistic view regarding the complications of language anxiety and its effects on students from various backgrounds. we ensured such representation by collecting data from different universities in morocco, as our objective was to ensure that the sample was representative of the target population, hence enhancing generalizability. this comprehensive approach contributes to explaining english language anxiety patterns by which we seek to understand the factors responsible for these gender differences. population and sample the study included 240 participants from 3 universities in morocco, they were from a non-english department. to achieve this, an equal number of male and female participants were drawn, thus 120 males and 120 females. stratified random sampling was adopted, whereby findings may be generalized to the total population of students rather than on the sample alone. as a result, we could promote representation from various age and educational categories in the university, from 1st year to pa ge 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 1-6, 2025 3rd year. in this way, it would be possible to collect allaround data regarding the english language anxiety of all students regardless of their age and education level. data collection data collection was performed using a structured questionnaire designed to gather demographic data and information about english language anxiety. the questionnaire had two main parts. first, there was a part for demographic data, where we inquired about age, gender, and educational attainment. this basic information was necessary for our analysis to study how these demographic aspects may affect the students’ anxiety in the english language. the second part consisted of the foreign language classroom anxiety scale (flcas), developed by (horwitz et al., 9999). flcas is a globally accepted, reliable, valid measurement scale for foreign language anxiety. the questionnaire consisted of statements concerning feelings and experiences about language learning; the respondents had to indicate how strongly they agreed with each statement. this part of the questionnaire allowed us to quantify the anxiety of english language learners. therefore, the comparison of anxiety related to different genders was easily done. this was a comprehensive way of ensuring we got specific details relevant to our study. data analysis after collecting data, we conducted several quantitative tests to determine the trends and differences in english language anxiety between male and female students. first, descriptive statistics were used to summarize the basic features of the data. thus, we calculated the mean and standard deviation of the elcas scores for the male and female groups. descriptive statistics provided a general representation of the level of anxiety in our sample and also pointed out the prevailing trend. after that, we applied anova to test the anxiety level between the groups, particularly among students at different educational levels: 1st year, 2nd year, 3rd year. this analysis tool will give us insight into whether significant differences in anxiety are found in our variables. we also ran the correlations to analyze the relationship occurring between those variables: between age and anxiety level and between educational level and anxiety, for example. comparisons of the mean anxiety scores of male and female students were done using t-tests to ascertain whether such differences in anxiety levels between the genders are significant. finally, regression analysis was used to identify significant predictors of english language anxiety. through this, it was possible to ascertain which of the factors, such as age, gender, and educational level, significantly contribute to anxiety levels. these statistical methods provided a great understanding of gender differences in english language anxiety among moroccan students, coupled with the identification of critical variables contributing to such differences. we could now quickly draw well-supported conclusions and recommendations from the comprehensive approach we have undertaken regarding our findings. results and discussion results the impact of academic progression on students’ english anxiety levels the significant p-value further strengthens the argument that students’ anxiety levels vary depending on the year of study. this result suggests that learners’ perceptions of anxiety are related to academic advancement, and the extent of anxiety is different for each level of study. the observed differences may stem from several factors, including rising academic requirements, expectations, or shifts in students’ exposure to the language/academic environment as they progress through the academic year. it is, therefore, essential to comprehend these differences to tailor practical approaches and mechanisms to cater to the needs of students at different periods of their learning years. the influence of age and education on english language anxiety: a correlation analysis correlation analysis was used to measure the relationship between various demographic characteristics—mainly age and education level—and the english language anxiety levels as determined through the elcas. this analysis aimed to ascertain the connection of these demographic factors to students’ anxiety levels and identify patterns or trends. using correlation analysis, there is a small but statistically significant negative correlation between age and anxiety levels (r = -0. 12, p = 0. 01). this shows that as students’ age increases, the anxiety level slightly declines. nonetheless, the correlation is small, but what can be observed is that there is a trend that older students are less anxious about learning english than younger students. this could be attributed to higher maturity levels and experience, which may enable older students to cope well with their anxiety. besides, the analysis revealed that there was a moderate negative and significant relationship between education level and anxiety, with a coefficient of (r = -0. 22, p < 0. 01). this indicates that, in most cases, students who are at a more advanced academic level tend to report lower levels of anxiety. another explanation could be that as students move through their educational levels, they may become more confident and proficient in the english language, thus resulting in low anxiety. the moderate level of this relationship suggests that the difference is more pronounced, where the advanced students with higher exposure to learning and practicing english tend to have comparatively lower levels of anxiety compared to lower levels of education. overall, these correlation results show that age and educational level affect english language anxiety, but in somewhat varied manners. older students and students at more advanced academic levels exhibit comparatively lower anxiety, implying that experience and maturity pa ge 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 1-6, 2025 help to reduce language anxiety. knowledge of these relationships can help comprehend how multiple factors play a role in language anxiety and thereby help in designing ways for students to deal with anxiety effectively. gender differences in english language anxiety: results from independent sample t-tests independent sample t-tests were conducted to explore the differences in english language anxiety between male and female students. the t-tests aimed to determine if there was a significant difference in the means of the english language classroom anxiety scale (elcas) scores between the two genders. the analysis revealed a highly significant difference, with a t(238) = -7.45, p < .001. this finding, derived from the total number of participants minus the number of groups being compared, underscores the importance of our research. it suggests that the observed difference in anxiety levels is not a random occurrence but a significant gender-based disparity. the mean difference in elcas scores between male and female students was -7.4. this negative mean difference indicates that female students report significantly higher levels of anxiety compared to male students. the strong negative t-value and the very low p-value confirm that this difference is statistically significant and practically meaningful. these findings point out the differences in anxiety levels by gender, implying that female students have more anxiety in the english language than male students. it is essential to be aware of these differences to design strategies that could help to prevent and treat anxiety in female students more efficiently. predictors of english language anxiety: a multiple regression analysis multiple regression was used to analyze the collected data to determine significant predictors of english language anxiety. the analysis included three predictors: age, gender, and educational level. this regression method enables the researcher to determine these variables’ overall effect on the anxiety level. the results revealed that the regression model was significant, with r2 = .19, f(3, 236) = 38.83, p < .001. this means that the total of the predictors account for 19% of the variance in the anxiety level, which shows that these variables are significant in explaining english language anxiety. in the regression analysis, the coefficients of the predictors were estimated using unstandardized coefficients (b), standardized coefficients (β), t-values, and p-values. for age, the unstandardized coefficient was b = -0.34 with a standard error of 0.11, yielding a standardized coefficient of β = -0.11, t(236) = -3.09, p = .002. this indicates that older students tend to have lower anxiety levels. for gender, where female students were coded as 1 and male students as 0, the unstandardized coefficient was b = 7.37 with a standard error of 0.95, a standardized coefficient of β = 0.29, and t(236) = 7.75, p < .001. this indicates that being female is associated with higher anxiety levels. lastly, the educational level had an unstandardized coefficient of b = -1.15 with a standard error of 0.26, a standardized coefficient of β = -0.19, and t(236) = -4.42, p < .001, showing that students at higher educational levels experience lower anxiety. to make the data more precise, the analysis showed that gender has the most substantial impact on anxiety levels, with females reporting significantly higher anxiety than males. age and educational level also play important roles, with older students and those in higher years of study experiencing lower anxiety. specifically, for each additional year of age, anxiety decreases slightly, while each higher educational level also contributes to reduced anxiety. as students age or advance in their studies, their english anxiety decreases. gender differences are more pronounced, with female students generally having higher levels of anxiety compared to male students. understanding these factors helps to identify which groups may need additional support in managing their english language anxiety. discussion differences of gender in english anxiety according to the research, gender differences in english anxiety are notable. female students had significantly higher levels than male students. this finding has been confirmed through various studies, including aida’s (1994), which also showed that female students are most likely to experience more language anxiety. therefore, these disparities can be attributed to several factors, such as societal expectations and traditional gender roles. young (1991) pointed out that girls may face more pressure from the need for academic excellence and fear negative evaluation more. this pressure from society could increase girls’ anxiety levels when learning a foreign language like english. in addition, females have been socialized to believe their communicative competence is more important than males’, which might make them anxious if they do not meet this expectation. this additional pressure is usually witnessed where language learning can be viewed as a continuous performance assessment of the ability to communicate effectively. therefore, female students with high levels of english anxiety tend to adopt these societal demands into their performance. the cultural context is worth mentioning because it will contribute immensely to a better understanding the findings in question. for example, moroccan culture is one of those cultures where boys and girls are brought up differently depending on their gender roles and expectations about them. consequently, such girls are likely to be overcautious regarding making any mistakes at school, leading to higher levels of fear of failure and negative evaluation compared to other children subjected to different upbringing styles within the same background. therefore, they may experience a lot of anxiety every time they try new lessons in unknown languages as compared to boys who may be aggressive pa ge 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 1-6, 2025 simply because they undergo harder training on how they should take risks without regard to their mistakes; thus, the level of anxiety was low among males. contributing factors these fears include communication apprehension or fear of negative evaluation, specifically among female students affected most. anxieties regarding negative evaluation are the fear and apprehensions one has when one believes that others will judge them negatively. this fear is even more evident in cases of language learning because students are often required to do presentations in class. while doing so, their fellow students and teachers observe and correct their mistakes immediately. such females may feel much greater pressure on themselves to avoid making mistakes during the performance period, thus resulting in an even higher level of fear. such females may expect much greater pressure to ensure they do not make any mistakes during the performance period, leading to higher fear. another factor is communication apprehension, which means fear or anxiety linked to communication. this can be difficult in english language because students do not know how to express themselves appropriately and concisely. female students reported higher levels of communication apprehension than their male counterparts, which means that they have less confidence in their ability to speak good english and more anxiety when it comes to engaging in group discussions or speaking in front of classmates. these findings should be taken into consideration for interventions that are targeted at dealing with english anxiety. for instance, establishing a supportive environment in the classroom can reduce some of these anxieties. teachers and educators should make efforts to ensure that there is the proper construction of a learning environment in which students are free to make mistakes during their participation without feeling that they will be criticized for their actions. it could also include using instructional methods that propagate ideas of a growth mindset, which means that instead of framing mistakes as failures, other approaches must be used when faced with them. furthermore, consistent positive evaluations and emphasizing the student’s improvement may empower the student and lower their stress level. impact on academic performance and wellbeing both academic performance and general wellbeing are affected negatively by english anxiety. according to the research paper conducted among female college students, one out of three respondents claimed that stress-related disorders hindered their performance at school due to anxiousness. this means that not only females but all other students should be assisted to overcome english anxiety for better academic results as well as mental health preservation. anxiety can impede cognitive processes like attention, memory, and problem-solving, which are prerequisites to language learning. poor concentration in class, forgetting words, and misapplying the language in real-life situations become common among students who become anxious (rose et al., 2009). the female students’ statements validate that it can result in poorer academic performance and low grades. language anxiety is often accompanied by constant stress and worries that may have an enormous effect on mental health, leading to depression, low selfesteem, and burnout. tailored interventions such as stress management workshops, counseling services, and language support programs could benefit female students in overcoming their anxiety and performing better academically. stress management workshops may teach the students coping strategies like mindfulness and deep breathing exercises. for those who cannot deal with their fears alone, there is a need for counseling services that will enable them to share what they are going through with a professional counselor’s help. besides, language support programs such as tutoring and conversation clubs may offer chances outside the classroom for more practice and to develop confidence that may lower anxiety. moreover, schools and institutions of higher learning can adopt, support, and implement policies and measures that will foster supportive and inclusive learning environments. this entails training teachers on how to properly handle language anxiety among students, promoting teamwork and mutual support among learners, and at the same time, ensuring second/foreign language learners get to practice their language in a context where mistakes and poor performances are considered proof of learning. these institutions have a responsibility towards the female population of students to foster individual achievements and, at the same time, ensure that they can maintain good health status all the time. conclusion this research indicated significant gender differences in english language anxiety levels among moroccan university students. more female students indicated that their anxiety was higher, and the overall impact of this was more apparent in their academic performance and wellbeing in comparison to the male students. the findings suggest that there may be a need for genderspecific strategies to address language anxiety and improve students’ performance and quality of life. this indicates that providing appropriate language support programs and fostering students, teachers, and classmates’ understanding and acceptance of students’ language differences due to english language anxiety will assist students in reaching their full potential. thus, it is crucial to know what causes such differences between genders and to develop particular measures to minimize their effects. more practical steps include providing workshops and counseling for students to help them manage anxiety levels, which many are facing. in the long term, it concerns expanding an inclusive learning environment, improving teachers’ ability to address pa ge 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 1-6, 2025 language anxiety, and promoting a culture of appreciating effort rather than perfection in class. peer support programs can also be very useful in increasing confidence and reducing anxiety levels. constantly monitoring and evaluating these interventions will confirm that they are functional and long-lasting. in this way, institutions can assist students in managing their language anxiety and thus improve their learning and well-being. limitations the study depended on the respondents’ self-reports, prone to social desirability and recall bias. future studies could include objective tests for students’ english language proficiency and anxiety levels. further, the crosssectional design captures the level of english anxiety only at a given moment. perhaps longitudinal studies could provide more detailed data about the development of english anxiety over time and the consequent impacts on academic achievement and wellbeing. last, the study was conducted in morocco; therefore, the result may not apply to students in other countries or educational settings. references cheng, y. s., horwitz, e. k., & schallert, d. l. 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(1978). the effect of affect on foreign language learning: a review of the anxiety research. language learning, 28(1), 129-142. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1978.tb00309 pa ge 1 pa ge 7 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) a comparative study of emotional intelligence in full-time and part-time students of filipino college students t. m. b. dulalas1*, j. p. deguiñon1, k. v. c. famor1, h. j. c. osma1, l. j. y. puda1, m. j. q. batiancila1 volume 3 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v3i1.4178 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: november 30, 2024 accepted: january 02, 2025 published: january 21, 2025 in today’s educational setting, the difference between full-time students and part-time students is becoming more important. part-time students frequently have to manage complicated life situations while juggling obligations to their families, jobs, and education. emotional intelligence (ei) may develop differently due to the unique challenges faced by working students compared to their full-time peers who typically engage in more traditional academic environments. the need for this study, therefore, arises out of the attempt to make comparisons between the different levels of emotional intelligence. ei of full-time and part-time students. data from a sample of 300 students was gathered using a standardized emotional intelligence assessment tool as part of the study’s quantitative descriptivecomparative research approach. for the analysis of the results and to define the importance of any differences between the two groups, the gathered data was analyzed with the help of the mann whitney u test independent t-test. the conclusion of the kolmogorovsmirnov test indicates that the data are not regularly distributed. as a result, the levels of both variables were described by employing the mean and standard deviation. the mean and standard deviation will be utilized. the results showed that full-time and part-time students did not tend to have a marked difference in their emotional quotients. the mean emotional intelligence (ei) score for full-time students was 3.66 (sd= 0.332), while for the part-time students’ emotional intelligence (ei) score was 3.70 (sd=0.471). this suggests that factors other than employment status may have a greater influence on the emotional intelligence (ei) ratios between full-time and part-time students. keywords emotional intelligence, full-time students, part-time students 1 university of mindanao digos college, roxas ext., digos city, davao del sur, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: trishmargsz@gmail.com introduction emotional intelligence (ei) is a practical skill that enables individuals to comprehend both their own emotions and those of others. it encompasses awareness of feelings, the ability to process emotional information, and the capacity to apply this understanding effectively in decision-making and interpersonal interactions. emotionally intelligent individuals typically excel in building strong relationships, self-motivation, and interpreting social cues. sanchez et al. (2020) outlined four key components of ei: perceiving emotions, appraising emotions, utilizing emotions to enhance thinking, and managing emotions to promote cognitive and emotional growth. these facets underscore the profound impact of emotional intelligence on personal and academic success. the connection between emotional intelligence and academic performance has been well-documented. heinrichs (2023) highlights a strong correlation between emotions and student achievement, noting that emotions significantly influence learning outcomes. goncalves and lima rua (2022) define student performance as the ability to achieve academic objectives, such as earning high grades or completing assignments successfully. research by li et al. (2021) reveals that students with high emotional intelligence often demonstrate superior problem-solving, communication, and teamwork skills. these soft skills not only enhance academic performance but also foster emotional regulation and goal-oriented behavior. freedman (2020), drawing from goleman’s (1995) insights, emphasizes that emotional intelligence is twice as effective as intellectual intelligence in predicting success, accounting for a significant portion of individual achievement. goleman’s perspective aligns with the notion that emotionally intelligent individuals, driven by clear priorities and goals, are more likely to succeed academically and in life. the challenges faced by part-time students underscore the variability in emotional intelligence development. parttime students often balance work, family, and academic responsibilities, which can affect their emotional growth differently compared to full-time students. yunus et al. (2015) describe the struggles of part-time students managing dual obligations, while abenoja et al. (2019) highlight the difficulty of juggling work, school, family, and social life. research by syed and shahid (2024) indicates that employed students, predominantly parttimers, tend to exhibit lower emotional intelligence than their full-time counterparts, as work commitments can hinder emotional development. conversely, full-time students benefit from immersive academic environments that enhance their emotional awareness and regulation skills, as noted by tafa and tefera (2024). globally, understanding how emotional intelligence influences student achievement across various contexts is a pressing concern in higher education. shafait et al. (2021) explored the role of ei in shaping learning outcomes pa ge 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 7-13, 2025 such as self-improvement, satisfaction with the university experience, and cognitive abilities among students in chinese research universities. their findings suggest that emotional intelligence not only impacts academic performance but also fosters broader developmental outcomes. additionally, factors like learning orientation and trust in teachers mediate the relationship between ei and academic success, emphasizing the multifaceted role of emotional intelligence in education. in the philippine context, studies on emotional intelligence among students have revealed its significant impact on academic performance and emotional wellbeing. ramesh (2014) identified demographic factors such as school type and parental education as influential in shaping ei levels among secondary students. ibanez (2018) examined the relationship between emotional intelligence and classroom engagement among senior high school students in davao city. however, there remains a notable gap in research concerning the differences in emotional intelligence between full-time and part-time college students in specific regional and local contexts. this study seeks to address this gap by exploring how different academic commitments influence emotional intelligence among college students. by investigating the unique challenges and advantages faced by part-time and full-time students, this research aims to provide valuable insights into the interplay between academic schedules and emotional intelligence. these findings will inform targeted support strategies to enhance the academic and emotional well-being of both student groups, contributing to a more inclusive and effective educational environment. objectives the intent of this paper is to establish intelligence of emotions (ei) among the part and full time students and identify potential differences between the two groups. to achieve this objective, the study specifically addressed the following questions: 1. to assess the overall levels of emotional intelligence (ei) among part-time students using a standardized ei measurement tool. 2. to assess the overall levels of emotional intelligence (ei) among full-time students using a standardized ei measurement tool. 3. to compare and identify emerging differences in relationship between full time and part time students in terms of emotional intelligence. conceptual framework materials and method research participants the table 1 shows the respondents consist of 300 college students from the university of mindanao, divided evenly into 150 full-time students and 150 part-time working students. this equal division sought to document a variety of events pertaining to academic commitments and work-life balance. data were gathered through faceto-face administration of survey questionnaires and google forms. in all, 300 participants voluntarily took part in the survey, with a majority (69.3%, n=208) in their 1st year, followed by second year students 20 % (60), 3rd year students 10% (30) and 4th year students 0.6% (2).). out of the respondents, 211 were females, which is 70.3 % out of the total percentage. the male respondents accounts for 29.6% of the overall percentage with 89 participants. respondents age ranges from 17-18 with (n=125, 41.6%) 19-20 (n=135, 45%) 21-22 (n=31,10.3%) 23-24 (n=3, 1%) 25-26 (n=6, 2%) respectively. figure 1: conceptual framework table 1: characteristics of respondents (n=300) profile f % gender male 89 29.6 female 211 70.3 age 17-18 125 41.6 19-20 135 45 21-22 31 10.3 23-24 3 1 25-26 6 2 year level 1st year 208 69.3 2nd year 60 20 3rd year 30 10 4th year 2 0.6 student status full-time student 150 50 part-time student 150 50 total 300 100 research instrument participants were asked to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with various statements by using a five-point likert scale when completing the questionnaire. in total, 33 responses were self-referenced. the likert scale ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). the seis, as a scale, produced an overall score reflecting participants’ level of likability, with higher scores indicating stronger agreement (ciarrochi et al., 2000). ei has been operationally defined in self-report measures by schutte and colleagues (1998), who formulated the pa ge 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 7-13, 2025 measure in accordance with the subcategories of the original model and by petrides et al. (2000). research has shown that this measure might in fact be both, valid and separate among the personalities that are commonly referred to as the big five noted by schutte et al. (1998). this improvement is a clear step up from most of the previous tools (ciarrochi et al., 2002). stated by ciarrochi et al. (2002), cronbach’s alpha is a statistic used to assess the internal consistency or reliability of a test or scale. it ranges from 0 to 1, with values above 0.70 considered acceptable, above 0.80 considered good, and above 0.90 considered excellent. a higher alpha indicates greater consistency among the items measuring the same concept (ucla, 2021). to assess the validity and reliability of the schutte selfreport emotional intelligence test (sseit) in the context of the university of mindanao, a pilot test was conducted. the results showed that the sseit had a good overall reliability, with a cronbach’s alpha of α = 0.883, reflecting strong internal consistency. the validity was determined using the pearson correlation coefficient, and most items had acceptable correlation values. however, three items were found to be invalid: item 5 (“i find it hard to understand the non-verbal messages of other people”) had a correlation of r = .010, item 11 (“i like to share my emotions with others”) had r = .177, and item 28 (“when i am faced with a challenge, i give up because i believe i will fail”) had r = .052. these low correlation values indicate that these items did not effectively measure emotional intelligence. table 2: emotional intelligence mean interpretation mean interval descriptive rating descriptive interpretation 4.50-5.00 strongly agree the students (both full-time and part-time) strongly concur, reflecting a very high level of emotional intelligence, characterized by outstanding emotional intelligence, control, and interpersonal effectiveness. 3.50-4.49 agree the students (both full-time and part-time) concur, indicating a high level of emotional intelligence, with solid abilities in emotional management and relationship-building. 2.50-3.49 neither disagree nor agree the students (both full-time and part-time) remain neutral, demonstrating a moderate level of emotional intelligence, with occasional success in recognizing and managing emotions. 1.50-2.49 disagree the students (both full-time and part-time) dissent, signifying a low level of emotional intelligence, with noticeable challenges in emotional regulation and relationship management. 1.00-1.49 strongly disagree the students (both full-time and part-time) strongly dissent, reflecting a very low level of emotional intelligence, with significant struggles in managing emotions. design this study’s research design quantitative study is descriptive-comparative. the researchers selected one appropriate questionnaire, according to ciarrochi et al. (2000), the sseit, or schutte self report emotional intelligence test, asks participants to rate their level of endorsement or non-endorsement of 33 statements that contain self-referencing in five-point scale, with 1 denoting extreme disagreement and 5 denoting strong agreement. for this study, which compared full-time and part-time working students, the researchers employed a convenient sampling strategy. our target sample consisted of 300 participants, equally divided between 150 full-time students and 150 part-time working students. procedure researchers provided printed surveys. then, data were gathered through face-to-face administration of survey questionnaires and google forms to 300 purposefully chosen students, 150 full time students and 150 part time working students from the university of mindanao digos college. before distributing the surveys, the researchers acquired letters of authorization, which were approved by the dean of the professional school and signed by the adviser. the researchers provided the respondents with letters to ensure that the study followed to ethical guidelines. participation was voluntary, and all responses were kept confidential to encourage honest feedback. after collecting the data, the researchers utilized version 25 descriptive statistical analytical tools of the statistical package for social sciences (ibm spss 25) software application to evaluate the questionnaires’ reliability and validity. statistical treatment with a view of telling whether data was normally distributed or not and the reasonability of the decision for the case of rejecting the null hypothesis, the researchers employed the kolmogorov-smirnov test. the test indicates that the variables were not normally distributed (ks =.057, p-value = 0.020). based on the results, the researchers chose to utilize the mean and standard deviation tools, and the mann-whitney u test. the standard deviation and mean were utilized to characterize the level of emotional intelligence of full-time and parttime students in this study. mean is a numeric average, pa ge 10 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 7-13, 2025 calculated by finding the total quantity of numbers in a set of data and dividing it by the quantity of numbers in the same set. when comparing several data sets, the mean can be a useful tool. however, the influence of extreme numbers may work against this approach (dudovskiy, 2019). the standard deviation provides information about the amount of scatter of the values of a particular variable. here, the dispersion (range) known from other statistical measures means a difference from the average of scores obtained by other, similarly positioned, members of a given group (sykes et al., 2016). in order to make some comparison of the independent groups which are gender and performance, mann-whitney u test was selected by the researchers, even though it is known which is called the name of a independent sample t test, however, it is a non-parametric test. among the mentioned, mann whitney u test is one widely used techniques of nonparametric tests used for recording results between two different groups. if the researcher wants to know if the two samples in question were likely be derived from similar population and as such the two populations are identical. distribution then the mann whitney u test is carried out (lamorte, 2017). ethical consideration the results of this investigation will help both fulltime and part-time college students. before conducting research, researchers are required to obtain permission for their study, signed by the psychological statistics advisor and the school dean. researchers are committed to respecting ethical standards and ensuring the investigation is conducted in a morally responsible manner. if respondents decide they can choose to not participate in the research study or withdraw from it at any one time, and the researchers will respect this decision. to ensure respondent safety and privacy, researchers will provide the ethics informed consent form (eicf) for respondents to read carefully, allowing them to understand the content of the study. researchers will not force parti results and discussion the level of emotional intelligence in college students groups. this states that the students (both full-time and part-time) concur, indicating a high degree of such index as emotional intelligence, with corresponding definite opportunities in emotional management and relationshipbuilding. with a standard deviation of 0.471, part-time students’ emotional intelligence scores show moderate consistency, indicating some variety in their answers. the lower standard deviation of 0.332 for full-time students, on the other hand, indicates higher consistency and shows that the majority of full-time students had similar emotional intelligence levels. with a standard deviation of 0.332, full-time students exhibit more consistency due to a closer clustering of their emotional intelligence levels around the average. however, part-time students show less stability as their emotional intelligence values vary more widely, with a standard deviation of 0.471. the difference in variability may correspond to various experiences or causes affecting the emotional intelligence where there by reduced levels of full time as well as part time students. on the basis of the presented study, there is no difference between full-time and part-time students in terms of their emotional intelligence at the university of mindanao digos college. both groups exhibit similar emotional intelligence scores, indicating that enrollment status does not appear to have an impact on students’ the child’s capacity to both think and regulate their feelings. this suggests that emotional intelligence is not influenced by whether students are enrolled full-time or part-time. a study by zawadzki et al. (2023), future management experts and company executives are not equally equipped to lead teams and handle organizational transformation, as their trait emotional intelligence (tei) distribution varies significantly depending on the type of study program. students in the “social fields” (business psychology, communication, management etc.) develop greater tei than pupils in “analytical subjects” in this area, the following degrees are offered: (economics, finance, accounting, logistics etc.). moreover, the analysis of the tei index reveals that again, the higher tei values are observed among master’s students than students of other levels, including undergraduates. however, there was no significant difference based on full time or part time students, male and female students, working or nonworking students and their tei. another study by ko et al. (2021) looked at the emotional intelligence (ei) scores of nursing students enrolled full-time and part-time in hong kong. the study used eq was determined by schutte self-report emotional intelligence scale familiarly known as sseis and exposed that no difference exists between full-time (120.65) and part-time (118.07) students. both groups had similar ei levels to university nursing students and showed a need for improvement in ei. the study also identified interpersonal relationships, spiritual growth, and sleep quality as key factors influencing ei. additionally, a peer mentorship program was found to be effective in improving ei among students. table 3: the level of emotional intelligence in parttime and full-time students indicator x sd interpretation part-time students 3.70 .471 high full-time students 3.66 .332 high the data in table 3 indicates the emotional intelligence level among part-time students and full-time students at the university of mindanao digos college, resulting of 3.70 with standard deviation of 0.471 for part-time students while for full-time students were 3.66 and 0.332. this mean score, which is in the “agree” range (3.50-4.49) in the mean interpretation table, suggests that emotional intelligence is indeed high among the two pa ge 11 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 7-13, 2025 this result aligns with a expanding field of research that suggests emotional intelligence is a multifaceted construct influenced by a complex interplay of factors, including personality traits, life experiences, and social interactions, rather than solely by academic status. for instance, studies have that has been established that people with high ei self and other, often possess traits like empathy, selfawareness, and effective communication skills, which can be developed through various life experiences, such as working in customer service, volunteering in community organizations, or engaging in team-based projects, regardless of their academic commitments. some research suggests that factors like age, life experience, and personal challenges may have a more significant impact on emotional intelligence than enrollment status (whether full-time or part-time). individual traits, impulses control, motivation, understanding and interpersonal skills are all components of emotional intelligence influenced by a range of life circumstances rather than just academic commitment. as noted by schutte et al. (1998) who tried to develop the scale of emotional intelligence (eis) and discovered that emotional intelligence has a stronger empirical relationship with emotional and social experiences. rather than academic workload alone. this implies that factors outside academic enrollment, such as personal maturity and life situations, might affect ei more than whether a student is enrolled full-time or part-time. parker et al. (2004) found that emotional intelligence in university students was influenced more by general life experiences and personality traits than by academic status (full-time or part-time). the ability to navigate different situations, manage emotions, and relate to others remained relatively stable regardless of whether students were attending school full-time or part-time. goleman (1995) emphasized that emotional intelligence develops through varied life experiences, including interactions with family, peers, and work situations. whether a student is attending school full-time or part-time, these broader life experiences may have more influence on ei development than simply how many courses they are taking. this kind of test is the mann whitney wilcoxon test or simply the wilcoxon rank sum test (lamorte, 2017). when comparing the findings of the mann-whitney u test it is clear that there is insufficient evidence to conclude that there is a significant difference in the distribution of emotional intelligence mean across different categories of full-time students. the p-value (0.089) surpasses the 0.05 level of statistical significance, which results in the null hypothesis being maintained. according to thomas (2023), because the p-value is less than 0.05, thus the null hypothesize will be rejected and the alternate hypothesize will be accepted, according to a significance level of 0.05. hence, because of the insufficiency of material that would allow negating the null hypothesis, we cannot reject it. this lack of significance suggests that emotional intelligence levels may be determined more by factors other than employment status. in addition, it is possible that the emotional intelligence levels of students are influenced by complex interactions between personal and external factors, including life experiences, social environment, and coping strategies. this highlights the need for a broader, more nuanced analysis that accounts for a variety of influencing factors, rather than focusing solely on employment status. a research study by ko et al. (2021) states that the study also identified interpersonal relationships, spiritual growth, and sleep quality as key factors influencing ei. additionally, a peer mentorship program was found to be effective in improving ei among students. furthermore, cheung (2015) stated that since social competence has a favorable impact on self-esteem, emotional intelligence (ei) emerges as a compo nent that is more critical than social effectiveness. conclusion the aim of the present research is to compare the scores in emotional intelligence (ei) of part-time and full-time learners at the university of mindanao digos college. the mean, standard deviation, and kolmogorov-smirnov test were used to describe the level of ei among these groups. the kolmogorov-smirnov test revealed that the data were not normally distributed (r = .057, p = .020). the findings established that part-time students’ ei level was slightly higher (m = 3.70, sd = 0.471) compared to full-time students, whose ei level was also relatively high (m = 3.66, sd = 0.332). the study acknowledges certain limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings. first, the sample size may have been too small, which could limit the generalizability of the results. additionally, the use of self-reported data might introduce bias or inaccuracies in the measurement of emotional intelligence. since the study was conducted at the university of mindanao digos college, the findings may not be applicable to other educational institutions. moreover, the influence of factors such as age, gender, and socioeconomic status on emotional intelligence was not thoroughly explored. future research could build on table 4: the null hypothesis of emotional intelligence in full time and part-time students as well null hypothesis sig. the allocation of emotional intelligence mean is the same in all categories of student employment .089 to make a comparison between the two independent groups, the researchers chose as a measure of the independent variable was the independent sample t-test, while the mann-whitney u test was used as a parametric test. mann whitney u test is a very popular test used for the comparison of the results yielded by two unrelated groups. the mann whitney u test on the other hands helps in determining whether two samples have been derived from the same population (whether their population has the same shape). another name for pa ge 12 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 7-13, 2025 these findings by investigating the underlying factors that contribute to differences in ei between part-time and fulltime students. this could include exploring the effects of workload, time management, and social interactions on the development of emotional intelligence. longitudinal studies may also provide insights into how ei changes over time and identify effective interventions to enhance ei in both groups. finally, this study emphasizes the importance of addressing the diverse experiences and challenges faced by part-time and full-time students. by promoting the development of emotional intelligence, educational institutions can help students build essential skills for success in both academic and professional settings. references balacuit, c. v., & lopio, l. 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(2023). trait emotional intelligence among future leaders: how business students are prepared for the vuca world. journal of organizational change management. https:// doi.org/10.1108/jocm-07-2023-0292 pa ge 1 pa ge 58 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) impact of psychoeducation on self-concept of selected bataan peninsula state university students affected by ghosting in bataan, philippines sophia jayne sioco1, andrea lorin villaruel1, philipp lloyd malacad1*, precious tabanay1, bea grace estinopo1, marielle santos1, kenshin saquilon1, allen louise santos1, sabriya dobbins1, jayvie villazor1 volume 3 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v3i1.3899 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: october 25, 2024 accepted: november 22, 2024 published: may 19, 2025 in today’s digital age, the practice of ghosting has emerged as a dissolution strategy in relationships, leaving individuals emotionally unattended and questioning their self-worth. this study explores the role of psychoeducation on the self-concept of selected college students at bataan peninsula state university main and balanga campus who have been ghosted by their previous partners online. the researchers employed the program “ghosted: healing from abandonment” by sabriya dobbins, consisting of six sessions designed to address the impact of ghosting on self-concept. twenty participants were randomly assigned into two groups and underwent two different treatments: a one-session psychoeducation summarizing the program and a full six-session. the robson self concept questionnaire was utilized to precisely measure participants’ self-concept before and after the program. the findings revealed that the program significantly improved the participants’ self-concept from both experimental (p = .037) and control groups (p = .013). this study explores the lasting psychological effects of ghosting, aiming to offer support and insights to those affected by this modern relationship phenomenon. it further unfolds the potential advantages of psychoeducation for personal growth and well-being, particularly in shaping one’s self-concept. keywords abandonment, experimentation, ghosting, psychoeducation, selfconcept 1 bataan peninsula state university college of social and behavioral sciences, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: phlnmalacad@bpsu.edu.ph introduction ghosting, a modern dissolution strategy facilitated by technological advancements (timmermans et al., 2020), entails ending a relationship abruptly without explanation, often characterized by ignoring communication attempts such as phone calls and messages (lefebvre et al., 2019). this phenomenon has garnered attention due to its detrimental psychological effects on individuals. research indicates that ghosting can evoke feelings of worthlessness and hinder the healing process, often proving more distressing than traditional breakups (koessler et al., 2019). approximately 20 to 40% of the general population has encountered ghosting either as a victim, perpetrator, or both, highlighting its prevalence in contemporary social dynamics (freedman et al., 2019; lefebvre et al., 2019; pancani et al., 2021). the psychological toll of ghosting, which lerida et al. (2023) characterized by feelings of confusion, pain, and self-doubt, extends to a detrimental impact on the ghostee’s self-concept—a composite of self-esteem, selfworth, and self-efficacy, that interconnectedly contribute to their next direction in life (lichner et al., 2020). it is also how people observe, understand, and appreciate themselves in different situations and roles, shaping their thoughts, feelings, and actions (wehrle & fasbender, 2019). this connection between ghosting and selfconcept was further explored by konings et al. (2023), who illustrated that ghosting lowers self-esteem and causes ghostees to reevaluate their worthiness and think that something is wrong on their part. thus, experiences like ghosting may affect a person’s capability to grasp a positive outlook on himself/herself. as mentioned by petric (2023), it leaves the individuals feeling disposable, inadequate, and unlovable which may undermine confidence in anybody, but is detrimental to those who already have poor self-esteem. in addition, they may feel abandoned, struggle with trust issues, and feel a sense of hopelessness when attempting to form new connections (mereta, 2023). this results in more complicated and challenging effects of ghosting, particularly to those who have previously experienced abandonment. according to pancani et al. (2021), ghostees nevertheless can shift their focus from the apparent negative consequences to potential positive outcomes, such as personal growth and professional pursuits. but this does not guarantee complete acceptance of the situation due to a lack of clear reasons (lefebvre, 2017). with that, a support program referred to as psychoeducation is employed in the study. as outlined by sarkhel et al. (2020), it can give insights and assist individuals in gaining a better understanding of the situation they are currently going through. however, limited studies focus on this aspect, especially in the philippines. previous research also concentrated more on identifying correlations rather than drawing causal inferences (di-santo et al., 2023). as such, preventive programs or initiatives should be developed to support ghostees in enhancing their mental health and well-being (lerida et al., 2023). the researchers further aspire to fill these gaps to contribute and develop deeper understanding to the problem at hand. consequently, the study aimed to investigate the impact pa ge 59 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 58-64, 2025 of psychoeducation on the self-concept of participants, specifically selected college students from bataan peninsula state university main and balanga campus who have been ghosted and are suffering from the adverse effects of it. to attain this objective, it seeks to provide answers to the following research questions: is there a significant difference in pre-and post-test scores of selfconcept in the experimental group? is there a significant difference in preand post-test scores of self-concept in the control group? is there a significant difference between the experimental and control groups in the selfconcept post-test scores? the findings of the study on ghosting can greatly assist individuals affected by this phenomenon and can also be used by educational institutions, particularly their guidance offices, to support students suffering from its effects. materials and methods study design the study employed an experimental research design, which involves the researcher implementing an intervention in individuals’ lives to assess its impact (boniface, 2019). the objective of the experiment is to formally organize a program to identify cause-and-effect relationships. in alignment with the study’s objectives, the researchers utilized two distinct research methodologies. independent measure, also known as between-subjects design, a method commonly employed to assess intervention effectiveness (choueiry, 2021). this involves evaluating pre-test and post-test outcomes within randomly assigned control and treatment groups. moreover, the study integrates a repeated measures design, adopting a within-subjects approach. in this design, the same subjects undergo testing repeatedly under all treatment conditions. the researchers’ focus is to examine overall differences among related group means (boniface, 2019). participants, all of whom share the common experience of being ghosted, undergo pretest and post-test assessments under various conditions. participants to ensure reliability and validity, the study used inclusion and exclusion criteria for participant selection. participants were college students from bataan peninsula state university main and balanga campus who had been ghosted by their previous online partners (labeled or not) lasting at least 2 months (up to a year) and who were ghosted between 2020 to 2023. twenty participants were selected at random regardless of gender, aged between 18 to 27 years old. students who were already self-assured, currently in another new relationship, or had previously participated in a program focused on ghosting were excluded to isolate the program’s impact. this ensured that any observed improvements in self-perception could be attributed primarily to the program. additionally, participants from the experimental group who attended only one or two sessions were ineligible to continue, as their data could not accurately reflect the program’s impact. ghosted: healing from abandonment the psychoeducation program, “ghosted: healing from abandonment,” developed by sabriya dobbins, aims to address the detrimental effects of ghosting on the selfconcept of college students at bataan peninsula state university main and balanga campus. the sessions will be facilitated by a team of researchers, assisted by their research advisor. 1. the opening session, ‘group welcome and defining your ghosted experience(s)’, will delve into the concept of ghosting, exploring its various forms and contrasting it with no contact. participants will also have the opportunity to share their own ghosting stories. 2. delving into our childhood experiences, the second session, ‘historical experiences of abandonment,’ will investigate the different types of attachment styles and how they contribute to your individual attachment style. 3. the third session, titled ‘redefining the ghosts that haunt us,’ dives into the haunting phenomenon of ghosting, exploring how our relationship views influence both who ghosts and how we react to it. we’ll also examine the various reasons why people choose to ghost. 4. ‘ghost alert: managing emotional and mental experiences,’ the fourth session, delves into the emotional and mental aftershocks of being ghosted. it explores key concepts like building emotional resilience, managing emotional contagion, and understanding defense mechanisms, equipping you to navigate the emotional and mental landscape post-ghosting. 5. the fifth session, aptly titled ‘facing the ghost(s) of life head-on,’ unveils the transformative getsmart acronym. this mnemonic, standing for goal oriented, emotional management, thought restructuring, selfsoothing, mindfulness, attachment style, reaching out to others, and transformed behavior, provides a comprehensive toolkit to conquer unhealthy emotional and mental responses triggered by ghosting or its potential threat. 6. the final session, ‘becoming the hero of your story and group closing,’ marks the culmination of our session. here, we’ll revisit and solidify the getsmart acronym, ensuring you have a firm grasp of its empowering tools. then, we’ll delve into the nuanced difference between loneliness and being alone, helping you navigate both with self-awareness and acceptance. finally, we’ll conclude with a powerful affirmation exercise, empowering you to claim your own narrative as the hero of your story. measures the researchers employed the robson self concept questionnaire (scq), created by philip robson in 1989, to assess the self-concept of the participants who had been ghosted. the construct is comprised of subscales that are categorized into five distinct themes, namely pa ge 60 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 58-64, 2025 “attractiveness, approval by others,” “contentment, worthiness, significance,” “autonomous self-regard,” “competence, self-efficacy,” and “the value of existence.” the self-report instrument employed in this study utilizes an 8-point likert scale comprising 30 statements that span from “completely disagree” (0-1) to “completely agree” (6-7). the reliability of the scq has been demonstrated to be high, as indicated by a cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .89, and its clinical validity has been found to be strong, with a coefficient of 0.70 (p < 0.00001) (ghaderi, 2005). procedure the researchers randomly selected 10 participants for each group, control and experimental, from bataan peninsula state university main and balanga campus. to ensure suitable candidates, they administered a thorough criteria test, assessing their level of self-assurance and tolerance towards being ghosted. both the control and experimental group were required to complete a pre-test as a baseline assessment before the psychoeducation was implemented. prior to implementing the program, the researchers provided informed consent forms to the participants, who carefully reviewed the document before returning it. the support program employed in this study was psychoeducation, a carefully designed approach that aimed to provide psychological and educational support to the participants. the psychoeducation program spanned for three weeks and consisted of 6 sessions–2 sessions per day, each week, lasting for approximately 45 minutes to 1 hour. while the experimental group received the full program, the control group only had one session. at the end of both sessions of each group, the participants received tokens prepared by the researchers. afterwards, through a comparison of the post-outcomes and experiences of both groups, the researchers intended to evaluate the impact of the psychoeducation program in rebuilding the ghosted students’ self-concept. ethical considerations the research study on the impact of psychoeducation on the self-concept of selected ghosted college students adhered to section 10 of the code of ethics for philippine psychologists and psychometricians (2022). in addition, all information obtained was kept with confidentiality in compliance with republic act 10173 or the data privacy act of 2012. risks were minimized by being responsive to participants’ verbal and nonverbal cues and letting them take a break or withdraw. they also had the opportunity to seek clarification before, during, and after their participation in the study. lastly, proper acknowledgment of others’ works was upheld in the research paper through accurate citations and references. data analysis the present study utilized statistical package for social science (spss) v. 25 with a 0.05 level of significance, an instrument often used in various disciplines such as sociology, psychology, and medicine because of its ability for accurate data management and documentation (rahman & muktadir, 2021). descriptive statistics, particularly mean and standard deviation, were employed to determine the average and distribution of scores in experimental and control groups. moreover, wilcoxon signed rank test was applied, a statistical method that evaluates paired observations (derryberry et al., 2010; oyeka & ebuh, 2012) and is recommended in small samples as it is free of the normality assumption (doane & seward, 2007; meek et al., 2007). it is therefore relevant to use when comparing the means of 20 ghosted individuals before and after the program and identifying if a significant change was established. additionally, it was performed to analyze the subscales of robson self-concept questionnaire, which utilized a likert scale, because of its efficacy in analyzing the scores of likert scaled tests under various conditions such as sample size and group size ratio (simsek, 2023). the mann whitney u was also used to examine if a significant difference exists between the means of the experimental and control groups. this nonparametric test compares average values between two independent sets of participants (sundjaja et al., 2020) and assesses the treatment’s impact on outcomes (wu et al., 2013). results and discussion the wilcoxon signed rank test was utilized to assess in-group within-group differences in pre-test and posttest scores. the mean score of the experimental group increased, from 105.60 to 135.10. however, the standard deviation also increased from 16.33 to 27.58, indicating that the scores of the participants became more scattered. this suggests that the psychoeducation program may have a favorable influence on the scq scores in the experimental group. however, a large standard deviation implies that the program may not have an even effect on all participants. nevertheless, the significant value of .037 implied that the psychoeducation program implemented improved their self-concept with a large effect size of 0.66. from these results, the null hypothesis can be rejected, inferring that there is a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores of the experimental group. similar findings emerged in the control group. scores significantly increased from 80.70 to 117.30, demonstrating a higher average following one-session psychoeducation program. this rise was accompanied by an increase in standard deviation, from 21.37 to 33.31, indicating greater data dispersion. this highlights the possibility of unaccounted variables influencing the results. these could include pre-test sensitization or the speaker delivering the psychoeducation program being a highly articulate presenter. despite this variability, the program’s effectiveness is still evident. the significant improvement of .013 with a large effect size of 0.79 indicates a substantial positive impact on participants’ self-concept. hence, a significant difference exists between the pre-test and post-test scores of the control group, leading to the rejection of the null hypothesis. pa ge 61 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 58-64, 2025 in accordance to the five subscales namely “attractiveness, approval by others”, “contentment, worthiness, significance”, “autonomous self-regard”, “competence, self-efficacy”, and “the value of existence”, the experimental group showed improvements on the most of the self-concept subscales measured. the most significant was observed in “attractiveness, approval by others,” with a mean score increase from 16.80 to 24.20 yielding a p-value of .017. this suggests a substantial positive impact on how participants within the program viewed themselves in terms of seeking approval from others. table 1: mean scores of the experimental and control group groups before psychoeducation after psychoeducation p-value effect size mean sd mean sd experimental group 105.60 16.33 135.10 27.58 .037 0.66 control group 80.70 21.37 117.30 33.31 .013 0.79 table 2: mean scores on subscales of the experimental group measure before the psychoeducation program after the psychoeducation program difference mean mean mean p attractiveness, approval by others 16.80 24.20 -7.4 .017 contentment, worthiness 16.40 22.60 -6.2 .126 autonomous self-regard 23.70 27.50 -3.8 .109 competence, self-efficacy 24.70 31.30 -6.6 .102 value of existence 18.60 23.30 -4.7 .405 table 3: mean scores on subscales of the control group measure before the psychoeducation program after the psychoeducation program difference mean mean mean p attractiveness, approval by others 15.70 21.40 -5.7 .040 contentment, worthiness 10.00 19.30 -9.3 0.37 autonomous self-regard 15.10 22.60 -7.5 .009 competence, self-efficacy 22.80 26.60 -3.8 .513 value of existence 13.40 21.20 -7.8 .024 moreover, the results showed an enhancement of the participants’ scores from the control group on the subscales “attractiveness, approval by others” (mean of 15.70 to 21.40, p-value = 0.40), “contentment, worthiness, significance” (mean of 10.00 to 19.30, p-value = 0.37), “autonomous self-regard” (mean of 15.10 to 22.60, p-value = .009), and “the value of existence” (mean of 13.40 to 21.20, p-value = .024). as evidenced, the domain value of existence had the most significant change in mean score after the psychoeducation program. the mann-whitney u test revealed no significant difference between the post-test scores of the experimental and control groups. the results displayed a z-score of -1.362 and a significant value of .173. hence, the psychoeducation program may not have had a differential effect on self-concept in either group. discussion the research study aimed to determine the impact of psychoeducation on the self-concept of selected students who have been ghosted. in relation to the presented hypotheses, a significant difference exists between the pre and post-test scores of the experimental (from a mean of 105.60 to 135.10 with a p-value of .037) and control group (from a mean of 80.70 to 117.30 with a p-value of .013). this indicated that participants’ self-concept significantly improved after the program’s implementation, denoting that their actual engagement further contributed to their understanding of the ghosting phenomenon, increased their self-awareness, and enhanced their coping skills. these findings aligned with the study of cartwright and hooper (2017) as cited by qian et al. (2022) which obtained a notable enhancement of self-esteem among college students through psychoeducational lectures. moreover, the quantitative data suggests that participants from the experimental group have perceived their physical appearance more positively, as shown in the increase of their mean scores on the attractiveness subscale. on the other hand, the control group has developed their self-concept in several aspects including attractiveness, pa ge 62 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 58-64, 2025 approval by others, contentment, worthiness, significance, autonomous self-regard, and the value of existence. these categories are significant as they comprise thoughts about oneself and having them clear or stable enhances an individual’s overall self-beliefs and confidence (yusop et al., 2018). in addition, it was found that a significant difference was not established between the experimental group, which received six sessions in a span of three weeks, and the control group which underwent one session. the potential factors influencing this result may include the aspect that both groups received psychoeducational lectures, with the only distinction being the number of sessions attended. the limited sample size has also had an impact on the veracity and reliability of the research outcome (faber & fonseca, 2014), making it more challenging to detect any significant difference (dibao-dina et al., 2014; oldfield, 2016). on the other hand, it is also crucial to note that although no significant difference exists between the two groups, the control group presented a statistically higher difference, contradicting previous research findings such as in the study conducted by ime and ümmet (2024) which implemented a psychoeducation on two groups and later suggested that the experimental group demonstrated more significant improvements. several possible reasons may contribute to this outcome. one important factor is that there were different speakers with various ways of conveying the information during each session in the experimental group while the control group only had one individual who summarized the topics to be discussed. another aspect to consider could be the scores of the experimental group before the program’s implementation. while it is still within the below to average range of scores that researchers assessed and enabled them to be included as participants, it is comparably higher than the pre-test scores of those in the control group. this is further explained by the ceiling effect, which occurs when a substantial number of participants in a group scored at or near the highest possible amount on a measurement instrument, hindering the researchers’ ability to accurately detect the improvements within the data (garin, 2014). additionally, the self-concept questionnaire, which was us-normed due to the unavailability of scales contextualized in the philippines, may not be better aligned with the participants’ ghosting experiences, all of whom are filipinos. nevertheless, it may also suggest that a single session of psychoeducation is already effective in helping the affected individuals navigate the aftermath of ghosting and rebuilding their self-concept. the findings of the study further emphasized that the consequences of being ghosted can be profound, leading to emotional distress, uncertainty, as well as damage to one’s self-worth (daraj et al., 2023) and one of the ways for individuals to cope with the situation is to learn and develop an understanding of the reasons behind it (jahrami et al., 2023). by shedding light on the focused problem, mental health professionals will be informed about the significance of support programs that can provide appropriate counseling, resources, and guidance to those who have been ghosted and struggled to see their worth and value after the relationship. people will also be more aware that it is an issue that should not be taken lightly and treated as a norm in the dating world which in turn, can empower society in fostering open communication and healthier relationship practices, especially among young adults. moreover, the results inferred can provide relevant information that may help lawmakers in the philippines in offering a resolution to the act of declaring ghosting as an emotional offense or house bill 611, aiding them in gaining a comprehensive understanding that will ensure that the proposed bill can accurately address the needs and conflicts of all the parties involved. limitations the limitations present in the study are crucial to note for future researchers who will delve into this phenomenon. first, ghosting that took place online is the only context investigated. other settings such as in-person or faceto-face should be explored as well to arrive at a new perspective and understanding of its motivations and consequences. there is also an unequal number of male and female participants, which has prevented the study from drawing general conclusions between the two sexes. for more precise findings, increasing the sample size, specifically male participants, is encouraged. moreover, the adapted “ghosted: healing from abandonment” by sabriya dobbins lacked a substantial research foundation and was tailored to address the ghosting experiences of individuals from a different cultural background. a program contextualized in the philippines or specifically designed for filipinos who encountered the phenomenon may better align with their situation and concerns. furthermore, due to conflicting schedules, the implemented program was constrained to three weeks and had lengthy gaps between each session. establishing shorter and consistent intervals is preferred to ensure and enhance participants’ understanding of the topics discussed. lastly, inadequate prior research, specifically on the impact of psychoeducation on the selfconcept of those who have been ghosted, also became a barrier to the complete investigation of the problem. in addition, it is worthwhile to consider the inclusion of two experimental groups: one with psychoeducational lectures and another with a social support program to grasp which approach coincides more effectively with ghostees’ needs. future research could also focus on examining ghosting not only in romantic relationships but also in other contexts such as family, friendship, and workplace which may generate relevant findings and fill the gap in knowing the implications of ghosting across various interpersonal facets. conclusion the present study explored the profound impact of ghosting on the self-concept of selected college pa ge 63 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 58-64, 2025 students at bataan peninsula state university main and balanga campus. through the implementation of the program “ghosted: healing from abandonment” by sabriya dobbins, the researchers aimed to address the psychological effects of ghosting on various individuals, recognizing it as a significant concern in modern relationships. subsequently, a notable enhancement in the self-concept of participants was observed in both the control and experimental groups, highlighting the effectiveness of the program. the findings further emphasized the potential advantages of psychoeducation in promoting personal growth, resilience, and well-being, particularly in the context of one’s self-concept, as well as offering valuable insights and coping mechanisms that can aid affected individuals in gaining a deeper understanding of their experiences and rebuilding their worth. moving forward, the study suggests the importance of continued research and the development of preventive programs or interventions to support those navigating the challenges posed by ghosting. in addition, the research can be applied by mental health practitioners in promoting healthier relationship dynamics and encouraging especially young adults 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(2018). effects of group guidance activities on students’ selfconcept. international journal of academic research in business and social sciences, 8(12), 5316–5324. https:// doi.org/10.6007/ijarbss/v8-i12/5316 pa ge 1 pa ge 48 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) artistic activities and developing creative thinking skills among children in early childhood basma rashed alghufali1* volume 2 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v2i1.2505 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: february 24, 2024 accepted: march 28, 2024 published: april 04, 2024 the study explores the pivotal role of artistic activities in cultivating creative thinking skills during early childhood in identifying the profound impact of these activities on children’s cognitive, emotional and social development. grounded in piaget’s cognitive development theory and gardner’s theory of multiple intelligence has shown the influence of different factors that have included pedagogical approaches, parental involvement, cultural background, and the age and duration of artistic engagement. the literature review has shown the foundational principles of creative thinking programs in early childhood education, emphasising the need for innovative and balanced approaches. also, with the help of a survey, 300 participants of data were gathered that were teachers and caregivers. content analysis has been done to get subjective results. the study has included the importance of incorporating artistic activities into educational settings and parents’ support, highlighting the consistent dynamics shaping creativity outcomes and advocating holistic foundations for children’s future success. keywords artistic activities, creative thinking skills, early childhood development, parental involvement, content analysis 1 princess nourah bint abdulrahman university, early childhood department, saudia arabia * corresponding author’s e-mail: emmmyashry@yahoo.com introduction developing creative abilities is crucial in modern societies, as most goals rely on mental abilities, particularly creativity. artistic activities are essential in educational programs, building children’s personality and social interaction (alam, 2022). they help develop creativity and innovation, teaching them to deal with the world and express feelings positively. the need for creative capabilities is increasing as individuals and communities must adapt to new realities through creative initiatives and problem-solving (sawyer & henriksen, 2024). torrance (1987) emphasized the significance of the first five years of a child’s life for developing creative abilities, emphasizing the need for education to bridge theoretical ideas into practical works, fostering creativity, communication, and understanding of oneself and others (torrance, 1987). educational institutions should equip children with 21st-century skills for future careers, emphasizing the importance of early childhood years in learning these skills (yildiz & yildiz, 2021). the research highlights the significance of transforming kindergarten education from rote to creative, promoting creative thinking, teaching reading, and enhancing children’s observation, research, and exploration abilities (mahgoub; mcrae, 2022). the study explored the impact of artistic activities on creative thinking in third-grade primary school children, focusing on fluency, flexibility, originality, and detail skills. theoretical framework piaget’s cognitive development theory piaget’s theory has focused on the stages of cognitive development in children. it can be applied to understand how artistic activities contributed to the development of abstract thinking, symbolic representation, and problem solving skills during early childhood (babakr et al., 2019). gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences gardner’s theory has proposed that individuals possessed multiple intelligences that has included musical spatial and bodily kinesthetic intelligences. although this framework can be employed to examine that how different forms of artistic activities cater towards different intelligences, fostering a holistic development of creative thinking skills (brualdi timmins, 2019). literature review foundations and principles for creative thinking program in early childhood the creative curriculum focuses on building trusting relationships, providing individualized care, creating exploratory environments, ensuring children’s safety and health, and fostering partnerships with families. creativity is frequently viewed as a solution to both current and future challenges (leggett, 2017; nikkola et al., 2022). this study presents early childhood creativity as part of a larger project called progressive feedback, an early childhood education and care research and development project (nikkola et al., 2022). the study of fernandez & feliu suggested that the incorporating reggio emilia philosophy in early childhood education to nurture arts development and critical thinking through an experimental project involving two-year-old students (fernández-santín & feliu-torruella, 2020). the study found that 45 university seniors lack knowledge and experience in creativity, suggesting the need for additional coursework or practice-based courses to familiarize teachers with diverse approaches (ata-akturk & sevimlicelik, 2023). oecd “organisation for economic copa ge 49 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 48-57, 2024 operation and development” is examining 21st-century skills for students in educational settings, focusing on creating new value, reconciling tensions, and taking responsibility, focusing on self-regulation, self-efficacy, self-control, and problem-solving (çakır et al., 2021). research suggests multiliterate learning environments in ece classrooms can revolutionize literacy pedagogy, challenging existing policies that restrict children’s full literate lives in classrooms (loyola et al., 2020). creative thinking skills creativity training improved students’ ideation skills and cognitive flexibility, but did not enhance originality. performance increased for the remote associate test, highlighting implications for educational settings (ritter et al., 2020). visual arts teachers engage students with engaging projects, teaching persistence and persistence. they teach craft and craft-related habits, while also exposing students to the community and institutions shaping the art world (winner et al., 2020). moreover, it has been documented that high-quality visual arts pedagogy, concerns about perceived discrepancies between educational rhetoric and classroom application have been frequently raised (lindsay, 2021). ecec provides children with diverse opportunities to engage in arts, music, and other cultural aspects, fostering creative thinking, emotional expression, and play (ruokonen et al., 2021). artistic activities drawing is a crucial aspect of preschool curricula, fostering socio-emotional development and excitement in children through the production of various forms (zakaria et al., 2021). early childhood is crucial for a child’s creative potential, as they master visual activities like drawing, demonstrating their visual literacy and mastery of graphic skills under teacher guidance (nazokat et al., 2021). creativity is crucial in complex scientific processes, challenging to identify and measure. enhancing students’ creativity can be achieved through specific education programs (ozkan & umdu topsakal, 2021). age of the child researchers in malaysia found that digital games can enhance creativity skills, critical thinking, knowledge transfer, digital experience acquisition, and positive learning attitude in preschool children aged 3-6 (behnamnia et al., 2020). the study found that mind mapping in children aged 48-72 months can enhance their critical thinking abilities, with no significant difference between pre-test and post-test scores, suggesting its potential in education (polat & aydın, 2020). steam education is most effective in early childhood, boosting children’s motivation and career linkage. however, teachers often focus on soft skills, affecting sustainable steam abilities and teacher professional development. innovative steam practices also impact teacher professional development, enhancing competences in 3-6-year-olds (monkeviciene et al., 2020). duration of artistic engagement the impact of science activities on the creativity of male preschool children. 30 children were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups, using torrance’s test of creative thinking for measurement. the study aims to demonstrate the potential of creativity in education (mirzaie et al., 2009). school-based art therapy helps children with various disorders, such as asthma, behavioral disorders, and learning disorders, through visual arts media. a study aimed to identify and synthesize interventions for children aged 5-12 using various media (moula, 2020). by age 5, children develop new representational abilities, allowing them to expand their imaginations, love pretend games, and explore through fantasisation and experimentation (kapitany et al., 2022). research indicates a correlation between creativity and leisure or artistic activities in educational settings of different ages, with early participation in youth fostering better creative responses (chacón-lópez & maeso-broncano, 2023). the study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of drawing as an emotion regulation technique in children aged 7-10. it compared three drawing conditions: vent, free, and distract, and found that drawing improved moods more in distraction conditions, especially for children with medium emotional comprehension. the study also found that drawing’s effectiveness was influenced by children’s perceived competence (brechet et al., 2022). parental involvement child-friendly schools prioritize safety, cleanliness, and a nurturing environment, respecting student rights and protection from violence, and involve student participation in planning, policy, learning, supervision, and complaint mechanisms (marcos et al., 2020). creativity is crucial in various aspects of life, including entertainment, health, politics, culture, and social, as it ensures the development of a dynamic world (lian, 2020). the reggio emilia approach emphasizes the importance of parental involvement in early childhood education for a child’s psychosocial development and overall wellbeing (kołodziejski & butvilas, 2021). mother’s age and profession positively influence young children’s fluency and novelty in motor creativity, while gender, age, or parents’ age, education, or occupation are not significant predictors (karaca et al., 2020). family-related factors impact children’s mathematics achievement in finland differently, with some areas minimizing their impact on educational outcomes (harju-luukkainen et al., 2020). educational setting art and creative activities enhance intellect, creativity, and mental health, and can be integrated into education through a semantic approach (kashekova et al., 2021). the m3 technique is a safe and appealing method for enhancing early childhood art skills through drawing, cutting, and pasting activities (kustiawan, 2021). artsbased medical education can enhance clinical skills, foster creativity, and allow students to express their subjective pa ge 50 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 48-57, 2024 impressions during osces (gilbert et al., 2022). artbased activities like body painting, clay modeling, and drawing can enhance clinical education by engaging students, improving clinical acumen, and enhancing visual understanding of the human body (salama et al.). a conducive painting environment and suitable teaching methods are vital for preschoolers to develop their artistic abilities, which is vital for their overall growth (liu & wu, 2023). cultural background the study inferred cultural background from parentreported language spoken in each student’s home from kindergarten through secondary school, a key aspect of ethno-cultural background, consistent with previous canadian-based behavioral research (guhn et al., 2020). artistic activities promoting indigenous children’s language, culture, and cosmo-vision in education can enhance teaching and learning, fostering respect and appreciation for diversity (del carpio, 2021). artistic and creative activities foster students’ humanistic culture, boost learning motivation, enhance their emotional and figurative personalities, and enhance their creative potential (kai, 2021). preschool fine arts education promotes creativity, learning, self-exploration, social integration, and a positive environment for young children, fostering self-expression, cultural understanding, aesthetics, and positive mood (egan, 2020). methodology the research methodology has followed quantitative analysis and content analysis in which the survey has been done from the 300 participants that are teachers and caregivers. also content analysis was done from different research journals and case studies for getting more detailing and subjective results. quantitative analysis the study has found that the early childhood development is significantly influenced with cultural exposure, artistic engagement and creative thinking skills. the mean age of the population is 1.74, and children are exposed to diverse cultural traditions and languages. artistic activities are highly valued, with satisfaction, educational programs have shown high results. however, these activities have created positive impact in their daily routines, problemsolving skills, and creative thinking abilities. the presence of a creative thinking program in early childhood is moderately implemented indicating positive perception of art in education. table 1: descriptive statistics mean std. deviation age 1.74 .438 language spoken at home: 3.00 0.000 cultural traditions exposure: 1.00 0.000 influence of cultural art forms: 1.00 0.000 cultural celebrations participation: 1.00 0.000 regularly expose my child to cultural content (e.g., books, tv shows, movies) representing diverse cultures 1.00 0.000 celebration of cultural festivals: 1.49 .864 my child is exposed to languages other than our primary language at home (e.g., through friends, community, school) 1.00 0.000 involvement in artistic activities: 1.00 0.000 support for creative exploration: 1.00 0.000 attendance at art events or performances: 1.00 0.000 duration of artistic engagement: 1.00 0.000 frequency of artistic activities: 1.00 0.000 preferred time for artistic activities: 1.00 0.000 duration of a typical artistic session: 1.00 0.000 variety in artistic activities: 1.00 0.000 impact of artistic activities on daily routine: 1.74 .439 frequency of artistic activities in the educational setting: 1.41 .493 type of artistic activities in the educational setting: 1.80 .403 satisfaction with the educational setting's artistic program: 1.00 0.000 to what extent do you observe an improvement in your child's problem-solving skills after engaging in artistic activities? 4.00 0.000 pa ge 51 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 48-57, 2024 how would you rate your child's ability to think creatively after participating in artistic activities? 4.88 .326 observation of problem-solving: 1.00 0.000 creativity in everyday tasks: 1.30 .458 expression of original ideas: 1.81 .393 innovation in play: 1.93 .250 transfer of creative skills: 1.75 .432 creative thinking program in early childhood 2.26 .936 figure 1: mean correlation analysis the correlation matrix has shown a significant relationship among creative thinking programs in early childhood, cultural background, artistic engagement, educational setting, creative thinking skills and age. as there is a strong positive correlation between presence of a creative thinking program and creative thinking skills (r = 0.737, p < 0.001). also there was a positive correlation is found between presence of a creative thinking program and cultural background of the respondents (r = 0.352, p < 0.001), indicating that those with more diverse cultural background are more likely to report the existence of creative thinking programs in early childhood. conversely, a negative correlation is evident between the presence of a creative thinking program and engagement in artistic activities (r = -0.345, p < 0.001). furthermore, there is a positive correlation between the presence of a creative thinking program and positive perception of educational setting (r = 0.296, p < 0.001), the existence of such programs are more likely to have positive perceptions of the educational improvement. also there was a negative correlation among age and cultural background (r = -0.708, p < 0.001), artistic engagement (r = -0.566, p < 0.001), and creative thinking skills, suggesting that older respondents have less diverse cultural background and perceive lower engagement in their children. table 2: correlations creative thinking program in early childhood cultural background artistic educational setting creative thinking skills age creative thinking program in early childhood pearson correlation 1 .352** -.345** .296** .737** -.128* sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .026 pa ge 52 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 48-57, 2024 paired sample t-test the study has found that there was a significant difference in the mean scores of creative thinking program in early childhood with age and cultural background. age was perceived as having a significant impact, while cultural background was perceived as having a substantial influence. these findings emphasise the importance of considering age and cultural background when evaluating the perceived impact of creative thinking programs in early childhood, reflecting the nature of these perceptions within diverse demographic contexts. the study found that significant differences in the impact of creative thinking program in early childhood on artistic engagement and parental involvement. artistic engagement had a significant difference of 1.26. both factors have contributed uniquely towards a child’s creative development, highlighting the nature of perceptions regarding creative thinking programs. artistic engagement had a significant difference of 1.14, while parental involvement had a significant difference of 1.26. both factors contribute uniquely to a child’s creative development, highlighting the complex nature of perceptions regarding creative thinking programs. both factors play a crucial role in shaping a child’s creative development. cultural background pearson correlation .352** 1 -.595** .601** .476** -.708** sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 artistic pearson correlation -.345** -.595** 1 -.299** -.077 .417** sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .183 .000 educational setting pearson correlation .296** .601** -.299** 1 .644** -.566** sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 creative thinking skills pearson correlation .737** .476** -.077 .644** 1 -.253** sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .183 .000 .000 age pearson correlation -.128* -.708** .417** -.566** -.253** 1 sig. (2-tailed) .026 .000 .000 .000 .000 n 300 300 300 300 300 300 table 3: paired samples test paired differences t df sig. (2-tailed)mean std. deviation std. error mean 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper pair 1 creative thinking program in early childhood age .520 1.083 .063 .397 .643 8.314 299 .000 pair 2 creative thinking program in early childhood cultural background .90714 .90049 .05199 .80483 1.00946 17.448 299 .000 table 4: paired samples test paired differences t df sig. (2-tailed)mean std. deviation std. error mean 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper pair 1 creative thinking program in early childhood artistic 1.14 .964 .056 1.030 1.250 20.479 299 .000 pair 2 creative thinking program in early childhood parental involvement 1.26 .936 .054 1.157 1.370 23.367 299 .000 pa ge 53 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 48-57, 2024 regression analysis the model summary has shown significant results, the coefficient of determination (r sqaure) is 0.530 that has shown 53% of the variability in the creative thinking dependent variable that has been explained from other independent variables that was included within the model. table 5: model summary model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 .728a .530 .524 .12720 table 6: anova model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regression 5.380 4 1.345 83.124 .000b residual 4.773 295 .016 total 10.153 299 the anova results has shown the regression model that has included specified predictors that is statistically significant. the model has shown a significant variance with dependent variable indicating the large f-statistics and p value 0.000. the predictors in the model has contributed significant to the prediction of the dependent variable confirming the model overall statistical significance. the coefficients from the regression model provide valuable insights into the impact of cultural background, educational setting, artistic engagement, and age on creative thinking skills. the constant term is -0.304, though not significantly different from zero (p = 0.224), it represents the estimated value of creative thinking skills when all predictor variables are set to zero. table 7: anova model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regression 4.820 3 1.607 89.161 .000b residual 5.333 296 .018 total 10.153 299 cultural background has a significant positive impact on creative thinking skills, as evidenced by its coefficient of 0.763 (p = 0.000). this suggests that an increase in cultural background is associated with a higher predicted value of creative thinking skills. similarly, educational setting exhibits a significant positive relationship with creative thinking skills, with a coefficient of 0.449 (p = 0.000). this implies that a more favorable educational setting is associated with increased creative thinking skills. artistic engagement also plays a crucial role, showing a significant positive impact on creative thinking skills, with a coefficient of 0.671 (p = 0.000). lastly, age has a positive impact on creative thinking skills, with a coefficient of 0.145 (p = 0.000), indicating that as age increases, creative thinking skills are predicted to rise. table 8: coefficients model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) -.304 .249 -1.219 .224 cultural background .763 .102 .511 7.500 .000 educational setting .449 .038 .612 11.808 .000 artistic .671 .126 .267 5.344 .000 age .145 .025 .344 5.884 .000 in anova the f statistic is 83.124 and the associated p –value is less than 0.000 that has shown overall significance of the regression model. the residential sum of squares is 4.773, with 295 degrees of freedom for the denominator. the total sum of square is 10.153 with 299 degrees of freedom. the f statistic is 83.124, and the associated p-value is less than 0.000, indicating the overall significance of the regression model. the residual sum of squares (sse) is 4.773, with 295 degrees of freedom for the denominator. the total sum of squares (sst) is 10.153, with 299 degrees of freedom. these findings suggest that the model, with its chosen predictors, effectively explains a significant proportion of the variance in creative thinking skills, supporting the utility of the included variables in predicting the dependent variable. pa ge 54 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 48-57, 2024 content analysis pedagogical approaches and philosophies art-based programming is a highly effective method for teaching creativity, as it promotes meaningful learning through enjoyable activities (hoffmann et al., 2021). reggio emilia’s approach promotes a nurturing environment that enhances the potential of children, thereby increasing their chances of success (yufiarti et al., 2022). advanced pedagogical and information technologies are essential for teachers in today’s educational process. interactive techniques in lessons can enhance training effectiveness and assist in responsible tasks like student selection and skill formation for independent life (shavkatovna, 2021). recent research suggests a ‘balance’ between child-centered and teacher-directed curricula yields best child outcomes (veraksa et al., 2023). the educational opportunities of distance education programs for older preschool children during quarantine, using theoretical analysis, surveys, experience analysis, children’s product analysis, and parental feedback (trubavina et al., 2021). creative thinking skills and training the study found that a one-year higher education creativity training program significantly improved students’ creativity performance and ideation skills, compared to a control group (ritter et al., 2020). creativity is a crucial skill for human development, recognized by unesco’s international bureau of education as a key future competence (sun et al., 2020). children’s visual literacy in children’s literature, focusing on two visually impaired girls who read my little pony on you tube kids. results suggest that children appreciate digital literature for imagination and philosophy (trihastutie, 2023). visual art interventions significantly enhance toddlers’ oral language skills and creative thinking, resulting in improved narrative structure, richer vocabulary, and increased discussion participation (mogro-wilson & tredinnick, 2020). art in the classroom enhances creativity, critical thinking, and learning capacity, improving students’ attitudes, worldview, and promoting involvement, collaboration, and sociability (pappas, 2022). artistic activities in early childhood artistic installation sessions in early childhood education allow students to learn scientific content by experimenting with objects and understanding the processes involved in their actions (burnard et al., 2022). art therapy, music therapy, and mindfulness can enhance motivation and alleviate anxiety in students pursuing early childhood education careers in distance learning settings (lópezmanrique, 2021). the integration of visual arts, music, dance, and theater in early childhood education, elementary school, and high school can significantly enhance students’ social, affective, emotional, and psychomotor development (elpus, 2022). parental involvement and sociocultural factors artist involvement in early years’ settings can significantly improve children’s learning and development by involving parents, careers, practitioners, and students in creative activities (wickett, 2022). the integration of visual arts, music, dance, and theater in early childhood education, elementary school, and high school can significantly enhance students’ social, affective, emotional, and psychomotor development (halverson & sawyer, 2022). craft art fosters self-concept development, collaborative skills, cultural identity, and appreciation in children by connecting their knowledge, interests, and experiences, promoting critical thinking and problem-solving (mayar, 2022). art activities in early childhood foster creativity and development, allowing children to express themselves freely and create new, developed creations through visual, performance, and music activities (anggraini & yuwono, 2022). discussion enhancing children’s creativity through art activities is crucial for early childhood growth and development, as it facilitates fun learning and promotes a child’s dominance over learning (anggraini & yuwono, 2022). the analysis has shown that the creative thinking program in early childhood have been influenced through factors like cultural background, artistic engagement, educational setting and age that has been highlighted through interconnectedness in shaping creativity outcomes. children need more free play and arts integration, while mothers feel time and curriculum constraints limit this, impacting future education curricula and collaborative initiatives (nilson et al., 2013). the study has also found that there were significant differences in perceptions of creative thinking programs that was based on age and other demographic factors emphasising the importance of factors in the program effectiveness. participatory orientation, characterized by children’s concern for and intention to change situations, is strongly linked to creative thinking abilities, but rare in adult social situations (nikkola et al., 2022). those factors have influenced early childhood creative development and highlighted that how these dynamics help educators, policymakers, and parents in supporting and nurture young children’s potential. the role of embodied movements and interactive play in early childhood creativity. infants as young as one-year-old have shown evidence of original ideation through movement-based tasks. embodied creativity may supplement traditional measures; as young children are more likely to represent their inner thoughts through movement. future experimental research is suggested (frith et al., 2019). arts education in early childhood should foster creativity, holistic development, and aesthetic appreciation in children. it should be a fun, relaxing, and enjoyable subject that encourages children to explore their identities and understandings of the world (jenson, 2018). early childhood education is crucial for children’s cognitive, physical, emotional, and social development, and can be enhanced by incorporating new steam concepts (tabiin, 2020). parents often engage in pa ge 55 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 48-57, 2024 “concerted cultivation” of culturally enriching activities for their children, but their ability to do so varies based on social class, with those lacking resources often less successful (kisida et al., 2018). teachers’ director roles don’t significantly influence creativity-fostering behavior scores; onlooker-stage manager and co-player roles predict it. age, professional experience, class size, and role influence creativity-fostering behavior (tok, 2022). conclusion the study explores the impact of artistic activities on creative thinking skills in children, highlighting the importance of foundational principles in early childhood education programs. it has emphasised the interconnectedness of factors like educational settings, parental involvement, cultural background, and child age. the findings have found a balanced approach in program design and implementation, emphasising the role of artistic engagement, duration and parental involvement in fostering the creative thinking. implications • the study emphasise the significance of incorporating artistic activities in early childhood education programs, enabling educators in developing creative curriculum that has been aligned with cognitive development theories and diverse pedagogical approaches. • parental involvement significantly enhances creative thinking skills in children that has required strategies like workshops, informational sessions, and resources to support this at home, promoting their children development. • teachers should utilize technological advancements to enhance their ability to create art-based activities for early childhood development. reference alam, a. 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(2022). reggio emilia’s philosophy approach; environment as a third teacher in child potential development in ecce institutions. international journal of multicultural and multireligious understanding, 9(6), 564-575. zakaria, m. z., yunus, f., & mohamed, s. (2021). drawing activities enhance preschoolers socio emotional development. southeast asia early childhood journal, 10(1), 18-27. pa ge 1 pa ge 34 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) development of a multi-factorial fear of happiness scale for young adults leonora kyla uy1*, hannah dela pena1, claudine jade abellana1, honie mae matutis1, eden grace laurente1, marc loyd dumanhog1, mayumi castanos1 volume 3 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v3i1.4317 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: december 30, 2024 accepted: february 02, 2025 published: march 22, 2025 this study developed and tested the fear of happiness scale for young adults (fhs-ya) to understand how young adults aged 18–26 experience fear of happiness. a total of 501 respondents from davao del sur, philippines completed the survey. the data was analyzed using exploratory factor analysis (efa), and methods like principal axis factoring (paf) were used due to the non-normal data distribution. four key factors were identified: social and emotional avoidance (sea), future-oriented anxiety or guilt (foag), cognitive distortion (cd), and emotional discomfort (ed). the scale showed excellent reliability with a cronbach’s alpha of 0.975. this alternative tool provides a reliable way to explore fear of happiness in young adults and can help guide future research and interventions aimed at improving emotional well-being. keywords exploratory factor analysis, fear of happiness, young adults 1 bachelor of arts in psychology, um digos college, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: l.uy.59951.dc@umindanao.edu.ph introduction fear of happiness has emerged as a growing concern, particularly among young adults who are increasingly experiencing mental health challenges. recent trends highlight the rise in well-being issues within this population, often associated with negative beliefs and attitudes toward happiness (westberg et al., 2022). individuals with a high fear of happiness may suppress positive emotions, avoiding the pursuit of happiness to prevent perceived negative consequences of positive emotional states (yildirim, 2019). there is increasing research to suggest that fears of, and resistances to, affiliative and positive emotions are linked to self-criticism and a range of psychopathologies (gilbert et al., 2011). this avoidance can contribute to broader mental health struggles, making it critical to understand and address this phenomenon to promote psychological well-being. there is a lack of research about predictors that might lead to fear of happiness particularly where both happiness and fear of happiness are studied (dobos et al., 2024). fear of happiness is the belief that experiencing happiness may lead to unfavorable and adverse outcomes, suggesting that it is something to be avoided (sar et al., 2019). this phenomenon, also referred to as cherophobia, involves absolute opposition to the idea of feeling happiness to any extent (chakraborty & pandey, 2024). to assess this concept, two primary tools have been developed. the first, the fear of happiness scale (fhs), originally developed by joshanloo (2013) and recently validated in polish by janus (2023), has demonstrated strong psychometric properties, with a cronbach’s α of .85 indicating excellent internal consistency, yet it remains unifactorial and consists of only five items. similarly, an exploratory factor analysis of the second scale assessing fear of happiness, developed by gilbert et al. (2011), initially suggested a two-factor solution. due to cross loadings, a one factor model was ultimately adopted. this newly developed scale originally comprised 10 items but was later reduced to nine and demonstrated strong internal consistency with a cronbach’s α of .90. despite their reliability, both scales are limited by their unifactorial structures and item exclusions, which may hinder a comprehensive understanding of the complexity of fear of happiness. several studies have investigated the concept of fear of happiness, its potential underlying factors, and its profound impact for mental health. however, existing assessment tools, despite their strong psychometric sound, fail to capture the multifaceted nature of this phenomenon, particularly among young adults who are increasingly vulnerable to mental health challenges. this highlights the need for a tailored instrument, such as a “fear of happiness for young adults scale” to better understand the intricate attitudes toward happiness that impact mental health in this group. developing a more comprehensive measure could provide valuable insights and support the creation of effective interventions to address and mitigate the effects of fear of happiness on young adults’ well-being. development of the survey questionnaire initially, the researchers drafted a large pool of items guided by the literature and the researcher’s observation to people. the items were carefully reviewed, finalized and then tested in a pilot study. a total of 55 respondents, selected based on the study’s inclusion criteria, completed the questionnaire. feedback from the pilot test led to revisions in the instrument. consequently, a refined questionnaire with 68 items, using 7-point likert scale (1 strongly disagree , 2disagree, 3somewhat disagree, 4 neutral, 5somewhat agree, 6agree, 7strongly agree), was developed and is ready for use in the main study. pa ge 35 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 34-42, 2025 materials and methods study design the study employed a quantitative exploratory factor analysis (efa) research design to identify the underlying structure of the data and to assess the dimensionality of the construct being measured. study setting and population the researchers gathered a total of 501 young adults from davao del sur, philippines, aged between 18 and 26, as respondents for the study. according to sürücü et al. (2024), a sample size exceeding 400 is considered excellent for conducting efa. therefore, the sample size utilized in this study is more than enough to ensure reliable and accurate results. among the age groups analyzed, individuals aged 20 showed the highest frequency (n=145), while those aged 26 had the fewest respondents (n=9). data analysis to analyze the fear of happiness scale for young adults (fhs-ya), an exploratory factor analysis (efa) was conducted to identify the underlying structure of the scale and evaluate its reliability (watkins, 2018). principal axis factoring (paf) was employed as the extraction method due to the non-normal distribution of the data, ensuring accuracy under such conditions (costello & osborne, 2005). the analysis used multiple techniques to determine the number of factors, including eigenvalues, scree plots, parallel analysis, and map analysis. additionally, the reliability of the scale was assessed using cronbach’s alpha. results and discussion the researchers created a total of 68 items to measure the fear of happiness, covering different aspects of the construct. these items were based on ideas from past studies, cognitive-behavioral theory and personal observations of the researchers. each item was carefully reviewed to make sure they were relevant and suitable for the respondents. data screening data screening was conducted to ensure the dataset’s suitability for exploratory factor analysis (efa). one critical step involved identifying and addressing multivariate outliers using mahalanobis distance, a statistical measure that considers correlations between variables and their multivariate mean. mahalanobis distance calculates how far each data point is from the center of the distribution (etherington, 2021). in this study, cases with probability values less than 0.001, as suggested by hair et al. (1998), were flagged as multivariate outliers. these outliers were subsequently removed using listwise deletion to prevent them from distorting the results of the analysis. another important step was performing a normality check to assess whether the data followed a normal distribution. the shapiro-wilk test was applied to each group of items, testing the null hypothesis that the data was normally distributed. results revealed that the data violated the assumption of normality, as the p-values were less than 0.05. this indicated non-normality and necessitated the use of principal axis factoring (paf) for efa. paf is a robust factor extraction method that performs well with non-normally distributed data, making it an appropriate choice for this study (andrew, 2023). addressing normality through the shapiro-wilk test ensured that the analysis was based on methods suited to the dataset’s characteristics. factor analysis factor analysis was conducted to examine the underlying structure of the group of items for the fear of happiness scale for young adults. table 1 shows the results of the kaiser-meyer-olkin (kmo) measure of sampling adequacy and bartlett’s test of sphericity, which assess the dataset’s suitability for exploratory factor analysis (efa). kmo is a test conducted to examine the strength of the partial correlation (how the factors explain each other) between the variables. kmo values closer to 1.0 are considered ideal while values less than 0.5 are unacceptable (analysis inn, 2020). the kmo value of 0.977 indicates excellent sampling adequacy, meaning the variables share enough common variance for factor analysis. bartlett’s test of sphericity is used to test the null hypothesis that the correlation matrix is an identity matrix (analysis inn, 2020). bartlett’s test of sphericity, with a chi-square value of 25489.984, 2278 degrees of freedom (df), and a significance level of 0.000, confirms that the variables are significantly related. these results demonstrate that the dataset is appropriate for factor analysis. table 1: kmo and bartlett’s test result kaiser-meyer-olkin adequacy measure of sampling .977 bartlett’s test of sphericity approx. chisquare 25489.984 df 2278 sig. .000 to determine the number of factors affecting fear of happiness constructs, several methods were employed, including the total variance plot, scree plot, and parallel analysis. table 2 shows the total variance explained, which identifies how much of the dataset’s variance is captured by each factor. using eigenvalues greater than 1.0 is a common criterion, as factors with eigenvalues above this threshold explain more variance than a single variable (ucla, 2021). moreover, the scree plot helps visualize the number of factors by identifying the “elbow,” where the number of meaningful factors becomes apparent. (reijer et al., 2022). this table 2 shows the initial eigenvalues and their corresponding percentages of total variance explained by different factors. the first five factors accounted for substantial proportions pa ge 36 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 34-42, 2025 of the total variance—31.29, 3.39, 2.21, 1.50, and 1.29, respectively. however, relying solely on these eigenvalues is insufficient, as they can provide a partial view of the factor contributions. the total variance explained cannot stand alone because higher-order factors tend to explain smaller proportions of variance. to address this limitation, a scree plot is used in combination with eigenvalues to visually assess the point at which additional factors contribute minimally to the total variance. this approach helps in identifying the optimal number of factors to retain for a more accurate and meaningful interpretation of the data. table 2: total variance and scree plot factor eigenvalues variance explained 1 31.290 46. 01% 2 3.393 4.99% 3 2.213 3.25% 4 1.496 2.20% 5 1.291 1.89% 6 1.095 1.610 7 1.041 1.530 8 1.009 1.484 table 3: total variance and parallel analysis total variance/ initial eigenvalues parallel analysis 31.290 1.018030 3.393 .928374 2.213 .881356 1.496 .828677 1.291 .791112 1.095 .753348 1.041 .715271 1.009 .686636 table 4: map analysis the smallest average partial correlation the smallest average 4rth power partial correlation the number of components according to the original (1976) map test the number of components according to the revised (2000) map test .0057 .0001 5 5 figure 1: scree plot the study employed principal axis factoring as the extraction method because it does not rely on distributional assumptions (grieder & steiner, 2021), making it an additional procedure was conducted to confirm the findings of parallel analysis. specifically, the researchers used the map analysis, as shown in table 4, which involves performing detailed principal component tests and analyzing matrices of partial correlations (watkins, 2018). according to zwick and velicer (1986), the map analysis is considered more reliable than both the eigenvalue-greater-than-1 rule and the visual scree test. consequently, the final number of factors retained is based on the results of the revised map test (2000), which indicated that 5 factors are retained. appropriate for the study’s non-normally distributed data. the kaiser criterion and scree plot usually align to each other (çokluk & koçak, 2016), but inconsistencies in the results were observed. moreover, according to sheytanova (2015), the kaiser criterion has the poorest performance in determining a number of factors. while the scree plot does not substantially provide accurate and clear data as seen above. therefore, another method was used to ensure accurate results, which is the parallel analysis. according to horn (1965), parallel analysis uses the population’s correlation matrix to determine which factors are significant, with eigenvalues greater than 1. table 3 presents a comparison of eigenvalues from the total variance explained and those derived from random data. initially, the results suggested that 8 factors were extracted from the dataset. the table 5 shows the results, that most of the communalities are high, indicating that the majority of items share a significant proportion of variance with the extracted factors. specifically, the initial communalities reflect the variance explained by each item before extraction, and many of these values are already relatively high, with several above 0.70. after extraction, the extraction communalities exceed 0.70 for most items, with several items showing values above 0.80, demonstrating strong relationships with the factors. this suggests that these items are highly relevant in defining the constructs being measured. items with high communalities contribute effectively to the overall model and help ensure the clarity and reliability of the factor structure. conversely, items with lower extraction values (below 0.40) show weak associations and may need to be pa ge 37 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 34-42, 2025 reconsidered or excluded to improve the factor structure. notably, there are no communalities below 0.40, reinforcing the strength of the factor structure, as all items show strong associations with the extracted factors. during factor loadings, a total of 18 items were removed due to cross-loading, meaning they did not strongly align with a single factor and were found to be associated with other factors. the items removed were numbers 7, 8, 11, 12, 14, 16, 19, 35, 36, 40, 42, 44, 50, 53, 54, 61, 63, and 66. this removal was necessary to improve the clarity of the factors, ensuring that each item was strongly associated with only one factor. table 5: factor loadings and communalities for promax rotation factor loading 1 2 3 4 5 communalities 1. i feel uncomfortable after experiencing happiness. .559 .483 2. i worry that people might judge me for being too happy. .506 .562 3. i avoid getting too excited about good news. .633 .418 4.happiness makes me feel vulnerable. .528 .664 5. i feel uneasy about planning for happiness in the future. .612 .698 6. i worry that others might be jealous of me if i express my happiness. .499 .676 7. i avoid activities that might make me too happy. .438 .538 .665 8. i feel like being too happy might attract problems. .373 .551 .526 9. happiness feels overwhelming. .497 .649 10. expressing happiness feels like bragging to me. .493 .659 11. i hesitate to try new activities that might bring me happiness. .534 .402 .693 12. i fear that my happiness will be taken away. .534 .320 .640 13. i associate happiness with feelings of guilt. .468 .661 14. i hold back my happiness to avoid drawing attention to myself. .355 .422 .713 15. i limit my expression of happiness. .461 .743 16. i worry that enjoying happiness will lead totears soon after. .593 . .352 .643 17. i feel a sense of fear when i am in a good mood. .372 .672 18. i hesitate to express positive feelings to others. .660 .617 19. when i’m happy, i try to quickly shift my focus to something else. .616 .359 .546 20. happiness might make me ignore reality. .433 .552 21. i experience more fear than relief after achieving something good. .590 .614 22. i avoid posting or sharing good news about myself publicly. .691 23. i tend to overanalyze moments of happiness. .663 24. i think being happy will lead to higher expectations i can’t meet. .488 25. i find myself questioning whether i deserve happiness. .650 26. i find excuses to leave when others are celebrating something. .713 .486 27. i avoid reflecting on my positive achievements. .580 .661 28. happiness made me worry about what’s to come. .630 pa ge 38 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 34-42, 2025 29. happiness feels undeserved if others around me are suffering. .704 30. i think happiness will make others think i have no problems. .660 31. i distance myself from people to avoid feeling too happy. .695 .654 32. i fear that happiness is just a brief escape from reality. .616 33. being happy feels like betraying my pastpain. .615 .663 34. i worry that expressing happiness will make others upset. .423 .650 35. i find myself preparing for failure rather than success. .465 .544 36. happiness feels like an illusion that will soon fade away. .307 .626 37. happiness feels empty to me. .627 .600 38. i feel uneasy when i see someone smiling or laughing. .730 .639 39. i associate happiness with punishment. .625 .722 40. i feel disconnected from myself when i am truly happy. .522 .689 41. i avoid optimistic people. .819 .684 42. i think it is safer to feel neutral than to feel happy. .622 43. i associate moments of joy with potential future regret. .438 .570 44. happiness is too good to last for someone like me. .577 45. i fear that feeling happy will make me seem gullible to people. .458 .596 46. i resist engaging in hobbies or activities used to enjoy. .569 .644 47. i feel like happiness is a mask people wear to hide their struggles. .709 .698 48. i find myself worrying even during happy moments. .534 .700 49. being overly happy might make me ignore the needs or feelings of others. .421 .601 50. i think being overly happy is a sign of weakness. .499 .410 .490 51. i am afraid that happiness might make me selfish. .660 .642 52. being overly happy might make others see me as immature. .655 .532 53. i avoid planning for happiness in the future. .349 .439 .698 54. i think happiness is a distraction from what’s important. .301 .647 .548 55. i second-guess my moments of happiness. .489 .687 56. i worry that others will expect too much from me if i am happy. .602 .707 57. i avoid happiness because it might make me irresponsible. .749 .654 58. i think happiness requires too much energy to sustain. .641 .684 59. i feel anxious when things are going well. .373 .662 pa ge 39 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 34-42, 2025 60. being overly happy will distract me from what's important. .635 .684 61. it feels wrong to be happy when things aren’t perfect. .403 .365 .596 62. i fear that being happy will make me miss the things i’ve lost. .492 .696 63. i believe that happiness is a luxury i can't afford to enjoy. .468 .304 .654 64. when something good happens, i tend to look for hidden problems. .451 .661 65. i might lose control when i feel happy. .561 .623 66. i feel uneasy when others are happier than me. .551 .350 .652 67. i hold back from smiling or laughing in public settings. .492 .676 68. i think happiness is superficial. .331 .584 note: factor loadings < .3 are suppressed table 6 shows the factor correlation matrix, which shows how five factors are related. factors 1 to 4 have strong correlations, meaning they are closely connected and measure similar things. for example, factor 1 and factor 3 have a correlation of 0.735, and factor 2 and factor 3 have a correlation of 0.655. on the other hand, factor 5 has weak correlations with the other factors, like 0.142 with factor 1 and 0.168 with factor 2, because it only has one item. since factor 5 does not meet the standard of having at least three items, it is excluded from further analysis. factors 1 to 4 are reliable and show strong relationships, while factor 5 is not considered valid due to its limited number of items. therefore, item number 68 was removed. table 6: factor correlation matrix factor 1 2 3 4 5 1 1.000 .607 .735 .698 .142 2 .607 1.000 .655 .649 .168 3 .735 .655 1.000 .622 .170 4 .698 .622 .622 1.000 .76 5 .142 .168 .170 .76 1.000 table 7 presents the items along with their factor loadings for each of the four factors (f1, f2, f3, f4) derived from factor analysis. for factor 1 (f1), which represents social and emotional avoidance (sea), items demonstrate significant factor loadings, with sea4, “i find excuses to leave when others are celebrating something,” having the highest loading of .713. these items reflect individuals’ tendencies to avoid emotional engagement or social interactions that trigger happiness, suggesting a discomfort with positive emotional expression in social contexts. factor 2 (f2), corresponding to future-oriented anxiety or guilt (foag), exhibits high factor loadings for items related to anticipatory anxiety or guilt about happiness, such as foag19, “i think being happy will lead to higher expectations i can’t meet,” and foag22, “happiness feels undeserved if others around me are suffering,” with loadings of .704 and .696, respectively. these items highlight individuals’ futureoriented concerns, including fears that happiness may result in negative consequences, such as increased pressure or guilt. factor 3 (f3), representing cognitive distortion (cd), includes items reflecting irrational thoughts and beliefs about happiness, such as cd29, “i am afraid that happiness might make me selfish,” and cd33, “i avoid happiness because it might make me irresponsible,” with loadings of .660 and .749, respectively. these items reflect cognitive distortions related to happiness, where individuals hold negative or unrealistic views about the emotional and social consequences of feeling happy. finally, factor 4 (f4), corresponding to emotional discomfort (ed), captures items that express emotional unease or vulnerability associated with experiencing happiness, such as ed40, “i feel uncomfortable after experiencing happiness,” and ed42, “i avoid getting too excited about good news,” with loadings of .559 and .633, respectively. these items suggest an emotional discomfort with happiness, where individuals may feel vulnerable, overwhelmed, or unable to handle the emotional intensity associated with positive experiences. table 7: factor loading of items sea foag cd ed 1. i limit my expression of happiness .461 2. i hesitate to express positive feelings to others. .660 3. i experience more fear than relief after achieving something good. .590 pa ge 40 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 34-42, 2025 4.i find excuses to leave when others are celebrating something. .713 5. i avoid reflecting on my positive achievements. .580 6. i distance myself from people to avoid feeling too happy. .695 7. being happy feels like betraying my past pain. .615 8. i worry that expressing happiness will make others upset. .423 9. happiness feels empty to me. .627 10. i feel uneasy when i see someone smiling or laughing. .730 11. i associate happiness with punishment. .625 12. i avoid optimistic people. .819 13. i associate moments of joy with potential future regret. .438 14. i resist engaging in hobbies or activities i used to enjoy. .569 15. i hold back from smiling or laughing in public settings. .492 16. happiness might make me ignore reality. .433 17. i avoid posting or sharing good news about myself publicly. .614 18. i tend to overanalyze moments of happiness. .655 19. i think being happy will lead to higher expectations i can’t meet. .704 20. i find myself questioning whether i deserve happiness. .678 21. happiness made me worry about what’s to come. .596 22. happiness feels undeserved if others around me are suffering. .696 23. i think happiness will make others think i have no problems. .659 24. i fear that happiness is just a brief escape from reality. .671 25. i feel like happiness is a mask people wear to hide their struggles. .709 26. i find myself worrying even during happy moments. .534 27. i fear that feeling happy will make me seem gullible to people. .458 28. being overly happy might make me ignore the needs or feelings of others. .421 29. i am afraid that happiness might make me selfish. .660 30. being overly happy might make others see me as immature. .655 31. i second guess my moments of happiness. .489 32. i worry that others will expect too much from me if i am happy. .602 33. i avoid happiness because it might make me irresponsible. .749 34. i think happiness requires too much energy to sustain. .641 35. i feel anxious when things are going well. .373 36. being overly happy will distract me from what’s important. .635 37. i fear that being happy will make me miss the things i’ve lost. .492 38. when something good happens, i tend to look for hidden problems. .451 39. i might lose control when i feel happy. .561 40. i feel uncomfortable after experiencing happiness. .559 41. i worry that people might judge me for being too happy. .506 42. i avoid getting too excited about good news. .633 43. happiness makes me feel vulnerable. .528 44. i feel uneasy about planning for happiness in the future. .612 45. i worry that others might be jealous of me if i express my happiness. .499 46. happiness feels overwhelming. .497 47. expressing happiness feels like bragging to me. .493 48. i associate happiness with feelings of guilt. .468 49. i feel a sense of fear when i am in a good mood. .372 1 strongly disagree , 2disagree, 3somewhat disagree, 4neutral, 5somewhat agree, 6agree, 7strongly agree pa ge 41 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 34-42, 2025 the table 8 presents the reliability statistics for a questionnaire consisting of 49 items, completed by 501 participants. the key metric, cronbach’s alpha, is reported as 0.975, indicating excellent internal consistency. cronbach’s alpha ranges from 0 to 1, with higher values reflecting greater reliability. generally, a value above 0.7 is considered acceptable, while values above 0.9, like the one in this study, suggest that the items in the questionnaire are highly consistent in measuring the same underlying concept. the inclusion of 49 items means that the survey comprehensively covers the construct it aims to assess, and the large sample size of 501 participants strengthens the reliability analysis by ensuring the results are stable and representative. the high cronbach’s alpha value indicates that participants responded to the items in a consistent manner, meaning the questionnaire is highly reliable. this level of reliability suggests that if the questionnaire were administered again to a similar group, it would likely produce consistent results. however, it is important to note that while high reliability ensures consistency, it does not guarantee that the questionnaire is valid or measure what it is intended to measure. additional tests for validity would be needed to confirm this. nonetheless, the high reliability score provides confidence in the data collected and ensures that the findings based on this survey are dependable. table 8: reliability statistics cronbach’s alpha n of items n .975 49 501 conclusion the focus of the study was to provide an alternative instrument for measuring fear of happiness. after thorough analysis, the questionnaire was refined to 49 items that capture four key factors: social and emotional avoidance, future-oriented anxiety or guilt, cognitive distortion, and emotional discomfort. these factors represent the different ways fear of happiness can manifest in thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. the scale demonstrated excellent reliability, with a cronbach’s alpha of 0.975, indicating strong internal consistency. this high reliability reinforces the fhs-ya’s ability to measure fear of happiness accurately and consistently. the reduction of items from 68 to 49 ensured the scale’s efficiency while maintaining its focus on capturing the most relevant aspects of the construct. the application of exploratory factor analysis (efa) and principal axis factoring (paf) was pivotal in validating the scale, particularly given the non-normal data distribution. the study also highlighted the possible influence of cultural and social norms on fear of happiness. for example, some young adults may associate happiness with guilt, vulnerability, or social judgment, which can discourage them from embracing positive emotions. these findings suggest the need for culturally sensitive approaches to help individuals overcome these fears. while the fhs-ya has shown strong reliability and validity, future research is needed to test its applicability across diverse populations and cultural contexts. further studies could also explore the relationship between fear of happiness and other psychological factors, such as resilience, self-esteem, and coping strategies.this study provides a valuable tool for researchers and mental health professionals by identifying the key factors contributing to the fear of happiness. the fhs-ya can support the development of interventions aimed at helping young adults build healthier relationships with happiness and improve their overall emotional well-being. limitations of the study this study has several limitations. first, the sample was limited to young adults from davao del sur, which may not be representative of other geographic regions, limiting the generalizability of the findings. second, the study relied on self-reported data, which is subject to response biases such as social desirability or misunderstanding of the questions. this reliance on self-reporting may limit the accuracy of the findings, as participants may not always express their true feelings or may be influenced by external factors, such as current emotional states or social pressures. additionally, the exclusion of factor 5 from the final analysis due to its weak correlation with other factors raises concerns about the stability of the factor model and suggests that the construct of fear of happiness might not be fully captured in this study. future revisions of the scale could address this issue by refining the model or adding new items to improve its comprehensiveness. another limitation is the study’s reliance on a single theoretical framework, cognitive behavioral theory (cbt). while cbt provides a useful basis for understanding fear of happiness, the scale might not fully capture other psychological processes or theories, such as social or existential factors, which could be relevant for understanding this phenomenon more holistically. these limitations highlight the need for further research to refine the fear of happiness scale, address potential biases, and explore additional theoretical perspectives to enhance the understanding of this complex phenomenon. pa ge 42 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 34-42, 2025 references analysis inn. 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(2005). best practices in exploratory factor analysis: four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis. practical assessment, research & evaluation, 10(1), 1–9. https:// doi.org/10.7275/jyj1-4868 dobos, b., mellor, d., & piko, b. f. (2024). exploring fear of happiness among university students: the role of perfectionism, academic burnout, loneliness, and hopelessness. scandinavian journal of psychology, 65(3), 559–567. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.13001 etherington, t. r. (2021). mahalanobis distances for ecological niche modelling and outlier detection: implications of sample size, error, and bias for selecting and parameterising a multivariate location and scatter method. peerj, 9, e11436. https://doi. org/10.7717/peerj.11436 gilbert, p., mcewan, k., gibbons, l., chotai, s., duarte, j., & matos, m. (2011). fears of compassion and happiness in relation to alexithymia, mindfulness, and self-criticism. psychology and psychotherapy theory research and practice, 85(4), 374–390. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.2044-8341.2011.02046.x grieder, s., & steiner, m. d. (2021). algorithmic jingle jungle: a comparison of implementations of principal axis factoring and promax rotation in r and spss. behavior research methods, 54(1), 54–74. https:// doi.org/10.3758/s13428-021-01581-x hair jr., j. f. (1998). multivariate data analysis with readings. englewood cliffs, nj prentice-hall. scientific research publishing. https://www.scirp.org/ reference/referencespapers?referenceid=1450075 horn, j. l. (1965). a rationale and test for the number of factors in factor analysis. psychometrica, 30(2), 179– 185. joshanloo, m. (2013). the influence of fear of happiness beliefs on responses to the satisfaction with life scale. personality and individual differences, 54(5), 647-651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.11.011 reijer, a. d., otter, p., & jacobs, j. p. a. m. (2022). a scree plot criterion for the number of factors. ssrn. electronic journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ ssrn.4129079 sar, v., türk, t., & öztürk, e. (2019). fear of happiness among college students: the role of gender, childhood psychological trauma, and dissociation. indian journal of psychiatry, 61(4), 389. https://doi.org/10.4103/ psychiatry.indianjpsychiatry_52_17 sheytanova, t. (2015). a monte carlo study comparing three methods for determining the number of principal components and factors (dissertation). retrieved from https://urn.kb.se/ resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:oru:diva-47703 watkins, m. w. (2018). exploratory factor analysis: a guide to best practice. journal of black psychology, 44(3), 219–246. https://doi. org/10.1177/0095798418771807 westberg, k. h., nyholm, m., nygren, j. m., & svedberg, p. (2022). mental health problems among young people—a scoping review of help-seeking. international journal of environmental research and public health, 19(3), 1430. https://doi.org/10.3390/ ijerph19031430 yildirim, m. (2019). mediating the role of resilience in the relationships between fear of happiness and affect balance, satisfaction with life, and flourishing. europe’s journal of psychology, 15(2), 183–198. https:// doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v15i2.1640 zwick, w. r., & velicer, w. f. (1986). comparison of five rules for determining the number of components to retain. psychological bulletin, 99, 432-442. pa ge 1 pa ge 14 0 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) assessing the role of mindfulness program in improving grit among bataan national high school-senior high school boys volleyball players. marx s. ongkingco1*, christine gwyneth m. mendoza1, kenneth ian b. mendoza1, davfney maing1, laraine sopia riño1, reesha mae lopez1, jayvie villazor1 volume 3 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v3i1.4545 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: february 09, 2025 accepted: march 14, 2025 published: august 26, 2025 during intense games, non-stop rallies, and feelings of tiredness, this is the time when athletes have the most difficulty maintaining their focus and perseverance. this study aims to assess if the mindfulness program can impact the grit level of the male volleyball players of bataan national high school-senior high school (bnhs-shs). the researchers employ a quasi-experimental approach, having a non-random selection of participants. on the other hand, repeated measures/within-subject research design was utilized for assessment as the study has only one group: the experimental group (n=15), with no control group. the domain-specific grit scale for college athletic students (dgscas) was used in the pretest and post-test, consisting of 10 negative statement questions and a 5-point likert scale. the findings revealed that there is an improvement in the 2 dimensions of the scale where both have decreased mean scores after the intervention[ bataan peninsula state university, philippines] program. on the other hand, the first dimension, which is ‘consistency of interest’, shows a significant difference in its pre-test and post-test (p-value = 0.042), while the ‘perseverance of effort’ p-value of 0.078 is greater than the significance level of 0.05, indicating that it has no significant difference. meanwhile, the overall score emphasizes that the program helped the participants improve their grit level, with a p-value of 0.028, indicating that the program significantly contributed to the athletes. these results highlight the benefits of the mindfulness program as a tool for increasing players’ grit but suggest more approaches in ‘perseverance of effort. keywords grit, mindfulness, quasiexperimental, repeated measure/ within-subject research design 1 bataan peninsula state university, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: msongkingco23@bpsu.edu.ph introduction in the fast-paced and competitive sports environment, grit is an important psychological characteristic influencing athletic performance and achievement. athletes demonstrate grit by continuously working hard despite difficulties or failures. they also have qualities like endurance, urgency and intensity, self-confidence, need for encouragement, and self-criticality —all exhibiting their grit when playing (beck & debeliso, 2020). this persistence is essential for overcoming obstacles in training and competition (tedesqui & young, 2017). in the study by tiwari and verma (2023), they emphasized that grit goes beyond putting effort, hence it includes the ability to maintain determination during challenges and setbacks. in team sports, particularly volleyball, grit in enduring physical demands is not the only important thing to consider; it is also vital in overcoming psychological hurdles, like burnout, lack of motivation, and performance anxiety. mental health care is as important as physical care, and it should be seen as an important factor in sports performance. it is where athletes must be supported when seeking care for their mental health struggles (mack et al., 2023). moreover, in the study of stockton et al. (2019), it has been observed that athletes often experience fluctuations in their level of grit when there is an incoming competition, when they are recovering from injuries, or when they are under intense training sessions, which are all high-pressure scenarios. also, the research of barczak-scarboro et al. (2022) found that perceived stress and high training load were negatively associated with grit and resilience, which indicates that multiple stressors must be taken into account to maintain athletes’ grit and resilience. anderson et al. (2021) on the other hand, stated that mindfulness meditation significantly benefits several physical and mental health outcomes. it enhances athletic performance, improves athletes’ mental health, reduces injury risk, and helps them recover from injury or distress. various mindfulness approaches were applied in sports to mediate the psychological hurdles of the athletes that happen to intertwine with their physiological issues. mindfulness has an important role in sports because it offers ways to navigate the mental and physical challenges in competitive sports (li et al., 2024). its importance lies in its interventions that enhance athletes’ awareness of their bodies, thoughts, and emotions, which leads to a more balanced focus in training and competition. interventions and mindfulness programs were adapted to multiple phases of the sports season as it ensures that the athletes receive proper and appropriate support during preseason and peak training periods (augustus et al., 2022). according to the study of minkler et al. (2022), mindfulness practices are relevant and helpful in enhancing the performance of the players, in addition, it also revealed that there is a huge need for tailored approaches that must meet the needs of an individual, which will help them be ready for upcoming games. in sports, mindfulness is reasonable to be considered as a way to practice strategies for pa ge 14 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 140-146, 2025 athletes as a regular complementary mental skills training approach. however, more high-quality, controlled trials on mindfulness practice and performance need improvements in diverse sport settings (bühlmayer et al., 2017). developing proper mindfulness interventions in specific areas in sport is highly recommended to make the programs more suitable for the players. mindfulness is a process of intentionally paying full attention to the present moment (minkler, 2023). in addition, mindfulness activities are a great coping mechanism that increases an athlete’s well-being, which is crucial in sustaining grit. the study of haraldsdottir et al. (2024) determined that mindfulness training is linked to great improvements in the athletes’ mood, energy levels, as well as their muscle readiness and their perseverance. it also helps in decreasing and managing the anxiety of the players and it is related to improved mental health outcomes of the athletes’ (myall et al., 2022). based on lebeau et al. (2024), mental resilience is enhanced through mindfulness interventions and leads to better physical performance and lesser chances of having injuries and feelings of nervousness before and during the game, contributing to improved athletic participation. while mental toughness and perseverance are crucial for success, there is a gap in understanding how athletes can maintain a steady level of grit, especially during emotional strain or when external pressures increase (kumbar & patil, 2024). the problem lies in how athletes can effectively maintain or even enhance their grit, especially during challenging times. moreover, acknowledging how the stimuli of team sports can influence both physical performance and cognitive capabilities is important since, in recent years, the relationship between cognitive psychology and sports science has garnered significant attention, specifically in understanding how the dynamics of team sports impact cognitive performance. the study by smith et al. (2018) explores this relationship, revealing that the various stimuli like response inhibition, elevated exertion of effort, sustained vigilance, impaired executive function, decreased accuracy, attention, and action inherent in team sports can impose cognitive demands that affect crucial mental processes. additionally, boone et al. (2017) emphasized that high load and worse recovery during competition are found in volleyball players, leading to the need to monitor mental and physical fatigue and recovery throughout the game. andrade et al. (2016) revealed that mental requirements also increase with the athlete’s need to be physically ready. consequently, to promote sufficient recovery for the athletes, poppendieck et al. (2016) suggested that greater strategies must be implemented. to consolidate both mental and emotional needs, mindfulness-based mental training (mbmt)—which encompasses a variety of techniques and strategies focused on paying attention to the player’s bodily sensations, emotional interactions, mental images, self-talk, and perceptual experiences— must be implemented (bühlmayer et al., 2017). mindfulness training can help reduce the tendency to overthink by directing attention to the thoughts themselves rather than fixating on the content of those thoughts. previous studies and implementation focused on other team sports and garnered data mostly from western countries, creating a knowledge and data gap about how such implementations can be effective in local applications—specifically the senior high school men’s volleyball team of bnhs. since volleyball is a team sport, it requires both individual and collective effort to achieve a goal, and these often put players under considerable mental stress. to perform well, maintaining a high level of grit is very important. through a mindfulness program, mental struggles are aimed to be overcome, and it also aims to improve the athletes’ grit. thus, this study assesses whether a five-session structured mindfulness program during the bnhs men’s volleyball players’ training can develop greater perseverance and persistence by investigating the relationship between mindfulness programs and grit development. more specifically, it aims to address the following questions: what is the mindfulness program’s role in improving the players’ grit? what is the extent of the mindfulness program’s effect on volleyball players’ grit? materials and methods research design the quasi-experimental design is utilized due to the fact that the participants in this study are not randomly assigned to a control or experimental group (thomas, 2020). since the study has no control group, the researchers employ a within-subject/repeated measure design consisting of only one group—an experimental group that is tested with the pre-test and post-test of the intervention and compares related measures from the same participants under the same conditions (bhandari, 2021). research participants fifteen (15) male volleyball athletes from bataan national high school – senior high school were selected to participate in the study. to participate in the study, the participants must meet the following criteria: they must be 13 to 18 years of age, be actively involved in the bnhs men’s volleyball team, and regularly attend practice sessions. the participants who have completed a formal mindfulness training program within the past year and did not commit to attend at least four (4) sessions of the mindfulness program are excluded from the participation. this study employed a non-probability, convenience sampling method influenced by the researchers’ judgment and practicality. mindful volleyball: a modified mindfulness program for bnhs-shs volleyball boys players the intervention program, adapted from the work of walker (2019), has a total of 10 sessions for a duration of 1 month. the program sessions consist of: a 3-step approach to training; taking a timeout; body awareness; mindful stretching; get moving with the pa ge 14 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 140-146, 2025 warm-up; see the court; stepping onto the court; teamwork; increasing the tempo; and maintaining training. the researchers modified the manual by using only 5 sessions according to the needs of the participants and focusing on enhancing their grit. 1. the first session begins with “a 3-step approach to training”, discussing the importance of breathing exercises. then, the practical use of the breath script, deep breath script, and tasking the participants to do the ‘just three breaths’ in their homes. 2. the second session encompasses “body awareness”, emphasizing the importance of body scanning and practicing the progressive muscle relaxation script. as for the participants’ home exercise, the facilitators instructed them to do the ‘using your non-dominant hand’ exercise. 3. the third session, “get moving with the warm up,” guides the participants on the applications of the exercises while moving by doing walking meditations and doing the home exercise ‘bottoms of the feet. 4. the fourth session, “see the court,” explores the power of imagery by challenging the participants to perform imagery practices, strengthening their imagination through lake meditation and leaving them with the home exercise “impatience.” 5. the last session, “maintaining training,” covers the first four sessions, redoing all the exercises and practices to ensure the participants’ mastery. research instrument the domain-specific grit scale for college athletic students (dgscas) developed by duckworth, peterson, matthews, and kelly (2007) is used as the pre-test and post-test conducted by the researchers through google forms. this scale has two (2) dimensions: the “consistency of interest” and “perseverance of effort”. the scale consists of ten (10) questions; each five (5) falls under the two (2) dimensions, all in negative statements. the items were rated on a 5-point likert scale (1= not like me at all, to 5= very much like me). data gathering procedure the informed consent and parental consent form was administered to the participants before the data collection and sessions took place, and it must be submitted and signed as a prerequisite to their participation. the data-gathering procedure was made possible by the collaboration of the bnhs-shs department and the team coach/trainer. the program begins with the orientation before proceeding to each session. data gathering took 3 consecutive weeks, 5 sessions in november 2024, and a time allotment of at least 60 to 90 minutes in a controlled environment. the athletes are given a pre-test to measure their grit level using the domain-specific grit scale for college athletic students (dgscas). in all of the sessions conducted, all of the participants completed at least 4 sessions. for the final part, the researchers gathered the pre-test and posttest to analyze the scores of the participants to assess if there was an improvement in their grit. ethical considerations to ensure the ethical standards that must be regarded, the study faithfully upholds the data privacy act of 2012 (philippine republic act 10173) and the 2022 code of ethics of philippine psychologists and psychometricians developed by the 521 psychological association of the philippines. data analysis the accumulated data are analyzed using the statistical package for social sciences (spss). in addition, the level of significance is 0.05-based. the mean scores and p-values of the two dimensions, “consistency of interest” and “perseverance of effort,” are noted essentially for the tabulation of the non-parametric statistics, the wilcoxon signed-rank test. the overall athletes’ mean scores were also calculated, having an effect size of -0.77. results and discussions experimental group table 1: mean scores before and after the mindfulness program in the volleyball team dgscas before mindfulness program after mindfulness program difference interpretation mean mean mean p-value consistency of interest 2.21 1.60 0.61 0.042 significant perseverance of effort 2.62 2.08 0.54 0.078 not significant overall score 4.83 3.68 1.15 0.028 significant table 1 provides a detailed summary of the mean scores calculated for the dgscas among members of the volleyball team, comparing the results before and after the mindfulness program intervention. the data presented in the table offers insight into the changes in two specific dimensions: “consistency of interest” and “perseverance of effort,” which are key factors being assessed through the intervention. based on the data above, the mean score of “consistency of interest” from the pre-test is 2.21, which declined to 1.60 in the post-test after the intervention, with a mean difference of 0.61, indicates a notable change in this domain with which players manage to maintained their interest or commitment to their goals while undergoing throughout the intervention. the p-value for this change was found to be 0.042, suggesting a statistical significance as it is below the common threshold of 0.5, representing the observed decrease in scores is unlikely to have occurred by chance. pa ge 14 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 140-146, 2025 on the other hand, a different trend was seen in the “perseverance of effort”, gaining a mean score of 2.62 in the pre-test, while in the post-test, it decreased to 2.08, having a mean difference of 0.54. however, this domain p-value of 0.078 surpasses the conventional significance, which is 0.05. this reduction in the mean scores can be interpreted as the intervention may have had a substantial impact on the players’ consistency of interest, likely due to improved focus and presence during training sessions or competitions, nevertheless, it is worth to note that even if the change is not statistically significant, it still indicates the potential effect of the mindfulness program. lastly, the overall mean score before the intervention decreased from 4.83 to 3.68 after the program, with a total mean difference of 1.15, suggesting that the players experienced an overall shift in their goal-setting and focus strategies. the p-value is 0.028, which is below the significant mark of 0.05, indicating that the reduction in the overall mean score is statistically significant. table 2: effect size of the athlete’s overall mean scores before and after the intervention wilcoxon-signed rank test pre-test post-test p-value z value effect size mean mean overall 0.003 -2.977 -0.77 24.2 18.4 table 2 shows the statistical results of the athlete’s overall mean from before and after the program scores, providing a comprehensive statistical analysis using the wilcoxonsigned rank test. according to the data, the overall mean score prior to the intervention, as indicated by the pre-test data, was 24.2. following the mindfulness program, this score decreased to 18.4 in the post-test. this reduction of 5.8 points in the mean score is substantial and suggests a notable shift in the athletes’ responses or behaviors as a result of the intervention. the p-value associated with this change is 0.003, which is well below the commonly accepted significance threshold of 0.05. this p-value indicates that the observed change in scores—from the pre-test to the post-test—is statistically significant, meaning that it is highly unlikely to have occurred by chance. further supporting the significance of the findings is the z-value, which was calculated as -2.977, indicates a strong negative shift in the scores, reinforcing that the post-test scores were significantly lower than those from the pre-test. the negative value also suggests that the decrease in scores was consistent across the participants, pointing toward a collective response to the intervention. moreover, the statistical analysis includes the calculation of the effect size, which was found to be -0.77, which is considered to be large, indicating that the intervention had a substantial effect on the athletes. this outcome highlights the potential benefits of mindfulness training in athletic settings, particularly in fostering changes that can improve focus, reduce stress, or alter motivational dynamics among athletes. discussion the study’s goal is to determine the effect of the program on the grit level of volleyball players. the findings revealed that the program significantly influenced the participants, especially in enhancing consistency of interest and overall grit. these results suggest that mindfulness can be an effective tool for promoting focus and emotional regulation, both of which are critical traits for athletes in team sports. recent studies highlight that mindfulness-based practices have become a prominent method for enhancing athletes’ performance (terzioğlu et al., 2020). mindfulness has been posited to affect sports performance by bolstering one’s psychological skills. in birrer et al.’s (2012) review, they proposed 9 pathways in which mindfulness facets influence a variety of psychological skills, including bare attention, attitude, self-regulation, and less rumination, among others. the mean scores of the pre-test and post-test indicate a decrease in “consistency of interest” after the intervention. this dimension has to do with the ability of the individual to keep focusing on his goals over time. previous research indicates that mindfulness facilitates self-evaluation and, thus, the adjustment of individual goals by athletes (gardner & moore, 2012). however, this decrease in scores may also indicate that, through mindfulness training, increased awareness of distractors or competing interests is brought to light, affecting the players’ performance. mindfulness is associated with various psychological constructs, including grit, which affects the athletes’ resilience and focus (mahalingam, 2022). moreover, the “perseverance of effort” also showed a decrease in mean scores after the mindfulness program, indicating a slight enhancement in the participants’ determination to persist despite challenges. however, this change was not enough to confirm a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test. this suggests that perseverance may require more time or additional approaches as various external and internal factors beyond mindfulness often influence persistence. grit is the ability to persevere even in times of challenges and sustain interest (eskreis-winkler et al., 2014), and through mindfulness, it can empower people to interpret stressful situations as benign and meaningful (garland et al., 2011). the overall scores showed a noticeable improvement after the mindfulness program. this indicates that the program effectively helped participants improve their focus and consistency in their goals, thus rejecting the null hypothesis. most studies concur on the two defining components of mindfulness: paying attention to the pa ge 14 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 140-146, 2025 present moment (bare attention), awareness of the present moment experience, and acceptance of the everchanging moment-to-moment experiences (bishop et al., 2004; quaglia et al., 2015). mindfulness interventions are also increasingly being integrated into institutional settings in clinical treatment (dimidjian & segal, 2015), the workplace (good et al. 2016), schools (sibinga et al. 2016), the military (johnson et al. 2014), and prisons (samuelson et al. 2007), to name only a few. the athlete’s overall mean score demonstrates that the observed performance changes in the athlete are statistically significant, having a decline in the pretest and post-test. moreover, the negative effect size presents a large effect in lowering the scores of the athletes in the negative statement questions, indicating a substantial and meaningful impact of the intervention on the athlete’s performance. these results align with recent findings in various fields. a systematic review by mudiyanselage et al. (2024) examined the effectiveness of mental health interventions involving non-specialists and digital technology in low and middle-income countries, finding significant improvements with standardized effect sizes ranging from 0.2 to 0.8. similarly, a study by san román-niaves et al. (2024) focused on compassion-based interventions at work, highlighting the importance of effect sizes in evaluating intervention impact. one of the limitations of the study is that the program was conducted only on a volleyball team, which means the results may not apply to other groups or sports. the team was also a boy’s team, consisting only of males, having uncertain outcomes for all genders. the duration of the program might also have been too short to bring out significant improvements in all areas and for the researchers to assess long-term effects on the athletes. the absence of a control group can be also noted as well as the implementation of the program in a single team. these limitations can be addressed by applying the program to various sports with different genders, implementing the program with a longer duration, having a control group, and employing a mixed-method approach to have more diverse data for its applicability. conclusion the study’s findings provide valuable insights into the impact of systematic mindfulness training on the grit levels of male volleyball players. the program significantly improved consistent interest and overall grit scores, suggesting that mindfulness training enhances emotional control and focus. however, its effect on the perseverance of effort was not statistically significant, indicating that while mindfulness supports attention maintenance and stress reduction, it may not directly influence sustained effort. these results highlight the potential of mindfulness programs as a tool for improving psychological attributes critical to athletic performance. despite these promising findings, the study’s limitations, such as the absence of a control group and potential external influences, call for further research. future studies with larger sample sizes, diverse demographics, and longitudinal designs are needed to explore the long-term effects of mindfulness interventions. by providing a better understanding of how mindfulness training might improve particular facets of grit, this study adds to the body of knowledge and opens the door for more specialized and successful psychological therapies in athletic contexts. references anderson, s. a., haraldsdottir, k., & watson, d. 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(2024). a systematic review of cognitive behavioral and mindfulness-based interventions for white-collar worker mental well-being in business environments. mental health science, 2(4), e84. https:// doi.org/10.1002/mhs2.84 pa ge 1 pa ge 12 1 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) boredom proneness and social media usage of college students rose ann l. bautista1*, mark luiz s. demanawa1, junna liza d. pedrigosa1, claire lynn b. culajara1 volume 2 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v2i1.2825 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: may 31, 2024 accepted: june 29, 2024 published: july 02, 2024 this descriptive-predictive study aimed to determine the correlation between the social media usage of college students and their boredom proneness in a university in davao region. a total of 350 participants were chosen to participate in this study using simple random sampling techniques. a 22-item multidimensional state boredom questionnaire and 21-item social networking usage served as an instrument wherein the jamovi was used for data analysis. the mean and standard deviation were utilized to test the level of both variables, and results showed that the level of social media usage and boredom proneness among students is high. the shapiro-wilk test was utilized to test the normality; it revealed that the data is not normally distributed. the spearman rho correlation coefficient test revealed a significant relationship between social media usage and students’ boredom proneness, with a p-value of .001, indicating a strong positive correlation. meanwhile, the result of linear regression showed 71% of the variance is explained by the three significant predictors contributing to the students’ social media usage which are time perception, inattention and disengagement. the study’s findings indicate that increased use of social media is associated with higher levels of boredom. in this case, school administration, local health authorities, and school counseling and guidance offices should enhance the implementation of policies regarding the responsible use of social media, integrate the findings into various programs, and increase public awareness of the effects of excessive social media use on people’s mental health and academic performance. lastly, researchers should consider extending this topic with a quantitative approach and investigate the possible mediating factors between boredom and social media usage. keywords boredom, boredom proneness, correlation, social media usage, college students 1 university of mindanao digos college, digos city, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: r.bautista.60080.dc@umindanao.edu.ph introduction social media use has experienced rapid development and has become an important part of people’s day to day lives by connecting people, facilitating communication, sharing information, and even promoting businesses and causes. it has become a central platform for social interaction, networking, and staying informed about current events. additionally, it provides opportunities for self-expression, creativity, and learning. it has become an essential tool for communication, collaboration, and community-building in today’s interconnected world (ohara, 2023). the term “social media” describes websites and online platforms that enable users to produce, share, and exchange content with other social media users. according to dixon (2023), in 2022, internet users around the world spent an average of 151 minutes of social media engagement per day, up slightly from 147 minutes the previous year. currently, the philippines is leading the way in daily social media usage, with people spending an average of 3 hours and 53 minutes online each day. on the other hand, americans spend an average of 2 hours and 3 minutes a day on social media. in today’s era marked by technological progress, social media has emerged as an integral aspect of individuals’ everyday lives (elrashidy, 2023). it has been easily accessible to almost everyone due to the availability of gadgets, specifically smartphones (yang et al., 2021). in the modern era, characterized by the prevalence of gadgets and smartphones, communication has become simple. the emergence of social media has facilitated connectivity, resulting in people being connected to their friends and millions of other people (radu, 2021). in the year 2022, 92.05 million individuals utilized social media in the country philippines indicating 82.4% of the country’s population. but it is important to bear in mind that these statistics might not be accurate with the represented total number of social media users since some individuals possibly own several accounts on various platforms (kemp, 2022). in 2014, social media usage was already widespread with facebook becoming the most popular social media site. in addition, instagram, twitter, pinterest, and linkedin saw a significant increase over the past year (duggan, 2015). subsequently, in 2024, social media will likely become even more pervasive and diversified. it was found that the total percentage of the world’s population who uses social media is 62.3%. with the rise of new platforms such as tiktok, snapchat, and various messaging apps, people are spending more time than ever on social media chaffey (2024). furthermore, social media has negative consequences but it can be a powerful tool when used wisely; it can be a medium for staying connected with others, spreading information, encouraging important causes and beneficial goals (lang, 2023). in short, social media isn’t all bad at all like most good things, it lies on moderate use. pa ge 12 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 121-131, 2024 to reiterate, social media use can be beneficial for users as a means for gathering information, communication, problem-solving, etc. (nisar et al., 2019; dimacangun & guillena, 2023). however, problems have arisen in the numerous people with high levels of social media use. one of which has been found in existing local studies by (gumasing et al., 2023; conquilla et al., 2021) regarding student’s academic performance and their engagement to class (gumasing et al, 2022). what’s more, pawar & shah’s study in 2019 showed results suggesting that aspects such as self-esteem is negatively influenced by social media use. a 2009 study by mann and robinson found that 30% of university students said they were bored in most of their lectures, while the majority of students (59%) said that almost half of their lectures were boring. furthermore, according to finkielstein (2020), between 40% and 59% of college students said they were bored. according to sharp et al. (2019), most students experience high levels of boredom, which has been associated in recent studies to negatively impact undergraduate students’ performance, participation, and achievement (sharp et al., 2020). uncertainty has arisen regarding the potential effects of social media usage on people’s mental health and overall wellbeing (yang et al. 2021). feelings of isolation and loneliness are among the downsides of using social media (khan, 2021). consequently, smartphones have become the extensions of individual’s lives and it is not rare to see people, especially students engaged in a vast world of social media. however, behind the screens, a more profound foe is hidden the prevailing feeling of boredom. this phenomenon has been the subject of numerous studies as one of the most important emotional problems. it has been associated with a negative psychological state that makes people seem drained and uninterested. a common experience that many people have at various points in their lives is boredom. according to lv and wang (2023), boredom is the incapacity of an individual to experience the proper levels of satisfaction in circumstances where there are minimal levels of both internal and external stimuli. this results in low arousal, persistent attention issues, and motivation depletion. although it’s generally thought of as a negative emotion, boredom can actually have positive and negative effects on people. however, since boredom forces people to think outside the box and consider fresh concepts or viewpoints, it can also be a source of creativity and innovation. an individual can be inspired by boredom to try new things, find new hobbies, or push oneself to study and develop. for instance, the boredom brought on by isolation and lockdowns during the covid-19 pandemic helped many in exploring new ideas and pursuing new interests. however, boredom can lead to harmful outcomes like productivity loss, poor mental health, and even physical health issues (morse et al., 2021). additionally, boredom seems to encourage individuals to make riskier behaviors or engage in riskier behaviors (igou, 2020). for example, extremely bored people frequently take part in particular online activities, such as social media use, video gaming, and streaming movies and tv shows, as these activities may help them manage the stress brought on by these mood states (blasi et al., 2019; saiful islam et al., 2020). the tendency to use these kinds of actions as coping mechanisms during crises, like the current pandemic, can lead to patterns that are hard to break (king et al., 2020). the covid-19 pandemic has led to a rise in internet usage as a coping mechanism for psychological stressors and mood swings, such as boredom, which has been recognized as a significant negative psychological stressor (brooks et al., 2020). moreover, boredom, an aspect that the researchers seek to investigate regarding their correlation with social media use, is already in the body of knowledge thanks to the existing studies tackling it. numerous studies have shown a strong connection between smartphone use and boredom among college students. in an instance where these individuals were asked why they use social media, they often identify that the primary motivator is to alleviate boredom (barkley & lepp, 2021d). naturally then, the positive association between social media use and numerous self-report measures of boredom has been shown in quantitative research (barkley & lepp, 2021d; aquino and kimong, 2022; rast et al., 2021; pawar & shah, 2019b; orsolini et al., 2023; wang et al., 2020; whelan et al., 2020b; cañete et al., 2022). however, there are few published studies that do not reveal a positive correlation between social media use and boredom proneness, namely the studies of allahverdi in 2022 and by manawatao & sasan in 2015. despite the numerous studies covering the two variables, social media usage and boredom proneness, there is an existing literature gap in finding which subscale of boredom proneness is the most significant predictor of social media use. after scouring the existing studies, only the research of cañete et al., 2022 has presented which subscale of the boredom proneness scale, which was the disengagement subscale. hence, the researcher has deemed it necessary to investigate which scale of boredom proneness is the most significant predictor of social media use. also, there are limited studies that investigated the correlation between social media use and boredom in the national level philippines, thus, conducting this may help contribute to the body of information. the study’s findings on the correlation between social media usage and boredom proneness have an essential implication for society. in addition, the study emphasizes the potential impacts of the problematic use of social media in the boredom of the individuals, it emphasizes the need for individuals to use the social media logically and in a coordinated manner to avoid excessive boredom. the study’s findings can be applied to real-world situations by informing the strategies aimed at promoting healthier alternatives and limited social media use in contrast to the high levels of social media use that may cause problems. the beneficiaries of the study include people who use social media, as well as mental health professionals, and educators who can apply the results to develop guidelines and educational programs to promote awareness of moderated social media use. pa ge 12 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 121-131, 2024 research objectives this study generally aimed to determine the correlation between students’ social media usage and their boredom proneness. specifically, it sought to find answers to the following objectives: 1. to assess the level of social media usage in terms of: a. academic b. socialization c. entertainment d. informativeness e. constraints 2. to assess the level of boredom proneness in terms of: a. time perception b. inattention c. high arousal d. disengagement e. internalizing aspects 3. to identify if there is a significant relationship between social media usage and boredom proneness among college students. 4. to identify which specific domains under social media usage that may influence boredom proneness among college students. conceptual framework figure 1 shows the conceptual framework displaying the correlation between social media usage and boredom proneness. social media usage is the dependent variable with five indicators, namely: academic, socialization, entertainment, informativeness, and constraints. social media plays a crucial role in modern society as it offers a constant stream of content and interaction, which can potentially alleviate boredom by providing entertainment, information, and social engagement. therefore, social media’s role in providing stimulation and opportunities for engagement helps combat boredom proneness in individuals’ daily lives. the dependent variable in this study is boredom proneness which has five indicators: time perception, inattention, high arousal, disengagement, and internalizing aspects. mugon (2020), defined boredom proneness as the characterization of recurring extreme feelings of boredom. he also claims that being prone to boredom is a persistent individual distinct attribute linked to an array of adverse effects. in addition, related studies found that people who were likely to be bored used social media more frequently. the conceptual paradigm displayed study variables which are social media usage (dv) and boredom proneness (iv). figure 1: schematic diagram showing the variables of the study source (author) materials and methods research respondents the respondents of the study were college students from every department and academic level during the 20232024 school year at a university in the davao region. the researchers utilized a simple random sampling method for their study. according to thomas (2023), random sampling is the most suitable procedure to minimize the impact of possible confounding factors, which guarantees a high internal validity. moreover, simple random sampling possesses a high level of external validity when the sample size is sufficiently large. the reason for this is because it indicates the characteristics of a large population. the respondents consist of 350 college students from a population of 3,868, calculated and validated using slovin’s formula. all the respondents’ information will be held or neglected based on their preferences. table 1: characteristics of respondents (n=350) profile f % gender female 195 56 male 130 42 lgbtq+ 5 3 year level first year 134 34 second year 142 41 pa ge 12 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 121-131, 2024 research instrument the instruments that were utilized in this study to gather data are questionnaires through a survey adopted from the social networking usage scale and the multidimensional state boredom scale (msbs). the social networking usage scale by gupta and bashir (2018) is a 24-item survey with five indicators: academic, socialization, entertainment, informativeness, and constraints. the questionnaire was developed as an attempt to clarify the construct of social networking usage for indian students and has been shown to have acceptable validity in higher education. it was further validated for use in colleges and universities using random groups from 6 universities in india. the researchers wrote a permission letter to the researchers who formulated the questionnaires, social networking usage and multidimensional state boredom scale before conducting the survey. the questionnaire was tested to measure its reliability, resulting in cronbach’s a (α=.830). furthermore, the researchers conducted a pilot test to assess the reliability and validity of the questionnaire to test if the instrument was suitable to be used in the philippine setting, particularly in the university in davao region. for social networking usage scale, all of the questions tested using scale reliability analysis in jamovi are valid and indicated an almost perfect reliability with a total value of 0.905 using cronbach’s alpha. in addition, the multidimensional state boredom scale from the study of spoto et al. (2021) is a 23item questionnaire with five factors: time perception, disengagement, inattention, high arousal, and low arousal. the multidimensional state boredom scale, which has been demonstrated to have sufficient validity in adolescents, was to be validated in italy using a crossvalidation approach, which was also intended to be applied in other countries. the questionnaire was tested to measure its reliability which resulted in cronbach’s a (α= .95) for the total score. moreover, the researchers conducted a pilot test to evaluate the reliability and validity of the questionnaire to test if the instrument was suitable for use in the philippine setting, particularly in the university in davao region. for multidimensional state boredom scale, all of the questions tested using scale reliability analysis in jamovi are valid and indicate an almost perfect reliability with an overall value of 0.939 using cronbach’s alpha. furthermore, the likert scale is employed to assess the corresponding interpretations. by employing likert scales, researchers can collect numerical evaluations of subjective attributes, resulting in numerical data that can be totaled and displayed in a manner similar to other quantitative data obtained during an assessment (south et al., 2022). the standard arrangement of a likert scale item consists of a name, followed by a coding system comprising both descriptive terms and numerical values. these values typically range from 1 indicating “strongly disagree,” through 2 for “disagree,” 3 for “neither agree nor disagree,” 4 for “agree,” and 5 for “strongly agree” (mcleud, 2023). below are the interpretations used to evaluate the mean scores of social media usage and multidimensional state boredom of college students at a university in davao region. mean scores were evaluated using mean ranges from the social media usage from the study of bhuiyan & islam in 2023 and multidimensional state boredom from (nyutu et al., 2020). in the first column, the mean interval is presented, alongside its qualitative counterpart, which is detailed in both the second and last columns to illustrate variation in a descriptive equivalent. third year 72 21 fourth year 2 1 department das 80 23 dcje 84 24 dba 52 15 dte 76 22 dae 21 6 dtp 38 11 total 350 100.0 table 2: social media usage mean interpretation mean interval interpretation qualitative description 4.21 5.00 very high the level of social media usage among participants is very high. 3.41 4.20 high the level of social media usage among participants is high. 2.61 3.40 moderate the level of social media usage among participants is moderate. 1.81 2.60 low the level of social media usage among participants is low. 1.00 1.80 very low the level of social media usage among participants is very low. pa ge 12 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 121-131, 2024 design and procedure this study is quantitative and employs a descriptivepredictive research design. initially, the researchers gathered related literature relevant to this study. the researchers validated questionnaires from (gupta & bashir, 2018) and (spoto et al., 2021), tackling social media usage and multidimensional state boredom, respectively with modifications and revisions. the researchers conducted a distribution of questionnaires through google forms and a traditional distribution of printed questionnaires inside the campus to the potential participants. prior to distributing the questionnaires, the researcher obtained permission letters signed by the advisor and endorsed by the dean of the professional school. additionally, letters were provided to participants to ensure the ethical considerations of the research process. lastly, after gathering the data, the researchers tabulated and analyzed the data using the statistical treatment required with the aid of the tool, jamovi version 2.4, and interpreted it as the study’s main objective. statistical treatment the shapiro wilk test was employed by the researchers to assess the normality of the data and find out whether the null hypothesis would be rejected. however, the test yielded no information regarding the presumed normal distribution of the continuous variables (w=.92, p-value = <0.001).according to beers (2024), the null hypothesis is the initial claim about the population. the null hypothesis stated that the population that the sample data were drawn from had a normal distribution. data are not normally distributed when p > 0.05 which indicates that the null hypothesis is accepted. the researchers used mean, standard deviation, spearman correlation coefficient, and linear regression analysis. andrade c. (2020), states that the average value is indicated by the mean and the average scatter of values around the mean is indicated by the standard deviation which also provides a spread indicator. both are employed to measure the levels of variables. according to sereno (2023), one of the most widely used statistical measures is determining the impact and trajectory of a monotonic relationship between two variables in which the variables typically move in the same or opposite direction, but not always in the same rate — contrast to a linear relationship, where the rate is constant is referred to as spearman rho correlation coefficients (ρ). positive and negative which indicate the direction of a relationship between variables are the two types of correlation coefficients. correlation coefficients ranges from -1 to + 1; -1, when one variable change, the other variables change in the opposite way which indicates a perfect negative correlation, 0 indicates that there is no relationship between the variables, and +1, when one variable changes, the other variables change in the same way, which indicates a perfect positive correlation (bhanduri, 2023). p-value is always used in statistical analysis. statistical tests unique to the kind of correlation analysis are used to determine the pvalue. the p-value shows the likelihood of finding a correlation coefficient as extreme as the one seen in your data. the most widely used range is p < 0.05. the null hypothesis is rejected if the p-value is small—that is, less than the desired significance level, such as 0.05—it is statistically significant, and the null hypothesis is rejected (kaabar, 2023). in addition, the relationship between the mean value of one variable (dependent) and the corresponding values of one or more other variables (independent) is determined by linear regression (lawton, 2023). whether or not these relationships are statistically significant is shown by the p values for the coefficients. p-values in regression helps to ascertain whether the relationships that are observed in the sample data are also present in the broader population. the null hypothesis, which posits no correlation between a variable and the dependent variable, is evaluated for each independent variable through the linear regression’s p-value. there cannot be any relationship between changes in the dependent variable and changes in the independent variable if there is no correlation (frost, 2023). ethical consideration the researchers of this study adhered to the university college’s research ethics respondents. according to scribbr (2012), ethical considerations in research are guidelines that influence how you plan and carry out your research. these also ensure that participants receive equitable treatment, improve the dependability of your study, and maintain integrity. voluntary participation the researchers asked the respondents whether they were willing to participate in the study before proceeding. in addition, all respondents have a freedom to withdraw or discontinue their involvement in the study at any time without feeling obligated to continue. the decisions made by respondents should be accepted and respected by researchers without question. table 3: multidimensional state boredom mean interpretation mean interval interpretation qualitative description 4.21 5.00 very high the level of boredom among participants is very high. 3.41 4.20 high the level of boredom among participants is high. 2.61 3.40 moderate the level of boredom among participants is moderate. 1.81 2.60 low the level of boredom among participants is low. 1.00 1.80 very low the level of boredom among participants is very low. pa ge 12 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 121-131, 2024 right to revoke the researcher of this study guaranteed respondents the right to revoke their involvement at any moment without facing any consequences. privacy and confidentiality all the personal information provided by the respondents is not disclosed to unauthorized individuals and kept secure in a plastic envelope and put in a secured cabinet. additionally, it will not be used outside the study. the personal information of the respondents of the study is ensured that is protected and they have control how their data is collected, used and shared during the study. informed consent process the respondents of this study were informed by the researchers before signing the informed consent about the purpose, risk, benefits, and procedure of the study before they decided to join or decline. benefits the researchers ensured that the study is beneficial and helpful to others. in addition, the respondents are informed about the possible benefits of the study which lead to personal growth and increased awareness. risks the respondents of this study are informed about the possible risks or negative consequences involved which a reasonable individual would consider when deciding whether to take part in the research study. additionally, the researchers of this study will minimize the potential risks to the extent possible. plagiarism the study was conducted with careful attention to avoid plagiarism. in addition, the researchers provided appropriate credits and proper acknowledgements for all sources that contributed significantly to this study. fabrication the researchers made sure not to create or fabricate data, results, or outcomes that do not actually exist. all the information provided is genuine and it has not been invented or manipulated. falsification the study was based on reliable and accurate studies. in addition, the researchers ensured that there’s no act of manipulating, altering, and distorting data in order to misrepresent the truth or support a particular hypothesis or conclusion. conflict of interest the researchers of this study avoided potential bias and upheld transparency and honesty throughout the research process, ensuring any bias and external factors did not influence their work. deceit the researchers prioritized and ensured that the respondents provided truthful responses that wouldn’t cause harm to anyone. in addition, the researchers avoid misleading respondents and providing false data that would compromise the trustworthiness of the findings. permission from organization/location the researchers of this study asked permission from the school dean as well as the class adviser to conduct the survey properly. upon approval, the survey questionnaires were distributed to the chosen students of a university in davao region. results and discussion the level of social media usage of college students table 4 shows the level of social media usage among students across various subscales: academic, socialization, entertainment, informativeness, and constraints. the mean values indicate the average level of social media usage in each subscale, while the standard deviations reflect the variability of the data. based on the presented results, there is an overall total of (x̄ =3.73, sd=.72) for the level of social media usage among respondents, interpreted as “high”. this indicates that the level of social media usage among college students at the university in davao region is high. in addition, all of the subscales are interpreted as ‘high’. it means students’ use social media for various purposes, whether it is for academic, entertainment, socialization, informativeness and constraints. similarly, in the study by tus (2021; kutu et al., 2022; israel, 2024), it was found that the social media usage is high primarily in terms of academics and entertainment. however, in the study by (erdogan, a., & icen, r. 2017), the analysis revealed that the level of social media usage of students in balikesir university is low. additionally, users have reported that they use social media for socialization purposes in a study conducted by (kolhar et al., 2021; stockdale & coyne, 2020). to reiterate, entertainment has been one of the reasons why individuals spend time on social media platforms, specifically the platform, youtube (israel, 2024). also, individuals have been shown to use social media for the purpose of informativeness (si et al., 2023b). lastly, social media users in higher education have experienced table 4: level of social media usage among respondents indicator x̄ sd interpretation academic 3.82 0.617 high social media use socialization 3.62 0.662 high social media use pa ge 12 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 121-131, 2024 constraints during their utilization of different social media platforms which was reported in the study of kutu et al., 2022. the level of boredom proneness of college students table 5 exhibits the results that measures the level of boredom proneness of college students at the university in davao region in 5 subscales: disengagement, inattention, internalizing aspects, high arousal and time perception. the level of boredom proneness among respondents has an overall mean score and standard deviation of (x ̄ =3.42 sd=.79) with a quantitative description of ‘high’. the table 5 indicates the level of boredom among college students at the university in davao region is high. the study’s findings are parallel with the findings of the study of cañete et al. (2022), which indicated that the respondents’ level of boredom was at a high level. similarly, in the study of lv and wang (2022), which indicated that the respondents’ level of boredom was at a high level. however, the study of orsolini et al. (2023), indicates a variety of results with high and low levels of boredom. additionally, disengagement is a significant predictor of boredom proneness among individuals. the “disengagement” indicator shows how willing respondents are to disconnect or disengage when they are bored. the respondents’ ability to disengage from activities or distractions when bored is significant, as evidenced by their mean score of 3.61, which indicates a high level of boredom proneness. according to the study of bergdahl (2020), disengagement was interpreted as “less engaged”, which suggests that when people find their surroundings boring or uninteresting, they may withdraw from them physically or emotionally. high arousal has also been a significant predictor of boredom proneness among individuals. the” high arousal’ indicator shows how people who have high levels of emotional intensity to their surroundings get bored easily. this happens when their arousal level is not satisfied, resulting in individuals feeling frustrated. (wolff et al., 2022) claimed that this subscale of boredom correlated moderately with frustration. this implies that people who are bored could experience frustration or disappointment when their present circumstances don’t meet their demands, which serves as a signal for them to make a change. lastly, inattention is a significant predictor of boredom proneness among individuals. the “inattention” indicator shows how easily respondents can get distracted or lose focus when they are bored. a mean score of 3.53 indicates a high level of boredom proneness and indicates a significant inattentional capacity among respondents. according to furlong et al. (2021), boredom experiences are associated with low interest in class-specific learning activities, which demonstrates how difficult it is for people to concentrate or pay attention to tasks or senses when they are bored. both indicators show that respondents’ boredom proneness correlates with high levels of inattention and disengagement. while individuals typically exhibit significant tendencies toward inattention and disengagement when experiencing boredom, it is essential to implement interventions aimed at enhancing intrinsic motivation and fostering a stimulating learning environment. entertainment 4.05 0.704 high social media use informativeness 3.73 0.689 high social media use constraints 3.44 0.935 high social media use total 3.73 0.72 high social media usage table 5: level of boredom proneness among respondents indicator x̄ sd interpretation time perception 3.21 0.770 moderate levels of boredom inattention 3.53 0.840 high levels of boredom high arousal 3.36 0.861 high levels of boredom disengagement 3.61 0.647 high levels of boredom internalizing aspect 3.39 0.820 moderate levels of boredom total 3.42 0.79 high levels of boredom relationship between social media usage and boredom proneness of college students the result in table 6 shows the spearman rho correlation coefficient test, which is used to determine the association. the findings revealed a strong positive correlation between the two variables with a p-value .001 indicating a strong positive correlation. to put in another way, it demonstrates that there is a statistically significant association between students’ social media usage and boredom proneness. similar findings were found by pawar and shah (2019), showing that there is a considerable association between social media addiction and boredom. additionally, the study of menders (2023), found a statistically significant relationship between social media usage and leisure boredom. however, this contradicts the findings of several studies. the study of (catedrilla pa ge 12 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 121-131, 2024 et al., 2020) revealed that loneliness and boredom does not have an influence on problematic social media usage. in the result of the study of (siebers et al., 2021) which attested that participants who spend more time on social media are experiencing more distraction. additionally, the association between excessive social media use and distraction has been exhibited by (xie et al., 2021), emphasizing that excessive social media usage can result in users to experience distraction in attention-related tasks. in addition, results also emphasized that time perception (p=.032) is a significant predictor of social media usage in individuals. this indicated that social media usage can cause a person to have problems with time perception. high levels of social media usage have been linked to symptoms of time perception distortion. this is stressed by (rast, 2021) with results stated by participants that they are unaware of the time spent on social media. participants initially intended to use social media quickly, but turned out to be longer than initially intended. lastly, results also emphasized that disengagement (p=.002) is a significant predictor of social media usage in individuals. this indicated that social media usage can result in an individual to be disengaged towards their environment. boredom is defined as an unpleasant feeling resulting from not being engaged in satisfying activities (donati et al., 2022). although there is a lack of recent studies tackling the disengagement part of boredom, it can still be linked to social media usage since disengagement is technically a result of an individual’s boredom. this is affirmed by the study of barkley and lepp (2021), which stated that smartphone facilitated social media use caused an individual to have an increase in boredom. table 6: spearman rho correlation coefficient analysis among variable independent variable overall social media usage boredom proneness r p-value remarks .719 <.001 significant regression analysis for variables predicting boredom proneness table 7 shows the regression analysis for variables predicting students boredom proneness. the table shows the three significant predictors that contributed to the students’ boredom proneness. linear regression with coefficients of correlation applied with the significance was tested at the level α=0.05. . results showed that 23% of the variance is explained by the five predictors, f(5, 344)=12.9, p=0.001. specifically, time perception, (β=0.010, t=2.15, p<0.005), inattention, (β=0.21, t=3.78, p<0.005), and disengagement, (β=0.23, t=3.17, p<0.005) are positively associated with the social media usage. on the other hand, high arousal (β=0.10, t=1.69, p=n.s.) and internalizing aspects (β=0.010, t=-1.44, p=n.s.) are negatively associated with social media usage. these subscales are time perception (p=.032), inattention (p=< .001), and disengagement (p=< .002). on per item evaluation, results emphasized that inattention (p=< .001) is a significant predictor of boredom proneness. this indicates that inattention has the most impact on an individual’s social media usage. this is also shown table 7: linear regression of the indicators predicting boredom proneness predictor β se t p intercept 2.5390 0.1664 15.26 < .001 time perception 0.0958 0.0445 2.15 0.032 inattention 0.2172 0.0575 3.78 < .001 high arousal -0.1005 0.0593 -1.69 0.091 disengagement 0.2259 0.0714 3.17 0.002 internalizing aspects -0.0972 0.0677 -1.44 0.152 conclusion this study determines the correlation between social media usage (smu) and multidimensional state boredom (msb). the data was gathered from the college students at a university in davao region. the results revealed that the level of social network usage among respondents was ‘high’. on per-item evaluation, academics, entertainment, socialization, informativeness, and constraints are ‘high.’ it indicates that students use social media for various purposes, whether it is for academics, entertainment, socialization, informativeness, or constraints. meanwhile, the level of multidimensional state boredom among respondents was revealed to be ‘high’. upon item evaluation, disengagement yielded the highest mean score, followed by inattention, both interpreted as ‘high.’ this suggests that college students experience a high level of boredom, possibly attributable to the repetitive and monotonous nature of school activities. additionally, the normality of the gathered data was assessed using the shapiro-wilk analysis, revealing non-normal distribution. spearman’s rho correlation coefficient was then employed to ascertain the relationship between social media usage and multidimensional state boredom among students, unveiling a significant and strong correlation. further analysis through linear regression revealed three significant predictors influencing social media usage among college students: time perception, inattention, and disengagement. this implies that distortion in pa ge 12 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 121-131, 2024 time perception, distraction, and disengagement from one’s surroundings notably increase social media usage. moreover, acknowledging the significant relationship between social media usage and boredom proneness suggests that excessive social media use may elevate levels of boredom proneness, potentially impacting satisfaction with offline activities, attention abilities, and overall well-being. to address these concerns, raising awareness and implementing programs and policies to promote moderated social media use among students are recommended. lastly, future research is advised to replicate the study in different settings to assess potential variations in results. additionally, exploring potential mediators between the variables overlooked in this study could provide valuable insights for future researchers. recommendation considering the findings and conclusions conducted, these are the following suggestions that were made: school administrators utilize the findings to implement policies aimed at promoting healthy social media usage among students, tailored to their levels of boredom. this proactive approach can contribute to fostering a more balanced and mindful digital presence among students. additionally, insights from the study can inform the development of support programs and services by the school counseling and guidance office, specifically targeting students at risk of excessive social media use and related boredom issues. educators incorporate hands-on activities and experiential learning opportunities into their teaching methods. activities such as experiments, field trips, simulation games, artistic expression, and outdoor education can foster active engagement and direct interaction with materials and experiences, thereby creating a dynamic and stimulating learning environment. this approach can help mitigate boredom among students and enhance their overall learning experience. students educate their peers about the potential consequences of excessive social media use and collaborate on campaigns to formulate strategies for alleviating boredom. encouraging peers to explore alternative activities that are meaningful and fulfilling, beyond social media, can help combat boredom effectively. additionally, raising awareness about the negative effects of unregulated social media use can empower students to develop coping strategies for managing boredom. mental health practitioners and community-based organizations leverage the research findings to develop awareness programs and interventions aimed at addressing the influence of social media on students’ susceptibility to boredom. by integrating these insights into their initiatives, practitioners can offer valuable support and resources to individuals struggling with boredom and excessive social media use, ultimately promoting mental well-being among students. future researchers use the study as a reference or guide when conducting quantitative research in related fields. the findings can serve as a foundation for further exploration of the relationship between social media usage and boredom proneness, as well as the potential mediating factors that may have been overlooked in this study. this iterative approach to research can contribute to a deeper understanding of the complex dynamics between social media, boredom, and psychological well-being. acknowledgements we, the researchers, would like to thank the individuals who contributed to completing this research. first, we would like to thank god for his continued guidance, and for giving us the wisdom we need to pursue this academic endeavor, and for giving us the strength to continue. without his guidance and blessings, we would not be able to pursue our research. second, we would like to extend our utmost appreciation and sincere gratitude to our instructor, ms. claire lynn culajara, for providing continued guidance, support, advice, insightful comments, suggestions, and provision that contributed greatly in completion of this study. working with our paper under her guidance was a privilege and an honorable experience. we would also like to express our utmost gratitude to our parents for their unwavering support and love. your sacrifices, prayers, and guidance has made it possible to continue with our daily endeavors. we would not have come this far without all the things you do for us. our relatives, friends, and subject teachers who helped us find participants and made our quantitative research possible within a limited time frame. lastly, we would like to express our sincerest gratitude and appreciation to everyone who helped us, may it be directly or indirectly. thank you for all the hands you lended to those who needed it. above all, to god be the 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(2022). same same but different: what is boredom actually?. in the routledge international handbook of boredom (pp. 5-29). routledge.https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/jze5k pa ge 1 pa ge 58 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) residing among the departed: exploring the lived experience of individuals living within the proximity of cemeteries casas dominador jr. n.1*, erasmo claire p.1, matubaran anika rae a.1, quiatchon jude mayol r.1, salon cyrill c.1 viray angelyn e.1, yambao emmalyn f.1 volume 2 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v2i1.2634 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: april 30, 2024 accepted: may 26, 2024 published: may 29, 2024 this qualitative study is conducted to explore and understand the lived experiences of individuals living within the proximity of cemeteries in depth and to identify the individuals’ challenges and coping strategies to navigate the ongoing challenges associated with their proximity to cemeteries. the study adopted a phenomenological research design. the researchers employed snowballing techniques to carefully select a diverse group of fifteen participants for the study. the interview questions were unstructured and validated by respected experts in the field. the researchers have included supplementary probing questions to ensure the depth and richness of the data, which will only be used if necessary. all collected data was securely stored to safeguard confidentiality and privacy. the information was organized systematically, using transcribing, coding into themes by thematically analyzing, and categories that emerged from the interviews. this allowed for easier analysis and interpretation of the data. living within the proximity of cemeteries uncovers a complex interplay of emotions, perspectives, and unique narratives that challenge conventional notions of individuals’ life and death. this study sheds light on the diverse ways individuals navigates their existence within this unconventional living environment, offering valuable insights into the individuals’ capacity to find meaning and connection even in the proximity of the departed. this research offers a comprehensive exploration of the lived experiences of individuals residing within cemeteries, contributing valuable insights to both academic discourse and practical applications in various fields. keywords burial ceremonies, cemeteries, gravedigger, mirrored emotions, resilience 1 department of medicine, st. joseph rift valley hospital, gilgil, nakuru county, kenya * corresponding author’s e-mail: drvonczelo@gmail.com introduction cemeteries are sacred spaces that serve as final resting places for the departed. however, individuals who reside within the proximity of cemeteries may have unique lived experiences that are shaped by their environment. this study aims to: explore the lived experiences of individuals living within the proximity of cemeteries, the challenges they face, and the coping strategies they develop to navigate this distinctive living situation. living within the proximity of cemetery can have effects on individuals’ daily lives. several factors can influence the lived experience of individuals residing within the proximity of cemeteries; the cultural background, religious beliefs, and personal experiences of an individual can shape their perceptions and reactions to their environment. the landscaping, maintenance, and overall ambiance of cemeteries can vary significantly, influencing perceptions of the environment. examining the role of cemetery design and upkeep in shaping residents’ experiences is an important aspect of this study. moreover, the presence of cemeteries can influence the physical environment surrounding these areas. factors such as noise levels, traffic patterns, and accessibility can influence the daily lives of individuals living nearby. addressing these practical challenges can contribute to improving the overall quality of life for residents in proximity to cemeteries. through this study, the researchers aim to highlight the coping strategies that individuals employ to navigate the challenges associated with residing within the proximity of cemeteries. coping mechanisms can vary greatly, encompassing everything from embracing religious or spiritual practices to seeking support from community networks or taking part in activities that amplify positive emotions and a sense of connection. by understanding the needs, concerns, and coping strategies of residents, and policymakers can create inclusive environments that support the emotional, and social well-being of individuals near burial grounds. by shedding light on the lived experiences, challenges, and coping strategies of individuals residing within the proximity of cemeteries, the study aims to promote understanding, acceptance, and support for these individuals. it is hoped that the findings will contribute to the development of strategies that enhance their overall well-being and quality of life. literature review foreign literature cemetery influence analysis as expressed by abia (2020), the study explored the potential health hazards associated with cemeteries, particularly in developing nations where rapid urbanization has led to the emergence of informal settlements near burial grounds. it elucidates the environmental contamination attributed to these cemeteries, specifically the presence of bacterial pathogens such as escherichia coli (e. coli). pa ge 59 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 58-67, 2024 this research examined the ramifications of deficient sanitation and waste management services, contributing to cemetery pollution, which could potentially taint water sources in neighboring communities, posing a substantial public health risk. moreover, the study scrutinized the antibiotic resistance exhibited by the e. coli strains identified in cemetery water samples, thus accentuating the looming threat of antibiotic resistant infections stemming from cemetery environments. the author, sodiya et al., (2021), investigated whether the proximity of cemeteries significantly affected the rental values of nearby residential properties. it collected data from residents near atan cemetery in lagos and found that cemetery proximity within a 200-meter radius did not have a statistically significant impact on property rental values. the study on the impact of cemeteries on residential property values is valuable for our research on individuals living in close proximity to cemeteries. while our study aims to explore the lived experiences of these individuals, understanding the potential influence of cemetery proximity on property values is essential because it could be one of the challenges they face. cemetery location influence according to valerie kalfrin (2020), provided insights into the influence of living within cemeteries on residential property values. it highlights that contrary to common apprehensions, proximity to a cemetery does not necessarily result in a negative effect on property values. the study cited in the article found instances where homes with a view of the cemetery sold for higher prices, suggesting that other factors beyond cemetery proximity influence property values. this finding could inform this study, prompting the researcher to explore whether individuals’ perceptions of living near cemeteries align with property value trends. additionally, the real estate agent’s strategies for presenting such properties can offer lessons on how individuals adapt to and cope with the challenges of their unique living environments, aligning with our research’s objectives regarding coping strategies for ongoing challenges. nevertheless, a journalist starcevic, s. (2023), provided a valuable insight into the perception of living near cemeteries and airports and its influence on property prices and buyer interest. according to brisbane agent byrony o’neill, who has sold homes near cemeteries, most buyers are not bothered by the proximity to the dead. in fact, some individuals appreciate the green space and quiet environment provided by cemeteries. additionally, the prices of houses near cemeteries tend to be slightly lower, making them attractive to young couples looking for affordability and less competition. the article “worst neighbors ever? the surprising truth about living next to a cemetery or airport” also mentions a us study from 2010 that found houses near cemeteries generally do not experience a significant drop in value, with some being up to 10% cheaper. furthermore, the author emphasized that these findings challenge the notion of cemeteries as abandoned and frightening spaces, encouraging further research to explore the unique experiences and coping techniques of individuals living near burial grounds. this can be done through ethnographic research and the use of visual representations. understanding the challenges, resilience, and sense of community of people living within the proximity of cemeteries can provide valuable insights for future research in this field. however, hooper, c. (2020), explored australians’ evolving perspectives on traditional cemeteries and their potential for community use. hooper discusses the historical development of cemeteries in australia and the scarcity of available space in metropolitan areas. the article “bringing new life to cemeteries” highlights the work of anthropologist dr. hannah gould and the deathtech team from the university of melbourne, who aim to enhance the cemetery experience for both bereaved families and wider communities through the exploration of new technologies and cemetery design. the study explores the tension between preserving cemetery sites and utilizing them for contemporary community needs. the article also mentions the adoption of new technologies in cemeteries worldwide, such as digital grave management, alternative burial methods, and virtual offerings. this research contributes to the understanding of the complex experiences of individuals living within the proximity of cemeteries and highlights the potential for new approaches to cemetery design and utilization. the royal examiner asserted that the article “is buying a home near a cemetery a grave mistake?” discusses the advantages and disadvantages of purchasing a home in close proximity to a cemetery. on the positive side, living near a cemetery offers quiet neighbors and picturesque green spaces. relating this article to the research it becomes evident that the public’s perceptions and concerns about residing near cemeteries are essential aspects to consider. the royal examiner article sheds light on the factors that individuals weigh when deciding to live near a cemetery, providing valuable insights into their experiences and potential challenges. understanding these perspectives can contribute to a comprehensive examination of the lived experiences and coping strategies of individuals living in close proximity to cemeteries, addressing the research’s stated problems and objectives. according to the article entitled “the living among the dead: cemeteries as urban forests, now and in the future” authored by quinton et al., (2020), cemeteries have a long and complex history around the world and take on various forms based on local traditions and culture (quinton and duinker, 2019). although their primary purpose is typically commemoration and memorialization of the deceased, cemeteries are being embraced as locations suitable for low-impact recreational activities such as jogging, walking, photography, education, relaxation, and socialization (deering, 2010; grabalov, 2018; swensen et al., 2016). cemeteries’ low-impact usage pa ge 60 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 58-67, 2024 reduces soil compaction, and this, combined with the absence of overhead utility wires, automotive activity, and impermeable surfaces, suggests that cemeteries may be good settings for the survival of young trees. other than monuments and the occasional building, the lack of manmade infrastructure within cemeteries suggests that there may be open space suitable for developing tree populations. comparative cemetery studies in the research conducted by tan et al., (2020), the authors examined the influence of proximity to cemeteries on the purchasing of residential properties in malaysia. the study investigates how different races and religions in malaysia perceive housing near cemeteries, which can influence their decisions when considering property purchases. it employs quantitative research methods, including statistical analysis and pearson chi-square, to analyze the data. in addition, quantitative research methods aid the research since it offers a complementary perspective on the factors that shape individuals’ experiences, challenges, and coping strategies when residing near cemeteries. by comparing the findings of both studies, researchers can gain a more comprehensive understanding of the complex interplay between cultural, religious, and practical considerations that individuals face when living within the proximity of cemeteries. this comparative analysis can enhance the depth and richness of the research on the lived experiences of individuals within the proximity of cemeteries and provide a more holistic view of the phenomenon. in the study “the city of the living or the dead: on the ethics and morality of land use for graveyards in a rapidly urbanized world” by zaheer allam (2019), explored the ethical and moral implications of using land for graveyards, particularly amid fast-paced urbanization. it highlights the convergence of various religious practices in favor of burying the deceased for the sake of a peaceful afterlife. however, it also underscores the challenges posed by urbanization, including limited land availability, rising property prices, overpriced housing, and societal inequality. moreover, the study can assist the research paper since the research on individuals living near cemeteries aims to understand their experiences, challenges, and coping strategies. allam’s paper enriches this study by shedding light on the ethical and moral dilemmas associated with cemetery land use, especially in urbanized settings. it emphasizes the competition for land resources between the living and the deceased and how this competition can influence housing affordability and societal equity. a study titled, “the city of the dead as a place to live: unpacking the narratives about tomb communities’’ authored by lindsey bertrand logan (2020), analyzed how the housing options available now do not satisfy the demands of daily cairo residents. as a result of overcrowding and a lack of cheap housing, many now squat and build their own homes. the city of the dead (cod), the center of her research, is one such “informal” community. many of cairo’s impoverished and rural migrants live at cod, a group of cemeteries in the city’s center. planning projects such as masterplan cairo 2050 express intentions to evict these residents without offering details on their rehabilitation. embedded place narratives that cannot be removed obstruct decision-makers and new or changed development. stories have the power to shape, modify, and discard what already exists. in addition, this study looks into the city of the dead legends that masterplan cairo 2050 dismisses. she used qualitative approaches to investigate these narratives about cod held by prominent parties such as government officials, urban planners, the public, and other sources to elucidate how they contribute to the unfavorable planning outcomes proposed in policy texts. she reveals through her in-depth research of the themes and words used by respondents that the most common perception of cod is that it is a cemetery rather than a residential community. this dominant narrative ignores the benefits of living in cod, as evidenced by the policies and laws that govern it, as well as the vocabulary used to refer to its people. local literature resilience in cemetery life the author, algura, p. o. (2019), asserted the study “living among the dead in the manila north cemetery: a cartographic re-imagination,” challenges the idea of cemeteries as abandoned and frightening. algura uses ethnographic research and cartography to convey this distinct urban environment’s liveliness. the research finds tales of optimism, familial relationships, and perseverance in interviews and observations, depicting the cemetery as a place where the living and the dead cohabit. this research inspires how to handle this issue sensitively and deeply, making it relevant to the study. emphasizing the human aspect of cemetery sites invites scholars to investigate the rich tales and unique coping techniques of persons living near burial grounds. the study’s use of visual representations and ethnographic insights can help other researchers capture the complex experiences of people living within the proximity of cemeteries, helping to understand their challenges, resilience, and sense of community. according to lapatha et al., (2019), cemeteries in the philippines serve not only as resting places for the deceased but also as homes for the living. in their qualitative study titled “living with the dead: a qualitative study on the social well-being of filipino families living in cemeteries in cebu city,” the authors aim to explore the social wellbeing of families residing in cemetery settings and raise awareness about their circumstances within the government and the larger community. the research methodology involved conducting interviews with six residents from three public cemeteries, transcribing their pa ge 61 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 58-67, 2024 responses, and analyzing the data thematically through code. the study findings reveal that families reside in cemeteries primarily due to employment opportunities, geographical displacement, and generational factors. despite facing numerous challenges related to sustaining their means of subsistence, ensuring their safety, and establishing their sociopolitical significance, the families exhibit social well-being, as per keyes’ social well-being theory. this study not only provides valuable insights into this unconventional lifestyle but also lays the foundation for future research, contributing to our broader understanding of such unique living environments. in addition, sevilla, c., & yu, l. s. (2019), discussed the lives of cemetery workers in manila south cemetery. in the article titled “living among the dead: the life of a public cemetery worker”. the authors interviewed 48 informal gravediggers who live in the cemetery and found that they have a variety of jobs, including digging graves, cleaning tombs, and maintaining mausoleums. the workers also described the challenges of their work, such as the risk of injury from sharp objects and the emotional toll of dealing with death daily. however, they also expressed a sense of pride in their work and a commitment to providing a dignified burial for the dead. this helps to contribute to the research on the study of living in a cemetery environment by providing a firsthand account of the lives of cemetery workers. the interviews provide a rich and nuanced understanding of the challenges and rewards of working in a cemetery environment. notably, the author casilao, j. l. (2020), highlighted the story of maica kate lopez, a seven-year-old student living inside the manila south cemetery in the philippines who gets homeschooled among graves. despite the numerous challenges she encounters, including the constant noise in her surroundings and limited resources, maica continues to demonstrate remarkable perseverance in her online classes. to overcome these obstacles, she ingeniously transforms burial niches into her personal study sanctuary. her mother, lyka eusebio, runs a small store at the cemetery and supports maica’s education while emphasizing the importance of education and wanting her daughter to achieve her dreams. this article titled “student who lives at a cemetery gets homeschooled among graves” provides an interesting perspective on the lived experience of individuals who live in close proximity to cemeteries. it highlights the challenges that these individuals face, such as the lack of access to resources and the stigma associated with living in a cemetery. however, it also shows the resilience and determination of these individuals, as they strive to achieve their dreams despite the obstacles they face. moreover, the article “living among the dead” authored by kabagani, & l. j. (2019), explored the lives of people who live in the manila north cemetery (mnc), which is a strange and unique place in and of itself. it tells the story of aurora mangampo, also known as nanay diday, who has lived in the graveyard with her family for more than 60 years. even though they have problems, like being poor and losing loved ones, the story shows that the people have a feeling of resolve, community, and even some happiness. the text highlights their adaptation to their unique living conditions and emphasizes how, in certain aspects, they lead lives comparable to those in regular communities. within the cemetery, children engage in play, friends gather, and locally operated stores offer essential goods. additionally, this piece is important to research because it shows a real-life case study of people who live close to graves and talks about their daily lives, problems, and ways to deal with them. it shows how important it is to understand the different things people in these situations go through, to challenge assumptions, and to encourage kindness. also, talking about recent demolitions and the moving of people who lived near cemeteries brings up questions about how government policies and actions influence the lives of people who live near cemeteries. exploring the stories of people like nanay diday can help us learn more about how people who live near graves live their lives and what that means for policy and community development. cemetery dwellers’ well-being in the article, “tombstone pillow” authored by bayou bennett and daniel lir (2022), showed the plight of 6,000 impoverished manila north cemetery inhabitants. these people are lured to graves for free accommodation and low earnings, live in poverty, and lack basic facilities like sanitation and clean water. due to budget restrictions, civilian fatalities from police raids during anti-drug activities are routinely uninvestigated. the film “tombstone pillow” draws awareness and promotes change in this serious poverty problem. an affluent widow learns to sympathize with cemetery dwellers during a police raid. the film “tombstone pillow” may help us understand the issues faced by those living near graves, particularly those caused by poverty and inadequate living conditions. the film depicts manila north cemeterydwellers’ struggles, unfairness, and inequalities to underscore the significance of understanding their lives. the book “tombstone pillow” is a wonderful case study that might be utilized in our research to illustrate the social and psychological effects of living near graves. such characteristics enhance understanding of people’s social, economic, and psychological aspects. the research study’s main goals are to identify policy implications and solutions to improve the quality of life for cemetery residents. the film’s support for reform and improvement is compatible with these goals. in conclusion, the film offers a captivating and emotionally evocative perspective that might enrich our scientific research by revealing the complex issues faced by non-traditional residents. on the other hand, mara cepada (2022), discussed the influence of the pandemic on the livelihoods of individuals who work in cemeteries, such as candle vendors and grave pa ge 62 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 58-67, 2024 cleaners. the temporary closure of cemeteries during the pandemic prevented these workers from earning an income and disrupted the traditional festivities associated with all saints’ day. this article provides insight into the cultural significance of cemeteries in filipino society and the influence of temporary closures on both the community and the economy. by showcasing the revival of this seasonal livelihood for slum-dwellers who clean graves and sell candles, the article underscores the interdependence between the cemetery and the residents. it highlights the emotional significance attached to visiting the graves and reinforces the role of cemeteries as spaces for remembrance and connection with deceased loved ones. additionally, descalsota, m. (2023), delved into the story of gesophine grama, who has been residing in the chinese cemetery in cebu, philippines, for over a decade. grama was initially forced to be homeless due to financial difficulties but found solace when the caretaker of the cemetery offered them a place to stay in one of the mausoleums. the chinese cemetery, once a burial ground for esteemed chinese filipinos, has now become an informal settlement where people live without rightful ownership. grama’s situation reflects poverty and homelessness in the philippines, with millions of people living below the poverty line. however, the local government plans to evict the families living in the cemetery to convert it into a heritage park. the article sheds light on the challenges and struggles faced by those living in cemetery environments and raises awareness about the need for further research to understand their experiences and develop appropriate interventions. furthermore, alvin murcia (2022), described the life of informal squatters in manila’s south and north cemeteries in the article titled “living among the dead in cemeteries.” this lifestyle has been passed down through generations, with families living amid graves. the article discusses their cemetery job, including caretaking and tomb service, and their struggles, such as poor wages and cemetery management evictions. it also covers unique cemetery elements like tapping energy from neighboring poles and inhabitants returning after government relocations because of graveyard labor familiarity. in addition, this article represents a significant advancement in the study of cemetery dwellers. firsthand reports of their everyday life, economic activities, and struggles are significant. it also emphasizes the generations-old history of this living arrangement. these insights into their economic tactics and cemetery community social and security issues help us comprehend their experiences. the article helps us understand policy consequences and community support systems. moreover, the article titled “thousands living in cemeteries built into slums” by von dacre (2019), shed light on the existence of slum communities within public cemeteries in manila, philippines. the author describes the dire living conditions, including rickety huts, garbage, open sewage, and the presence of gangs, prostitutes, and laborers. the study emphasizes the overwhelming poverty and danger prevalent in these communities. additionally, the lack of basic amenities such as electricity, running water, and sanitation is highlighted. furthermore, the article also mentions the violent police raids in these slums, resulting in casualties and a lack of proper investigations. danial eriksen’s firsthand experience living among the cemetery slum-dwellers is discussed, showcasing their organization and sense of safety within the graveyard. this article provides valuable insights into the challenges faced by individuals living in cemetery environments, urging further research on their unique experiences, coping mechanisms, and community dynamics. in the article titled “living with the dead” by salas, c. von l.p. (2019), revealed that as early as the 1950s, many families have been living in squalid conditions above cemeteries. families are typically jobless and without a source of income despite residing in one of the most notoriously crowded cities in the world. given the influx of people from the countryside seeking better prospects, manila is one of the cities with the densest populations in the world. when they arrive, the bulk of migrants find few job options and no housing, so they live in unofficial colonies. some of these slums have migrated inside the public cemeteries. methodology this chapter presents the various components of the research methodology. this includes the research design, selection criteria for participants, details regarding the research instrument employed, procedure for data collection, approach to data analysis, the role of the researcher, as well as ethical considerations that guide the study. research design in this study, the researcher utilized a qualitative approach to delve into the complex and nuanced experiences of individuals living within the proximity of cemeteries. by adopting a phenomenological research design, the researchers aimed to gain a comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon from the participants’ perspectives. phenomenological research explores the essence and lived experiences of individuals, shedding light on the meaning and significance of these experiences. to better define phenomenological research, moustakas (1994) described it as a method that involves a thorough exploration of individuals’ lived experiences and their subjective interpretations. by incorporating detailed descriptions provided by the participants, phenomenological research aims to illuminate the various aspects and intricacies of a particular phenomenon. in the mentioned study, the researcher adopted a phenomenological research design to gain a comprehensive understanding of the phenomena of interest as perceived by the participants. this approach allowed for a deeper exploration and examination of realpa ge 63 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 58-67, 2024 life examples to improve the understanding of the subject matter. by incorporating a phenomenological framework, the study aimed to uncover the essence and meaning of the participants’ experiences related to the topic being studied. selection criteria and participants the researcher employed snowballing techniques to carefully select a diverse group of fifteen (15) participants for the study. this method involved initially identifying individuals who meet the inclusion criteria and then asking them to refer other eligible individuals who can provide valuable insights into the experience of living within the proximity of cemeteries. to ensure a comprehensive exploration, the following criteria were established for participant inclusion: (a). participants must have resided within cemeteries for a substantial period of time, typically within a minimum of 5 years. this criterion will enable a comprehensive understanding of the long-term effects and experiences associated with living within the proximity of cemeteries. (b). a diverse range of participants will be sought to capture a variety of perspectives. this includes individuals from age 40 and above, socioeconomic backgrounds, and cultural contexts. such diversity will enrich the analysis and shed light on the experiences of various groups living within the proximity of cemeteries. (c). the participants must be willing and open to discussing their lived experiences, allowing for an in-depth exploration of their thoughts, emotions, and perceptions related to living within the proximity of cemeteries. this openness will ensure that the study captures valuable insights and personal narratives (d). the participants should be available for either individual interviews or focus group discussions. these sessions will be conducted to gather the necessary qualitative data for analysis, allowing for a comprehensive examination of the topic. by adhering to these rigorous selection criteria, the study aims to provide a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the experiences and perspectives of individuals residing within the proximity of cemeteries. research instrument the research instrument consists of a set of unstructured interview questions, validated by respected experts in the field. additionally, the researchers have included supplementary probing questions to ensure the depth and richness of the data, which will only be used if necessary. data collection procedure the data collection procedure was carried out through a series of interviews conducted within the proximity of cemeteries. the first step involved locating the site and identifying suitable individuals who lived within cemeteries. the researchers employed an interview-based approach using a snowballing technique to identify participants who meet the researchers’ criteria. the researchers would reach out to them and explain the purpose of the study, seeking their voluntary participation. once the participants were identified, the next step was to establish rapport and gain access to conduct the interviews. this involved building trust and ensuring that participants felt comfortable sharing their experiences. interviews were conducted in a private and quiet setting, allowing participants to freely express their thoughts and emotions. during the interviews, a purposeful sampling strategy was employed to ensure a diverse range of perspectives were captured. participants were selected based on specific criteria, such as length of residency near the cemetery and frequency of interactions with it. this allowed for a comprehensive understanding of the lived experiences of individuals in different circumstances. to record the information shared by participants, both audio and written notes were taken. this dual approach ensured that no valuable insights or details were missed during the interviews. additionally, participants were given the option to review and clarify any information recorded to ensure accuracy. throughout the data collection process, field issues were addressed promptly. any challenges, such as noise interruptions or logistical constraints, were resolved to maintain a conducive environment for open and honest communication. this ensured the reliability and validity of the collected data. all collected data was securely stored to safeguard confidentiality and privacy. the information was organized in a systematic manner, using codes, thematic analysis, and categories that emerged from the interviews. this allowed for easier analysis and interpretation of the data. overall, the data collection procedure employed in this research adhered to rigorous ethical standards and aimed to capture the authentic experiences of individuals living within the proximity of cemeteries. by employing purposeful sampling strategies, gaining access, establishing rapport, resolving field issues, and recording information accurately, a comprehensive understanding of the lived experiences of the participants was achieved. data analysis the researchers transcribed recorded interviews and familiarized with the participants’ perspectives. the researchers conducted initial coding to identify meaningful data units, without preconceived categories. the codes were reviewed and then organized into potential themes, which were further refined through constant comparison. the researchers ensured themes accurately represented the participants’ views. the researchers explored the data within each theme to understand experiences and viewpoints comprehensively. patterns, variations, and relationships were analyzed within and between themes, considering context and background. the findings were summarized, highlighting key insights, and linking them to the research objectives. pa ge 64 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 58-67, 2024 role of the researchers in a qualitative research study on individuals living within the proximity of cemeteries, researchers play a crucial role. they adopt a phenomenological approach to understand the participants’ experiences through personal narratives. this involves developing focused research questions, identifying diverse participants, building trust, collecting data through interviews and observation, adhering to ethical guidelines, analyzing data rigorously, reflecting on biases, approaching with empathy, and sharing findings with a wider audience. ultimately, researchers aim to collect and analyze narratives in a sensitive and ethical manner, capturing the richness and complexity of participants’ experiences. ethical considerations the researchers had a responsibility to ethically prioritize the rights of the participants. these include ensuring participants have a clear understanding of the research purpose and obtaining their written consent. in addition, confidentiality should be maintained by using pseudonyms or unique identifiers, while interviews should be conducted in a comfortable and private setting. furthermore, transparent communication about sharing research results and the right to withdraw without consequences should be emphasized. lastly, support should be offered for sensitive topics, and the researcher must actively reflect on personal biases and power dynamics that could influence the research process, trust and participant well-being should be prioritized. results and discussion the findings derived from this study aim to provide insights into the three problem statements: what are the experiences of individuals living within the proximity of cemeteries? what are the challenges faced by individuals living within the proximity of cemetery environment? what are the coping strategies to navigate the ongoing challenges associated with their proximity to cemeteries? the participants were chosen accordingly to their demographic profile including their gender, age, occupation, and the duration of their residence within the cemetery. to protect their privacy, the researchers used pseudonyms to represent their names. this valuable data was gathered by conducting interviews with the participants. this allowed for a comprehensive understanding of the lived experiences of individuals in different circumstances. the participants’ experiences living within the proximity of cemeteries the study reveals the particular experiences encountered by the participants who lived within the proximity of cemetery. the collected data from the participants were meticulously crafted into various themes by the researchers to provide a deeper understanding and to address the participants’ experiences in the unique environment they have. the first theme, “living amidst the serenity of the cemetery,” emphasizes the serenity and peace that can be found in such an environment. it serves as not only a peaceful dwelling but also as a source of livelihood, providing both solace and opportunities for personal growth. although the primary purpose of the cemeteries are typically commemoration and memorialization of the deceased, cemeteries are being embraced as locations suitable for low-impact recreational activities such as jogging, walking, photography, education, relaxation, and socialization (deering, 2010; grabalov, 2018; swensen et al., 2016). the theme acknowledges the challenges that may come with residing in a cemetery, such as societal perceptions and the emotional weight of working as a gravedigger, yet emphasizes how individuals have chosen to embrace and find pride in their roles and their familiar surroundings. it signifies a deep appreciation for the serenity and tranquility that coexist with the cemetery’s unique dynamics, allowing for a meaningful and fulfilling way of life amidst the eternal grounds. furthermore, the second theme, “profound reflections through witnessing burial ceremonies,” summarizes the reflections of the participants in witnessing burial ceremonies. the theme highlights the mirrored emotions evoked by these ceremonies, which serve as poignant reminders of personal loss and the delicate nature of life itself. through the act of witnessing burials, individuals are prompted to contemplate the transient nature of existence, fostering a deeper appreciation for the preciousness of life and the significance of relationships. this theme acknowledges the sorrow and grief that accompany such experiences while also acknowledging the opportunity for personal growth and introspection that arises from engaging with the rituals and rites of passage surrounding death. in addition, the third theme, “finding peace amidst the fragility of life,” discusses the unique nature of living within a cemetery. indeed, a journalist starcevic, s. (2023), provided a valuable insight into the perception of living within the proximity of cemeteries and airports and its influence on property prices and buyer interest. according to brisbane agent byrony o’neill, who has sold homes near cemeteries, most buyers are not bothered by the proximity to the dead. certainly, some individuals appreciate the green space and quiet environment provided by cemeteries. furthermore, the participants enthusiastically shared their experiences living within the proximity of a cemetery. the theme acknowledges the fragility and solemnity of life but also highlights the unique sense of unity, purpose, and connection that can be found in such an environment. the theme suggests that despite the inherent vulnerability and uncertainty of life, individuals have the capacity to find inner peace and a meaningful way of living amidst it all. moreover, the last theme, “community resilience in the face of adversity,” uncovers the unique experiences of the individuals residing in a cemetery. the residents and workers within a cemetery are united as one community pa ge 65 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 58-67, 2024 that promotes camaraderie and mutual support that would help them in terms of overcoming difficulties and adapting to adverse circumstances. in the interview conducted by kabagani, & l. j. (2019), the authors comprehensively discussed the accounts of their subject. even though they have problems, such as straitened and losing loved ones, the story shows that the people have a feeling of resolve, community, and even some happiness. the study highlights their adaptation to their unique living conditions and emphasizes how, in certain aspects, they lead lives comparable to those in regular communities. within the cemetery, children engage in play, friends gather, and locally operated stores offer essential goods. the theme highlights the remarkable ability of communities to come together, provide support, and surmount hurdles, even amidst challenging situations. the participants’ challenges living in a cemetery environment the study presents information on various themes related to the challenges faced by individuals living within the proximity of cemetery. the first theme, “limited opportunities for employment,” reveals that individuals residing in the cemetery struggle to find employment due to the limited job options available in that environment. as studied by alvin murcia (2022), the author discusses their subjects’ cemetery job, including caretaking and tomb service, and their struggles, such as poor wages and cemetery management evictions. the responses highlight the few roles available, such as caretakers or security personnel, and emphasize the importance of seeking alternative livelihood options. the theme also acknowledges the impact of limited employment opportunities on financial stability. in addition, the second theme, “financial struggles,” addresses the difficulties in achieving financial stability for individuals living within the proximity of cemetery. the responses emphasize the lack of stable income and the uncertainty associated with fluctuating income sources. it acknowledges that income from selling flowers and candles or working as a graveyard caretaker may not always be sufficient to support their necessities. the theme recognizes the burden and complexity added by financial struggles to their lives. furthermore, the third theme, “interruption of daily activities,” focuses on the challenges’ individuals face in carrying out their daily routines while living in a cemetery. external factors such as flooding, traffic congestion during special occasions, and longer distances to essential places impact their ability to maintain regular activities. the theme also acknowledges the emotional weight and physical demands associated with working and residing in a cemetery, making it difficult to maintain regular meals, sleep, and effectively manage time. moreover, the fourth theme, “physical demands and health risks,” highlights the physical challenges and potential health risks associated with the job or activities within the proximity of cemetery. in the study of sevilla, c., & yu, l. s. (2019), the authors interviewed 48 informal gravediggers who live in the cemetery and found that they have a variety of jobs, including digging graves, cleaning tombs, and maintaining mausoleums. the workers also described the challenges of their work, such as the risk of injury from sharp objects and the emotional toll of dealing with death daily. the responses point out long hours spent outdoors under various weather conditions, tasks such as dismantling graves and carrying heavy coffins, and the toll these physical demands take on their overall well-being. additionally, the fifth theme, “limited access to assistance,” explores the challenges individuals face when they have restricted access to the help and support, they need. the theme recognizes that limited assistance exacerbates existing difficulties, making it even harder for individuals to seek help when needed. lastly, the theme “interactions with grieving families.” emphasizes the dynamics and experiences involved in engaging with families who are grieving the loss of a loved one. the responses highlight the importance of empathy, understanding, and offering condolences to grieving families during their difficult times. overall, these themes collectively illustrate the multifaceted challenges faced by individuals living within a cemetery, encompassing limited employment opportunities, financial struggles, interruptions of daily activities, physical demands and health risks, limited access to assistance, and the complexities of interacting with grieving families. the participants’ coping strategies to navigate the ongoing challenges associated with their proximity to cemeteries the researchers comprehensively present and explains the various themes and developed coping strategies by the individuals on their ongoing challenges associated with living and working within the proximity of cemetery. the first theme “career exploration,” emphasizes the importance of actively seeking alternative livelihood options to overcome the obstacle of limited employment opportunities. the theme highlights how individuals become resilient to the struggles they have faced in the cemetery and learn to manage the crisis’s financial stability. moreover, the second theme, “financial stability” addresses the importance of being proactive financial management, adaptability, and leveraging available resources living within the proximity of our cemeteries. however, the third theme, “penetration for assistance,” reveals that individuals who lived within a cemetery learn to cope amidst the limited access to assistance in their barangay. the theme highlights the ways and strategies in which the residents received support from their local government. the individuals learned that by personally going to their barangay office, they could receive the assistance they needed. additionally, the fourth theme entitled “cultural and familial adaptation,” provided a pa ge 66 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 58-67, 2024 valuable insight about individuals and families residing in or working closely with a cemetery environment and how they have adapted to this distinct way of life. furthermore, the fifth theme, “witnessing burials builds emotional resilience” discusses individuals within a cemetery who learned to have emotional resilience on witnessing burial activities on a daily basis. these burial activities induce them to reflect on the importance of life and the time of mortality. the responses highlight the importance of empathy, understanding, acceptance, and offering condolences to grieving families during their difficult times. in addition, the last theme, “normalization and acceptance of unique circumstances” uncovers the versatility of the participants on facing the unique environment they encountered, including finding strength and acceptance in the cycle of life and death, embracing unfamiliar environments, instilling pride and respect in daily activities, and finding ways to adapt and overcome difficulties. overall, these themes significantly discuss the strategies developed by the individuals who lived within a cemetery amidst the challenges they faced during their life in a unique environment. these coping strategies encompass career exploration, financial stability, penetration for assistance, cultural and familial adaptation, witnessing burials, builds emotional resilience, and normalization and acceptance of unique circumstances. discussions the significance of the study after the data have been meticulously analyzed and interpreted as to the demographic profile of the participants in terms of gender, age, occupation, and the duration of their residence within the cemetery. to protect their privacy, the researchers used pseudonyms to represent their names. this valuable data was gathered by conducting indepth face-to-face interviews with the participants. additionally, the participants’ experiences living within the proximity of cemeteries, the researchers comprehensively summarize the various experiences encountered by the participants who lived within a cemetery. the transcribed responses from the fifteen participants are scrupulously analyzed and coded to develop a theme that represents the unique experiences of the participants. these themes collectively illustrate the multifaceted experiences faced by individuals living within a cemetery, encompassing living amidst the serenity of the cemetery, profound reflections through witnessing burial ceremonies, finding peace amidst the fragility of life, and community resilience in the face of adversity. furthermore, the participants’ challenges living in a cemetery environment presents information on various themes related to the challenges faced by individuals living within a cemetery. this section discusses the importance of addressing the challenges that arise for the participants who reside within a cemetery and obtaining coping strategies that could be helpful to the participants when the stated challenges arise in the future. the researchers conducted an extensive examination of the accounts stated by the participants to develop a corresponding theme. these themes illustrate the limited opportunities for employment, financial struggles, interruption of daily activities, physical demands and health risks, limited access to assistance, and interactions with grieving families. in the participants’ coping strategies to navigate the ongoing challenge associated with their proximity to cemeteries, there are various themes provided by the researchers. in discussing the individuals who lived within a cemetery, they developed a coping strategy for the particular challenges they encountered, such as limited opportunities for employment, financial struggles, interruption of daily activities, physical demands and health risks, limited access to assistance, and interactions with grieving families. these challenges served as the motivation for the participants to develop a coping strategy, as mentioned in the participants’ coping strategies. the participants share a strategy to overcome the crisis they have faced financially due to the job opportunities available in their community. for instance, these individuals learn to adapt to the unique environment they have. despite these challenges, the theme “career exploration” emphasizes the importance of actively seeking alternative livelihood options to overcome the obstacle of limited employment opportunities. in addition, the researchers conduct a thematic analysis to provide a relevant theme for addressing the participants’ struggles in terms of limited access to assistance. indeed, the participants learn to adapt to this pace gradually. the theme, “penetration for assistance,” thoroughly discussed the strategies of the individuals to withstand the ongoing challenges by actively seeking help from the relatives they have known who are willing to help them when their barangay does not address their concerns. however, the theme “witnessing burials builds emotional resilience” uncovers the emotional resilience of the participants. the individuals are gradually learning to be empathetic and have emotional resilience amidst witnessing grieving families during burial ceremonies. conclusions the study entitled “residing among the departed: exploring the lived experience of individuals living within the proximity of cemeteries” reveals a complex interplay of emotions, perspectives, and unique narratives that challenge conventional notions of life and death. this study sheds light on the diverse ways people navigates their existence within this unconventional living environment, offering valuable insights into the individuals’ capacity to find meaning and connection even in the proximity of the departed. the phenomenon that arose focused on people who chose to live in or around cemeteries. the term “residing among the departed” implies a unique living situation, and the phrase “exploring the lived experience” indicates an in-depth examination of the daily lives and perspectives of these individuals. this could involve understanding their motivations, challenges, and the pa ge 67 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 58-67, 2024 impact of their environment on their overall experiences. overall, as society continues to evolve, it is essential to explore and understand alternative living arrangements. this research offers a comprehensive exploration of the lived experiences of individuals residing within cemeteries, contributing valuable insights to both academic discourse and practical applications in various fields. recommendations upon the summary findings and conclusions presented, the following recommendation was drawn: the research settings the cemetery is known as a sacred place for the departed. however, as society continues to evolve, the researchers recommend that future scholars and readers have an indepth understanding and examination of the individuals residing within cemeteries and the unique dynamics of their lives. policy consideration after an extensive examination of the phenomenon, the findings address the limitations provided for the residents and workers who lived within a cemetery. the researchers recommend that policymakers consider the research findings when formulating regulations or policies related to cemetery living, ensuring that they address the specific needs and challenges faced by individuals living within the proximity of the cemetery. for mental health and other medical practitioners the well-being of individuals is crucial aspect to address. the researchers recommend that the mental health and medical professionals create a program such as medical mission that will benefits the individuals who live within the proximity of cemeteries. future residents the future individuals who decide to migrate to a unique environment of cemeteries must consider the result of this study as an insight reference to fully understand the future experience that awaits them associated with cemeteries. future researchers for future researchers, a similar study about exploring the lived experience of individuals living within the proximity of cemeteries with another set of subjects should be conducted. comparisons will aid in identifying similarities in the subjects’ lived experience residing within the proximity of cemeteries. references abia, a. l. k. (2020). make graveyards safe for the living. they are reservoirs of antibiotic-resistance bacteria. allam, z. (2019). the city of the living or the dead: on the ethics and morality of land use for graveyards in a rapidly urbanized world. algura, p. o. (2019). living among the dead in the manila north cemetery: a cartographic re-imagination. bayou, b. & lir, d. (2022). the fight against property. casilao, j. l. (2020). student who lives at a cemetery gets homeschooled among graves. gma news. cepeda, m. (2022). after 2-year closure, philippine cemeteries come to life as thousands visit the dead. the straits times. descalsota, m. (2023). she’s been living in a mausoleum in a cemetery for 11 years. now, the government wants to evict her. hooper, c. (2020). bringing new life to cemeteries. university of melbourne. kabagani, & l. j. (2019). living among the dead: nanay diday’s story. kalfrin, v. (2020). i live next to a cemetery. will my house sell for less? lapatha, et al. (2019). living with the dead: a qualitative study on the social well-being of filipino families living in cemeteries in cebu city. logan, l. b. (2020). the city of the dead as a place to live: unpacking the narratives about tomb communities. moustakas, c. (1994). phenomenological research methods. sage publications. murcia, a. (2022, october 28). living among the dead in cemeteries. the daily tribune. quinton, et al. (2020, february). the living among the dead: cemeteries as urban forests, now and in the future. royal examiner. (2020, october). is buying a home near a cemetery a grave mistake? salas, c. v. l. p. (2019). living with the dead. sevilla, c., & yu, l. s. (2019). living among the dead: the life of a public cemetery worker. sodiya, et al. (2021). impact of cemetery on proximate residential property value. starcevic, s. (2023). worst neighbors ever? the surprising truth about living next to a cemetery or airport. tan, et al. (2020). the effects of proximity to cemetery on purchasing residential properties in malaysia. von dacre, j. s. (2019). thousands living in cemeteries built into slums. pa ge 1 pa ge 15 9 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) the intersection of traumatic brain injury, substance abuse, and mental health disorders in incarcerated women addressing intergenerational trauma through neuropsychological rehabilitation joy onma enyejo1*, tahir kolawole balogun2, edem klu3, emmanuel oluwasayomi ahmadu4, toyosi motilola olola5 volume 2 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v2i1.3830 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: september 25, 2024 accepted: october 22, 2024 published: november 13, 2024 the intersection of traumatic brain injury (tbi), substance abuse, and mental health disorders presents a significant challenge within the incarcerated female population, where rates of these conditions are alarmingly high. this paper explores the multifaceted relationships among tbi, substance abuse, and mental health disorders, emphasizing the impact of intergenerational trauma on this vulnerable group. women in correctional facilities often experience a history of trauma, exacerbating their mental health challenges and increasing the likelihood of substance use as a maladaptive coping mechanism. the cumulative effects of tbi can further complicate their psychological and emotional wellbeing, leading to a cycle of trauma that is perpetuated across generations. through a review of current literature and case studies, this paper advocates for the implementation of neuropsychological rehabilitation programs that address the unique needs of incarcerated women. such interventions are crucial not only for improving individual outcomes but also for breaking the cycle of trauma that affects families and communities. recommendations for policy reforms and future research directions are provided to enhance the efficacy of rehabilitation efforts and support the reintegration of these women into society. keywords incarcerated women, intergenerational trauma, mental health disorders, substance abuse, traumatic brain injury (tbi) 1 department of business administration, nasarawa state university keffi, nasarawa state. nigeria 2 department of political science, villanova university, villanova, philadelphia, usa 3 department of computer science, information technology, security and digital media, stark state college of technology, north canton, ohio, usa 4 department of applied sciences in human services, cuyahoga community college, cleveland, ohio, usa 5 department of communications, university of north dakota, grand forks, usa * corresponding author’s e-mail: onma0105@gmail.com introduction background on the prevalence of traumatic brain injury (tbi), substance abuse, and mental health disorders tbi poses a significant public health concern, particularly among incarcerated women, who are reported to experience higher rates of tbi compared to their male counterparts. each year, approximately 1.5 million americans sustain a tbi, with women disproportionately affected by violence-related head injuries, often resulting from intimate partner violence (haag et al., 2022), as represented in figure 1. the consequences of tbi extend beyond physical injuries, significantly impacting cognitive and emotional functioning. in addition to tbi, substance abuse prevalence within this demographic is alarmingly high. over 20% of noninstitutionalized adults with a history of substance use disorder have experienced at least one tbi (adams & corrigan, 2019). this relationship between tbi and substance abuse creates a vicious cycle, where individuals often resort to substance use as a maladaptive coping mechanism to manage the symptoms associated with their injuries. furthermore, individuals with co-occurring tbi and mental health disorders face unique challenges that complicate their recovery. the neurological effects of tbi can exacerbate impulsive behaviors and hinder cognitive functioning, increasing vulnerability to substance misuse and mental health issues (ayoola, et al., 2024). understanding these interconnected issues is crucial for developing effective interventions tailored to this vulnerable population, ensuring that rehabilitation programs address the complexities of tbi, substance abuse, and mental health in a holistic manner. by doing so, we can better support the recovery and reintegration of incarcerated women facing these intertwined challenges. figure 1 depicts a young woman lying in a hospital bed with visible medical equipment, including a breathing tube and monitoring devices, indicating a severe medical condition likely resulting from a tbi. this scenario highlights the significant public health concern posed by tbi, especially among incarcerated women, who tend to experience higher rates of such injuries compared to men. each year, approximately 1.5 million americans sustain a tbi, with a notable proportion of these injuries linked to violence, particularly intimate partner violence, which disproportionately affects women. the presence of invasive medical equipment suggests serious complications arising from the injury, which can extend beyond physical damage to significantly impair cognitive and emotional functioning. the cyclical relationship between tbi and substance abuse is also critical; individuals often resort to substances as a maladaptive coping mechanism to manage the distressing symptoms of their injuries, exacerbating both mental pa ge 16 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 159-174, 2024 health and substance use issues (balogun, et al., 2024). this reinforces the necessity for holistic interventions that address the interconnected challenges of tbi, substance abuse, and mental health disorders, particularly for vulnerable populations like incarcerated women. understanding and supporting their complex recovery needs is essential for improving their rehabilitation outcomes and successful reintegration into society. figure 1: picture of a female patient explaining the impact of traumatic brain injury (tbi) on individuals. (alison, r. 2023) overview of intergenerational trauma and its significance in this context intergenerational trauma refers to the psychological and emotional effects of trauma that one generation experiences and subsequently transmits to future generations, significantly impacting their mental health and behavior. this phenomenon is particularly salient for incarcerated women, who often bear the weight of trauma not only from their own life experiences but also from the traumatic histories of their families (owolabi, et al., 2024). research has demonstrated that adverse childhood experiences, such as abuse, neglect, and systemic oppression, can have profound and lasting effects, leading to increased vulnerability to mental health issues, including anxiety, depression, and substance abuse in subsequent generations (menzies, 2010). in the context of women in prison, intergenerational trauma complicates their mental health challenges and can manifest in maladaptive coping strategies, such as substance use. this cycle of trauma not only perpetuates the mental health issues faced by these women but also contributes to ongoing cycles of incarceration (dyer & corrigan, 2021). the significance of understanding intergenerational trauma lies in its implications for intervention. by recognizing the multifaceted nature of trauma that spans generations, it becomes possible to develop targeted interventions that address both individual and familial histories of trauma (bashiru, et al., 2024). such approaches can foster resilience and recovery, breaking the cycle of trauma and incarceration, and promoting better mental health outcomes for incarcerated women and their families. this holistic understanding is crucial for designing effective rehabilitation programs that support healing at both the individual and generational levels. objectives the primary objective of this paper is to investigate the intricate relationships among tbi, substance abuse, and mental health disorders in incarcerated women, specifically focusing on how intergenerational trauma influences these dynamics. by examining the historical context of trauma and its transmission across generations, this study aims to highlight the compounded effects on mental health and behavioral outcomes in this population as presented in table 1. additionally, the paper seeks to identify effective neuropsychological rehabilitation strategies that address both individual and familial trauma histories, thereby promoting holistic recovery. another key objective is to explore how social and environmental factors contribute to the perpetuation of trauma, substance abuse, and mental health issues, emphasizing the need for tailored interventions that consider the unique challenges faced by incarcerated women. table 1: objectives of the paper objective number objective description significance expected outcomes 1 examine the prevalence of tbi among incarcerated women. understanding the extent of tbi can inform targeted interventions. establish a clear baseline of tbi incidence in this population. pa ge 16 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 159-174, 2024 understanding traumatic brain injury (tbi) definition and types of tbi tbi is defined as a disruption in brain function resulting from an external force, which can include blows, bumps, or jolts to the head, or penetrating injuries caused by an object (voss, et al., 2015) as represented in figure 2. tbis are classified based on their severity into three main categories: mild, moderate, and severe. mild traumatic brain injury (mtbi), commonly referred to as a concussion, typically leads to a brief loss of consciousness or a transient alteration in mental status. symptoms may also include confusion, dizziness, and headaches, often resolving within a short period (thurman & alverson, 2022). moderate tbi is characterized by a loss of consciousness lasting between 30 minutes and 24 hours, often accompanied by neuroimaging findings that indicate structural injury to the brain, such as contusions or haemorrhages. patients may experience prolonged cognitive deficits, including difficulties with memory, attention, and executive function. severe tbi involves a prolonged state of unconsciousness lasting more than 24 hours and is frequently associated with significant neurological deficits, including impaired motor functions and changes in behavior or cognition (igba, et al., 2024). understanding these classifications is essential for developing targeted interventions and rehabilitation strategies tailored to the needs of individuals affected by tbi, particularly in high-prevalence populations such as incarcerated women. effective management of tbi is crucial for improving recovery outcomes and enhancing quality of life. figure 2 illustrates the concept of tbi by visually representing the impact on the brain when an external force causes injury. it highlights that tbi results from various causes, including blows or jolts to the head, as well as penetrating injuries. the diagram shows how the head moves back while the brain moves forward, indicating the motion that can lead to brain injuries, particularly in cases of mild traumatic brain injury (mtbi), commonly known as a concussion. this type of injury typically results in brief loss of consciousness or temporary alteration in mental status, with symptoms like confusion and headaches. the image also serves as a reminder of the different classifications of tbi: mild, moderate, and severe. moderate tbi is characterized by longer loss of consciousness and cognitive deficits, while severe tbi often leads to prolonged unconsciousness and significant neurological impairments. understanding these classifications is essential for developing targeted rehabilitation strategies, particularly for high-risk groups, such as incarcerated women, to enhance their recovery outcomes and quality of life. 2 investigate the relationship between tbi, substance abuse, and mental health disorders. clarifying these interconnections will aid in developing holistic treatment strategies. identification of co-occurring disorders for tailored treatment. 3 analyze the impact of intergenerational trauma on mental health outcomes. recognizing the effects of trauma across generations can enhance therapeutic approaches. insights into familial patterns of trauma affecting rehabilitation. 4 evaluate the effectiveness of neuropsychological rehabilitation programs. understanding the efficacy of these programs can guide policy changes. improved treatment frameworks leading to reduced recidivism rates. figure 2: picture showing the concept of understanding traumatic brain injury (tbi). (ravi, p. 2023) prevalence and causes of tbi in incarcerated populations tbi is alarmingly prevalent among incarcerated populations, with estimates suggesting that between 25% and 87% of inmates report a history of tbi. this prevalence is significantly higher than the 8.5% observed in the general population (hughes, et al., 2015). the causes of tbi within correctional settings are multifaceted pa ge 16 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 159-174, 2024 and often linked to the environments and lifestyles that lead to incarceration. common causes include violent encounters, such as physical assaults or fights, which are frequent in prison settings, as well as falls and accidents that may occur during the chaotic circumstances of incarceration. substance abuse is another significant factor contributing to the high rates of tbi among incarcerated individuals, with many engaging in risky behaviors while under the influence. these risky behaviors not only increase the likelihood of sustaining a tbi but also impair cognitive function and decision-making abilities (moore, et al., 2014). moreover, individuals with a history of tbi are more prone to engage in impulsive actions, further elevating their risk for incarceration (igba, et al., 2024). understanding the prevalence and underlying causes of tbi in this context is crucial for developing effective interventions and support systems tailored to the unique needs of incarcerated individuals, ultimately improving their rehabilitation and long-term outcomes. effects of tbi on cognitive and emotional functioning tbi significantly impacts cognitive and emotional functioning, leading to various deficits that complicate rehabilitation and daily life for affected individuals. cognitive impairments associated with tbi are diverse, often including difficulties with attention, memory, problem-solving, and executive functioning. these deficits can severely hinder an individual’s ability to perform everyday tasks, such as managing finances, maintaining employment, or even engaging in social interactions (mcgarry & thangavel, 2021) as represented in figure 3. emotional disturbances are equally prevalent among individuals with tbi. many reports experiencing heightened irritability, anxiety, depression, and mood swings as direct consequences of their injuries (konrad, et al., 2011). these emotional challenges can exacerbate cognitive deficits, creating a complex interplay that further impairs overall functioning. for instance, difficulties with emotional regulation can lead to impulsive behavior, further complicating social relationships and rehabilitation efforts. the cognitive and emotional sequelae of tbi can pose substantial barriers to successful reintegration into society, particularly in incarcerated populations, where such challenges may remain unrecognized or inadequately addressed (enyejo, et al., 2024). understanding these effects is crucial for developing effective interventions that cater to the unique needs of individuals with tbi, especially within correctional settings. tailored rehabilitation programs that focus on both cognitive and emotional recovery are essential for promoting the wellbeing and reintegration of these individuals into their communities. substance abuse among incarcerated women overview of substance abuse trends in incarcerated women substance abuse represents a critical issue among incarcerated women, significantly contributing to their overrepresentation in the criminal justice system. research shows that women are more likely than men to be incarcerated for drug-related offenses, reflecting the pervasive nature of substance use disorders (suds) in this population. notably, over 60% of female inmates report substance use issues prior to their incarceration (bendlin & moore, 2021) as presented in table 2. the prevalence of suds among incarcerated women is alarmingly high, with studies indicating that approximately 82% meet lifetime criteria for drug or alcohol abuse or dependence (mcconnell, 2017). the pathways leading to incarceration for these women often involve complex histories marked by trauma, mental health challenges, and socio-economic factors that intersect with substance use, further complicating their rehabilitation needs (enyejo, et al., 2024). many incarcerated women have faced adverse childhood experiences, including physical and sexual abuse, which can predispose them to both substance use and criminal behavior. given these trends, it is essential to develop targeted interventions and support systems within correctional facilities that address the unique challenges faced by women struggling with substance abuse. such initiatives should include comprehensive treatment programs that integrate mental health services, traumainformed care, and skill-building opportunities to promote recovery and ultimately reduce recidivism. by addressing the root causes of substance abuse in this population, rehabilitation efforts can be more effective, leading to improved outcomes for incarcerated women and their communities. figure 3 visually represents the multifaceted impacts of tbi on individuals’ cognitive and emotional health. at the center, it highlights two primary categories: cognitive impairments and emotional disturbances. under cognitive impairments, the diagram elaborates on specific challenges, including difficulties with attention, memory issues, problem-solving challenges, and executive functioning deficits, all of which hinder daily tasks and overall functioning. in parallel, the emotional disturbances branch outlines issues such as heightened irritability, anxiety, depression, and mood swings, illustrating the emotional toll of tbi. the diagram further emphasizes the interplay between these cognitive and emotional challenges, indicating how cognitive deficits can exacerbate emotional issues, leading to impulsive behaviors and complicating social relationships. lastly, it addresses the barriers to reintegration into society, showcasing the comprehensive effects of tbi that necessitate integrated and tailored rehabilitation approaches to support affected individuals effectively. pa ge 16 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 159-174, 2024 figure 3: a diagram of effects of tbi on cognitive and emotional functioning table 2: overview of substance abuse trends in incarcerated women category statistics implications recommendations prevalence of substance abuse over 60% of female inmates report substance use issues prior to incarceration. high prevalence indicates a need for targeted interventions. implement comprehensive substance abuse treatment programs. substance use disorders (suds) approximately 82% of incarcerated women meet lifetime criteria for suds. co-occurring mental health challenges complicate recovery. develop integrated treatment plans addressing both suds and mental health. pathways to incarceration many women have histories of trauma and mental health challenges leading to substance use. substance abuse is often a maladaptive coping mechanism. foster trauma-informed care and support systems in correctional facilities. correlation between tbi and substance abuse the correlation between tbi and substance abuse is well established, supported by substantial evidence indicating that individuals who have experienced a tbi are at a significantly higher risk of developing substance use disorders (suds). following a tbi, individuals often exhibit behavioral changes such as impulsivity and disinhibition, which can lead to an increased likelihood of engaging in substance misuse (graham, & cardon, 2008). studies have shown that more than half of individuals treated for tbi report substance use at the time of their injury, and many continue to misuse substances in the aftermath, exacerbating existing cognitive and emotional challenges (graham, & cardon, 2008). this relationship is complex, as the neurological effects of tbi can impair decision-making abilities and emotional regulation, further heightening the risk of substance use as individuals attempt to cope with the psychological aftermath of their injuries. the interplay between tbi and substance abuse emphasizes the necessity for comprehensive assessments and tailored interventions that address both conditions simultaneously. a dual approach is essential for improving treatment outcomes and promoting recovery among individuals affected by tbi and substance misuse (enyejo, et al., 2024). by recognizing and addressing the interconnected nature of these challenges, healthcare providers can enhance the effectiveness of rehabilitation efforts, ultimately pa ge 16 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 159-174, 2024 supporting better long-term outcomes for affected individuals. impact of substance abuse on mental health substance abuse has profound negative effects on mental health, particularly among incarcerated women who frequently experience co-occurring disorders. research indicates that women with substance use disorders (suds) often exhibit symptoms of anxiety, depression, and other mental health issues, which can exacerbate existing conditions (graham, & cardon, 2008) as represented in figure 4. this vulnerability is further compounded by the self-medication hypothesis, which suggests that individuals may turn to substances as a means to alleviate psychological distress. however, this coping strategy can lead to a cycle of dependency that ultimately worsens mental health outcomes. additionally, the use of substances can trigger or intensify psychiatric symptoms, including psychosis and severe mood swings, complicating treatment efforts (graham, & cardon, 2008). for incarcerated women, the interplay between substance abuse and mental health issues is particularly concerning, as it not only affects their overall well-being but also complicates rehabilitation efforts and increases the likelihood of recidivism. integrated treatment approaches that address both substance use and mental health simultaneously are essential, as failing to consider these interconnected issues may hinder recovery. understanding these dynamics is critical for developing effective interventions tailored to the unique needs of this population, ensuring that treatment plans comprehensively address both substance abuse and underlying mental health disorders. table 3: common mental health disorders observed in incarcerated women mental health disorder prevalence symptoms impact on rehabilitation post-traumatic stress disorder (ptsd) high prevalence among incarcerated women, often due to histories of trauma. flashbacks, severe anxiety, emotional numbness. can hinder participation in rehabilitation programs. depression common among this population, often linked to trauma and substance abuse. persistent sadness, loss of interest, fatigue. affects motivation and engagement in treatment efforts. anxiety disorders frequently observed, exacerbated by incarceration conditions and trauma. excessive worry, panic attacks, restlessness. can complicate coping strategies and recovery efforts. substance use disorders (suds) a significant issue, with high rates of substance misuse. cravings, withdrawal symptoms, compulsive use. creates barriers to recovery and may lead to relapse. mental health disorders in incarcerated women common mental health disorders observed in this population incarcerated women frequently experience a range of mental health disorders, with significantly higher prevalence rates compared to their male counterparts and the general population. notably, studies indicate that approximately 66% of women in prison report having a history of mental health problems, including serious mental illness (smi), ptsd, and substance use disorders (sud) (green et al., 2005; walmsley, 2015) as presented in table 3. common mental health disorders observed in this population include major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, and bipolar disorder. the high rates of ptsd among incarcerated women, often stemming from histories of trauma and abuse, further complicate their mental health landscape (idoko, et al., 2024). additionally, many women exhibit symptoms of multiple comorbid disorders, necessitating integrated treatment approaches that address their unique psychological and social needs, particularly in the context of their incarceration and subsequent rehabilitation (okeke, et al., 2024). understanding these mental health challenges is crucial for developing effective interventions tailored to this vulnerable population. figure 4 illustrates the multifaceted effects that substance abuse has on mental health, highlighting the complex interplay between various negative outcomes and cooccurring disorders. at the center, it emphasizes the overarching theme of negative effects stemming from substance abuse, which branches into several critical areas, including increased anxiety, depression, mood swings, and impaired coping mechanisms. each of these aspects underscores how substance abuse can exacerbate mental health issues, leading to heightened emotional instability and diminished resilience. the diagram also features a section on co-occurring disorders, detailing how substance abuse can exacerbate pre-existing mental health conditions and contribute to the development of new disorders. additionally, it illustrates the vicious cycle that emerges from the interplay between substance abuse and mental health challenges, indicating how these factors reinforce one another and complicate the recovery process. this comprehensive overview highlights the urgent need for integrated treatment approaches that address both substance use and mental health simultaneously to improve overall outcomes for affected individuals. pa ge 16 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 159-174, 2024 figure 4: a diagram of impact of substance abuse on mental health the relationship between tbi, substance abuse, and mental health disorders the relationship between tbi, substance abuse, and mental health disorders is complex and multifaceted, necessitating a comprehensive understanding of how these elements interact. individuals who sustain a tbi are at an increased risk for developing substance use disorders, with studies indicating that more than 50% of tbi patients report substance use at the time of injury (allen, et al., 2016) as represented in figure 5. this high prevalence suggests a significant overlap between these conditions, with individuals often using substances as a coping mechanism for the psychological distress associated with tbi. the neurological impairments resulting from tbi can exacerbate pre-existing mental health issues, leading to a higher prevalence of conditions such as anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (ptsd) (allen, et al., 2016). the cognitive deficits associated with tbi, including impaired judgment and emotional regulation, further complicate the treatment landscape. conversely, substance abuse can hinder cognitive recovery and worsen psychiatric symptoms, creating a vicious cycle that complicates rehabilitation efforts. this interplay underscores the necessity for integrated treatment approaches that address tbi, substance use, and mental health simultaneously. such holistic strategies are particularly crucial for populations with high incidence rates of these issues, such as incarcerated women (ijiga, et al., 2024). by focusing on the interconnectedness of these conditions, effective interventions can be developed to improve outcomes and facilitate recovery for affected individuals, ultimately enhancing their quality of life and chances of successful reintegration into society. pa ge 16 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 159-174, 2024 figure 5: picture of a person struggling with the heavy burden of substance abuse connecting to mental health. (saad, 2023). figure 5 depicts a person in distress, hunched over and holding their head in their hands, surrounded by various drug paraphernalia laid out on a reflective surface. this powerful visual represents the complex relationship between tbi, substance abuse, and mental health disorders. individuals who sustain a tbi are at an increased risk of developing substance use disorders, with studies indicating that a significant number of tbi patients report substance use at the time of injury. this prevalence reflects how many individuals turn to substances as a coping mechanism to manage the psychological distress stemming from their injuries. the image further symbolizes the dual challenges faced by those with tbi, as the neurological impairments can exacerbate preexisting mental health conditions like anxiety, depression, and ptsd. cognitive deficits resulting from tbi, such as impaired judgment and emotional regulation, complicate treatment efforts. additionally, substance abuse can hinder cognitive recovery, creating a vicious cycle that poses significant barriers to rehabilitation. this interplay highlights the necessity for integrated treatment approaches that concurrently address tbi, substance use, and mental health, especially in populations with high incidence rates, such as incarcerated women. by focusing on the interconnectedness of these conditions, effective interventions can be designed to improve outcomes, facilitate recovery, and enhance overall quality of life for affected individuals. the role of trauma in exacerbating mental health issues trauma plays a critical role in exacerbating mental health issues, particularly among incarcerated women, who frequently endure high levels of adverse life events. research indicates that traumatic experiences, such as physical and sexual abuse, are prevalent in the histories of these women, leading to a significant burden of psychological distress (green et al., 2005) as represented in figure 6. the effects of trauma can manifest in various mental health disorders, including ptsd, depression, and anxiety. for many women, trauma can lead to dysregulation of emotional responses, resulting in heightened vulnerability to developing these mental health conditions. moreover, the cumulative impact of multiple traumas can create a cascade of mental health challenges, where individuals struggle with feelings of shame, guilt, and isolation, further compounding their distress. the interconnectedness of these experiences underscores the need for trauma-informed care that recognizes the unique circumstances faced by incarcerated women (ijiga, et al., 2024). understanding the role of trauma in shaping mental health outcomes is essential for developing effective treatment and rehabilitation strategies tailored to this population. interventions that specifically address trauma and its effects can foster resilience and promote recovery, ultimately contributing to better mental health and well-being among incarcerated women as they navigate the complexities of their lives. figure 6 depicts a group of refugees walking along a train track, carrying their belongings, with an emphasis on the collective experience of migration. this visual representation aligns closely with the theme of trauma and its significant role in exacerbating mental health issues, particularly among vulnerable populations. the refugee experience is often multifaceted, involving various stages of trauma and stress that can lead to considerable psychological distress. for many individuals, including those who may eventually become incarcerated women, the traumatic experiences encountered during migration—such as violence, loss of family, and the uncertainty of their future—can have profound mental pa ge 16 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 159-174, 2024 health implications. these experiences can manifest in various disorders, including ptsd, anxiety, and depression. the emotional toll of such trauma often results in dysregulation of emotional responses, leaving individuals vulnerable to developing further mental health conditions. figure 6: a picture showing the profound trauma of the refugee experience in connection with mental health. (carlos, f. m. 2012) table 4: definition of intergenerational trauma and its relevance to incarcerated women category definition women implications intergenerational trauma the transmission of the effects of trauma across generations. many incarcerated women have trauma histories affecting their mental health and their children’s well-being. increases vulnerability to mental health disorders and criminal behavior. sources of trauma includes violence, abuse, and neglect experienced by parents. this trauma influences coping mechanisms, often leading to maladaptive strategies like substance abuse. highlights the need for trauma-informed care in rehabilitation. impact on families trauma can create cycles of dysfunction and distress. affects not only the incarcerated women but also their children and families. emphasizes the importance of addressing familial trauma in intervention strategies. intergenerational trauma and its implications. definition of intergenerational trauma and its relevance to incarcerated women intergenerational trauma refers to the transmission of the psychological and emotional consequences of traumatic experiences across generations, where the effects of trauma experienced by one generation are passed down to their children (hancock et al., 2013) as presented in table 4. this phenomenon is particularly significant for incarcerated women, many of whom carry the weight of their own trauma histories, which not only affect their mental health but also the well-being of their children (lünnemann, et al., 2019). research indicates that women in prison often come from backgrounds characterized by violence, abuse, and neglect, contributing to cycles of trauma that perpetuate psychological distress and maladaptive coping mechanisms, such as substance abuse. the effects of intergenerational trauma can manifest in various ways, leading to increased vulnerability to mental health disorders, such as depression and anxiety, as well as engagement in criminal behavior. these dynamics underscore the urgent need for trauma-informed care that addresses both individual experiences and familial histories. recognizing the interconnectedness of trauma across generations is crucial for developing effective interventions aimed at breaking the cycle of trauma and promoting healing (ijiga, et al., 2024). by providing targeted support that encompasses the complexities of intergenerational trauma, we can better assist incarcerated women in their recovery journeys and contribute to healthier family dynamics. understanding this relevance is vital for fostering resilience and improving overall outcomes for this vulnerable population. the cycle of trauma and its impact on families and communities the cycle of trauma has profound implications for families and communities, perpetuating patterns of dysfunction and distress across generations. incarcerated women frequently carry histories of trauma that not only pa ge 16 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 159-174, 2024 affect their own mental health but also have significant repercussions for their children and broader family systems (bendlin & moore, 2021). research indicates that the trauma experienced by mothers can manifest in various behavioral and emotional challenges in their children, leading to increased risks of mental health issues, such as anxiety and depression, as well as a higher likelihood of engaging in criminal behavior in subsequent generations (hancock et al., 2013). this intergenerational transmission of trauma creates a cycle wherein families become trapped in patterns of abuse, neglect, and incarceration. the psychological burden faced by mothers can hinder their ability to provide stable and supportive environments, thereby affecting their children’s developmental outcomes (hancock et al., 2013). moreover, the communal effects of trauma can severely undermine social cohesion and stability, resulting in increased vulnerability to socio-economic challenges and perpetuating systemic inequalities. the ramifications of this cycle extend beyond individual families, impacting entire communities and contributing to broader societal issues (ijiga, et al., 2024). addressing the cycle of trauma within families and communities is critical for promoting healing and resilience, particularly in populations at high risk for trauma exposure. implementing trauma-informed care and support systems can help break these cycles, fostering recovery and improving the overall well-being of affected individuals and their families (aboi, 2024). by prioritizing interventions that address the roots of trauma, communities can work towards healing and greater social stability. case studies or examples illustrating intergenerational trauma intergenerational trauma often manifests in communities affected by historical events, with profound implications for individuals and families. a prominent example is the japanese american experience during world war ii, where families who were forcibly relocated to internment camps experienced significant psychological distress that persisted across generations (nagata, 2019) as presented in table 5. research has shown that children of interned individuals often grapple with anxiety, depression, and a strong sense of identity conflict, reflecting the lasting effects of their parents’ trauma (franco, 2022). additionally, native american populations have faced historical traumas through colonization, resulting in cyclical patterns of trauma that affect familial and community dynamics, leading to increased rates of substance abuse, mental health disorders, and violence within these communities (franco, 2022). these examples underscore the critical need for trauma-informed care and interventions that acknowledge and address the pervasive impact of intergenerational trauma on mental health and well-being. table 5: case studies illustrating intergenerational trauma case study/ example background impact on mental health lessons learned example 1: refugee families refugee women and their children often carry trauma from war and displacement. increased risk of ptsd, anxiety, and depression among both mothers and children. highlights the need for culturally sensitive traumainformed care. example 2: historical trauma in indigenous communities indigenous women experience intergenerational trauma from colonization and systemic oppression. elevated levels of substance abuse and mental health disorders due to unresolved historical trauma. emphasizes the importance of community healing initiatives and culturally relevant interventions. example 3: families of incarcerated individuals children of incarcerated mothers often face instability and trauma, impacting their development. higher likelihood of anxiety, depression, and behavioral issues in children. stresses the need for support systems that address familial trauma to break the cycle. example 4: domestic violence survivors women who have experienced domestic violence often pass on trauma to their children. children may develop anxiety and attachment issues, reflecting their mothers' struggles. shows the importance of intervention programs that support both mothers and children to promote healing. neuropsychological rehabilitation approaches. overview of neuropsychological rehabilitation and its importance for incarcerated women neuropsychological rehabilitation encompasses tailored interventions aimed at addressing cognitive and emotional deficits resulting from brain injuries, particularly tbi. this form of rehabilitation is essential for incarcerated women, who often confront unique challenges stemming from mental health issues, substance use disorders, and histories of trauma. research indicates that a significant number of women in prison have encountered severe traumatic events, which can lead to cognitive impairments and emotional dysregulation (karlsson & zielinski, 2018) as represented in figure 7. pa ge 16 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 159-174, 2024 the primary objectives of neuropsychological rehabilitation include enhancing cognitive functioning, improving emotional regulation, and facilitating successful reintegration into society through targeted therapies and support systems (chan, et al., 2023). such interventions are designed to mitigate the adverse effects of trauma and tbi, ultimately reducing recidivism rates while promoting better mental health outcomes. the importance of neuropsychological rehabilitation cannot be overstated; it addresses the complex interplay of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral challenges faced by this vulnerable population (mansoor, et al., 2024). by providing comprehensive support that recognizes the multifaceted nature of their experiences, rehabilitation programs can empower incarcerated women to overcome barriers to their recovery and lead more fulfilling lives postincarceration (ijiga, et al., 2024). this holistic approach is crucial for fostering resilience and improving overall wellbeing, enabling these women to break free from the cycles of trauma and criminality that often define their lives. figure 7: a diagram summarizing overview of neuropsychological rehabilitation and its importance for incarcerated women figure 7 visually encapsulates the critical components of neuropsychological rehabilitation and its significance for incarcerated women. at the center, it emphasizes the concept of tailored interventions, branching into specific areas such as cognitive rehabilitation, emotional regulation training, and social skills development. each sub-branch highlights targeted strategies designed to address the unique cognitive and emotional challenges faced by incarcerated women, particularly those with trauma histories. the diagram further underscores the importance of neuropsychological rehabilitation in reducing recidivism, supporting reintegration, and addressing the specific needs of this population. additionally, it outlines the expected outcomes, including improved mental health, better functional capabilities, and enhanced overall quality of life. this comprehensive overview illustrates the necessity of integrated and individualized approaches in rehabilitation programs to foster recovery and resilience among incarcerated women. pa ge 17 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 159-174, 2024 table 6: evidence-based interventions targeting tbi, substance abuse, and mental health disorders intervention type description targeted issues expected outcomes motivational counseling systematic motivational counseling to reduce substance misuse. substance abuse and tbi enhanced motivation to change behaviors and engage in treatment. cognitivebehavioral therapy (cbt) tailored cbt for trauma and substance use disorders. anxiety, depression, and maladaptive coping reduction in psychiatric symptoms and improved coping strategies. peer support programs programs focusing on shared experiences related to tbi and substance use. emotional support and resilience increased sense of community and enhanced recovery. integrated treatment approaches combining mental health care, substance abuse rehabilitation, and neuropsychological support. co-occurring disorders holistic improvement in mental health and substance use outcomes. evidence-based interventions targeting tbi, substance abuse, and mental health disorders evidence-based interventions that address the complexities of tbi, substance abuse, and mental health disorders are crucial for promoting recovery and improving outcomes, especially among incarcerated women. integrated treatment approaches have demonstrated effectiveness in addressing co-occurring conditions. for example, systematic motivational counselling has proven beneficial in reducing substance misuse among individuals with tbi (cox et al., 2003) as presented in table 6. this approach empowers individuals by enhancing their motivation to change behaviors, thereby facilitating better engagement with treatment. cognitive-behavioral therapies (cbt) tailored for trauma and substance use disorders have also shown efficacy in alleviating symptoms of anxiety and depression while promoting healthier coping mechanisms (ebenibo, et al., 2024). these therapies address maladaptive thoughts and behaviors, equipping individuals with strategies to manage their emotional responses more effectively. furthermore, peer support programs that emphasize shared experiences related to tbi and substance use have been effective in fostering resilience and recovery (gonzaga, et al., 2024). these programs create supportive environments where individuals can share their challenges and successes, promoting a sense of community and belonging. collectively, these evidence-based interventions underscore the importance of a comprehensive approach that takes into account the unique challenges faced by individuals with tbi, mental health disorders, and substance abuse issues (awotiwon, et al., 2024). such integrated strategies are essential for facilitating successful rehabilitation and improving the overall quality of life for this vulnerable population. challenges and barriers to implementing rehabilitation programs in correctional facilities implementing rehabilitation programs in correctional facilities encounters significant challenges that hinder their overall effectiveness. one of the primary barriers is the limited availability of resources, including both funding and trained staff, which restricts the development and sustainability of comprehensive rehabilitation initiatives (taxman, 2018). many correctional institutions operate under tight budgets, leading to inadequate access to essential services such as mental health care, vocational training, and substance abuse treatment programs (ijiga, et al., 2024). this lack of resources creates a significant gap in the support needed for incarcerated individuals seeking rehabilitation. additionally, the prevailing punitive culture within many correctional settings often undermines rehabilitation efforts. in these environments, security concerns may take precedence over therapeutic interventions, resulting in a lack of adequate support for inmates’ psychological and emotional needs (taxman, 2018). this focus on punishment rather than rehabilitation can stifle the potential for meaningful change among inmates. the stigma associated with mental health and substance use disorders also poses a barrier to engaging individuals in rehabilitation programs. many incarcerated women may feel embarrassed or ashamed to seek help, which can deter them from participating in available programs (ijiga, et al., 2024). these factors collectively contribute to the challenges in creating effective rehabilitation environments that promote successful re-entry into society. addressing these barriers is critical for improving rehabilitation outcomes and facilitating the reintegration of individuals into their communities after incarceration. by focusing on enhancing resources, shifting cultural perceptions, and reducing stigma, correctional facilities can better support the rehabilitation of their populations. conclusion this paper highlights the intricate relationships among tbi, substance abuse, and mental health disorders in incarcerated women. it reveals that a significant proportion of this population suffers from high rates of tbi, frequently associated with histories of violence and trauma. these experiences not only affect their pa ge 17 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 159-174, 2024 physical health but also contribute to psychological distress, often leading to substance abuse as a common maladaptive coping mechanism. the reliance on substances exacerbates existing mental health issues, including depression and anxiety, creating a cycle that is difficult to break. moreover, the concept of intergenerational trauma emerges as a critical factor, illustrating how the effects of trauma can extend beyond individuals to impact families and communities. this perpetuation of trauma underscores the need for comprehensive interventions that address both individual and familial histories of trauma. the findings also emphasize the importance of effective neuropsychological rehabilitation programs tailored to the specific needs of incarcerated women. however, significant barriers remain, including limited resources and the prevailing punitive culture within correctional facilities that often prioritizes security over rehabilitation. these obstacles hinder the implementation of effective treatment strategies. overall, the paper stresses the urgent need for integrated, trauma-informed interventions designed to address the unique challenges faced by incarcerated women. by focusing on their specific needs, these interventions can facilitate successful re-entry into society, ultimately improving their quality of life and reducing recidivism rates. recommendations to enhance rehabilitation for incarcerated women, several key policy and practice recommendations arise from the findings of this study. first and foremost, correctional facilities should implement integrated, trauma-informed care models that specifically address the unique needs of women. this holistic approach should focus on the interplay between tbi, substance abuse, and mental health disorders, ensuring that all aspects of an individual’s well-being are considered during treatment. increased funding and resources are essential for developing comprehensive rehabilitation programs that include mental health services, vocational training, and substance abuse treatment. these programs should be designed to empower women, providing them with the tools and skills necessary for successful reintegration into society. additionally, training for correctional staff should emphasize the importance of understanding trauma and its effects on behavior, fostering a supportive environment that promotes recovery. creating an environment where staff are equipped to recognize and address the psychological needs of inmates can significantly improve treatment outcomes. establishing partnerships with community organizations can facilitate the provision of post-release support, ensuring continuity of care as individuals transition back into society. such collaborations can also help in building a supportive network for formerly incarcerated women. finally, advocating for legislative reforms is crucial to eliminate barriers to accessing rehabilitation services. promoting alternatives to incarceration for individuals with complex needs can further enhance successful reintegration efforts. by focusing on these recommendations, correctional facilities can create a more effective rehabilitation system that addresses the multifaceted challenges faced by incarcerated women. future research directions in addressing the intersection of tbi, substance abuse, and mental health in this population future research should concentrate on several pivotal areas to deepen the understanding of the intersection between tbi, substance abuse, and mental health disorders in incarcerated women. first, longitudinal studies are essential to track the long-term effects of tbi on mental health and substance use, as they can provide valuable insights into the evolving challenges faced by this demographic over time. by following individuals across different stages of their lives, researchers can identify patterns and risk factors that contribute to ongoing issues. additionally, investigations into the effectiveness of integrated treatment programs are crucial. these programs should combine mental health care, substance abuse rehabilitation, and neuropsychological support, specifically tailored to meet the unique needs of women. understanding how these comprehensive approaches can improve outcomes will be vital for informing future interventions. exploring the role of community-based interventions post-incarceration will also be critical for facilitating successful reintegration. research should examine how support systems, resources, and peer networks can enhance recovery and reduce recidivism rates among women transitioning back into society. finally, studies should focus on the systemic barriers affecting the implementation of rehabilitation programs, such as funding limitations and staffing shortages. analyzing these obstacles will provide insights necessary for advocating policy changes aimed at enhancing support for incarcerated women. addressing these research areas will be essential in developing effective strategies to improve the lives of women facing the compounded challenges of tbi, substance abuse, and mental health disorders. references aboi, e. j. 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(2015). world female imprisonment list (3rd edn). world prison brief. https://www.prisonstudies. org pa ge 1 pa ge 14 6 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) understanding the impact of cultural factors on healthcare outcomes: a data-driven comparison of us and nigerian healthcare systems arome bala kacy okeme1*, ojamalia priscilla godwins2, mashak joseph gusen3, terry gbaa4, alice onyeche pam-tok5 victor edet uwe6 volume 2 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v2i1.3393 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: september 07, 2024 accepted: october 01, 2024 published: october 04, 2024 this review explores the critical role cultural factors play in shaping healthcare outcomes, with a comparative focus on the united states and nigerian healthcare systems. cultural competence in healthcare is increasingly recognized as essential for improving patient care and reducing health disparities. this study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of how cultural norms, beliefs, and practices influence healthcare delivery and outcomes in these two distinct contexts. in the united states, the diversity of the population presents unique challenges and opportunities for healthcare providers to deliver culturally competent care. the review examines the impact of multiculturalism and diversity on healthcare outcomes, supported by case studies and data analysis. in contrast, nigeria’s healthcare system is influenced by traditional beliefs and practices, which significantly affect patient behavior and health outcomes. this study delves into the structure and function of the nigerian healthcare system, highlighting the role of cultural factors in healthcare delivery. through a data-driven comparative analysis, the review identifies key similarities and differences in the impact of cultural factors on healthcare outcomes in both countries. it provides insights into successful interventions and programs that have improved cultural competence in healthcare. the findings offer valuable policy implications, suggesting strategies for policymakers and healthcare providers to enhance cultural competence and ultimately improve healthcare outcomes. the review concludes with recommendations for future research, addressing gaps in current knowledge and proposing areas for further investigation. by understanding and addressing the cultural factors that influence healthcare outcomes, this study aims to contribute to the development of more effective, culturally sensitive healthcare systems in both the united states and nigeria. keywords cultural competence, cultural factor, cultural factors, healthcare outcomes, nigerian healthcare system, us healthcare system 1 department of economics, faculty of social sciences, bayero university kano, kano, nigeria 2 department of nutrition, school of public health and health sciences, abuja, university of massachusetts, amherst, usa 3 department of family medicine, jos university teaching hospital, plateau, nigeria 4 department of cardiology, basingstoke and north hampshire hospital, uk 5 department of community medicine, jos university teaching hospital, plateau state, nigeria 6 duke school of medicine, duke university, durham, north carolina, usa * corresponding author’s e-mail: draromeokeme@gmail.com introduction healthcare systems worldwide are influenced significantly by cultural factors, impacting patient outcomes and overall system efficiency. in the united states, the healthcare system is complex and multifaceted, with expenditures accounting for approximately 17.7% of the gross domestic product (gdp) as of 2019, the highest among developed nations (martin et al., 2023). this system is characterized by a diverse population, which necessitates a culturally competent approach to healthcare to address the varied needs of its residents. the us healthcare system comprises public and private sectors, with notable programs like medicare and medicaid providing coverage to specific populations. in contrast, nigeria allocates about 3.6% of its gdp to healthcare, reflecting significant disparities in funding and resource allocation compared to the us (balogun, 2022). the nigerian healthcare system faces challenges such as inadequate infrastructure, a shortage of medical personnel, and cultural beliefs that influence healthcareseeking behaviors (adewuyi et al., 2017). traditional medicine and cultural practices play a crucial role in healthcare delivery, often leading to a reliance on alternative treatments before seeking conventional medical care. the importance of understanding cultural factors in healthcare cannot be overstated. these factors include social norms, language barriers, health beliefs, and practices that influence patient interactions with healthcare providers. in the us, the multicultural population presents unique challenges and opportunities for delivering culturally competent care (betancourt et al., 2016). in nigeria, traditional beliefs and practices significantly impact health outcomes, highlighting the need for culturally tailored interventions. addressing these cultural factors is essential for improving healthcare delivery and patient outcomes in both countries. objectives to understand the impact of cultural factors on healthcare outcomes the primary objective of this study is to explore how cultural factors influence healthcare outcomes in both the united states and nigeria. cultural factors encompass a pa ge 14 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 146-158, 2024 wide range of elements, including social norms, language, health beliefs, and traditional practices. these factors can significantly affect patient behavior, health-seeking practices, and the overall effectiveness of healthcare delivery. by examining these cultural influences, this study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of their role in shaping health outcomes. for instance, in the united states, cultural diversity and multiculturalism present unique challenges for healthcare providers in delivering culturally competent care (betancourt et al., 2016). in nigeria, traditional beliefs and practices play a critical role in healthcare delivery, often leading to delays in seeking conventional medical care (adewuyi et al., 2017). understanding these cultural dynamics is essential for developing targeted interventions and policies that can improve healthcare outcomes in both contexts. to compare and contrast these impacts in the us and nigerian healthcare systems a secondary objective is to conduct a comparative analysis of the cultural factors affecting healthcare outcomes in the united states and nigeria. this comparison will highlight both similarities and differences in how cultural influences manifest in these two distinct healthcare systems. by analyzing data from both countries, this study aims to identify best practices and effective strategies for addressing cultural barriers in healthcare. for example, the united states, with its significant investment in healthcare (17.7% of gdp), has developed various approaches to cultural competence, which can provide valuable insights for nigeria, where healthcare expenditure is considerably lower (3.6% of gdp) (martin et al., 2023). the findings from this comparative analysis will offer actionable recommendations for policymakers and healthcare providers in both countries, promoting more effective and culturally sensitive healthcare delivery. methodology description of data sources and analysis methods this study employs a mixed-methods approach, utilizing both quantitative and qualitative data to comprehensively analyze the impact of cultural factors on healthcare outcomes in the united states and nigeria. quantitative data sources include national health expenditure reports, demographic health surveys, and health outcome statistics. for instance, martin et al., 2023 provide extensive data on the us healthcare system, which accounts for 17.7% of the gdp. similarly, the balogun (2022) offers detailed reports on nigeria’s healthcare expenditure, which stands at 3.6% of the gdp. qualitative data will be gathered through interviews and case studies focusing on patient experiences and healthcare provider perspectives in both countries (betancourt et al., 2016). the data analysis will involve statistical techniques to identify correlations between cultural factors and healthcare outcomes, as well as thematic analysis to extract key themes from qualitative data. overview of comparative framework the comparative framework of this study is designed to systematically assess the cultural influences on healthcare outcomes in the us and nigerian healthcare systems. the analysis will begin with a detailed examination of the structure and function of each healthcare system, followed by an evaluation of how cultural factors such as social norms, language, and traditional health beliefs affect healthcare delivery. in the united states, the focus will be on the challenges posed by cultural diversity and the effectiveness of culturally competent care initiatives (betancourt et al., 2016). in nigeria, the analysis will highlight the role of traditional beliefs and practices in shaping health-seeking behaviors and outcomes (adewuyi et al., 2017). comparative metrics will include health expenditure as a percentage of gdp, patient satisfaction scores, and health outcome indicators such as maternal mortality rates and life expectancy. by comparing these metrics, the study aims to identify best practices and areas for improvement in both healthcare systems. cultural factors influencing healthcare outcomes definition and scope of cultural factors social norms and values social norms and values play a crucial role in shaping healthcare outcomes. in the united states, cultural diversity is extensive, with over 40 million immigrants making up about 13.7% of the total population (altheimer et al., 2021). this diversity necessitates healthcare providers to understand and respect various cultural norms and values to deliver effective care. for example, certain cultural groups may prioritize holistic and alternative medicine over conventional medical treatments, influencing their healthcare-seeking behaviors and outcomes (betancourt et al., 2016). in nigeria, social norms are deeply rooted in traditional beliefs and practices. approximately 70% of the population relies on traditional medicine for their primary healthcare needs (barnes, 2022). these practices include the use of herbal remedies and spiritual healing, which can affect patient engagement with the formal healthcare system (adewuyi et al., 2017). understanding these social norms is essential for healthcare providers to offer culturally sensitive care and improve patient outcomes. figure 1 summarizes the cultural factors in healthcare by highlighting the role of social norms and values in the united states and nigeria. in the united states, cultural diversity is significant, with 13.7% of the population being immigrants. this diversity necessitates an understanding of various cultural norms, as certain groups may prefer holistic and alternative medicine, impacting their healthcare-seeking behaviors. in nigeria, social norms are deeply rooted in traditional beliefs, with about 70% of the population relying on traditional medicine, including herbal remedies and spiritual healing. these practices affect patient engagement with the formal healthcare system, underscoring the importance of culturally sensitive care for improved outcomes. pa ge 14 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 146-158, 2024 language and communication language barriers significantly impact healthcare delivery and patient outcomes. in the united states, more than 350 languages are spoken, with 22% of the population speaking a language other than english at home (altheimer et al., 2021). effective communication is vital for accurate diagnosis, treatment adherence, and patient satisfaction. language barriers can lead to misunderstandings, misdiagnoses, and reduced patient compliance with medical advice (betancourt et al., 2016). in nigeria, over 500 indigenous languages are spoken, with three major languages (hausa, yoruba, and igbo) dominating (pinxteren, 2022). the multilingual nature of the country poses significant challenges for healthcare providers, particularly in rural areas where local dialects prevail. effective communication strategies, including the use of interpreters and culturally appropriate health education materials, are crucial for improving healthcare outcomes (adewuyi et al., 2017). figure 1: impact of social norms and values on healthcare practices in the united states and nigeria figure 2: language and communication challenges in healthcare delivery figure 2 illustrates the impact of language and communication on healthcare delivery in the united states and nigeria. for the united states, it highlights that over 350 languages are spoken, with 22% of the population speaking a non-english language at home, leading to challenges in accurate diagnosis, treatment adherence, and patient satisfaction due to language barriers. in nigeria, over 500 indigenous languages are spoken, with three major languages (hausa, yoruba, and igbo, 2021) dominating, posing significant communication challenges, particularly in rural areas. effective communication strategies, such as the use of interpreters and culturally appropriate health education materials, are essential for improving healthcare outcomes in both countries (okeme et al., 2024). health beliefs and practices health beliefs and practices are integral to understanding patient behavior and healthcare outcomes. in the united states, health beliefs vary widely across different cultural groups. for instance, some cultures may view illness as a result of spiritual imbalance or punishment, influencing their acceptance of medical interventions (betancourt et al., 2016). this diversity necessitates a culturally pa ge 14 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 146-158, 2024 competent approach to healthcare, where providers are trained to understand and respect these beliefs while providing appropriate medical care. in nigeria, traditional health beliefs are prevalent, with many people attributing illnesses to supernatural forces or ancestral spirits (adewuyi et al., 2017). these beliefs can lead to delays in seeking formal medical care and preference for traditional healers. integrating traditional and modern medical practices, through respectful collaboration, can enhance healthcare delivery and improve patient outcomes (barnes, 2022). figure 3: influence of health beliefs and practices on healthcare outcomes figure 3 illustrates the influence of health beliefs and practices on healthcare outcomes in the united states and nigeria. in the united states, health beliefs vary widely across different cultural groups, with some viewing illness as a result of spiritual imbalance or punishment, which affects their acceptance of medical interventions. this diversity necessitates culturally competent healthcare. in nigeria, traditional health beliefs are prevalent, with many attributing illnesses to supernatural forces or ancestral spirits, leading to a preference for traditional healers and delays in seeking formal medical care. integrating traditional and modern medical practices through respectful collaboration can enhance healthcare delivery and improve patient outcomes in both countries. cultural competence in healthcare importance of culturally competent care cultural competence in healthcare is essential for improving patient outcomes and reducing health disparities. in the united states, cultural competence has become increasingly important due to the country’s diverse population. as of 2020, approximately 40% of the us population belongs to a racial or ethnic minority group (altheimer et al., 2021). this diversity requires healthcare providers to be skilled in understanding and addressing the unique cultural needs of their patients. culturally competent care has been shown to improve patient satisfaction, increase adherence to treatment plans, and enhance overall health outcomes (betancourt et al., 2016). for example, language services and culturally tailored health education can significantly improve healthcare access and quality for non-english speaking patients. in nigeria, cultural competence is equally crucial due to the country’s rich tapestry of over 250 ethnic groups and more than 500 languages (pinxteren, 2022). healthcare providers must navigate a complex landscape of traditional beliefs and practices, which can significantly impact health-seeking behaviors. training healthcare workers in cultural competence, including understanding traditional health practices and effective communication strategies, is vital for improving patient trust and engagement with the healthcare system (adewuyi et al., 2017). strategies for improving cultural competence improving cultural competence involves a multifaceted approach that includes education, policy changes, and community engagement (godwins et al., 2024). in the united states, one effective strategy is incorporating cultural competence training into medical education and ongoing professional development. studies have shown that healthcare providers who receive such training are better equipped to provide care that meets the cultural needs of their patients (betancourt et al., 2016). additionally, healthcare organizations can implement policies that promote diversity and inclusion, such as hiring bilingual staff and offering interpretation services. in nigeria, enhancing cultural competence can involve integrating traditional and modern healthcare practices. for instance, training programs for healthcare workers can include modules on traditional medicine and its role in the community, allowing for more respectful and effective patient interactions (adewuyi et al., 2017). community health initiatives that involve local leaders and traditional healers can also bridge the gap between conventional and traditional medicine, fostering trust and improving health outcomes (barnes, 2022). moreover, public health campaigns that are culturally tailored can effectively address health issues prevalent in specific communities, ensuring that health messages resonate and are acted upon (okeme et al., 2024). table 1: comparative strategies in the united states and nigeria aspect united states nigeria importance of culturally competent care cultural competence is essential due to the diverse population; 40% of the population belongs to a racial or ethnic minority group (altheimer et al., 2021). culturally competent care improves patient satisfaction, adherence to treatment, and overall health outcomes (betancourt et al., 2016). language services and culturally tailored health education significantly improve access and quality for non-english speaking patients. cultural competence is crucial due to over 250 ethnic groups and more than 500 languages (pinxteren, 2022). healthcare providers must navigate traditional beliefs and practices that impact health-seeking behaviors. training in cultural competence improves patient trust and engagement (adewuyi et al., 2017). pa ge 15 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 146-158, 2024 strategies for improving cultural competence incorporating cultural competence training into medical education and ongoing professional development is effective (betancourt et al., 2016). policies promoting diversity and inclusion, such as hiring bilingual staff and offering interpretation services, are beneficial. enhancing cultural competence involves integrating traditional and modern healthcare practices. training programs for healthcare workers should include modules on traditional medicine and its community role (adewuyi et al., 2017). community health initiatives involving local leaders and traditional healers can bridge gaps, fostering trust and improving outcomes (barnes, 2022). public health campaigns tailored to specific communities are effective. table 1 provides a comparative analysis of the importance and strategies for enhancing cultural competence in healthcare within the united states and nigeria. it highlights how cultural competence is crucial for improving patient outcomes and reducing health disparities in both countries, albeit for different reasons. in the united states, the diverse population necessitates healthcare providers to be adept at addressing varied cultural needs, with strategies like training, policy changes, and the incorporation of language services proving effective. in nigeria, the vast ethnic and linguistic diversity, along with traditional health practices, requires integrating traditional and modern healthcare approaches, training healthcare workers in cultural competence, and involving community leaders and traditional healers. these strategies foster trust, improve patient engagement, and ultimately enhance health outcomes. structure and function overview of the us healthcare system the united states healthcare system is one of the most complex and expensive systems in the world. in 2019, healthcare expenditures in the us amounted to $3.8 trillion, representing 17.7% of the country’s gross domestic product (gdp) (martin et al., 2023). the system is characterized by a mix of public and private funding sources, with private health insurance covering approximately 67% of the population, while government programs like medicare and medicaid provide coverage for about 37% of americans (barnett, 2021). the us healthcare system includes a wide range of providers and facilities, such as hospitals, outpatient clinics, and specialized care centers. hospitals in the us numbered around 6,090 in 2020, with 931,203 staffed beds and 36.2 million admissions annually (zhang et al., 2020). the system is heavily reliant on technology and advanced medical procedures, contributing to high healthcare costs but also to significant advancements in medical care and patient outcomes. key stakeholders and their roles key stakeholders in the us healthcare system include government agencies, private insurers, healthcare providers, and patients. the centers for medicare & medicaid services (cms) is a major player, administering medicare, medicaid, and the children’s health insurance program (chip), which together cover over 100 million people (cms, 2020). private insurance companies also play a significant role, with major insurers like unitedhealth group, anthem, and aetna covering millions of individuals and negotiating with providers to determine service rates. healthcare providers, including physicians, nurses, and allied health professionals, are essential to the system’s operation (okeme et al., 2024). as of 2020, there were approximately 1,062,205 active physicians and 3.1 million registered nurses in the united states (zhang et al., 2020). these professionals work in various settings, from large hospital systems to small private practices, delivering a wide range of services from primary care to specialized treatments. patients are the central stakeholders, whose needs drive the demand for healthcare services. with the aging population, the demand for healthcare services is expected to increase, putting additional pressure on the system to deliver high-quality care efficiently (barnett 2021). efforts to improve patient outcomes and satisfaction are ongoing, with an emphasis on patient-centered care and the integration of health information technology to enhance care coordination and access to services. cultural influences on healthcare outcomes impact of diversity and multiculturalism the cultural diversity of the united states significantly influences healthcare outcomes. with over 40 million immigrants, making up approximately 13.7% of the population, the us is one of the most culturally diverse countries in the world (altheimer et al., 2021). this diversity introduces a wide array of cultural beliefs, practices, and languages into the healthcare system, necessitating culturally competent care to ensure effective healthcare delivery. studies have shown that patients from minority groups often experience disparities in healthcare access and outcomes, partly due to cultural and linguistic barriers (betancourt et al., 2016). language barriers are a significant issue in the us healthcare system, where over 22% of the population speaks a language other than english at home (altheimer et al., 2021). these barriers can lead to miscommunication between patients and healthcare providers, resulting pa ge 15 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 146-158, 2024 in misdiagnoses, medication errors, and lower patient satisfaction. for instance, a study found that spanishspeaking patients who did not receive language services were less likely to receive preventive services compared to english-speaking patients (mullins et al., 2005). cultural beliefs and practices also impact health behaviors and treatment adherence. in some cultures, there is a strong preference for traditional healing practices over conventional medicine, which can delay timely medical intervention and affect health outcomes. for example, some asian american communities may prefer herbal medicine and acupuncture, while some african american communities may rely on spiritual healing practices (betancourt et al., 2016). understanding and respecting these cultural preferences while educating patients about the benefits of conventional medical treatments are essential for improving healthcare outcomes. case studies and data analysis several case studies highlight the impact of cultural factors on healthcare outcomes in the united states. one notable example is the higher prevalence of diabetes among hispanic and african american populations compared to non-hispanic whites. this disparity is attributed to a combination of genetic, socioeconomic, and cultural factors, including dietary habits and health beliefs (martin et al., 2023). culturally tailored interventions, such as diabetes education programs that consider cultural dietary preferences, have been effective in improving health outcomes in these populations. data analysis also reveals that maternal mortality rates are disproportionately higher among african american women, who are three to four times more likely to die from pregnancy-related causes than white women (mitrani, 2009). this disparity is influenced by factors such as implicit bias in healthcare, differences in access to prenatal care, and cultural attitudes towards pregnancy and childbirth (okeme et al., 2024). addressing these issues requires culturally competent care and targeted public health initiatives to reduce these disparities. table 2: the united states healthcare system: structure, challenges, and cultural competence aspect details statistics/examples healthcare expenditure one of the most complex and expensive systems in the world. $3.8 trillion in 2019, 17.7% of gdp (martin et al., 2023). funding sources mix of public and private funding. private insurance covers 67%, medicare and medicaid cover 37% (barnett, 2021). healthcare facilities wide range of providers and facilities, including hospitals, outpatient clinics, and specialized care centers. 6,090 hospitals in 2020, 931,203 staffed beds, 36.2 million admissions annually (zhang et al., 2020). technology and costs heavily reliant on technology and advanced medical procedures. high healthcare costs but significant advancements in medical care and patient outcomes. key stakeholders government agencies, private insurers, healthcare providers, and patients. cms covers over 100 million people, major insurers include unitedhealth group, anthem, and aetna. healthcare providers physicians, nurses, and allied health professionals working in various settings. 1,062,205 active physicians, 3.1 million registered nurses in 2020 (zhang et al., 2020). patient demographics aging population increases the demand for healthcare services. emphasis on patient-centered care and integration of health information technology. cultural diversity significant influence on healthcare outcomes due to diverse population. 40 million immigrants, 13.7% of the population (altheimer et al., 2021). language barriers over 22% of the population speaks a language other than english at home, leading to communication issues. miscommunication, misdiagnoses, medication errors, lower patient satisfaction. cultural beliefs and practices preferences for traditional healing practices over conventional medicine can delay medical intervention. asian american communities may prefer herbal medicine and acupuncture; african american communities may rely on spiritual healing practices (betancourt et al., 2016). impact of cultural factors disparities in health outcomes among different racial and ethnic groups. higher prevalence of diabetes among hispanic and african american populations; higher maternal mortality rates among african american women (martin et al., 2023; mitrani, 2009). strategies for improvement implementing culturally competent care, education programs, and public health initiatives to address health disparities. culturally tailored interventions like diabetes education programs considering cultural dietary preferences (betancourt et al., 2016). providing cultural competence training, involving community leaders, and creating culturally tailored health education. pa ge 15 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 146-158, 2024 table 2 provides a comprehensive overview of the united states healthcare system, highlighting its complexity and high costs, with expenditures reaching $3.8 trillion in 2019, or 17.7% of gdp. it details the mix of public and private funding, with private insurance covering 67% of the population and government programs like medicare and medicaid covering 37%. the system includes a vast array of providers and facilities, such as hospitals, outpatient clinics, and specialized care centers, and relies heavily on advanced medical technology. key stakeholders include government agencies, private insurers, healthcare providers, and patients. the table emphasizes the significant impact of cultural diversity, noting that 13.7% of the population are immigrants, leading to challenges like language barriers and cultural differences in health practices. strategies for improvement focus on culturally competent care, such as training healthcare providers, implementing language services, and tailoring health education to address disparities in healthcare outcomes among minority groups. challenges and solutions barriers to culturally competent care culturally competent care in the united states faces several challenges, including language barriers, implicit biases, and insufficient cultural competence training among healthcare providers. language barriers remain a significant obstacle, as 22% of the us population speaks a language other than english at home, leading to communication difficulties in medical settings (altheimer et al., 2021). these barriers can result in miscommunication, misdiagnoses, and lower quality of care. for instance, a study found that limited english proficiency is associated with a 50% higher chance of not having a usual source of healthcare and a 75% higher chance of not understanding medication instructions (mullins et al., 2005). implicit biases among healthcare providers also contribute to disparities in healthcare outcomes. these biases, often unconscious, can affect clinical decisions and patient interactions. for example, african american patients are less likely to receive pain medication compared to white patients, despite reporting similar levels of pain (ayanian & williams, 2011). addressing these biases through training and awareness programs is essential to ensure equitable care. insufficient training in cultural competence is another barrier. many healthcare providers lack adequate training in understanding and addressing the cultural needs of diverse patient populations. a survey revealed that only 58% of physicians felt adequately prepared to treat patients from different cultural backgrounds (betancourt et al., 2016). this lack of training can lead to misunderstandings and reduced patient trust in the table 3: barriers to culturally competent care in the united states: challenges and solutions barrier details statistics examples solutions language barriers significant obstacle as 22% of the us population speaks a language other than english at home, leading to communication difficulties in medical settings. 22% of the population speaks a language other than english at home. limited english proficiency associated with 50% higher chance of not having a usual source of healthcare and 75% higher chance of not understanding medication instructions. providing language services and interpretation in medical settings. implicit biases unconscious biases among healthcare providers contribute to disparities in healthcare outcomes, affecting clinical decisions and patient interactions. african american patients are less likely to receive pain medication compared to white patients. despite reporting similar levels of pain, african american patients receive less pain medication (ayanian & williams, 2011). implementing training and awareness programs to address and reduce implicit biases among healthcare providers. insufficient cultural competence training many healthcare providers lack adequate training in understanding and addressing the cultural needs of diverse patient populations. only 58% of physicians feel adequately prepared to treat patients from different cultural backgrounds. lack of training can lead to misunderstandings and reduced patient trust in the healthcare system (betancourt et al., 2016). incorporating cultural competence training into medical education and ongoing professional development. healthcare system. table 3 outlines the primary obstacles to achieving culturally competent care, including language barriers, implicit biases, and insufficient cultural competence training among healthcare providers. it details how 22% of the us population speaks a language other than english pa ge 15 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 146-158, 2024 at home, leading to significant communication issues, misdiagnoses, and lower quality of care. implicit biases result in disparities, such as african american patients receiving less pain medication compared to white patients despite reporting similar levels of pain. additionally, only 58% of physicians feel adequately prepared to treat patients from diverse cultural backgrounds, leading to misunderstandings and reduced patient trust. the table suggests solutions like providing language services, implementing training programs to address implicit biases, and incorporating cultural competence training into medical education and professional development to improve healthcare outcomes. successful interventions and programs several interventions and programs have been successful in addressing these challenges and improving cultural competence in healthcare. one effective approach is the implementation of language services, such as professional medical interpreters and translation of medical documents. studies have shown that the use of professional interpreters can significantly improve clinical outcomes and patient satisfaction for non-english speaking patients (mullins et al., 2005). cultural competence training programs for healthcare providers have also proven beneficial. these programs often include modules on understanding cultural differences, recognizing and mitigating implicit biases, and effective communication strategies. for instance, a cultural competence training program for physicians at a large urban hospital resulted in a 33% improvement in patient satisfaction scores among minority patients (betancourt et al., 2016). another successful intervention is the development of culturally tailored health education materials and programs. for example, diabetes management programs designed for hispanic patients that incorporate culturally relevant dietary advice and family involvement have shown significant improvements in patient outcomes, including better blood sugar control and increased adherence to treatment plans (mitrani, 2009). structure and function overview of the nigerian healthcare system the nigerian healthcare system is characterized by a combination of public and private sector involvement. as of 2019, nigeria’s healthcare expenditure accounted for approximately 3.6% of its gross domestic product (gdp), significantly lower than the global average (balogun, 2022). the public sector, managed by the federal ministry of health, includes federal, state, and local government healthcare facilities, which provide a range of services from primary to tertiary care. however, the system faces challenges such as inadequate funding, poor infrastructure, and a shortage of medical personnel. nigeria has about 30,000 doctors serving a population of over 200 million, resulting in a doctor-to-patient ratio of approximately 1:6,667, far below the world health organization’s (who) recommended ratio of 1:600 (akinrogunde, 2023). this shortage is exacerbated by the migration of healthcare professionals to other countries in search of better working conditions and remuneration, a phenomenon known as the “brain drain” (uzochukwu et al., 2015). key stakeholders and their roles key stakeholders in the nigerian healthcare system include the federal ministry of health, state ministries of health, local government health departments, private healthcare providers, non-governmental organizations (ngos), and international partners. the federal ministry of health is responsible for policy formulation, regulation, and coordination of healthcare services at the national level. it also oversees federal teaching hospitals and medical research institutes (akinrogunde, 2023). state ministries of health manage secondary healthcare facilities, including general hospitals, while local government health departments oversee primary healthcare centers (phcs), which are the first point of contact for most nigerians (uzochukwu et al., 2015). however, these phcs are often under-resourced and poorly equipped, leading to reliance on secondary and tertiary facilities for basic healthcare services. the private sector plays a significant role in healthcare delivery, providing approximately 60% of healthcare services in nigeria (balogun, 2022). private hospitals, clinics, and pharmacies complement the public sector, especially in urban areas. ngos and international partners such as the who, unicef, and usaid support the healthcare system by funding health programs, providing technical assistance, and conducting health interventions (akinrogunde, 2023). table 4: overview of the nigerian healthcare system: structure, key stakeholders, and challenges aspect details statistics/examples healthcare expenditure combination of public and private sector involvement; healthcare expenditure accounted for approximately 3.6% of gdp in 2019. significantly lower than the global average (balogun, 2022). public sector managed by the federal ministry of health, includes federal, state, and local government healthcare facilities providing services from primary to tertiary care. faces challenges like inadequate funding, poor infrastructure, and a shortage of medical personnel. pa ge 15 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 146-158, 2024 doctor-topatient ratio approximately 30,000 doctors serving a population of over 200 million, resulting in a ratio of 1:6,667, far below who's recommended ratio of 1:600. shortage exacerbated by the "brain drain" phenomenon (akinrogunde, 2023; uzochukwu et al., 2015). key stakeholders include the federal ministry of health, state ministries of health, local government health departments, private healthcare providers, ngos, and international partners. federal ministry of health formulates policy, regulates, and coordinates healthcare services. state ministries manage secondary facilities; local governments oversee phcs (akinrogunde, 2023). private sector plays a significant role in healthcare delivery, providing approximately 60% of healthcare services. private hospitals, clinics, and pharmacies complement public sector services, especially in urban areas (balogun, 2022). ngos and international partners support the healthcare system by funding health programs, providing technical assistance, and conducting health interventions. examples include who, unicef, and usaid (akinrogunde, 2023). primary healthcare centers (phcs) first point of contact for most nigerians, managed by local government health departments. often under-resourced and poorly equipped, leading to reliance on secondary and tertiary facilities (uzochukwu et al., 2015). table 4 outlines the key components and issues within nigeria’s healthcare system. it highlights the combination of public and private sector involvement, with healthcare expenditure accounting for 3.6% of gdp in 2019, significantly lower than the global average. the public sector, managed by the federal ministry of health, includes various levels of government healthcare facilities, but faces challenges such as inadequate funding, poor infrastructure, and a shortage of medical personnel, with a doctor-to-patient ratio of 1:6,667. key stakeholders include government entities, private providers, ngos, and international partners like who, unicef, and usaid, which support through funding and technical assistance. the private sector provides about 60% of healthcare services, particularly in urban areas. primary healthcare centers (phcs), the first point of contact for most nigerians, are often under-resourced, leading to reliance on secondary and tertiary care facilities. the system is also affected by the migration of healthcare professionals seeking better opportunities abroad. cultural influences on healthcare outcomes impact of traditional beliefs and practices traditional beliefs and practices significantly influence healthcare outcomes in nigeria. approximately 70% of the nigerian population relies on traditional medicine for their primary healthcare needs (barnes, 2022). these practices include the use of herbal remedies, spiritual healing, and consultation with traditional healers. such reliance often results in delays in seeking formal medical care, which can exacerbate health conditions and lead to poorer outcomes. for example, a study found that traditional birth attendants were the primary caregivers for many women during childbirth, contributing to nigeria’s high maternal mortality rate of 512 deaths per 100,000 live births (adewuyi et al., 2017). cultural perceptions of illness and health also affect healthcare behaviors. in many nigerian communities, illnesses are often attributed to spiritual causes or ancestral punishment, which can influence the choice of treatment. for instance, mental health issues are frequently stigmatized and attributed to supernatural forces, leading many individuals to seek help from spiritual healers rather than medical professionals (jegede, 2002). this cultural context poses significant challenges for healthcare providers who must navigate these beliefs to provide effective medical care. case studies and data analysis several case studies illustrate the profound impact of cultural factors on healthcare outcomes in nigeria. one study focusing on malaria treatment found that 52% of respondents preferred herbal treatments over conventional medicine due to cultural beliefs in the efficacy of traditional remedies (apolot et al., 2023). this preference for traditional treatments can delay effective medical intervention, increasing the risk of severe complications and mortality. data analysis reveals that cultural factors significantly impact maternal and child health outcomes. for instance, a survey conducted in rural nigeria showed that cultural practices, such as the seclusion of pregnant women and the avoidance of certain foods, negatively affected maternal nutrition and health (adewuyi et al., 2017). additionally, traditional postpartum practices, such as hot water baths and herbal concoctions, can pose health risks to both mothers and newborns if not properly managed. addressing these cultural influences requires culturally sensitive health interventions. programs that integrate traditional practices with modern healthcare, such as training traditional birth attendants in safe delivery practices and encouraging collaboration between traditional healers and medical professionals, have shown promise in improving health outcomes (jegede, 2002). these culturally tailored interventions help bridge the gap between traditional beliefs and modern medical care, fostering trust and improving healthcare utilization. pa ge 15 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 146-158, 2024 challenges and solutions barriers to culturally competent care culturally competent care in nigeria faces numerous challenges, primarily due to the country’s diverse ethnic and linguistic landscape. with over 500 languages spoken across nigeria, effective communication between healthcare providers and patients can be difficult (pinxteren, 2022). this linguistic diversity often results in miscommunication and misunderstandings, particularly in rural areas where local dialects prevail and healthcare providers may not be familiar with the local language. for instance, a study found that language barriers were a significant impediment to accessing maternal healthcare services, contributing to nigeria’s high maternal mortality rate of 512 deaths per 100,000 live births (adewuyi et al., 2017). another major barrier is the deep-rooted traditional beliefs and practices that can conflict with modern medical advice. many nigerians hold strong beliefs in traditional medicine and spiritual healing, which can lead to delays in seeking formal medical treatment. this is particularly evident in rural areas, where traditional healers are often the first point of contact for healthcare (jegede, 2002). these cultural practices can complicate the delivery of modern healthcare services and reduce the effectiveness of medical interventions. additionally, the healthcare infrastructure in nigeria is often inadequate, with significant disparities between urban and rural areas. rural healthcare facilities are frequently under-resourced and understaffed, limiting their ability to provide culturally competent care. for example, rural clinics may lack essential medical supplies and trained personnel, making it challenging to deliver comprehensive healthcare services (uzochukwu et al., 2015). successful interventions and programs despite these challenges, several interventions and programs have shown success in improving cultural competence in nigerian healthcare. one effective approach has been the integration of traditional and modern healthcare practices. training programs for traditional birth attendants (tbas) have been particularly successful. by providing tbas with basic medical training and encouraging collaboration with formal healthcare providers, maternal and child health outcomes have improved significantly. a program in northern nigeria that trained tbas in safe delivery practices resulted in a 40% reduction in maternal mortality rates (adewuyi et al., 2017). community engagement and health education programs have also been effective in addressing cultural barriers. these programs involve local leaders and traditional healers in health promotion activities, which helps build trust and acceptance of modern medical practices. for instance, a malaria prevention program that included community leaders in the education campaign saw a 30% increase in the use of insecticide-treated bed nets (jegede, 2002). furthermore, efforts to improve healthcare infrastructure in rural areas have made a significant impact. programs funded by international organizations, such as the world bank and who, have focused on building and equipping rural healthcare centers, training healthcare workers, and ensuring the availability of essential medicines. these initiatives have helped bridge the gap between urban and rural healthcare services, making culturally competent care more accessible to remote populations (uzochukwu et al., 2015). table 5: impact of traditional beliefs and practices on healthcare outcomes in nigeria aspect details statistics/examples reliance on traditional medicine approximately 70% of the nigerian population relies on traditional medicine for primary healthcare needs. includes use of herbal remedies, spiritual healing, and consultation with traditional healers (barnes, 2022). impact on maternal health traditional birth attendants are primary caregivers for many women during childbirth, contributing to high maternal mortality rates. maternal mortality rate of 512 deaths per 100,000 live births (adewuyi et al., 2017). cultural perceptions of illness illnesses often attributed to spiritual causes or ancestral punishment, influencing treatment choices. mental health issues are frequently stigmatized and attributed to supernatural forces, leading individuals to seek spiritual healers (jegede, 2002). case studies and data analysis cultural beliefs significantly impact treatment preferences and health outcomes. 52% of respondents preferred herbal treatments for malaria due to cultural beliefs (apolot et al., 2023). cultural practices negatively affect maternal nutrition and health (adewuyi et al., 2017). barriers to culturally competent care challenges include linguistic diversity, strong traditional beliefs, and inadequate healthcare infrastructure, particularly in rural areas. over 500 languages spoken, miscommunication issues, under-resourced rural clinics (pinxteren, 2022; uzochukwu et al., 2015). pa ge 15 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 146-158, 2024 successful interventions integration of traditional and modern healthcare practices, community engagement, and improvements in rural healthcare infrastructure. training traditional birth attendants led to a 40% reduction in maternal mortality rates (adewuyi et al., 2017). community-led malaria prevention increased bed net use by 30% (jegede, 2002). table 5 outlines the significant influence of traditional medicine on healthcare in nigeria, where approximately 70% of the population relies on traditional remedies for primary care. this reliance often delays formal medical treatment, contributing to poor health outcomes, such as the high maternal mortality rate of 512 deaths per 100,000 live births. cultural perceptions, like attributing illnesses to spiritual causes, affect treatment choices, particularly in mental health. barriers to culturally competent care include linguistic diversity, strong traditional beliefs, and inadequate rural healthcare infrastructure. successful interventions involve integrating traditional and modern practices, community engagement, and improving rural healthcare facilities, resulting in better health outcomes, such as a 40% reduction in maternal mortality through training traditional birth attendants. key findings summary of similarities and differences the comparative analysis of the healthcare systems in the united states and nigeria reveals both similarities and stark differences in how cultural factors influence healthcare outcomes. both countries face significant challenges related to cultural competence, although the nature and extent of these challenges differ due to their unique socio-economic and cultural contexts (godwins et al., 2024). in the united states, cultural diversity is extensive, with over 40 million immigrants making up 13.7% of the population (altheimer et al., 2021). this diversity necessitates a healthcare system that can address a wide array of cultural beliefs, practices, and languages. for example, language barriers are prevalent, with 22% of the population speaking a language other than english at home. effective communication is crucial, and the use of professional medical interpreters has been shown to improve clinical outcomes and patient satisfaction (mullins et al., 2005). additionally, cultural competence training for healthcare providers is essential to reduce implicit biases and improve patient-provider interactions (betancourt et al., 2016). in contrast, nigeria’s healthcare system is deeply influenced by traditional beliefs and practices, with approximately 70% of the population relying on traditional medicine for primary healthcare needs (barnes, 2022). this reliance often leads to delays in seeking formal medical care and can negatively impact health outcomes. for example, the maternal mortality rate in nigeria remains high at 512 deaths per 100,000 live births, partly due to the preference for traditional birth attendants over trained medical professionals (adewuyi et al., 2017). moreover, nigeria’s healthcare infrastructure faces significant challenges, particularly in rural areas where healthcare facilities are under-resourced and understaffed (uzochukwu et al., 2015). data-driven insights on cultural impacts data analysis highlights the profound impact of cultural factors on healthcare outcomes in both countries. in the united states, minority groups often experience disparities in healthcare access and outcomes. for instance, african american women are three to four times more likely to die from pregnancy-related causes than white women, influenced by factors such as implicit bias and differences in access to prenatal care (mitrani, 2009). cultural competence initiatives, such as training healthcare providers and integrating culturally tailored health education materials, have shown promise in addressing these disparities (betancourt et al., 2016). in nigeria, traditional health beliefs significantly influence health behaviors and outcomes. a study found that 52% of respondents preferred herbal treatments over conventional medicine for malaria due to cultural beliefs in traditional remedies (apolot et al., 2023). addressing these cultural influences requires integrating traditional practices with modern healthcare, such as training traditional healers in basic medical care and encouraging collaboration with formal healthcare providers (jegede, 2002). additionally, improving healthcare infrastructure and ensuring the availability of essential medicines in rural areas are crucial steps towards providing culturally competent care and improving health outcomes (uzochukwu et al., 2015). policy implications recommendations for policymakers in both countries to improve healthcare outcomes, policymakers in both the united states and nigeria need to address the cultural factors that influence healthcare delivery and patient behavior. in the united states, cultural competence training for healthcare providers is essential. currently, only 58% of physicians feel adequately prepared to treat patients from diverse cultural backgrounds (betancourt et al., 2016). mandatory cultural competence training programs can help reduce implicit biases and improve patient-provider interactions. additionally, expanding language services, such as providing professional interpreters and translating medical documents, can significantly enhance healthcare accessibility for the 22% of the population that speaks a language other than english at home (altheimer et al., 2021). in nigeria, integrating traditional and modern healthcare practices is crucial (okeme et., 2024). approximately 70% of nigerians rely on traditional medicine for primary healthcare needs (barnes, 2022). policymakers should support programs that train traditional healers pa ge 15 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 146-158, 2024 in basic medical practices and encourage collaboration between traditional and formal healthcare providers. this approach can help bridge the gap between traditional beliefs and modern medical care, improving patient trust and healthcare utilization (jegede, 2002). additionally, investing in rural healthcare infrastructure is vital to address the disparities in healthcare access and quality between urban and rural areas (uzochukwu et al., 2015). strategies for improving cultural competence effective strategies for improving cultural competence in healthcare include developing culturally tailored health education materials and programs. in the united states, culturally relevant interventions, such as diabetes management programs that consider dietary preferences, have shown significant improvements in health outcomes among minority populations (mitrani, 2009). these programs should be expanded and adapted to other health conditions to address the specific needs of diverse cultural groups. in nigeria, community engagement is a key strategy. involving local leaders and traditional healers in health promotion activities can foster trust and acceptance of modern medical practices (jegede, 2002). public health campaigns should be designed to respect and incorporate cultural beliefs, making them more effective in changing health behaviors (godwins et al., 2024). for example, a malaria prevention program that included community leaders in the education campaign saw a 30% increase in the use of insecticide-treated bed nets (adewuyi et al., 2017). moreover, both countries can benefit from policy measures that promote equity in healthcare access. in the united states, this includes expanding healthcare coverage through public programs like medicaid to ensure that minority populations have access to necessary medical services (betancourt et al., 2016). in nigeria, implementing health financing reforms to improve funding for rural healthcare facilities can enhance service delivery and reduce healthcare disparities (uzochukwu et al., 2015). future research directions identified gaps in current research current research on the impact of cultural factors on healthcare outcomes has highlighted significant gaps that need to be addressed. in the united states, while there is a substantial body of work on cultural competence and healthcare disparities, there is a need for more longitudinal studies that track the long-term effects of culturally competent interventions on patient outcomes. for instance, although culturally tailored diabetes management programs have shown immediate benefits, there is limited data on their long-term sustainability and impact on health outcomes over time (mitrani, 2009). additionally, research often focuses on specific minority groups, such as hispanic or african american populations, but there is less attention given to other diverse groups like native americans and asian americans (betancourt et al., 2016). in nigeria, there is a lack of comprehensive data on how traditional beliefs and practices specifically affect different health outcomes (godwins et al., 2024). while studies have documented the general reliance on traditional medicine, more detailed research is needed to understand how these practices influence the management of specific diseases, such as malaria and maternal health (adewuyi et al., 2017). furthermore, there is a need for research on the effectiveness of integrating traditional and modern healthcare practices, particularly in rural areas where healthcare access is limited (uzochukwu et al., 2015). suggested areas for further study future research should focus on several key areas to fill these gaps and enhance our understanding of cultural influences on healthcare outcomes. in the united states, more studies are needed to evaluate the effectiveness of cultural competence training programs across different healthcare settings and their impact on reducing healthcare disparities. specifically, research should investigate the long-term effects of such training on patient outcomes, healthcare provider behaviors, and overall healthcare costs (betancourt et al., 2016). in nigeria, there is a need for research that explores the integration of traditional and modern healthcare practices in greater depth. studies should examine how traditional healers can be effectively incorporated into the formal healthcare system and the impact of such integration on health outcomes. additionally, research should focus on the development and evaluation of culturally tailored health education programs that address prevalent health issues in various cultural contexts (jegede, 2002). understanding the specific cultural barriers to healthcare access and adherence in different regions of nigeria can help design more effective interventions (adewuyi et al., 2017). finally, comparative studies between the united states and nigeria could provide valuable insights into the universal and context-specific aspects of cultural competence in healthcare. such research can help identify best practices that can be adapted and implemented in diverse healthcare settings globally (uzochukwu et al., 2015). conclusion this study underscores the crucial role of cultural factors in shaping healthcare outcomes in the united states and nigeria. in the us, addressing diversity requires a focus on cultural competence, tackling challenges like language barriers and implicit biases through targeted interventions. in nigeria, traditional beliefs are central to healthcare, with a need to integrate these practices with modern medicine, especially in rural areas. both nations can benefit from policies that promote healthcare equity and culturally tailored education programs. future research should explore the long-term effects of culturally competent interventions and compare approaches between the us and nigeria to identify best practices for global application. pa ge 15 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 146-158, 2024 references adewuyi, e. o., zhao, y., auta, a., & lamichhane, r. 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(2020). physician workforce in the united states of america: forecasting nationwide shortages. human resources for health, 18, 1–9. pa ge 1 pa ge 65 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) life beyond the classroom: concept of well-lived lives among filipino high school teachers von hansen jan i. turla1*, veronica c. asilo1, chrizia mavis v. caragay1, jhom cedrix s. tantiangco1, enrico gabriel j. vichuaco1, ace randolf c. valle1, lawrence d. balana1 volume 3 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v3i1.4415 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: january 15, 2025 accepted: february 20, 2025 published: june 16, 2025 defining a well-lived life among educators extends beyond professional accomplishments. for high school teachers in the philippines, this concept is deeply intertwined with their roles in nurturing young minds and shaping the future amidst systemic challenges. this phenomenological qualitative study delves into understanding the experiences and determinants of a well-lived life for these educators, looking beyond their classroom responsibilities. six (6) filipino junior high school teachers from the city of balanga national high school, representing a range of demographics and experiences, were selected through purposive sampling to participate in semi-structured interviews. data was analysed using interpretative phenomenological analysis (ipa), revealing five (5) dichotomous themes: “service vs. self,” which emphasizes altruism and selflessness alongside autonomy and individuality; “endurance vs. exhaustion,” highlighting resilience in the face of stress and burnout; “optimism vs. obstacles,” focusing on maintaining a positive mindset while navigating negative influences; “clarity vs. confusion,” emphasizing the importance of purpose and direction amidst challenges; and “spirituality vs. security,” demonstrating the role of faith alongside material concerns. these results suggest that support mechanisms and policies need to be tailored to acknowledge and enhance teachers’ holistic well-being beyond the classroom. by creating environments that prioritize mental, emotional, and spiritual health along with professional development, educational institutions can promote sustainable teacher satisfaction and, in turn, enhance educational outcomes nationwide. keywords philippines, positive psychology, qualitative, teachers, well-lived life 1 college of social and behavioral sciences, bataan peninsula state university, bataan, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: vhj.psych@gmail.com introduction the pursuit of a well-lived life is a universal aspiration that transcends cultural boundaries. rooted in positive psychology, this concept encompasses various dimensions such as positive emotions, meaningful engagement, nurturing relationships, accomplishment, and connection to something greater than oneself (falzon, 2023; lee & ahn, 2021; jankowski et al., 2020; keyes, 2020). these dimensions form the bedrock of a fulfilling existence, providing individuals with a sense of purpose and satisfaction. a substantial body of literature suggests that many dimensions are interrelated and together promote a welllived life. research indicates that experiencing positive emotions like joy, gratitude, and contentment correlates with higher life satisfaction and overall well-being (kerry et al., 2023). similarly, involvement in meaningful activities, whether professional, personal, or relational, fosters a sense of purpose and fulfillment (kashdan & mcknight, 2023). furthermore, fostering nurturing relationships, marked by trust, support, and intimacy, significantly contributes to subjective well-being and psychological flourishing (mertika et al., 2020). likewise, achieving meaningful goals leads to a sense of competence and selfefficacy, thereby enhancing overall life satisfaction (deci & ryan, 2020). finally, connecting to something greater, be it through spirituality, community engagement, or a sense of belonging, adds depth and purpose to life (haim-litevsky et al., 2023). for educators, this quest for a well-lived life takes on added significance. they stand at the forefront of shaping young minds, molding future generations, and thereby, influencing the trajectory of society itself (granziera et al., 2023). research indicates that teachers who experience higher levels of well-being are more likely to create positive classroom environments, foster stronger teacher-student relationships, and facilitate enhanced student engagement and academic achievement (hascher & waber, 2021). in another research by zou et al. (2023), they found a significant correlation between teacher wellbeing and student motivation, with students of happier and more fulfilled teachers demonstrating higher levels of intrinsic motivation and academic performance. furthermore, there’s a growing emphasis on integrating socio-cultural perspectives into the study of educators’ well-being. studies conducted by zakaria et al. (2021) and ola-a (2022) highlights the unique cultural values and contextual factors that shape the well-being experiences of teachers in diverse cultural settings. hence, the importance of exploring the well-lived lives of teachers, especially in the filipino context, cannot be overstated. teachers in the philippines face multifaceted challenges, ranging from resource constraints and overcrowded classrooms to societal expectations and cultural norms (unesco, 2023). additionally, the rapidly evolving educational policies and pedagogical approaches further pa ge 66 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 65-76, 2025 compound the complexities faced by teachers in the country (grimus, 2020). despite these challenges, filipino teachers continue to exhibit resilience and dedication in their vocation, striving to provide quality education amidst adversities (subosa, 2020). research in this area is crucial not only for understanding the experiences of filipino teachers but also for informing policy and practice aimed at enhancing teacher well-being and, by extension, the quality of education in the philippines. therefore, this study aims to explore the concept of welllived lives among filipino junior high school teachers, seeking to understand how they perceive and experience well-being and fulfillment in both personal and professional lives. by delving into their lived experiences, the study aims to identify factors contributing to their overall well-being and satisfaction, as well as barriers hindering their sense of fulfillment. this research has the following objectives: 1. explore the perceptions and determinants of a welllived life among filipino high school teachers; and 2. examine the barriers to achieving a well-lived life among filipino high school teachers. materials and methods research design this qualitative study employs a phenomenological research design to delve into the lived experiences of filipino high school teachers regarding what they consider a well-lived life. according to naeem et al. (2023), this method enables researchers to uncover the intricate meanings and nuances embedded within the narratives of the participants, facilitating a rich exploration of the phenomenon under investigation. specifically, this study adopted interpretative phenomenological analysis (ipa) as its guiding framework, following the methodological approach outlined by smith and nizza (2022). ipa aligns perfectly with qualitative psychology’s core principle of delving into individual experiences and how participants make sense of them within their specific contexts. unlike quantitative methods seeking generalizable results, ipa prioritizes understanding the unique perspectives of each participant through an idiographic focus (emery & anderman, 2020). moreover, embracing the concept of the double hermeneutic, ipa acknowledges the researcher’s role in interpreting how participants perceive their experiences. this creates a reciprocal process of meaning-making (barton, 2020). research participants the participants for this study were selected using a purposive sampling method, specifically designed to target individuals who met the predetermined criteria essential for the research objectives (campbell et al., 2020). inclusion criteria for participation encompassed filipino citizenship and ethnicity, full-time employment as junior high school teachers in the city of balanga national high school, a minimum of five years of teaching experience in junior high school, age 25 and above, fluency in either english or filipino, willingness to engage in an in-depth interview, and a fulfilled life scale (fls) score of 80 or above — indicating a high level of life fulfillment. exclusion criteria included holding administrative or nonteaching positions and having a close association with the research team to mitigate potential biases. to note, there is an equal representation of both genders and spanning different life stages: early adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood. this intentional selection aimed to ensure diversity among participants and capture a broad spectrum of experiences and perspectives regarding the concept of well-lived lives among filipino junior high school teachers. each participant’s unique background and experiences contribute to the richness and depth of the data collected, allowing for a comprehensive exploration table 1: robotfoto of participants selections age (group) sex years in teaching marital status current position religion monthly income fls score teacher 1 36 (early) male 14 single master teacher i roman catholic ₱ 48,000 87 teacher 2 48 (middle) male 12 married teacher i roman catholic ₱ 29,000 80 teacher 3 53 (late) male 31 single teacher i roman catholic ₱ 25,000 91 teacher 4 34 (early) female 10 single teacher iii roman catholic ₱ 33,000 89 teacher 5 41 (middle) female 17 single master teacher iii iglesia ni cristo ₱ 40,000 100 teacher 6 55 (late) female 14 separated teacher iii latter day saint ₱ 33,093 93 research instruments this study employed three key instruments: the robotfoto, the fulfilled life scale (fls), and a semi-structured interview guide. the robotfoto collected demographic information to provide a contextual background for each participant. to assess the extent of well-lived lives experienced by the participants, the fulfilled life scale (fls) was used as a screening tool; participants needed to score 80 or above to be included in the study. developed by baumann and ruch (2022), the fls evaluates both pa ge 67 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 65-76, 2025 cognitive and affective dimensions of life fulfillment. finally, an expert-validated semi-structured interview guide facilitated in-depth exploration of participants’ perceptions and experiences of well-being and fulfillment, using openended questions to capture detailed qualitative data. data gathering procedure participants were carefully selected to include a diverse range of experiences and perspectives. the study included six participants from city of balanga national high school: one male and one female aged 20-33 (early adults), one male and one female aged 34-46 (middle adults), and one male and one female aged 47-60 (late adults). they were provided informed consent before completing the fulfilled life scale (fls) as a screening measure to judiciously assess their eligibility for the study. those scoring 80 or above out of 100 were deemed eligible and subsequently contacted for participation. from the pool of eligible candidates, six participants were selected based on qualification, availability and willingness to engage in 45-60 minutes semi-structured interviews. these interviews, conducted the following day, were audiorecorded to ensure accuracy and fidelity of data. guided by a set of semi-structured questions, participants shared their perceptions and experiences regarding welllived lives as filipino junior high school teachers. upon completion of data gathering, the recorded interviews were transcribed verbatim, allowing for a detailed analysis through interpretative phenomenological analysis (ipa). this process facilitated the identification of common themes and patterns within the participants’ narratives. after collecting and analysing the data, the research team returned to the research locale to express gratitude and present tokens of appreciation to the participants for their essential contributions to the study. furthermore, during this visit, the researchers presented the research findings to the school administration and other key stakeholders. this interaction provided a better understanding of the research findings and their potential consequences for educational practices and policies. ethical considerations participants were presented with detailed information regarding the objectives, procedures, potential risks, and benefits of the study. they were also given the opportunity to ask questions and clarify any concerns before voluntarily agreeing to participate. moreover, participants were assured of their right to withdraw from the study at any time without facing any repercussions. confidentiality and anonymity were maintained throughout the research process to safeguard the privacy of the participants. moreso, the researchers reduce harm by being sensitive to the personal and emotional nature of conversations, allowing participants to skip questions or withdraw if they feel uncomfortable, as suggested by smith (2024). following the data collection phase, participants were debriefed to address any potential discomforts or uncertainties they may have experienced during their involvement. they were encouraged to provide feedback and express any concerns, ensuring that their well-being remained a paramount consideration throughout the study. data analysis to ensure accurate and in-depth analysis, all interviews were transcribed verbatim. the transcripts were then meticulously analyzed using a bottom-up approach, wherein codes and themes were derived directly from the data rather than imposing pre-existing theories (loubere, 2017). this involved a rigorous process of reviewing and coding transcripts to identify recurring patterns and themes that captured the essence of participants’ experiences and how they attributed meaning to them. subsequently, these themes were organized into higher-order, superordinate categories to provide a comprehensive understanding of their well-lived lives. reflexivity is central to ipa research (peddle, 2021). hence, the researchers acknowledged and addressed any potential biases or preconceptions that could influence data interpretation. the analysis’s credibility was strengthened by spending prolonged time with the pool of research participants. transparency is also ensured throughout the research process, which included providing contextual details (refer to table 1) regarding the participants and the research methodology. additionally, cross-validation and an independent audit were employed to enhance the reliability and validity of the findings, methodologies that are supported by lamb et al. (2021). results following the analysis, the researchers identified six superordinate themes, each with two contrasting subordinate themes, along with associated keywords and issues, as presented in table 2. these themes are not just about positive versus negative contrasts; they represent the balance of complex and often conflicting forces that teachers navigate daily in their pursuit of a fulfilling professional and personal life. this dichotomy underscores the challenges teachers face and the resilience required to navigate them effectively. table 2: themes emerged superordinate themes subordinate themes keywords and issues 1. service vs. self 1.1. being altruistic and selfless helping others, service, altruism, selflessness. 1.2. exercising autonomy and individuality work-life balance, self-care, fulfillment, choice. pa ge 68 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 65-76, 2025 service vs. self filipino high school teachers perceive a well-lived life as a balance between altruism and self-care. while they find fulfillment to be of service to others and impacting students’ lives positively, they also recognize the need to prioritize their self and well-being. being altruistic and selfless this theme encompasses codes related to the tendency of filipino teachers to prioritize the welfare of others over their own interests, embodying acts of kindness and generosity towards students, colleagues, and communities. teachers often see their role as extending beyond academics, impacting students’ lives positively through guidance and support. as articulated by some of the teachers: “nagiging makabuluhan ang buhay ng isang tao… kung hindi lang sarili ang iniisip. nagiging makabuluhan siya kung nagiging makabuluhan din tayo sa ibang tao.” ( a person’s life becomes meaningful... if they don’t only think of themselves. it becomes meaningful when we also become meaningful to others.) —teacher 4 “ang pangunahing role ng isang guro ay hindi lamang magturo ng aralin na nasa libro. kun’di para ma-inspire ang mga bata. mahalaga na maging inspirasyon ka sa kanila.” (the primary role of a teacher is not just to teach lessons found in books. rather, it is to inspire children. it’s important to be an inspiration to them.”) —teacher 1 “palagi akong babalik sa mga bata na mas kailangan ako. kahit sa simpleng bagay natutulungan ko sila. nakikita ko ang malaking growth nila at proud ako na naging bahagi ako no’n.” (i always remind myself that i am needed more by the children. even in simple things, i am able to help them. i see their significant growth, and i am proud to have been a part of that.) —teacher 5 exercising autonomy and individuality this theme focuses on the importance of expressing the importance of autonomy in their teaching practices, while possessing their unique identities and decisions in life. this theme reflects the idea that to effectively care for others, teachers must also prioritize their health and happiness. it includes efforts to maintain mental and physical health and pursue personal goals and interests, which contribute to overall life satisfaction and fulfillment. as expressed by several teachers: “iniisip ko kung paano na ‘yan kapag nagretiro ako, hahanapin ko talaga ang pagtuturo kasi ‘yun ang buhay ko at masaya ako.” (i’m thinking about how it will be when i retire, i will really seek teaching because that is my life and i am happy.) —teacher 3 “even though pinipilit nila ako (mag-masteral), ininvest ko yung time ko hindi para mag-aral ng masteral. ininvest ko yung time sa ibang pagkakataon which is sa tingin ko mas pinakinabangan ko.” (even though they are pressuring me (to pursue a master’s), i invested my time not to study for a master’s. i invested my time in other opportunities which i think benefited me more.) —teacher 2 “iniisip ko sana na meron akong pamilya… may asawa, may mga anak… minsan dumadating ako sa point na nalulungkot. pero, lumilipas din yung panahon na ‘yon kasi feeling ko naman kahit wala… andiyan yung family ko, mga kaibigan ko, mga estudyante ko.” (i hoped that i will have a family... a spouse, children... sometimes i reach a point of sadness. but, that feeling also passes because i feel that even without them... my family, friends, and students are there.) —teacher 5 endurance vs. exhaustion teachers demonstrate resilience and endurance in their profession, viewing challenges as opportunities for growth. however, they also experience significant stress and exhaustion due to heavy workloads and high expectations, highlighting the need for effective coping strategies and support systems to achieve well-lived life. being resilient and persistent this theme captures the teachers’ ability to endure and thrive despite challenges. it underscores the determination and strength required to remain dedicated to teaching in the face of various obstacles, showcasing the teachers’ commitment to their students and their profession. as 2. endurance vs. exhaustion 2.1. being resilient and persistent resilience, determination, persistence, faith. 2.2. experiencing stress and burnout burnout, stress, exhaustion, hidden struggles. 3. optimism vs. obstacles 3.1. having a positive mindset and attitude positivity, gratitude, optimism, resilience. 3.2. facing negative influences and barriers enduring hardships, poverty, lack of motivation, lack of support 4. clarity vs. confusion 4.1. setting purpose and achieving goals purpose, goals, mission, motivation 4.2. losing purpose and direction disillusionment, lack of direction, complacency, reflection. 5. spirituality vs. security 5.1. practicing faith and spirituality faith, spirituality, belief, divine guidance. 5.2. handling practical and material needs financial stability, material success, provision, necessities. pa ge 69 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 65-76, 2025 noted by participants: “kung ikaw ay talagang desididong maging maayos ang buhay mo, katulad ko… nanggaling kami sa hirap. kaya nagpursige ako.” (if you are truly determined to improve your life, like me... we came from hardship. that’s why i persevered.) —teacher 3 “natututo ka ring mag-plano eh. paano next year, ano kaya ang susunod na gagawin? may learning naman din sa challenges para maging makabuluhan ang buhay.” (you’re also learning to plan. what about next year, what will you do next? there’s also learning from challenges to make life meaningful.) —teacher 4 “habang tumatagal pala, humahaba na rin ang pasensya mo... ako na lang ang lumalabas ng room para hindi ko mailabas yung galit ko sa mga estudyante.” (it seems that one’s patience is growing over time... i’m the one who leaves the room now so i don’t release my anger on the students.”) —teacher 6 experiencing stress and burnout this theme addresses the negative aspects of the teaching profession, revealing the high-pressure environment teachers often face. this theme highlights the emotional and physical toll of teaching, including long hours, high expectations, and the emotional burden of student needs. it emphasizes the need for support systems and strategies to manage and mitigate stress to maintain teachers’ wellbeing and effectiveness. as highlighted by teachers: “minsan may time na nai-stress ka sa mga bagay. minsan nadadamay pati yung life mo.” (sometimes there are times when you get stressed about things. sometimes even your life gets affected.) —teacher 6 “napagod ako ngayon buong taon. stress na stress ako sa kanila. kasi sila yung section na nagsama-sama yung absenteeism.... nasasayang ang effort mo.” (i’m exhausted this whole year. i’m very stressed because of them. they’re the section where absenteeism is rampant... your efforts go to waste.) —teacher 4 “may mga times na nakakapagod ang trabaho. pero kailangan kong pumasok… dahil may mga estudyante ako.” (there are times when the job gets tiring. but i need to go to work... because i have students.) —teacher 5 optimism vs. obstacles maintaining an optimistic mindset and attitude is crucial for teachers, helping them navigate difficulties and find meaning in their work. nonetheless, they face negative influences and obstacles such as lack of support and systemic issues that can hinder their well-being and motivation. having a positive mindset and attitude this theme centers on maintaining an optimistic outlook despite challenges. this theme demonstrates that teachers who focus on positivity and gratitude are better equipped to handle stress and find joy in their daily lives, reinforcing the importance of mental and emotional well-being. as mentioned by some educators: “attitude... ang magdadala sa kanya doon (sa makabuluhang buhay). kahit mahirap ka, pero if you have a positive attitude, and you are a hard worker, ma-achieve mo rin ang gusto mo.” (attitude... will lead him there (to a meaningful life). even if you are facing hardships, but if you have a positive attitude and you are a hard worker, you will achieve what you want.) —teacher 2 “kailangan laging positive tayo, para hindi natin maramdaman na walang kabuluhan yung buhay mo dito sa mundo.” (we always need to stay positive, so we don’t feel like our life here in this world is meaningless) — teacher 6 “kailangan positibo ka lang. lahat ng problema matatapos din... iisipin ko rin, hindi lang ako yung gan’tong may problema. meron ding mga adviser na ganu’n ang problema.” (you just need to stay positive. all problems will eventually end... i also think, i’m not the only one facing such problems. there are advisers who have similar issues.) — teacher 4 facing negative influences and barriers this theme captures the external and internal factors that hinder teachers’ well-being and success. this theme emphasizes the need to address these barriers to support teachers in their professional and personal lives, ensuring they can thrive and achieve a well-lived life. as told by participants: “may epekto ang kahirapan sa buhay ng tao. kasi pag mahirap ka, hindi ka na nakapag-aral. kapag hindi ka na nakapag-aral, syempre isipin mo nalang, mag-pamilya ka nalang o mag-asawa ka nalang. lalong nagiging mahirap ang buhay.” (poverty has an impact on people’s lives. because if you are poor, you can’t afford to study. if you can’t study anymore, you might just think of starting a family or getting married. life becomes even harder.) — teacher 4 “mahirap na malagay sa ganu’ng sitwasyon… yung mga taong wasted na… kasi may bisyo. yung kahit na mas marami sana silang magagawa… may mas maganda sana silang kinabukasan, pero hindi nila yun nagawa.” (it’s difficult to be in that kind of situation... those people who have wasted their lives... because of vices. even though they could have done more... they could have had a better future, but they didn’t do it.) —teacher 5 “sa totoo lang, kahit may gawin ka o wala, mayroon at mayroong masasabi ang ibang tao tungkol sa iyo. iyan ang natutunan ko habang nagtatrabaho. gawin mo man ang tama o mali, may sasabihin sila.” (honestly, whether you do something or not, other people will always have something to say about you. that’s what i’ve learned while working. whether you do right or wrong, they will have something to say.) —teacher 1 clarity vs. confusion having a clear sense of purpose and well-defined goals contributes to teachers’ sense of a well-lived life. conversely, periods of confusion and loss of direction can lead to disillusionment and decreased job satisfaction, pa ge 70 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 65-76, 2025 emphasizing the importance of professional guidance and goal setting. setting purpose and achieving goals this theme reflects the teachers’ sense of direction and motivation in their careers. this theme shows that having clear goals and a sense of mission is vital for teachers to find satisfaction and drive in their profession. it underscores the fulfillment derived from contributing to student growth and societal betterment through education. as explained by teachers: “kapag mayroong layunin ang isang tao, alam niya kung ano ang tutunguhin niya sa buhay. ang layunin ay nagbibigay ng direksyon kung saan tayo papunta.” (when a person has a goal, they know where they are headed in life. goals provide direction towards our destination.) —teacher 5 “may makabuluhang pamumuhay s’ya kasi alam n’ya ‘yung direksyon ng pupuntahan.” (her life is meaningful because she knows the direction she’s heading.) — teacher 3 “naniniwala pa rin ako na kahit na hindi maayos ang pinanggalingan, tayo pa rin ay may karapatang pumili kung anong landas ang tatahakin natin para maging makabuluhan ang buhay.” (i still believe that despite our imperfect beginnings, we still have the right to choose the path that will make our lives meaningful.) —teacher 4 losing purpose and direction this theme captures moments when teachers struggle to find meaning in their work. this theme is significant as it addresses the periods when teachers may feel disconnected from their professional identity and goals, emphasizing the importance of support and reflection to rediscover their passion and direction. as conveyed by educators: “manghihinayang ka lang sa mga ganong tao. bakit satisfied na sila sa buhay nilang gano’n? parang walang ambition.” (you’ll just feel sorry for those kinds of people. why are they satisfied with that kind of life? it’s like they have no ambition.) —teacher 6 “malaking factor yung sinasabi ng magulang sa anak, lalo na kung hindi sila naga-guide ng maayos. kaya para sa akin, yung pinagmulan ng bata ang nagiging dahilan kung bakit hindi sila nagiging makabuluhan ang buhay.” (what parents tell their children is a major factor, especially if they are not guiding them properly. that’s why, for me, the upbringing of a child becomes the reason why their lives don’t become meaningful.) —teacher 4 “kung wala siyang goal, para lang yung… kung saan ka na lang ayain. s’yempre, ‘di mo alam kung anong daan ang tatahakin mo kasi ‘di mo naman alam kung saan ka pupunta… ang tendency, maligaw.” (if he doesn’t have a goal, it’s like... you’re just invited anywhere. of course, you don’t know which path to take because you don’t know where you’re going... the tendency is to get lost.) —teacher 5 spirituality vs. security spirituality plays a huge role in teachers’ lives, providing strength and purpose. at the same time, practical concerns such as financial stability and tangible needs are essential for their overall sense of security and life satisfaction. balancing these aspects is vital for their holistic well-being. practicing faith and spirituality this theme highlights the role of spiritual beliefs in shaping teachers’ lives and careers. this theme indicates that many teachers draw on their faith to navigate challenges and find meaning in their work, viewing their profession as a calling and a way to live out their spiritual values. as shared by some participants: “ganoon kami eh. laging nasa simbahan, at kapag hindi makapunta, nanonood kami online ng mga misa... naniniwala ako na dapat lagi si lord ang una bago ang lahat. kasi ano pa ang mga tagumpay mo kung wala siya?” (that’s how we are. we’re always in church, and when we can’t go, we watch masses online... i believe that the lord should always come first before anything else. because what are your successes without him?) —teacher 3 “kahit mahirap ang buhay, lagi akong nagdadasal na bigyan ako ng bagong umaga at bagong lakas.” (even though life is difficult, i always pray to be given a new morning and new strength.) —teacher 5 “yung definition ko para doon ay kung nailagay mo lahat ng buhay mo sa diyos. kasi walang kabuluhan ang buhay kung hindi mo siya uunahin.” (my definition for that is if you’ve placed your whole life in god. because life is meaningless if you don’t prioritize him.) —teacher 6 handling practical and material concerns this theme addresses the security of financial and material aspects of teachers’ live; highlighting the practical realities teachers face, such as ensuring financial security for themselves and their families, which is crucial for their overall sense of tangible stability and contentment. as reported by some teachers: “yung nagawa ko na lahat ng gusto ko sa buhay, yung naibigay ko na lahat ng gusto ng magulang ko. yung, ‘oh, stable na kami.’.” (i’ve done everything i wanted in life, i’ve given my parents everything they wanted. ‘oh, we’re stable now.’) —teacher 1 “i have my own house, my own car... i have my savings… masasabi ko na i lived a well life.” (i have my own house, my own car... i have savings... i can say i lived a well life.) —teacher 2 “nagbibigay din ako ng pangangailangan sa pamilya ko. kasi as a single parent, meron ako isang anak, ako talaga lahat (nagpoprovide).” (i also provide for my family’s needs. because as a single parent with one child, i’m the one who provides everything.”) —teacher 6 simulacrum a simulacrum is an image or representation of someone or pa ge 71 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 65-76, 2025 something that often presents a superficial likeness without capturing the essence of the original (oxford, 2020). the simulacrum in the context of this study can be likened to an open book, a tool teachers often use in the classroom. it serves as a symbolic representation of the primary findings and contrasting themes observed. with its covers displaying contrasting imagery, the front cover (what people often see) symbolizes themes such as service, endurance, optimism, clarity and spirituality, representing the aspirational aspects of a “well-lived life.” meanwhile, the back cover (what people do not often see) reveals words like exhaustion, obstacles, and confusion, symbolizing the challenges and obstacles that teachers encounter in their pursuit of fulfillment. the spine of the book prominently bears the phrase “well-lived life,” signifying the central focus of the study. just like an open book that offers insights, the simulacrum provides a condensed yet meaningful snapshot of the experiences of filipino high school teachers’ well-lived lives. goals alongside professional achievements, as supported by research manlongat, et al., (2021). aside from taking care of one’s self, individuality is also observed. as teacher 1 poignantly states, “”i’m not sure who should interpret your life as meaningful or not, other people who see it or you”, highlighting the subjective nature of fulfillment and the importance of individual perception. this perspective aligns with self-determination theory, which emphasizes autonomy as crucial for fostering intrinsic motivation and overall well-being (guo, 2023) second, the theme “endurance vs. exhaustion” highlights teachers’ resilience and determination in overcoming challenges. their narratives reveal how personal adversity fuels their strength, enabling them to navigate professional obstacles. for example, one teacher stresses the importance of learning from mistakes and maintaining a strong work ethic (teacher 2), while another underscores perseverance despite personal hardships (teacher 3). these insights align with existing research on teacher resilience, emphasizing the role of intrinsic motivation and personal resolve in achieving meaningful life (nwoko et al., 2023). filipino culture’s emphasis on family and community support also plays a crucial role in sustaining teachers through tough times (go et al., 2020). moreover, the philippines’ demanding educational landscape fosters adaptability and resourcefulness among educators, who view setbacks as opportunities for growth and prioritize their students’ well-being amidst adversity (cimene et al., 2023). yet, previous research still points to the high levels of stress and burnout prevalent among filipino teachers (gomez, 2022). in our interviews, they expressed overwhelming pressure to meet familial expectations and prove themselves professionally, often leading to feelings of exhaustion and stress. this aligns with existing literature suggesting that educators worldwide encounter significant stressors, impacting their well-being and job satisfaction (carroll et al., 2022) recent studies posit that societal expectations and economic pressures are among the common stressors for educators (adom, 2020). in the context of the philippines, where respect for educators is high but financial compensation and support are often inadequate (abayon, 2024), teachers navigate a challenging landscape that affects their mental and emotional well-being. in the same point, the cultural value placed on education and the role of teachers as community pillars also contribute to heightened expectations and responsibilities, influencing their stress levels (suttles, 2024). third, many teachers assert that they maintain an optimistic outlook even amidst obstacles. this resonates with research on the role of positivity in promoting wellbeing (ekman & simon, 2021). positive emotions have been linked to improved psychological well-being, better coping strategies during stressful situations, and enhanced physical health outcomes research by gallesopo (2021) suggests that optimism among filipino educators serves as a coping mechanism in response to systemic challenges figure 1: simulacrum of themes emerged discussion the aim of this study was to explore the concept of a well-lived life among filipino high school teachers. after rigorous analysis of data, the findings revealed six themes that encapsulate the dichotomous forces shaping teachers’ perceptions, experiences, and determinants of a well-lived life. first, filipino high school teachers embody the ideal of service. deeply invested in their students’ success and the betterment of their communities, they exemplify altruism (santiago, 2023). this commitment extends far beyond just teaching. their narratives reveal how they take on the roles of mentors, guides, and even surrogate family, as similarly perceived by banderlipe (2022). it only proves their profound impact, shaping not just academic achievements but also fostering personal growth and resilience in their students. by prioritizing both academic development and community well-being, these teachers transcend their professional duties. they become significant contributors to society, shaping future generations equipped with both knowledge and compassion. however, this dedication to service must be balanced with self-care. research emphasizes the importance of selfcare practices to prevent burnout in educators (barrozo, et al. 2023). the teachers’ stories further emphasize the importance of work-life balance and pursuing personal pa ge 72 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 65-76, 2025 within the education system, such as limited resources and bureaucratic constraints. by maintaining a positive outlook, teachers can mitigate stress and maintain morale, which is crucial for their effectiveness in the classroom. this perspective goes beyond optimism as a personal trait. it highlights its role as a strategic response to external pressures, reflecting broader research on the adaptive benefits of optimism in professional settings (baker et al., 2021). nonetheless, the study support the finding of solution for the systemic challenges confronting teachers, such as inadequate funding and overwhelming administrative duties, which require comprehensive support for resolution. research emphasizes how these obstacles, including insufficient resources and excessive work demands, impede a teachers’ ability to find fulfillment in their careers (magallanes et al., 2022). moreover, these administrative burdens not only compromise the quality of education but also disrupt teachers’ work-life balance. not to mention, societal norms and expectations often undervalue the teaching profession, and may lead to disparities in recognition and compensation (rocque et al., 2020). addressing these challenges necessitates policy reforms and community advocacy to elevate education as a societal priority, moving beyond mere optimism to concrete action (caratiquit & caratiquit, 2022). fourth, teachers find profound purpose and clarity in their work through witnessing their students’ growth and achievements. this experience not only validates their efforts but also strengthens their dedication to education as a transformative force (lu, 2021). research indicates that educators who view their work as purposeful tend to have higher job satisfaction and resilience (melesse & belay, 2020). participants expressed that this clarity guides their work and gives it meaning and fulfillment. one teacher noted, “having a purpose helps a person know where they are headed in life,” echoing literature on the motivational benefits of goal setting (ortan et al., 2021). another emphasized resilience in facing challenges, saying, “you learn from them. what will i do next year? there’s learning in challenges to make life meaningful.” this perspective aligns with studies linking goal pursuit to adaptive coping (hascher et al., 2023). be that as it may, periods of disillusionment or uncertainty can arise, which aligns with research emphasizing the importance of a clear purpose for life satisfaction (madigan & kim, 2021). as noted by teacher 6, there is lamentation over those satisfied with life without ambition, reflecting societal pressures and personal reflections on lacking direction . these insights resonate with literature on vocational identity and job satisfaction among filipino educators (dela rosa, 2023), highlighting potential stress and reduced motivation without clear goals. educational institutions can support teachers by helping them articulate personal and professional aspirations, fostering a conducive environment for career fulfillment and sustained commitment (shankar & nayaken, 2020). cultivating purpose not only benefits teachers but also enhances classroom dynamics and student outcomes, a consideration for policymakers (stoloff et al., 2020). lastly, in discussing “practicing faith and spirituality” among filipino high school teachers, it’s clear their deep religious beliefs significantly influence their view of a fulfilling life. while spirituality’s role in educators’ lives is less explored in other cultures (king & boyatzis, 2020), our findings highlight its importance in the filipino context. participants emphasize that faith grounds them spiritually and guides their teaching careers. they prioritize religious practices like regular church attendance and prayer for resilience in facing professional challenges. this commitment to faith shapes their values and actions, providing purpose and fulfillment in their roles (white, 2020). research also suggests that such spiritual dedication enhances job satisfaction and emotional well-being, reinforcing their dedication to students and community (kim et al., 2021). this underscores how faith sustains teachers emotionally and informs their sense of fulfillment in teaching. in addition to seeking spirituality, the importance of financial and material well-being is also evidenced to be imperative in having a well-lived life. aligned with previous research, the role of economic security in overall life satisfaction is evident (toropova et al., 2021). the statements highlight their pursuit of economic security through tangible achievements such as homeownership, savings, and providing for their families. this perspective resonates with broader cultural values where practicality and material success are intertwined with personal fulfillment and societal expectations . studies underscore that economic stability enhances overall life satisfaction by reducing stress and enabling individuals to meet their basic needs and long-term goals (cheng et al., 2020). teacher 2’s assertion about the peace derived from possessing material necessities underscores how financial security contributes to their sense of well-being (wang & zhang, 2021). these insights asserts how both spiritual fulfillment and economic stability play roles in achieving holistic satisfaction in life. the findings of this study emphasize that a well-lived life for filipino high school teachers is shaped by a balance between service, resilience, optimism, purpose, faith, and financial stability. while previous research highlights the significance of altruism and purpose in teaching, this study reveals a nuanced interplay between personal fulfillment and systemic challenges. it confirms existing literature on teacher resilience and motivation while shedding light on the role of spirituality and economic security as integral components of well-being. these insights suggest that a well-lived life in the teaching profession extends beyond passion for education—it necessitates structural support and societal recognition. future research may explore how these factors interact over time and across different educational contexts. limitations several limitations should be noted in this study, as pa ge 73 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 65-76, 2025 they may impact the extent to which its findings can be generalized and applied. firstly, the small sample size of six participants limits the generalizability of the results to a broader population of filipino junior high school teachers. while qualitative research like interpretative phenomenological analysis (ipa) prioritizes depth, future studies should aim to include a larger and more diverse sample to enhance external validity. secondly, the use of purposive sampling introduces potential selection bias. by targeting participants who met specific criteria, valuable perspectives from teachers who do not fit these criteria or declined participation may have been overlooked. this could restrict the comprehensiveness and inclusivity of the study’s findings. this limitation is noted by lakens (2022), who emphasizes the importance of diverse samples in capturing a wider range of experiences and perspectives among filipino high school teachers nationwide. thirdly, the subjective nature of ipa entails that researchers’ interpretations of participants’ narratives may introduce biases. despite efforts to maintain objectivity, researchers’ backgrounds and perspectives could influence the analysis and identification of themes, impacting the study’s reliability. lastly, the study’s time alotted and context within specific educational settings in the philippines may limit the transferability of findings to other contexts or periods. socio-political changes, educational reforms, or regional variations not explicitly addressed may affect teachers’ perceptions of life differently (wang & cheng, 2020). plus, the cultural specificity of the study, rooted in filipino values and norms, may limit its applicability to other cultural settings, highlighted in kalman’s study (2022). recommendations towards solutions, this study recommends expanding participant diversity and using mixed-methods approaches to gain a more comprehensive understanding of a welllived life among filipino teachers. future research should include standardized scales on well-being, job satisfaction, and career longevity. additionally, we suggest developing a specific scale to measure a well-lived life in educators, providing a structured framework for assessment. comparative studies across cultures can further explore how societal factors shape teachers’ perceptions, offering insights for targeted interventions. beyond expanding research methodologies, these findings have direct applications in developing programs that enhance teachers’ work-life balance. schools and educational institutions can use these insights to design initiatives that promote well-being, such as structured mentoring programs, flexible workload arrangements, and dedicated spaces for mental health support. implementing resilience-building activities, peer support groups, and recognition programs can foster a culture that values teacher well-being, ultimately improving retention and job satisfaction. most importantly, these findings have significant implications for educational policy and practice. administrators should take a balanced approach to supporting teacher well-being. this includes addressing challenges like stress and burnout while also promoting resilience, optimism, and self-care. schools can implement programs that foster resilience and optimism, such as workshops on stress management and self-care resources. additionally, creating a supportive school culture that acknowledges and addresses systemic obstacles is crucial. this could involve establishing collaborative working environments or providing opportunities for teacher leadership. after all, the well-being of teachers extends far beyond the individual. research shows a strong correlation between positive classroom environments and effective teaching – both fostered by well-being – and improved student learning outcomes. by supporting teachers, we not only invest in their well-being but also create a ripple effect that benefits the students they inspire. teachers who embody resilience, optimism, and a strong sense of purpose can serve as powerful role models for their students, fostering the development of these same qualities that are crucial for their success in life. conclusions the study explores the concept of a well-lived life among filipino high school teachers, revealing six contrasting themes: altruism vs. self-care, endurance vs. exhaustion, optimism vs. obstacles, clarity vs. confusion, spirituality vs. security, and practical/material concerns. the findings underscore the importance of resilience, a positive outlook, clear purpose, and spiritual beliefs in shaping teachers’ lives and careers. however, they also highlight the challenges teachers face, such as stress, burnout, systemic obstacles, and financial concerns. the study suggests that educational policies and practices should balance addressing these challenges with promoting resilience, optimism, and self-care. by understanding and addressing these diverse determinants, we can better support teachers’ holistic well-being, allowing them to thrive both within and beyond the classroom. acknowledgements we extend our heartfelt gratitude to god for his guidance and blessings throughout this qualitative study. special thanks to our adviser, sir lawrence d. balana, whose expertise, patience, and encouragement have been invaluable to our research. we also express our sincere appreciation to the city of balanga national high school for providing the support and environment necessary for this study, contributing significantly to our success. references abayon, m. 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(2023). the influence of teachers’ intrinsic motivation on students’ intrinsic motivation: the mediating role of teachers’ motivating style and teacher‐student relationships. psychology in the schools, 61. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.23050 pa ge 1 pa ge 11 3 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) risk of developing compassion fatigue, quality of life, and satisfaction of social-related professionals dominick b. agoot1*, feonah mae p. arreola1, theodore uriel calizo1, jasenia a. ignacio1 volume 3 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v3i1.4654 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: march 01, 2025 accepted: april 08, 2025 published: july 04, 2025 the study titled “risk of developing compassion fatigue, quality of life, and satisfaction of social-related professionals” aims to explore the prevalence and impact of compassion, fatigue, alongside assessing the quality of life and job satisfaction among social-related professionals in the city of ilagan. the research focused on a diverse group of professionals, including nurses, teachers, police officers, guidance counselors, and lawyers, highlighting the emotional and psychological challenges inherent in these roles. using a combination of the compassion fatigue/satisfaction self-test (cfs) and whoo\qol-bref, data were collected from 381 respondents through structured questionnaires. the results reveal weak correlations but no significance between compassion fatigue and both the quality of life and job satisfaction when suing a 01% significance level. notably, the findings indicate that high levels of compassion fatigue have a negative impact on the perceived quality of life and job satisfaction among these professionals. keywords compassion fatigue, quality of life, satisfaction 1 isabela state university, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: davidpascua0814@gmail.com introduction in an increasingly interconnected world, the well-being of professionals in social-related fields has garnered significant attention due to the high demands and emotional labor inherent in these roles. globally, socialrelated professionals, such as nurses, teachers, police officers, guidance counselors, and lawyers are integral to the maintenance and enhancement of societal wellbeing. they are at the forefront of addressing social issues, mitigating crises, and providing essential services that contribute to the overall quality of life within communities. research has highlighted that these professionals are often exposed to high levels of stress and trauma, leading to a condition known as compassion fatigue. compassion fatigue, characterized by emotional and physical exhaustion, can significantly impact the ability of these professionals to provide effective care and support. studies have shown that compassion fatigue is not only a global phenomenon but also prevalent in various countries, including the united states and europe, where it affects the mental health and job satisfaction of professionals in social services (abendroth & flannery, 2006; van bogaert et al., 2009). focusing in the philippines, professionals in social-related fields play pivotal roles in addressing a wide array of social challenges and issues encountered by the populace, particularly those in vulnerable situations. from police officers apprehending criminals to ensure public safety, to teachers nurturing and educating students for a brighter tomorrow, and guidance counselors providing vital support and mentorship to students navigating personal and academic challenges, each profession contributes uniquely to societal well-being. moreover, nurses extend care to the physically injured, while lawyers provide legal counsel and representation to those in need. these vocations demand not only compassion but also resilience in managing both physical and emotional burdens encountered in their line of work, underscoring their indispensable significance within the fabric of philippine society. on a daily basis, social-related professionals commit themselves to assisting individuals in confronting challenges and navigating through traumatic experiences. while their primary objective revolves around aiding others in managing various physical, mental, behavioral, and emotional difficulties, they are also susceptible to experiencing stressors and secondary traumatic stress, ultimately leading to compassion fatigue. among these professionals, social workers bear the crucial responsibility of offering services, guidance, advocacy, and empowerment to the vulnerable, oppressed, and marginalized members of society (buenviaje & martinez, 2017). frequently prioritizing the needs of others, they often neglect their own well-being, rendering them more prone to compassion fatigue, consequently diminishing their levels of compassion satisfaction and ultimately impacting their quality of life. studies further indicate that ergonomic challenges and the intersection of worklife balance significantly contribute to heightened levels of both compassion fatigue and burnout, with the impact of personal life on work correlating with compassion fatigue and diminished levels of trust, alongside an increased perception of future risks associated with burnout (cetrano et al., 2017). this study aligns with the united nations’ sustainable development goals (sdgs) of good health and wellbeing (sdg 3) and decent work and economic growth (sdg 8). by exploring the interplay between compassion fatigue, compassion satisfaction, and quality of life among pa ge 11 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 113-126, 2025 social-related professions, it contributes to promoting good health and well-being by shedding light on the psychological challenges faced by professionals in these fields. additionally, by addressing the gaps in existing literature regarding this relationship, the study enhances understanding and supports efforts towards fostering decent work conditions and economic growth within these professions, ultimately striving towards achieving the broader goals outlined by the sdgs. the unwavering commitment of social-related professionals to provide care with compassion while juggling the relentless demands of the job prompted the researchers’ interest in understanding the intricate factors that shape their well-being. in this light, this research will delve into the interplay between compassion fatigue, compassion satisfaction, and quality of life shedding light on the well-being of the social-related professions. this study addresses two key research gaps: firstly, by extending beyond the commonly studied demographic of nurses to encompass respondents from various socialrelated professions, and secondly, by comprehensively assessing the quality of life, compassion fatigue, and compassion satisfaction within these professions. some studies, such as the one conducted by sorenson et al. (2016), have focused specifically on nurses. unlike previous studies that typically focused on a combination of only two variables—such as compassion fatigue and quality of life or compassion satisfaction and quality of life—this research offers a more holistic understanding by examining all three dimensions concurrently, providing valuable insights into the well-being of social-related professionals. as the researchers embark on this study, their journey is driven by the desire to explore the implications and effects of compassion fatigue and compassion satisfaction and their impact on the quality of life of social-related professionals. they envision a world where professionals such as nurses, teachers, police officers, lawyers and guidance counselors can genuinely enjoy the work they have dreamed of. this motivation fuels their investigation into the emotions and well-being of these professionals, seeking to unravel the unsaid mysteries of how and to what extent a giver can continue to give without sacrificing the quality of their life. literature review compassion fatigue compassion fatigue describes a work-related stress response in healthcare providers that is considered a ‘cost of caring’ and a key contributor to the loss of compassion in healthcare and lack of quality of life. in their investigation, van bogaert et al. (2009) underscored that the demanding nature of the healthcare system, marked by high expectations, time constraints, lack of social support, and perceived inadequate skills to address patient suffering, places considerable stress on healthcare providers. this stress not only affects their health and performance but also has repercussions on job satisfaction, workforce stability, retention, workplace wellness, and patient outcomes. nurses, forming the largest proportion of the healthcare workforce, face a particularly high risk, with burnout rates ranging from 20% to 40% according to various national surveys (neff et al., 2011; mchugh et al., 2011; mchugh & ma, 2014). this supports the idea that dealing with people with trauma has some effects on the state and well-being of social related professionals. as per the statement of chi (2023), the philippines faces a shortage of licensed and registered guidance counselors, with only 19% of the authorized positions filled, leaving a vast gap in essential mental health support. one of the major reasons is because of low compensation. this can also be attributed to the social workers’ reasons for having compassion fatigue, supporting this, according to bouchrika (2024), a striking revelation from the study is that, despite the rigorous degree requirements and the crucial role played by guidance counselors, their salaries remain comparable to entry-level positions in other professions, such as nursing. boyle (2011) and sharma et al. (2014) further highlight that nurses’ well-being is compromised by cumulative stress related to caring for complex patients in environments with limited resources and increased demands. ledoux (2015) introduces the concept of compassion fatigue, initially synonymous with burnout but later criticized for implying a reduction in the expression of compassion. instead, researchers suggest that compassion fatigue occurs when compassion is obstructed, aligning it with moral distress. referencing james baldwin (1963), the text acknowledges the inherent risk of vicarious trauma when working with traumatized individuals. the study explores variables influencing mental health professionals’ responses to vicarious exposure to traumatic stress, examining compassion fatigue, compassion stress, and burnout, and considering individual, occupational, and environmental factors. this statement strengthens the idea that traumatic events from patients with trauma can cause stress leading to compassion fatigue among nurses and social related professionals. fothergill et al. (2004) and maslach (1982) define burnout as a syndrome characterized by emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment, affecting professionals across various fields. exposure factors like long work hours, caseloads with trauma patients, and rural settings are associated with increased stress and compassion fatigue. the study explores how compassion fatigue, compassion stress, and burnout vary based on provider characteristics and contextual variables. gender, educational level, licensure, years of experience, and specialized trauma training are considered, with female gender found to enhance the risk of suffering from compassion fatigue and burnout. the review highlights the challenge of reviewing literature without a clear conceptualization of compassion fatigue. pa ge 11 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 113-126, 2025 it emphasizes the physical, emotional, and work-related symptoms that affect patient care and relationships with coworkers and patients, underscoring the need for additional research and validation of results. ramirez-baena et al. (2019) note that healthcare professionals, especially nurses, face a complex work environment with elements like excessive workload, shift rotation, and witnessing patient suffering. this stress leads to occupational stress and burnout, affecting job satisfaction and the quality of care provided. this study supports the researchers’ notion that compassion fatigue has negative implications in their quality of life as it affects their job satisfaction and quality of care given. in the andalusian public health system, a study aims to analyze the quality of life of nursing professionals and its links to socio-demographic variables and work context, considering factors such as workplace violence. the study recognizes the need for a comprehensive understanding of how these factors influence the well-being of nursing professionals in different care settings. abendroth and flannery (2006) conducted a study focusing on hospice nurses in the united states to assess the prevalence of compassion fatigue. their findings revealed that 78% of hospice nurses were at moderate to high risk of experiencing compassion fatigue. the study also emphasized the significant role of annual income in contributing to compassion fatigue, with lower income levels being identified as a significant factor in this occupational challenge. this aligns with the conclusions drawn by wu et al. (2016) in their study examining compassion fatigue among oncology nurses in the united states and canada. they found a direct correlation between income satisfaction and the level of compassion fatigue experienced, indicating that nurses with lower income levels tend to face higher levels of compassion fatigue. additionally, aycock and boyle (2009) explored interventions aimed at managing compassion fatigue in oncology nursing. their study highlighted the increased risk of stress-related impairment faced by nurses and healthcare professionals due to the demanding nature of their work. this includes providing direct and indirect care to patients and navigating complex environments characterized by shifting priorities and significant decision-making responsibilities. compassion satisfaction among human service professionals, compassion satisfaction has not only been found to mediate the negative effects of compassion fatigue and burnout, but also found to be a potential protective factor for mental health. compassion satisfaction is also viewed as a motivator for continued commitment to the profession (van hook & rothenburg, 2009; conrad & kellarguenther, 2006; stamm, 1995). in bozgeyikli’s study, he quoted bandura (1997) to emphasize that compassion satisfaction is influenced by internal motivational factors such as self-efficacy perceptions, as well as external factors like environmental factors. hasan’s study found a negative relationship between compassion satisfaction and burnout, as well as compassion fatigue. slocum-gori et al. (2011) survey underscores the interconnectedness of compassion satisfaction, compassion fatigue, and burnout in the hospice palliative care workforce. the importance of organizational strategies to enhance job satisfaction and prevent burnout is highlighted, emphasizing the need for comprehensive interventions prioritizing the well-being and resilience of professionals in this sector. quality of life the exploration of quality of life (qol) becomes paramount in understanding the experiences, states, appraisals, and emotional reactions of individuals, particularly within the demanding field of medical and health-profession education. this study focuses on medical students in trinidad and tobago, where elevated stress levels, including burnout and depressive symptoms, have been observed. the current research project aims to assess the differences in qol domains among students in various healthcare disciplines, including medicine, dentistry, veterinary medicine, pharmacy, nursing, and optometry. the study recognizes the challenges faced by students in managing academic pressures, psychosocial environments, and financial difficulties, all of which may impact their qol and academic performance. additionally, the paragraph introduces findings from other regions, emphasizing the suboptimal mental health domain of qol among medical students and the influence of factors like depressive symptoms on qol scores. according to eys (2021) in “hr’s guide to the effect of job stress on employee performance,” productivity is influenced by employees’ time management skills and their ability to focus. however, job stress impairs concentration, deadline adherence, and creativity. additionally, stress can lead to mental health issues such as burnout, anxiety, depression, and conflict, which further impact job productivity. eys’ study, which examines the impact of stress on employee performance and well-being, aligns with the researchers’ study on the significant relationship between compassion fatigue and quality of life. it also highlights that stress can lead to burnout, contributing to a poorer quality of life. in the realm of mental health professionals, the paragraph discusses the daily challenges they face, emphasizing the anticipated stress arising from therapeutic encounters and the potential negative impact on self-efficacy. the concept of stress, as explained by lazarus and folkman, is introduced, and the paragraph delves into the potential consequences for mental health professionals dealing with trauma survivors, such as burnout and compassion fatigue. shifting the focus to nurse managers in the emergency department, the paragraph outlines their complex responsibilities and the necessity of balancing patient pa ge 11 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 113-126, 2025 satisfaction, recruitment and retention of skilled nurses, and the delivery of high-quality care. understanding compassion satisfaction, burnout, and compassion fatigue is deemed essential, highlighting their impact on nurses’ compassionate attitudes and overall patient satisfaction. the subsequent section discusses compassion fatigue among healthcare workers, particularly nurses, emphasizing its potential to affect work quality and personal life. the paragraph introduces the concept of compassion satisfaction as a measure of positive experiences and acknowledges the emotional toll healthcare professionals may experience, leading to a gradual loss of the ability to demonstrate compassion and empathy. according to sardi et al. (2019) in their study, there was no significant difference between the intensity of physical activity (light, moderate, vigorous) and overall qol. however, the intensity of physical activity, measured in mets, positively correlated with vitality and social functioning of the participants. this finding aligns with a study from portugal that highlighted the positive impact of physical activity on everyday aspects of life, rather than qol itself. sardi et al. concluded that physical activity intensity does not improve qol, which is a multidimensional factor. the psychological aspects of qol are emphasized in malfa’s (2021) study, which reported high rates of psychological distress, including symptoms of depression and anxiety, among participants regardless of professional category. healthcare workers, especially physicians and nurses, exhibited increased rates of depressive and anxious symptoms compared to other professions. this underscores the significant psychological burden faced by healthcare workers and the need for interventions to support their mental health and well-being. the impact of covid-19 on healthcare workers’ qol is explored in woon et al.’s (2021) study, highlighting that while physical health qol remained stable, factors like pre-existing medical conditions and covid-19 stressors could impair it. psychological qol was affected by stress from disrupted routines and work-related pressures, and social qol slightly decreased due to limited social interactions during the pandemic. however, the study indicates that social support, especially from friends and colleagues, played a significant role in buffering these negative effects and enhancing overall qol. subjective well-being (swb) and its relation to qol are discussed in eid et al. (2008). this study focuses on determining what aspects of a social worker’s profession, workplace, and personal life they consider when evaluating their own happiness. the concept of swb encompasses multiple aspects, including individual experiences, mental processes, decisions, overall life, and job satisfaction. transitioning to psychiatric nurses, the paragraph addresses the significant workplace violence they often encounter and the adverse effects on their well-being. compassion fatigue emerges as a detrimental consequence of work-related stress, impacting job performance, emotional and physical health. the paragraph references studies demonstrating the prevalence of burnout signs among psychiatric nurses and the range of symptoms associated with compassion fatigue, including physical, behavioral, and psychological manifestations. in summary, these paragraphs collectively present a comprehensive overview of the challenges and implications associated with quality of life, compassion satisfaction, burnout, and compassion fatigue across various healthcare professions, emphasizing the need for targeted interventions to safeguard the well-being of professionals in these demanding fields. materials and methods research design the present study utilizes a descriptive-correlational research design to explore and determine compassion fatigue, quality of life, and satisfaction among socialrelated professionals. this design allows for a detailed description of these variables and examines the relationships between them. according to creswell (2014), descriptive research provides a comprehensive understanding of a group’s characteristics. by employing this method, the study aims to contribute valuable insights into the well-being of social-related professionals and align with existing literature on occupational well-being, such as the works of stamm (2010) and figley (2002). research locale the study will be conducted at the respective agencies within the city of ilagan in march 2024. it involves six professions: 60 nurses from the city of ilagan medical center (cimc), 161 teachers from isabela national high school (inhs) and isabela school of arts and trades (isat), 144 police officers from the isabela police provincial office, 8 guidance counselors from inhs and saint ferdinand college, and 8 lawyers from the public attorney’s office (hall of justice). selection and description of the respondents the respondents for this study are selected through purposive sampling due to the specific characteristics and availability of the professionals. purposive sampling allows researchers to intentionally choose individuals who are most relevant to the study. this method is particularly useful given the limited number of guidance counselors in the city of ilagan and ensures that teachers, nurses, lawyers and police officers selected provide valuable insights. this approach ensures the selected subset accurately represents the larger population. data gathering instruments the study will use the world health organization quality of life whoqolbref australian version (may 2000) which is a 26-item which measures the following broad four domains, physical health, psychological health, social relationship and environment, the whoqolpa ge 11 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 113-126, 2025 bref had good internal consistency as cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the overall scale was 0.91. the convergent validity results indicated that the correlation coefficients values for all scale domains are significantly correlated at α < 0.01. the whoqol is a quality of life assessment developed by the whoqol group with fifteen international field centres, simultaneously, in an attempt to develop a quality of life assessment that would be applicable cross-culturally. compassion fatigue/satisfaction self-test (cfs) which is a 66-items questionnaire, this self-test helps you estimate your compassion status: how much at risk you are of burnout and compassion fatigue and also the degree of satisfaction with your helping others. the author of the cfs test, adapted with permission from figley, c.r. (1995). compassion fatigue, new york: brunner/mazel. o b. hudnall stamm, traumatic stress research group, 1995-1999. data gathering procedure the researchers have undertaken ethical measures, including obtaining informed consent through a detailed letter, seeking permission from agency heads, emphasizing privacy and confidentiality commitments, ensuring voluntary participation, assessing and transparently communicating potential risks and benefits, handling demographic and sensitive information with care, and conducting data analysis procedures with integrity, to ethically investigate compassion fatigue, quality of life, and satisfaction among social-related professionals. the researchers made a printed letter of permission that will be addressed to the head of each agency of the nurses, teachers, police, guidance counselor, and lawyers before the conduct of the study. following the approval, participants will be provided with an informed consent letter that outlines the research purpose and background, potential risks and benefits of participation, voluntary nature of involvement, privacy assurances, and the commitment to maintaining confidentiality. this information aims to assist participants in completing the questionnaires. copies of the questionnaires were distributed to the relevant respondents to collect pertinent data. the initial batch of questionnaires was distributed to the designated sample, comprising three questionnaires in total. specifically, the first questionnaire focused on gathering information related to demographic variables, while the subsequent three questionnaires contained items designed to assess different aspects of individuals’ well-being, particularly in the context of social-related professions. the gathered and retrieved copies of completed questionnaires will be meticulously tallied and tabulated by the researchers. subsequently, the data will undergo analysis and interpretation through the most appropriate statistical procedures. data analysis procedure the collected data from the whoqol-bref and cfs test will be organized and cleaned to ensure accuracy. frequency and percentage distributions will be calculated to provide a comprehensive overview of the data. pearson chi-square tests will be employed to explore associations and dependencies within categorical data, providing insights into relationships based on respondents’ variables. the results from these future statistical analyses will then be interpreted to draw meaningful conclusions about the interplay of factors influencing the well-being and professional experiences of the study participants. results and discussion profile of respondents table 1: frequency and percentage distribution according to age age frequency percentage 20-26 31 8 27-33 161 42.3 34-40 118 31 41-47 49 12.9 58-54 18 4.7 55-61 4 1.1 total 381 100.0 table 2: frequency and percentage distribution according to sex sex frequency percentage female 206 54 male 175 46 total 381 100.0 table 3: frequency and percentage distribution according to profession a. profession b. frequency c. percentage d. guidance advocate e. 5 f. 1.3 g.guidance counselor l. 3 q. .8 h. lawyer m. 8 r. 2.1 i. nurse n. 60 s. 15.7 j. police officer o. 144 t. 37.8 k. teaching p. 161 u. 42.3 v. total w. 381 x. 100.0 based on table 1 displays the frequency and percentage distribution of respondents based on their age, the largest group comprised individuals aged 27 to 33, accounting for 163 responses compared to 118 individuals that is next to the highest which age group 34 to 40 years old and the lowest age is 55 to 61 years old has 4 individual. based on table 2 there are 208 females in our respondent and 176 male respondents. given that females outnumber males among the respondents, it suggests that women are more inclined or accessible to participate in the study. pa ge 11 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 113-126, 2025 in table 3, the largest group of respondents belongs to the teaching profession, comprising 161 individuals. following this, there are 144 police officers, with the lowest being both guidance counselors and psychologists, each having 3 respondents. as per the statement of chi (2023), as seen in the table, the philippines faces a shortage of licensed and registered guidance counselors, with only 19% of the authorized positions filled, leaving a vast gap in essential mental health support. one of the major reasons is because of low compensation. according to bouchrika (2024), a striking revelation from the study is that, despite the rigorous degree requirements and the crucial role played by guidance counselors, their salaries remain comparable to entry-level positions in other professions, such as nursing. table 4: frequency and percentage distribution according to salary grade salary grade frequency percentage salary grade 1 4 1.1 salary grade 2 2 .5 salary grade 7 35 9.2 salary grade 8 2 .5 salary grade 11 40 11 salary grade12 59 15.5 salary grade 13 167 43.8 salary grade14 10 2.6 salary grade 15 24 6.3 salary grade16 2 .5 salary grade 18 14 3.7 salary grade19 4 1.1 salary grade20 8 2.1 salary grade 22 2 .5 salary grade 25 1 .3 salary grade 26 7 1.8 total 381 100.0 table 4, there are 167 individuals classified under salary grade 13, indicating their placement in the lower middleincome class. the lowest category is salary grade 25, with only 1 respondent, indicating their placement in upper middle-income class based on social classes as defined by the philippine statistics authority. table 5: frequency and percentage distribution according to employment status employment status frequency percentage permanent 354 93.0 contractual 27 7.0 total 381 100.0 in table 5, 357 respondents hold permanent employment status, while 27 individuals are classified as contractual, indicating the majority being permanent employees. this prevalence of permanent employment implies stability and potentially heightened job security among the majority of respondents. table 6: frequency and percentage distribution according to annual income annual income frequency percentage less than p131,484 4 1.1 p131,485-p254,328 44 11 p254,329-p525,936 301 79 p525,937-p920,028 24 6.2 p920,029-p1,577, 808 7 1.8 p1,577,809-p2,629,680 1 .3 total 381 100.0 in table 6, the majority of annual income is concentrated within the range of p254,329 to p525,936, accounting for 303 out of the total respondents. compared to the lowest income p1,577,809 to p2,629,680 with only one respondent. this range represents individuals classified under the low-income social class though not considered poor. table 7 : frequency and percentage distribution according to years of service years of service frequency percentage 1 month 5 years 118 31 6 years 10 years 133 35 11 years 15 years 94 24.7 16 years 20 years 17 4.5 21 years 25 years 9 2.4 26 years 30 years 7 1.8 31 years 35 years 3 0.8 total 381 100.0 in table 7, the majority of respondents, which is 135, have served for 6 to 10 years, while there are 17 individuals who have served for 16 to 20 years, and the lowest number of respondents, only 3, have served for 31 to 35 years. overall, the distribution of respondents across different service years in table 1.g provides valuable insights into employee tenure, retention patterns, and potential implications for organizational dynamics and workforce management strategies. table 8: frequency and percentage distribution according to work shift work shift frequency percentage day 266 69.8 day and night 109 28.6 night 6 1.6 total 381 100.0 pa ge 11 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 113-126, 2025 according to table 1.h, 269 respondents work day shifts, while 6 respondents work night shifts. additionally, 109 respondents have both day and night shifts in their work schedules. an article by garcia et al. (2023) titled ‘day shift vs. night shift’ highlights that day shift work aligns more naturally with traditional societal schedules, offering better opportunities for social interactions, family time, and access to services during regular business hours. day shift workers may also experience better sleep quality and overall well-being due to the alignment of their work hours with the body’s natural circadian rhythm. these findings offer insights into the distribution of shift patterns among the respondents, which can have implications for understanding their work-life balance, potential exposure to occupational hazards, and overall job satisfaction. an article by garcia et al. (2023 titled ‘eight-hour work day’ delves into the historical context of labor movements and legislation that led to the establishment of the standard eight-hour workday, highlighting its role in promoting worker rights and improving overall worklife balance. the article also examines the benefits of the eight-hour workday, such as increased productivity, better employee morale, and enhanced work-life balance. table 9: frequency and percentage distribution according to civil status civil status frequency percentage married 260 68.2 single 120 31.5 widowed 1 .3 total 381 100.0 table 10: frequency and percentage distribution according to place of work place of work frequency percentage academe 169 44.4 law enforcers 144 37.8 city of ilagan medical center 60 15.7 hall of justice 8 2.1 total 381 100.0 table 11: frequency and percentage distribution according to number of working hours number of working hours frequency percentage 4 hours 1 .3 8 hours 276 72.4 9 hours 5 1.3 10 hours 11 2.9 12 hours 31 8.1 15 hours 1 .3 19 hours 1 .3 24 hours 55 14.4 total 381 100.0 the majority of the respondents are married, comprising 68.2% of the total sample. single respondents make up a significant portion of the sample at 31.5%, while widowed respondents represent a very small fraction at 0.3%. this distribution indicates that the sample is predominantly composed of married individuals, followed by single individuals, with a minimal presence of widowed individuals. the table illustrates that the majority of respondents are from the academe teaching professions and guidance counselor categories, with a total of 169 individuals. following this, law enforcers police officers with a total of 144 respondents, and the lowest is from the mental health clinic, there are 3 respondents. this table 11 displays the number of hours worked by respondents. the majority, amounting to 276 individuals, work for 8 hours. additionally, 55 respondents work for 24 hours. lastly, there is one individual who works varying hours, including 4, 15, and 19 hours per day. extent of the respondents’ risk of developing compassion fatigue table 12. shows the mean score for compassion fatigue is 2.46, meaning that the respondents generally experienced low risk of having compassion fatigue at the time of answering the questionnaires. the finding shows that professionals working or dealing with other people on a daily basis have a low risk for compassion fatigue suggests that the nature of their work, coupled with effective coping strategies and supportive environments, can help mitigate the impact of emotional stressors. table 12: extent of the respondents’ risk of developing compassion fatigue mean descriptive interpretation compassion fatigue 2.46 low risk this result is in contrast with ramirez-baena et al. (2019) findings that healthcare professionals, especially nurses, face a complex work environment with elements like excessive workload, shift rotation, and witnessing patient suffering that leads to occupational stress and burnout, affecting job satisfaction and the quality of care provided. this gives the researchers the notion that despite being in social related professions, the respondents, regardless of their specific profession, are not susceptible to compassion fatigue as opposed to van bogaert et al. (2009)’s findings that the demanding nature of the healthcare system, marked by high expectations, time constraints, lack of social support, and perceived inadequate skills to pa ge 12 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 113-126, 2025 address patient suffering, increases the risk of developing compassion fatigue. extent of the respondents’ compassion satisfaction table 13: extent of the respondents’ compassion satisfaction mean descriptive interpretation compassion satisfaction 3.66 high potential table 13. shows the extent of the respondents’ risk of developing compassion satisfaction. the extent of the respondents’ risk of developing compassion satisfaction is notably high, with a grand mean score of 3.66 falling within the “high potential” category. as supported by the findings of unjai et al. (2022), most healthcare professionals in critical care units exhibit a high level of compassion satisfaction. moreover, unjai et al. suggest that compassion satisfaction is correlated with resilience, flourishing, and harmonious passion, with resilience and harmonious passion predicting compassion satisfaction. this implies that individuals who possess qualities such as resilience and a harmonious passion for their work are more likely to experience higher levels of compassion satisfaction. overall, the interpretation indicates that respondents gain significant emotional rewards from their helping roles, showing a high potential for compassion satisfaction regardless of their specific profession. this contrasts with the concept of compassion fatigue, emphasizing positive emotional outcomes from caregiving rather than the negative impacts of empathetic distress. this interpretation underscores the importance of recognizing and nurturing the positive aspects of caregiving roles, as they enhance the emotional well-being and fulfillment of individuals in helping professions. quality of life of the respondents table 14: quality of life of the respondents domain mean descriptive interpretation physical 3.68 high psychological 3.96 high social 4.11 high environment 3.81 high grand mean 3.89 high table 14 presents the mean scores and descriptions of respondents’ quality of life across various dimensions. in the physical domain, the grand mean of 3.68 suggests that respondents generally experience high levels of physical pain impacting their activities and medical treatment needs. however, they feel satisfied with their ability to move around physically, their sleep quality, performance of daily living activities, capacity for work, and energy levels indicating good and consistent physical abilities. regarding psychological well-being, the grand mean of 3.96 indicates a high positive outlook. although the respondents occasionally experience negative feelings, they significantly enjoy life and find it meaningful. they also feel mostly able to concentrate, accept their bodily appearance, and are satisfied with themselves indicating a good psychological state in the quality of life questionnaire. in the social dimension, the grand mean of 4.11 indicates that respondents have a high level of satisfaction with personal relationships and support from friends. while satisfaction with their sex life is slightly lower, overall, respondents seem content with their social interactions. this shows that socially, the respondents have a good support system and social life. in the environmental domain, the grand mean of 3.81 reflects high satisfactory living conditions. respondents generally feel safe in their daily lives and are satisfied with their living conditions, access to health services, and transportation. however, there are some concerns about the availability of leisure activities and information. this shows that the respondents are well accustomed to their environment and are in tune of their surroundings. overall, respondents report high satisfactory quality of life across physical, psychological, social, and environmental dimensions. according to sardi et al. (2019) titled “correlating physical activity and quality of life of healthcare workers”, there was no significant difference between the intensity of physical activity (light, moderate, vigorous) and qol. nevertheless, the intensity of physical activity measured in mets seems to have a positive correlation with vitality and social functioning of the participants, which is in agreement with a study from portugal that showed the positive effect of physical activity, not so much on qol itself, but on everyday aspects of life. according to their conclusion, physical activity intensity cannot improve the qol, which is a multidimensional factor. their study negates the researchers’ results, that physical activities have an effect on social workers quality of life. in psychological, according to malfa (2021) titled “psychological distress and health-related quality of life in public personnel”, the study reports high rates of psychological distress among participants, including symptoms of depression and anxiety, regardless of professional category. healthcare workers, especially physicians and nurses, exhibit increased rates of depressive and anxious symptomatology compared to other professions. these findings underscore the psychological burden faced by healthcare workers in their daily work and highlight the need for interventions to support their mental health and well-being. the study of woon et al. (2021) titled ‘quality of life and its predictive factors among healthcare workers after the end of a movement lockdown: the salient roles of covid-19 stressors, psychological experience, and social support’ it highlights the impact of covid-19related stressors, psychological effects, and social support pa ge 12 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 113-126, 2025 on the quality of life (qol) of healthcare workers. it found that while physical health qol remained stable, factors like pre-existing medical conditions and covid-19 stressors could impair it. psychological qol was affected by stress from disrupted routines and workrelated pressures, while social qol slightly decreased due to limited social interactions during the pandemic. however, it says in their study that social support, especially from friends and colleagues, played a significant role in buffering these negative effects and enhancing overall qol. according to larsen et al. (2008) in his study titled “the science of subjective well-being” essentially, this study has focused on determining what aspects of a social worker’s profession, workplace and personal life they are evaluating when considering their own happiness. the concept of swb is understood to be composed of multiple aspects, including individual experiences, mental processes and decisions, along with overall life and job satisfaction. in the study of shier et al. (2015) titled “subjective wellbeing, social work, and the environment: the impact of the socio-political context of practice on social worker happiness” the studies findings also states that physical and cultural environment factors along with sociopolitical environment factors as directly impacting their perceived well-being. both of these studies have given data that the environment has an impact on workers, which corroborates the researchers’ study that the environment has an impact on the quality of life among social workers. the findings underscore the need for comprehensive support measures to enhance the quality of life (qol) among healthcare workers. addressing physical pain, bolstering social support, and providing mental health resources are essential, alongside promoting healthy lifestyle habits. recognizing the influence of individual experiences and systemic factors emphasizes the importance of creating supportive work environments to promote overall well-being among healthcare professionals. relationship between compassion fatigue and the respondents’ profile variables table 15 presents the significant relationship between compassion fatigue and the respondents’ profile variables. presented in the table above, the probability values for the profile age, sex, civil status, profession, salary grade, employment status, annual income, years of service, number of working hours and type of shift were greater than 0.01. the null hypothesis was accepted. there is no significant relationship between compassion fatigue and the respondents’ profile age, sex, civil status, salary grade, employment status, years of service, number of working hours and type of shift. for the profile place of work, the probability values were less than and equal to 0.01. the null hypothesis was rejected. there is a significant relationship between the compassion fatigue and the respondents’ profile place of work. table 15: relationship between the compassion fatigue and the respondents’ profile variables profile p-value decision interpretation age .411 accepted ho not significant sex .282 accepted ho not significant civil status .908 accepted ho not significant profession .005 accepted ho not significant salary grade 1.00 accepted ho not significant employment status .438 accepted ho not significant annual income .029 accepted ho not significant years of service .767 accepted ho not significant number of working hours .998 accepted ho not significant type of shift .069 accepted ho not significant place of work .000 rejected ho significant the compassion fatigue of the respondents is independent with their profile, age, sex, civil status, profession, salary grade, employment status, annual income, years of service, number of working hours and type of shift; but, significantly dependent with their place of work. hence, place of work influenced the compassion fatigue of the respondents. the study of abendroth and flannery (2006) ‘predicting the risk of compassion fatigue: a study of hospice nurses’’, the respondents were nurses from the united states. it was found that 78% of hospice nurses were at a moderate to high risk of compassion fatigue but the researchers’ findings show a contradictory result with profession having no significant relationship with profession. another contradictory study conducted by aycock and boyle (2009) titled “interventions to manage compassion fatigue in oncology nursing”, highlights that nurses and healthcare professionals confront an increased risk of stress-related impairment as a result of the demanding nature of their work. this includes providing both direct and indirect care to the ill and suffering, as well as navigating intricate environments characterized by shifting priorities and substantial decision-making responsibilities. this study contradicts the researchers’ findings that indicate professions have no significant relationship with compassion fatigue despite the fact that professions often face risk of experiencing compassion pa ge 12 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 113-126, 2025 fatigue. despite their roles often involving significant emotional labor, dealing with others’ emotions, stress, and sometimes trauma on compassion fatigue. relationship between compassion satisfaction and the respondents’ profile variables table 16: relationship between the compassion satisfaction and the respondents’ profile variables profile p-value decision interpretation age .882 accepted ho not significant sex .061 accepted ho not significant civil status .798 accepted ho not significant profession .050 accepted ho not significant salary grade .125 accepted ho not significant employment status .480 accepted ho not significant annual income .831 accepted ho not significant years of service .709 accepted ho not significant number of working hours .004 rejected ho significant type of shift .750 accepted ho not significant place of work .245 accepted ho not significant table 17: significant relationship between the quality of life and the respondents’ profile variables profile p-value decision interpretation age .486 accepted ho not significant sex .173 accepted ho not significant civil status .935 accepted ho not significant profession .859 accepted ho not significant salary grade .984 accepted ho not significant employment status .781 accepted ho not significant annual income .729 accepted ho not significant years of service .397 accepted ho not significant number of working hours .032 accepted ho not significant type of shift .199 accepted ho not significant place of work .954 accepted ho not significant the table above presents the significant relationship between compassion satisfaction and the respondents’ profile variables. presented in the table above, the probability values for the profile age, sex, civil status, profession, salary grade, employment status, annual income, years of service, type of shift and place of work were greater than 0.01. the null hypothesis was accepted. there is no significant relationship between compassion satisfaction and the respondents’ profile age, sex, civil status, profession, salary grade, employment status, annual income, years of service, type of shift and place of work. for the profile number of working hours, the probability values were equal and less than 0.01. the null hypothesis was rejected. there is a significant relationship between the compassion satisfaction and the respondents’ profile number of working hours. in the working hours, the data shows that working 10 hours may typically be associated with increased stress or burnout, findings that in these professions, a moderate amount of working hours, such as 8 hours, allows individuals to effectively balance their professional responsibilities with their personal well-being. lesser working hours shows higher compassion satisfaction among social related professions showing negative correlation. the compassion satisfaction of the respondents is independent with their profile age, sex, civil status, profession, salary grade, employment status, annual income, years of service, type of shift and place of work; but, significantly dependent with their number of working hours. hence, the number of working hours influenced the compassion satisfaction of the respondents. relationship between quality of life and respondents’ profile variables the table before presents the significant relationship between quality of life and the respondents’ profile variables. presented in the table above, the probability values for the profile age, sex, civil status, profession, salary grade, employment status, annual income, years of service, number of working hours, type of shift and place of work were greater than 0.01. the null hypothesis was accepted. there is no significant relationship between quality of life and the respondents’ profile age, sex, civil status, profession, salary grade, employment status, annual income, years of service, number of working hours, type of shift and place of work. pa ge 12 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 113-126, 2025 the quality of life of the respondents are independent with their profile age, sex, civil status, profession, salary grade, employment status, annual income, years of service, number of working hours, type of shift and place of work. the findings of this study is opposed to the study of khan et al. (2016) titled “association of specialty and working hours with compassion fatigue”, their study shows a result that working hours were associated with compassion fatigue but is opposed by the findings of the researchers’ study that compassion fatigue is associated with the factor, working hours of social related professions. relationship between and among the compassion fatigue, compassion satisfaction and quality of life of the respondents table 18: significant relationship between and among compassion fatigue, compassion satisfaction and quality of life of the respondents group r-value p-value decision interpretation compassion fatigue and compassion satisfaction -.117 0.22 accepted ho not significant compassion fatigue and quality of life .115 .024 accepted ho not significant compassion satisfaction and quality of life .115 0.24 accepted ho not significant table 18 shows the significant relationship between and among the compassion fatigue, compassion satisfaction and quality of life of the respondents. as shown in the table above, the probability values for all the groups were greater than 0.01. the null hypothesis was accepted. there is no significant relationship between and among the compassion fatigue, compassion satisfaction and quality of life of the respondents. the findings of this study are similar to the study of sukut et al. (2021) titled ‘professional quality of life and psychological resilience among psychiatric nurses’, their results have shown that the positive correlation between compassion satisfaction and compassion fatigue was found to be very weak and non-significant. as opposed to the researchers’ findings, compassion fatigue and compassion satisfaction has weak negative correlation and has no significant relationship showing that despite having high compassion satisfaction and low compassion fatigue, the two do not show any relationship. another study by eys (2021) titled “hr’s guide to the effect of job stress on employee performance ‘’opposes the researchers’ finsdings. eys (2021) states that productivity depends on employees’ time management skills and ability to focus on the task at hand. unfortunately, when job stress comes into play, employees find it difficult to concentrate, meet deadlines, and utilize their creativity. more significantly, stress can trigger other mental health concerns that impact job productivity— including burnout, anxiety, depression, and conflict. her study focuses on how stress affects employees’ performance and well-being which is contrary to the researchers’ findings that compassion fatigue and compassion satisfaction does not have a significant relationship. additionally, parsaei et al. (2020) conducted a study entitled ‘the impact of various stressors on quality of life: applying multilevel latent class analysis on a large cohort of industrial workers.’ their findings revealed a significant negative correlation between life stressors and employees’ quality of life (qol). this supports the researcher’s conclusion that compassion fatigue and qol have weak negative correlation but does not share a significant relationship. contradictory to kermansaravi et al.’s study (2014) titled ‘the relationship between quality of work life and job satisfaction of faculty members in zahedan university of medical sciences’ they found that the quality of work life predicts job satisfaction among faculty members. improving aspects like the workplace environment and opportunities for development can enhance job satisfaction, in addition to gupta et al.’s study (2022) titled “quality of life as predicted by job satisfaction among employees,” it was hypothesized that there would be a significant relationship between job satisfaction and employees’ quality of life. the study also assumed that job satisfaction would predict quality of life among employees. due to lockdown restrictions, data collection was conducted online with clear instructions provided to participants. upon their analysis, the findings revealed a weak positive correlation between job satisfaction and quality of life, with regression analysis indicating that job satisfaction indeed predicts quality of life among employees. the researchers’ data findings show that there is no significant relationship between quality of life and compassion satisfaction but bhas weak positive correlation. this means that despite an increase in compassion and quality of life is observed, the two variables does not show enough significance to have a relationship. the compassion fatigue, compassion satisfaction and quality of life of the respondents are not significantly correlated with each other. hence, the three mentioned variables do not significantly influence each other showing that there is no significant difference between compassion fatigue and satisfaction evident in the tables above showing that a high potential in compassion satisfaction has a negative correlation with compassion fatigue. the same can be said with compassion fatigue and the quality of life of the respondents showing that having low risk of compassion fatigue negatively correlates with the quality of life of the respondents. conclusion the current study was aimed at understanding how compassion fatigue is managed and compassion pa ge 12 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 113-126, 2025 satisfaction is obtained by professionals in various highstress fields such as lawyers, nursing, guidance counseling, teaching and law enforcement; thus preserving their wellbeing. this implies that working conditions are influential when it comes to raising or lowering stress levels. therefore, there is a need for workplaces to offer support and encouragement which include fair regulations, reasonable burdens and an environment that appreciates honesty among others. the researchers discovered that a lot of experts have high compassion satisfaction and this means that there is greater emotional reward in their work regardless of the difficulties. in order to maintain satisfaction, organizations must uphold the value system by recognizing the good work done by employees and encouraging a positive and supportive working environment. furthermore, many professionals who participated in the researchers’ study reported having high quality life on four dimensions: physical, psychological, social and environmental. this reveals how crucial it is to strike a healthy balance between professional commitments and personal life. organizations should provide flexible work hours available for everyone so that they could take as much time off as possible and actively encourage people to enjoy outside interests which give them pleasure and relief. there are different challenges that every profession encounters hence; there is no uniform way to approach compassion fatigue and job satisfaction. for example, trauma-informed care training and psychological assessments for police officers whereas nurses would require supportive leadership and mindfulness practices. it can make a lot of difference when support is tailored based on each profession’s needs. the researchers also found out that having mental health services in the workplace was important. professional counseling, stress relief workshops or peer support groups could help professionals take care of their emotional well-being. it is imperative that organizations provide easy access to these services and discourage any reservations from using them by the employees. acknowledgements all acknowledgments (if any) should be included in a separate section before the references and may include funding source, supporting grants with grant number, list of peoples who contributed to the work in the manuscript but not listed in the author list. references abendroth, m., & flannery, j. 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(2020). prevalence and factors of compassion fatigue among chinese psychiatric nurses. medicine, 99(29), e21083. https:// doi.org/10.1097/md.0000000000021083 pa ge 1 pa ge 68 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) assessing the challenges and interventions for primary education learners glenda inoferio1*, helen revalde1 volume 2 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v2i1.2772 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: may 05, 2024 accepted: may 31, 2024 published: june 04, 2024 this research assessed the learners’ challenges encountered and interventions provided at dumaguete city central school in dumaguete city division during school year 2023-2024 for a proposed behavior modification guide. this descriptive correlational design study had purposively selected 120 parent and 16 teacher respondents who answered a researcher-made survey questionnaire. the data gathered were statistically treated. findings revealed that the majority of parent respondents were 30-49 years old, females, high school graduates, with 3-4 children, and middle-income. teacher respondents mostly were 51-69 years old, female, with master’s units, and had 16 years or more in service. the parents and teachers perceived the extent of the learners’ challenges encountered as to family and peers was high, and the classroom was moderate for parents and low for teachers. parents’ perception of the extent of the interventions provided to the learners in terms of family, peers, and classroom was all moderately done. while for the teachers, as to family was done, for peers and classroom was extensively done. there was no significant difference between the teachers’ and parents’ perception of the learners’ challenges encountered by family and peers, but there was a significant difference in the classroom variable. there was no significant difference between the teachers and parents’ perception on the extent of interventions provided towards the learners in terms of family, peers, and classroom. there was a significant relationship between the challenges encountered and the interventions provided towards the learners. keywords early childhood education, challenges encountered, interventions provided, descriptivecorrelational research, dumaguete city division, philippines 1 cebu technological university, cebu city, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: glendainoferio05@gmail.com introduction the universal significance of early childhood education is recognized across cultures and educational systems, emphasizing its critical role in establishing the groundwork for lifetime learning and growth (spiteri, 2020). despite this shared understanding, the landscape of early childhood education reveals significant disparities in the challenges encountered by learners and the effectiveness of interventions, particularly when comparing western and asian educational contexts (wang et al., 2020). this disparity emphasizes the importance of having a detailed understanding of these problems and the development of culturally responsive interventions to support young learners effectively. a wide range of obstacles early childhood learners face in western countries, most notably the united states, has been thoroughly documented. these obstacles, which are frequently entrenched in socioeconomic concerns, familial contexts, and developmental issues, are acknowledged as important hurdles to children’s educational involvement and achievement (tam, 2018). to address these challenges, a variety of initiatives, including policy reforms and tailored programs, have been developed to improve access to high-quality education while also providing specialized support for students facing unique challenges. however, the dynamic nature of societal and educational expectations mandates the ongoing evaluation and customization of these interventions to ensure that they match the changing requirements of young pupils. this continual monitoring strives to guarantee that all young students have the necessary help to prosper academically and developmentally. in contrast, in asian educational systems, such as the philippines, the reported prevalence of early childhood education issues is lower (duangthip et al., 2017), which could be due to cultural values that emphasize respect, discipline, and obedience from a young age. this cultural emphasis may result in fewer overt behavioral problems and a unique set of educational hurdles (lizardo, 2017). however, this does not suggest a lack of obstacles; rather, it indicates variances in issue assessment, reporting, and intervention within the cultural context. this disparity reveals a considerable gap in the literature, implying that cultural norms and expectations influence not just the identification of problems, but also the perceived effectiveness and execution of remedies. the need for culturally sensitive assessment methods and interventions becomes evident, underscoring the importance of understanding and addressing the unique needs of early learners across different cultural settings. the philippine school system has implemented initiatives such as bawat bata bumabasa (3bs) and every child a reader program (ecarp) to address fundamental educational difficulties, with the goal of improving literacy and combating learning poverty (saavedra et al., 2021). however, the post-pandemic surge in student enrollment has presented additional concerns, such as adjustment difficulties and issues with classroom capacity and scheduling. these developing challenges, including pa ge 69 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 68-83, 2024 tardiness, absenteeism, and social integration issues, highlight the importance of tailored support in creating a positive educational environment for early learners. this study aims to bridge the gap in understanding early childhood learners’ educational challenges and the interventions provided across cultural contexts. by examining these aspects within the specific cultural framework of the philippines, the research seeks to contribute valuable insights into creating supportive, inclusive, and effective educational environments for primary learners to improve the quality and accessibility of early childhood education while considering students’ cultural, social, and economic realities, opening the way for diverse and effective educational approaches. review of related literature and studies the philippine educational landscape showcases a fascinating blend of psychological theories and educational policies, particularly in the field of early childhood education (ece). theoretical foundations are derived from b.f. skinner’s behaviorism and albert bandura’s social learning theory. these theories provide valuable insights into learning and behavior shaping, which are essential for developing and implementing effective educational strategies. at the core of policy frameworks are the department of education (deped) order no. 40 s. 2012 (child protection policy), the omnibus policy on kindergarten education, and the enhanced basic education act of 2013. these policies play a crucial role in guiding approaches to child safety, curriculum development, and setting overall educational standards. skinner’s behaviorism, with its emphasis on the effects of environmental consequences on behavior, has a profound impact on educational practices (skinner, 1986). in familial contexts, utilizing positive reinforcements such as praise or rewards for good behavior or academic achievements can have a significant impact on shaping a child’s behavior. this approach effectively tackles the issue of low motivation or participation in educational activities. in classrooms, skinner promotes the importance of creating a controlled environment that fosters appropriate behavior and learning. this can be achieved through the implementation of positive reinforcement strategies such as verbal praise, tokens, or extra playtime. mastering the art of tailoring curriculum and teaching strategies to create optimal learning environments is essential. highlighting the importance of observation, imitation, and modeling within social contexts, bandura’s social learning theory complements skinner’s behaviorism. it emphasizes the importance of parents, peers, and teachers as behavioral models (bandura & walters 1977). bandura’s theory highlights the profound influence of social interactions on children’s learning and behavior. in educational settings, peer interactions and teacher modeling play a crucial role. initiatives such as peer mentoring and cooperative learning activities promote positive peer interactions and improve social integration. the deped child protection policy emphasizes the importance of creating a secure educational environment, with a focus on the roles of families and the resolution of issues such as abuse or neglect. it emphasizes the significance of establishing a home atmosphere that promotes learning. with a deep understanding of the subject matter, the omnibus policy on kindergarten education and the enhanced basic education act prioritize the use of curricula that are tailored to the developmental needs of young learners. these policies also recognize the significance of addressing the specific challenges that these learners may encounter. families have a crucial impact on early childhood education. factors such as socio-economic status, family structure, and parental involvement play a crucial role in shaping children’s development. lowerincome families frequently face challenges in providing sufficient educational resources and support (panicker & nedungottil, 2021). active parental involvement is crucial in creating a supportive atmosphere for learning (allay, 2023). peer interactions play a crucial role in shaping children’s social and emotional development. understanding the impact of issues such as bullying and social exclusion on emotional and behavioral well-being is crucial (jones et al., 2017). muñoz-hurtado (2018) posits that positive peer interactions are associated with higher levels of academic engagement and achievement, whereas negative interactions can lead to disengagement and decreased academic performance. establishing inclusive and supportive peer environments is of utmost importance (franklin lópez et al., 2021). the classroom and school environment also present challenges, including teacher-student relationships, classroom management, and the inclusivity of the curriculum. the interaction between teachers and students has a profound impact on learning outcomes franklin & harrington, 2019). positive and supportive teacher-student relationships have been found to correlate with improved academic achievements and student well-being (poulo, 2020). on one hand, alghufali (2024) claims that teachers have to provide artistic activities for it improves children’s creative thinking, cognitive abilities, emotional wellbeing, and social development. amiri (2023) postulates that teachers have to holistically supported and should unwind for their enjoyment and boredom significantly affect students’ enjoyment and learning acquisition. programs implemented to address family-related challenges range from workshops and seminars to help parents support their children’s learning at home, as well as initiatives to enhance communication between schools and families (cadieux et al., 2019). schools that implement various strategies to address peerrelated challenges, such as anti-bullying campaigns, peer mentoring programs, and social skills training create a positive school environment that prioritizes the safety, inclusion, and value of all students (theg, 2017). dealing with classroom challenges in ece involves effectively navigating diverse developmental stages and learning pa ge 70 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 68-83, 2024 styles, while prioritizing active student engagement. mastering the art of structured learning, incorporating elements of playfulness, utilizing differentiated instruction, and embracing inclusive teaching methods are crucial for success (yu, 2023). understanding the importance of managing the transition from home or pre-school settings to formal schooling is crucial. professional development for teachers has placed a strong emphasis on inclusive teaching practices and effective classroom management when addressing classroom and school-related challenges. lindner and schwab (2020) found that teachers who receive training on differentiation and inclusive practices, the classroom environment is improved and becomes an optimal space for inclusive learning for every student. it develops a more inclusive curriculums that embrace the diverse backgrounds and learning needs of students. employing an integrative approach in ece requires skilfully combining interventions across family, peer, and classroom contexts. these include parent-led programs, peer interaction initiatives like the incredible years, and classroom interventions such as the reggio emilia approach (healy et al., 2022; murray et al., 2018; smith, 2021). building upon the diverse array of theories, legal bases, and related studies referenced, this research constructs a foundational framework aimed at further investigating the multifaceted aspects influencing early childhood education (ece) in the philippines. despite substantial research into educational theories, family dynamics, peer interactions, and classroom problems, there is a scarcity of comprehensive studies that combine these factors in the context of philippine early childhood education. hence, this study assessed the primary education learners’ challenges encountered and interventions provided in some schools in dumaguete city, negros oriental, philippines. methodology this descriptive correlational design study had purposively selected 120 parent and 16 teacher respondents who answered the researcher-created questionnaires after it passed the pilot testing, validity, and consistency tests with 0.76 cronbach alpha (ca). informed consent and other ethical guidelines were complied. the survey for parents and teachers encompassed three parts: part i collected demographic data such as age, gender, educational attainment, family income (for parents), and length of service (for teachers). assessed the challenges faced by learners in family, peer, and classroom settings with 10 statements per category. part iii assessed the interventions for those challenges, with 10 statements per category. both parts used a 5-point likert scale: 5-strongly agree, 4-agree, 3-undecided, 2disagree, and 1-strongly disagree. the data gathered were organised, tallied, summarised, tabulated, and treated statistically with a statistician’s assistance. frequency count and percentage were used to determine the parents’ and teachers’ profile-related variables. weighted mean was employed to ascertain the extent of the challenges encountered by the learners and the interventions provided. independent samples t-test was utilized to test for significant differences between the teacher’s and parents’ perceptions of the challenges encountered by the learners and interventions provided. while pearson correlation coefficient (r) was applied to test the significant relationship between the extent of the challenges encountered and interventions provided to the learners. results and discussion this section presents the results of the data gathered in terms of the parents’ and teachers’ profile, their perceptions of the extent of the challenges encountered by the learners and the interventions provided, the test of significant difference between the teachers and parents’ table 1: age and gender of the parent-respondents age (in years) female male total f % f % f % 40-49 13 10.83 20 16.67 33 27.50 30-39 31 25.83 29 24.17 60 50.00 20-29 17 14.17 10 8.33 27 22.50 total 61 50.83 59 49.17 120 100.00 perception on the challenges encountered by the learners and interventions provided, and its significant relationship. as shown in table 1, the 30-39 age group is the most represented, accounting for 50% of all respondents, with a nearly equal split between females (25.83%) and males (24.17%). parents aged 40 to 49 account for 27.5% of all responses, with males (16.67%) outnumbering females (10.83%). the 20-29 age group accounts for 22.5% of the total, with females (14.17%) outnumbering males (8.33%) once again. females (50.83%) slightly outweigh males (49.17%) in the overall gender distribution. balanced gender representation is essential in providing a comprehensive view from both mothers and fathers, acknowledging that gender may influence parental attitudes and involvement in their children’s education. cabrera et al (2018) indicated that mothers and fathers frequently assume distinct responsibilities in their children’s education. mothers tend to be more actively engaged in direct educational activities, such as assisting pa ge 71 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 68-83, 2024 with homework, but fathers commonly provide indirect support by establishing educational expectations. the variation in age groups can also affect parental perspectives on educational challenges and expectations. sorkkila and aunola (2020) claimed that younger parents, who may have a smaller age gap with current educational practices, may possess distinct expectations and approaches towards education in contrast to older parents. parents who are older may depend more on traditional techniques and may hold distinct viewpoints on contemporary educational trends and technologies. the findings align with the research of barger et al (2019), which indicates that parental involvement in children’s education varies across different age groups and that mothers are generally more involved in educational matters than fathers. insufficient resources or knowledge. park and holloway (2017) expressed that parents with lesser education may place a higher value on practical knowledge or skills rather than academic pursuits, which influences how they approach their children’s education. their perspectives and contributions to their children’s learning journey are crucial, as they might focus more on practical life skills and basic academic support. table 2: highest educational attainment of the parentrespondents educational attainment f % college graduate 15 12.50 college level 33 27.50 high school graduate 50 41.67 high school level 18 15.00 elementary graduate 4 3.33 total 120 100.00 table 3: parent-respondents’ number of children number of children f % more than 4 6 5.00 3-4 63 52.50 1-2 51 42.50 total 120 100.00 table 2 reveals that most parents (41.67%) have a high school diploma, followed by those with some college education (27.50%). college graduates account for 12.50% of responses, while those who have just completed high school account for 15.00%. elementary grads make up the lowest group, accounting for 3.33%. the data indicates that a sizable proportion of the parents have completed high school, implying a basic level of educational achievement that can impact their viewpoints and involvement in their children’s education. the lower number of college graduates could be attributed to socioeconomic circumstances or regional educational patterns. this situation could indicate socio-economic factors that restrict higher educational achievement or indicate regional educational patterns where college access is less common. in addition, these parents may place a higher value on practical knowledge or skills rather than academic pursuits, which influences how they approach their children’s education. their perspectives and contributions to their children’s learning journey are crucial, as they might focus more on practical life skills and basic academic support. coleman (2018) has elaborated that the higher educated parents, such as college graduates, are frequently more involved in their children’s academic lives and can provide more complete support, such as understanding complicated educational material and navigating school systems. parents with lesser educational attainment, on the other hand, may experience difficulties in adequately supporting their children’s academic demands due to table 3 presents that many of the parents (52.50%) have 3-4 children, followed by 42.50% who have 1-2 children, and a small percentage (5.00%) with more than 4 children. the prevalence of parents with three or more children suggests that these families may have special obstacles in allocating resources, such as time, attention, and financial resources, among their children. this is especially important in schooling, as parents may need to divide their commitment and support across numerous children. greenway et al (2020) discussed that parents with several children found themselves balancing multiple responsibilities, which can result in limited time and resources to cater to each child’s unique educational requirements. it can also have an impact on the children, as they may receive less individualized support at home for homework or school projects. on contrast, parents with fewer children (1-2) may be able to give their children’s educational requirements more focused attention and resources. however, this does not always mean improved educational performance, as other characteristics such as parental education levels and socioeconomic position also play important roles. blake (2022) supports that children with fewer siblings have higher educational attainment, partly because parents can allocate more resources per child. table 4: parent-respondents’ combined family monthly income monthly income (in pesos) f % above 30,000 28 23.33 25,001-30,000 23 19.17 20,001-25,000 35 29.17 15,001-20,000 31 25.83 10,001-15,000 3 2.50 total 120 100.00 table 4 showcases that the most common income bracket is 20,001-25,000 pesos, encompassing 29.17% of the respondents. this is followed closely by those earning pa ge 72 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 68-83, 2024 15,001-20,000 pesos (25.83%) and those earning above 30,000 pesos (23.33%). the bracket of 25,001-30,000 pesos comprises 19.17% of the respondents, and the least represented group earns between 10,001-15,000 pesos (2.50%). the income distribution implies that most parent respondents are middle-income. families with mid-range monthly salaries (15,001-30,000 pesos) may have distinct resources and challenges than those with greater or lower incomes. higher-income families (those earning more than 30,000 pesos) may have greater resources to invest in their children’s education, such as private tutoring, improved instructional materials, and extracurricular activities. marshall and fukao (2019) claimed that high-income families can afford additional educational resources like private tutoring, advanced instructional materials, and diverse extracurricular activities, which can enrich their children’s educational experiences and enhance academic performance. in contrast, the lower income band (10,001-15,000 pesos) constitutes a small percentage of the sample, implying that these families may experience more financial constraints, thereby impacting their capacity to adequately fund their children’s educational needs. according to cross et al (2018), lower-income families frequently encounter considerable difficulties in offering educational support, mainly because of their limited financial resources. this economic hardship may have a significant impact on their children’s ability to access quality education and essential educational resources, potentially leading to lower academic performance and long-term educational prospects. liu et al (2020) supports the relationship between socioeconomic status and academic achievement. this research found that family income is a significant predictor of children’s educational outcomes, with higher income linked to better academic performance. table 6: teacher-respondents’ highest educational attainment educational attainment f % with master’s units 12 75.00 bachelor’s degree 4 25.00 total 16 100.00 table 5: age and gender of the teacher-respondents age (in years) female male total f % f % f % 51-59 6 37.50 0 0.00 6 37.50 42-50 5 31.25 1 6.25 6 37.50 33-41 1 6.25 1 6.25 2 12.50 24-32 2 12.50 0 0.00 2 12.50 total 14 87.50 2 12.50 16 100.00 table 5 reveals that 87.5% female teachers and 12.5% male instructors. more specifically, 37.50% of these female professors are 51-59 years old and 31.25% are 42-50. with 12.50% of teacher respondents, 33-41 and 24-32 are underrepresented. in particular, there are no male teachers in the 24-32 and 51-59 age categories. this gender bias toward female teachers, especially in older age groups, is typical of the teaching profession, especially in early childhood and primary school. this gender disparity is commonly linked to societal norms and perceptions regarding gender roles in education. kelleher et al (2011) suggested that the teaching profession has historically been associated with nurturing, which has resulted in a higher representation of women in these stages. in addition, wang and degol (2017) found a gender disparity in teaching and its possible effects on teaching and student experiences. the age distribution among these teachers indicates a significant number of experienced educators who possess a wealth of knowledge and expertise that can greatly benefit educational environments. according to a study conducted by podolsky et al (2019), experienced teachers can greatly influence student learning outcomes due to their advanced teaching skills and effective classroom management strategies. nevertheless, it may indicate a need for more diverse viewpoints and modern teaching approaches within the teaching profession. valtonen et al (2020) highlight the valuable contributions of younger teachers who bring fresh perspectives and a strong grasp of modern educational technologies and methodologies. these qualities are crucial for creating a dynamic and current educational atmosphere. this diversity in the teaching workforce can lead to a more holistic and enriched educational experience for student. table 6 shows that a significant majority (75%) have completed some units towards a master’s degree, while the remaining 25% hold a bachelor’s degree. the high proportion of master’s degree holders among teachers suggests that their workforce is well educated, which may have a beneficial effect on the standard of instruction they deliver. higher education frequently provides teachers with more comprehensive knowledge, pedagogical expertise, and a greater comprehension of educational ideas and practices. these educators may be able to serve a wider range of learning needs, produce more creative lesson plans, and participate in curriculum creation and educational research with this degree of pa ge 73 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 68-83, 2024 study. a study by kim and seo (2018) supports the notion that teachers’ educational attainment is directly correlated with educational outcomes. the study found that teachers with higher qualifications and advanced degrees are often more effective in the classroom, leading to better student performance. additionally, teachers with advanced degrees tend to be more adept at curriculum development and implementing innovative teaching methods, which can positively influence student learning outcomes (shawer, 2017). table 7: length of service of teacher-respondents length of service (in years) f % 16 and above 11 68.75 11-15 2 12.50 6-10 2 12.50 1-5 1 6.25 total 16 100.00 table 7 divulges that the majority (68.75%) of the teachers have a length of service of 16 years or more. a smaller group, each constituting 12.50%, have been in service for 6-10 years and 11-15 years, respectively. only a minimal portion (6.25%) falls into the 1-5 year service category. the substantial proportion of teachers with extended tenures (16 years and beyond) signifies a highly seasoned teaching faculty. considerable expertise might be advantageous for enhancing educational excellence, as seasoned educators are frequently more proficient in classroom administration, pedagogical methodologies, and comprehending student requirements. their extensive experience in the education sector may also indicate a profound understanding of the curriculum, institutional expertise, and a steadfast dedication to the profession. the length of service not only reflects their tenure in the educational field but also can be indicative of their expertise and familiarity with educational practices and policies. flower et al (2017) stated that experienced teachers possess a deep understanding of classroom management and instructional strategies, resulting in enhanced student learning outcomes. podolsky et al (2019) have also corroborated the significance of teachers’ experience, finding that teaching effectiveness generally increases with years of experience, particularly during the first few years. however, the study also emphasizes the importance of a balance between experienced and new teachers to foster a dynamic and evolving educational environment. table 8: extent of the challenges encountered by the learners as to family as perceived by the parents and teachers s/n indicators parents teachers wm vd wm vd 1 the family's economic situation affects the learner's school participation. 3.78 high 4.44 very high 2 homework support at home is insufficient for the learner. 3.99 high 3.44 high 3 family responsibilities affect the learner's homework time. 3.79 high 3.94 high 4 lack of educational resources at home hinders learning. 3.91 high 3.75 high 5 the learner's educational needs are not well understood by family members. 3.18 moderate 3.63 high 6 family stress or conflicts impact the learner's focus on school. 3.69 high 4.44 very high 7 parents' work schedules limit their involvement in school activities. 3.30 moderate 4.00 high 8 there is limited encouragement for learning from the family. 4.09 high 3.75 high 9 the learner has to care for younger siblings, affecting study time. 3.62 high 3.88 high 10 family does not regularly communicate with teachers about the learner's progress. 3.53 high 4.19 high aggregate weighted mean 3.69 high 3.94 high legend: 4.21-5.00-very high; 3.41-4.20-high; 2.61-3.40-moderate; 1.81-2.60-low; 1.00-1.80-very low the parents’ perception in table 8 has the aggregate weighted mean (awm) of 3.69 with a verbal description of ‘high,’ which suggests that significant family-related challenges exist that notably impact the learner’s educational experience. significant factors include the substantial influence of economic limitations (3.78) on school enrolment, highlighting financial challenges as a primary obstacle. the lack of sufficient homework support at home (3.99) and the high-ranking for-family responsibilities impeding homework time (3.79) indicate difficulties in providing suitable academic assistance and managing household duties. the absence of sufficient educational resources within the household (3.91) and elevated ratings for family stress or disputes (3.69) further emphasize the constraints in terms of materials and the negative impact of emotional variables on learning. while the challenges of educational needs and parents’ work schedules are considered moderate, the lack of encouragement for learning from the family (rated at 4.09) and inadequate communication with teachers regarding the learner’s progress (rated at 3.53) indicate notable deficiencies in motivational and communicative support. pa ge 74 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 68-83, 2024 this suggests that there had been significant familyrelated challenges that notably impact the learner’s educational experience. financial constraints can limit access to educational resources and opportunities, thereby impacting academic achievement. the lack of sufficient homework support and the impact of family responsibilities on homework time highlight the struggle many families face in providing academic assistance. this difficulty in managing household duties alongside educational support is supported by the findings of vatterott (2018), who emphasize the importance of a conducive home environment for homework completion and better learning. garcia et al (2020) supports these findings, emphasizing the importance of parental involvement and the home environment in children’s academic success. the study suggests that challenges such as economic hardship and limited parental involvement can negatively affect children’s academic outcomes. table 8 further reveals that the teachers’ perceptions of the extent of family-related challenges faced by learners, with an aggregate weighted mean (awm) of 3.94, with a verbal description of ‘high,’ which implies that significant family-related challenges exist that notably impact the learner’s educational experience. the family’s economic status and family stress or disputes are considered to have a significant influence (both rated 4.44) on learners’ school involvement and focus, respectively. these findings indicate that limited financial resources and domestic problems pose substantial obstacles to students’ ability to engage in and focus on their studies. high ratings are given to challenges such as inadequate homework support at home (3.44), the influence of family duties on homework time (3.94), and the absence of educational resources (3.75). these findings indicate challenges in creating a suitable home learning environment and managing academic and household responsibilities. in addition, the high assessment of 3.75 for insufficient encouragement for learning and 4.19 for inadequate communication between family and teachers underscores a deficiency in the provision of motivational and communicative support by families. the necessity for learners to attend to their younger siblings (3.88) highlights the wide range of obligations that affect their available study time. the teachers’ observations are consistent with the findings of liu et al (2020), which indicated that both family participation and socioeconomic factors have a major influence on pupils’ academic performance. in addition, park and holloway (2017) indicated that difficulties in the family setting, such as financial struggles and insufficient parental involvement, might have a negative impact on students’ academic achievements. this correlation suggested that issues such as financial struggles within the family can directly and indirectly affect a student’s ability to engage effectively in academic pursuits. this connection highlights the importance of educational policies and interventions that consider the wider socio-economic and familial context in which students are placed. table 9: extent of the challenges encountered by the learners as to peers as perceived by the parents and teachers s/n indicators parents teachers wm vd wm vd 1 learners feel pressured by peers to conform in play and activities. 4.21 very high 3.38 moderate 2 difficulty in making friends affects learners' participation in class. 3.60 high 3.00 moderate 3 teasing or bullying by peers is affecting learners' confidence. 3.81 high 4.19 high 4 peer interactions sometimes distract learners from classroom activities. 3.48 high 3.81 high 5 learners feel left out or excluded by their peers during group activities. 2.78 moderate 3.25 moderate 6 peer conflicts are impacting learners' emotional well-being. 3.36 moderate 3.50 high 7 peer group dynamics influence learners' attitudes towards school. 3.59 high 3.69 high 8 shyness or social anxiety in peer interactions affects classroom engagement. 3.56 high 3.88 high 9 learners mimic negative behaviors observed in their peers. 3.47 high 3.81 high 10 peer support or lack thereof influences learners' academic interest. 3.39 moderate 3.75 high aggregate weighted mean 3.52 high 3.63 high legend: 4.21-5.00-very high; 3.41-4.20-high; 2.61-3.40-moderate; 1.81-2.60-low; 1.00-1.80-very low table 9 indicates an overall ‘high’ level of concern with an aggregate weighted mean (awm) of 3.52. this suggests that notable peer interaction issues exist, significantly affecting learners’ social well-being and academic performance. an important concern is the influence of peer pressure in play and activities, which is ranked very high (4.21). this suggests that learners have a significant want to conform to the norms set by their peers, leading to stress and potentially affecting their individuality. the presence of elevated levels of friend-making challenges (3.60) and instances of teasing or bullying (3.81) indicate that issues related to social inclusion and harassment are substantial concerns, impacting students’ engagement in classroom activities and their self-assurance. the interference caused by peer interactions (3.48) and the effect of peer group dynamics on attitudes towards school pa ge 75 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 68-83, 2024 (3.59) emphasize the significant significance of peer relationships on academic engagement. the evaluations for feelings of exclusion (2.78) and peer conflicts impacting emotional well-being (3.36) suggest that these concerns are moderately present, albeit not overwhelmingly so. furthermore, the significance of shyness or social anxiety (3.56) and imitating unfavorable peer actions (3.47) highlights the intricate nature of peer influence, including emotional factors and behavioral tendencies. the findings align with the study conducted by jones and doolittle (2017), which examined the significance of peer interactions in the development of children, highlighting the crucial role that peers play in social and emotional learning. their research substantiates the notion that peer interactions exert a substantial impact on children’s behavior, self-assurance, and academic enthusiasm. this corresponds to the significant levels of difficulties observed in table 9, suggesting that peer dynamics, both positive and negative, have a crucial role in molding students’ experiences in school. comprehending and tackling these problems connected to peers is crucial in establishing educational environments that are supportive and inclusive, promoting healthy social relationships and emotional well-being. moreover, table 9 showcases the teachers’ perceptions of peer-related challenges encountered by learners, with an aggregate weighted mean (awm) of 3.63, indicating an overall ‘high’ level of concern which implies that notable peer interaction issues exist, significantly affecting learners’ social well-being and academic performance. teachers identify teasing or bullying by peers as the most significant concern, as it greatly impacts learners’ confidence (4.19). this is a crucial issue, as bullying can have enduring adverse impacts on a child’s self-confidence and psychological well-being. additional prominent challenges include the diversion of learners’ attention from classroom activities due to peer interactions (rated at 3.81), reduced classroom engagement caused by shyness or social anxiety (rated at 3.88), learners imitating negative behaviors observed in their peers (rated at 3.81), and the impact of peer support, or the absence thereof, on academic interest (rated at 3.75). these findings emphasized the substantial influence of peer interactions on multiple facets of students’ educational encounters, encompassing classroom involvement, emotional welfare, and conduct. the ratings for feeling pressured by peers (3.38), trouble in making friends (3.00), and feeling excluded during group activities (3.25) indicate that these issues are of concern, but they are not as severe as some other problems. nevertheless, the observation that peer group dynamics and disputes have a substantial impact on attitudes towards school (3.69) and emotional well-being (3.50) highlights the crucial need to tackle these matters. the study conducted by healy et al (2022) provides evidence that the strength of peer interactions significantly impacts students’ academic motivation and emotional well-being. their research highlights that adverse peer interactions, such as bullying and exclusion, can result in less school involvement and elevated levels of anxiety and despair. table 10: extent of the challenges encountered by the learners as to classroom as perceived by the parents and teachers s/n indicators parents teachers wm vd wm vd 1 the classroom setup is not engaging for grade 3 learners. 4.06 high 2.00 low 2 students struggle with following classroom instructions. 3.30 moderate 2.38 low 3 there is a lack of age-appropriate learning materials. 3.17 moderate 2.63 moderate 4 classroom noise levels often distract learners. 3.51 high 2.88 moderate 5 teaching methods do not adequately cater to different learning abilities. 3.08 moderate 2.13 low 6 learners find it difficult to stay focused during lessons. 3.64 high 2.81 moderate 7 there is insufficient praise and motivation from teachers. 3.38 moderate 2.06 low 8 group activities do not effectively include all students. 3.16 moderate 2.19 low 9 learners feel anxious about speaking or participating in class. 3.01 moderate 2.63 moderate 10 classroom activities are not diverse and engaging. 2.39 low 1.94 low aggregate weighted mean 3.27 moderate 2.36 low legend: 4.21-5.00-very high; 3.41-4.20-high; 2.61-3.40-moderate; 1.81-2.60-low; 1.00-1.80-very low table 10 presents that the parents’ perceptions of the challenges encountered by grade 3 learners in the classroom are considered moderate overall, as indicated by an aggregate weighted mean (awm) of 3.27. this means that occasional difficulties in classroom management or engagement, impacting the learning experience. significantly, the classroom arrangement’s lack of engagement for learners is highly rated (4.06), suggesting that parents regard the atmosphere as insufficiently stimulating or favorable to learning. furthermore, the elevated scores for classroom noise levels leading to distractions (3.51) and difficulty in sustaining concentration throughout classes (3.64) indicate notable environmental and attention-related obstacles pa ge 76 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 68-83, 2024 within the classroom. additional concerns, such as pupils experiencing difficulty in comprehending instructions (3.30), a shortage of learning materials suitable for their age (3.17), and inadequate encouragement and motivation from teachers (3.38), are considered to be moderate obstacles. this suggests apprehensions regarding the sufficiency of teaching methods and materials. curiously, the lowest rating pertains to the diversity and engagement of school activities (2.39), indicating that parents may not consider this to be a serious worry in comparison to other matters. these findings suggest that although the classroom setting as a whole presents certain difficulties, especially in terms of student participation and concentration, parents do not view all aspects of classroom learning as problematic. the positive evaluation of the classroom arrangement and noise levels indicates a necessity to develop more captivating, well-structured, and tranquil learning settings that may effectively captivate and maintain students’ focus. corroborating these findings, a study conducted by mundiri and hamimah (2022) revealed that the tangible setting of the classroom, instructional techniques, and the dynamics between teachers and students significantly influence students’ educational encounters and level of involvement. hofkens and pianta (2022) corroborated that combining effective instructional techniques and positive teacher-student interactions s essential for maximizing student engagement and learning outcomes. i would emphasize the importance of educators being aware of the physical and interpersonal dynamics in their classrooms and using teaching strategies that are responsive and inclusive to all students’ needs. it also indicated that classrooms should be carefully planned and supervised to cater to various learning requirements and reduce interruptions, in line with the concerns expressed by parents. these observations emphasized the significance of consistently assessing and adjusting classroom environments and teaching approaches to enhance learning conditions for young pupils. table 10 also shows teachers’ perceptions of the challenges encountered by grade 3 learners in the classroom, with an aggregate weighted mean (awm) of 2.36, indicating an overall ‘low’ level of perceived challenges which means that some minor issues with classroom dynamics or resources may exist, but they have limited impact on learning. this viewpoint differs significantly from that of parents. teachers assess the classroom arrangement as unengaging for grade 3 students (2.00) and consider the suitability of teaching methods for various learning abilities (2.13) as low difficulties, indicating that they view these components of the school environment as generally satisfactory. likewise, difficulties such as pupils encountering difficulties with instructions, inadequate commendation and encouragement from teachers, and the efficacy of collaborative tasks are all given low ratings (range from 2.06 to 2.38). on the other hand, teachers have identified many moderate obstacles, such as a scarcity of learning resources suitable for the students’ age (2.63), high levels of noise in the classroom leading to distractions (2.88), and learners struggling to maintain their concentration throughout lessons (2.81). furthermore, there is a moderate level of concern regarding learners experiencing anxiety when it comes to speaking or participating in class (2.63). the disparity in perception between parents and teachers may stem from their distinct jobs and interactions with the pupils. teachers, due to their direct involvement in the classroom, may have a more accurate perception of their surroundings and teaching methods compared to parents. corroborating this observation, a study conducted by rom and eyal (2019) revealed that teachers’ impressions of their classroom environment and instructional approaches frequently diverge from those of parents and children. this discrepancy is mostly attributed to teachers’ greater engagement and distinct viewpoint on classroom dynamics. this divergence in perception highlighted the importance of effective communication and partnership between schools and families. by bridging the gap between home and school perspectives, educators and parents can work together more effectively to support students’ learning and well-being. table 11: extent of interventions provided towards the learners to cope with the challenges encountered in terms of family as perceived by parents and teachers s/n indicators parents teachers wm verbal description wm verbal description 1 the teachers have provided financial literacy and resource management workshops for families to alleviate economic hardships impacting learners. 4.27 extensively done 3.31 moderately done 2 parent-teacher meetings and workshops have been organized to enhance parental involvement in children's education. 3.31 moderately done 4.56 extensively done 3 a flexible homework schedule and support program has been established for students managing family responsibilities. 3.65 done 4.25 extensively done 4 the teachers have distributed learning kits and digital resources to students lacking educational materials at home. 2.60 minimally done 3.88 done pa ge 77 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 68-83, 2024 5 counseling services and family workshops are available to address stress or conflicts in the home environment. 3.15 moderately done 3.69 done aggregate weighted mean 3.40 moderately done 3.94 done legend: 4.21-5.00-extensively done; 3.41-4.20-done; 2.61-3.40-moderately done; 1.81-2.6, and minimally done; 1.00-1.80-not done table 11 illustrates the parents’ perceptions of the extent of interventions provided by teachers to assist learners in coping with family-related challenges. the aggregate weighted mean (awm) of 3.40 indicates that these interventions are perceived as being ‘moderately done.’ this means that moderate family-challenge-related interventions are in place, offering adequate support but with room for improvement in addressing the challenges. the parents highly rate the provision of financial literacy and resource management workshops (4.27), viewing these as ‘extensively done.’ this suggests that parents recognize and appreciate efforts made by teachers to alleviate economic challenges affecting learners. however, the distribution of learning kits and digital resources for students lacking materials at home is perceived as ‘minimally done’ (2.60), indicating an area for improvement in resource allocation. parent-teacher meetings and workshops to enhance parental involvement (3.31) and a flexible homework schedule for students managing family responsibilities (3.65) are rated as ‘moderately done’ and ‘done,’ respectively. these indicate a moderate level of satisfaction with the school’s efforts to engage parents and accommodate students’ home responsibilities. counseling services for addressing home stress or conflicts are also seen as ‘moderately done’ (3.15). this viewpoint from a parent’s standpoint indicates a recognition of specific teacher-led endeavors, including those aimed at resolving financial difficulties and parental engagement. it also emphasizes the need for improvement in terms of offering tangible resources and assistance. corroborating this observation, a study conducted by lohmann et al (2018) emphasizes the significance of school-family collaboration in tackling obstacles that adolescents encounter beyond the school environment, such as financial difficulties and limited access to resources. the research highlights the beneficial influence of these joint endeavors on students’ holistic academic and emotional welfare. table 11 also exposes that the teachers’ perceptions of the extent of interventions provided by teachers to assist learners in coping with family-related challenges. the aggregate weighted mean (awm) of 3.94 indicates that these interventions are perceived as being ‘done,’ which suggest that significant family-challenge-related interventions are actively employed, effectively addressing the challenges and offering substantial support. meanwhile, the provision of financial literacy and resource management workshops (3.31) is perceived as ‘moderately done,’ suggesting that while such initiatives are in place, there is potential for further development. the distribution of learning kits and digital resources for students lacking materials at home (3.88) and the availability of counseling services to address home stress or conflicts (3.69) are both rated as ‘done,’ indicating a significant level of effort in these areas, albeit with room for improvement. these teacher perceptions imply a commitment to addressing the multifaceted needs of students within their family contexts. the focus on parental involvement and support for managing family responsibilities highlights an understanding of the crucial role families play in students’ educational experiences. supporting this, a study by lohmann et al (2018) underscores the positive impact of school-family partnerships on student success. their research emphasizes that parental involvement and support mechanisms tailored to family circumstances can significantly enhance student learning outcomes. moreover, this approach aligned with grant and ray (2018), which suggested that a child’s development is influenced by the different systems in their environment, including the family. schools that engage families and acknowledge the challenges and strengths of different family contexts are more likely to create supportive and inclusive learning environments. table 12: extent of interventions provided towards the learners to cope with the challenges encountered in terms of peers as perceived by parents and teachers s/n indicators parents teachers wm verbal description wm verbal description 1 anti-bullying campaigns and peer mediation programs have been implemented to address bullying and teasing. 3.63 done 4.38 extensively done 2 social skills training sessions are conducted to assist students in forming friendships and interacting positively with peers. 3.70 done 4.06 done 3 programs focusing on self-esteem and individuality have been introduced to help students manage peer pressure. 3.26 moderately done 3.94 done pa ge 78 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 68-83, 2024 4 inclusive group activities and diverse team projects are regularly organized to promote social inclusion. 3.13 moderately done 4.31 extensively done 5 the teachers monitor and guide peer group dynamics through supervised group discussions and collaborative learning activities. 3.25 moderately done 4.50 extensively done aggregate weighted mean 3.39 moderately done 4.24 extensively done legend: 4.21-5.00-extensively done; 3.41-4.20-done; 2.61-3.40-moderately done; 1.81-2.6, and minimally done; 1.00-1.80-not done table 12 provides insights into parents’ perceptions of interventions implemented by schools to help learners cope with peer-related challenges, with an aggregate weighted mean (awm) of 3.39, indicating these interventions are perceived as ‘moderately done’. this means that moderate peer-challenge-related interventions are in place, offering adequate support but with room for improvement in addressing the challenges. parents acknowledge the implementation of anti-bullying campaigns, peer mediation programs (3.63), and social skills training sessions (3.70) as completed actions, indicating that schools are taking a proactive stance in tackling bullying and fostering strong peer relationships. these treatments are vital as they directly tackle prevalent issues like bullying, which can have substantial effects on a student’s emotional welfare and academic journey. however, programs that prioritize self-esteem and individualism to effectively address peer pressure (3.26), inclusive group activities to promote social inclusion (3.13), and monitoring and guiding peer group dynamics (3.25) are evaluated as ‘moderately done’. this implied that although these programs exist, there is potential for improvement in terms of their regularity, efficacy, or visibility to parents. furthermore, the importance of conducting these programs on a regular basis, ensuring effective implementation, and making them visible to parents highlights the need for comprehensive approaches that involve all stakeholders in the educational process. parental awareness and involvement in these programs can greatly enhance the skills learned at school and promote a unified approach to social skill development. corroborating this viewpoint, a study conducted by jones et al. (2017) underscores the efficacy of social skills training in enhancing peer interactions and mitigating problematic behaviors within educational environments. their research highlights the significance of these interventions in effectively shaping kids’ social skills and interactions with their peers. table 12 depicted teachers’ perceptions of the extent of interventions provided to assist learners in coping with peer-related challenges. the aggregate weighted mean (awm) of 4.24 indicates that these interventions are perceived as ‘extensively done’, reflecting an extensive and comprehensive peer-challenge-related interventions are in place, ensuring a high level of support and effectively addressing all the challenges. a strong commitment by teachers to address these issues. teachers rate the implementation of anti-bullying campaigns and peer mediation programs (4.38) as well as the organization of inclusive group activities and diverse team projects (4.31) as ‘extensively done’. this suggests a proactive and thorough approach in tackling bullying and fostering social inclusion. additionally, the high rating for monitoring and guiding peer group dynamics (4.50) implies a vigilant and active role by teachers in facilitating healthy peer interactions. social skills training sessions (4.06) and programs focusing on self-esteem and individuality (3.94) are rated as ‘done’, indicating significant efforts to help students develop interpersonal skills and manage peer pressure. these interventions are critical as they directly impact students’ abilities to form positive relationships and maintain their individuality in social settings. the teachers’ proactive approach is consistent with the research conducted by healy et al. (2022), which highlights the efficacy of school-based interventions such as social skills training and antibullying programs in enhancing peer relationships and diminishing instances of bullying. their research emphasizes the favorable results of these thorough and effectively executed interventions. table 13: extent of interventions provided towards the learners to cope with the challenges encountered in terms of classroom as perceived by parents and teachers s/n indicators parents teachers wm verbal description wm verbal description 1 additional classroom resources have been provided, and technology integration has been enhanced to support diverse learning needs. 3.04 moderately done 4.31 extensively done pa ge 79 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 68-83, 2024 2 teacher training on classroom management and student engagement strategies has been conducted to improve the learning environment. 3.08 moderately done 4.69 extensively done 3 tailored lesson plans and differentiated instruction strategies are employed to accommodate various learning styles and abilities. 3.23 moderately done 4.50 extensively done 4 interactive and engaging learning activities are designed to maintain students' interest and motivation in the classroom. 3.66 done 4.50 extensively done 5 continuous professional development for teachers is prioritized to adapt teaching methods for more effective learning experiences. 3.16 moderately done 4.69 extensively done aggregate weighted mean 3.23 moderately done 4.54 extensively done legend: 4.21-5.00-extensively done; 3.41-4.20-done; 2.61-3.40-moderately done; 1.81-2.6, and minimally done; 1.00-1.80-not done table 13 shows how parents perceive the extent of interventions provided by schools to cope with classroom challenges. the aggregate weighted mean (awm) of 3.23 indicates these interventions are perceived as ‘moderately done’. this suggests that moderate classroom-challengerelated interventions are in place, offering adequate support but with room for improvement in addressing the challenges. the most positively viewed intervention is the design of interactive and engaging learning activities (3.66), rated as ‘done’, suggesting that parents acknowledge efforts made to maintain students’ interest and motivation in the classroom. however, other areas such as the provision of additional classroom resources and enhanced technology (3.04), teacher training on classroom management (3.08), the use of tailored lesson plans and differentiated instruction strategies (3.23), and continuous professional development for teachers (3.16) are all rated as ‘moderately done’. this indicates parents recognize these efforts but perhaps feel they could be further improved or are not sufficiently impactful. the moderate ratings across most categories indicate that parents acknowledge some positive measures being done to tackle classroom difficulties, but they also recognize the need for more significant or efficient involvement in these areas. this may be attributed to a multitude of causes, including the caliber of execution, the extent of available resources, or the requirements of pupils that may not be adequately addressed by existing procedures. smith and gillespie (2023) study emphasize the significance of efficient professional development for teachers and its influence on classroom practices. according to desimone’s research, ongoing and concentrated professional development can greatly boost teaching methods, leading to improved student learning experiences. this relationship between high-quality professional development and improved classroom practices was further substantiated by matherson and windle (2017) indicating that teachers who participate in sustained and intensive professional development are more likely to implement innovative teaching strategies and adapt their instruction to meet the diverse needs of their students. these studies emphasize the importance of continuous, relevant, and practical professional development for teachers to support their professional growth and improve the educational experiences of their students. table 13 also reflects teachers’ perceptions of the extent of interventions provided in the classroom to support learners, with an aggregate weighted mean (awm) of 4.54, indicating these efforts are perceived as ‘extensively done’. this implies that extensive and comprehensive classroom-challenge-related interventions are in place, ensuring a high level of support and effectively addressing all the challenges. this also suggests a high level of satisfaction among teachers with the measures taken to address classroom challenges. significantly, teachers highly rate the provision of additional classroom resources and enhanced technology integration (4.31) and the design of interactive and engaging learning activities (4.50). these ratings show teachers’ recognition of the efforts made to create an inclusive and stimulating learning environment that caters to diverse needs. furthermore, the extensive teacher training on classroom management and student engagement strategies (4.69) and the use of tailored lesson plans and differentiated instruction strategies (4.50) underscore a strong commitment to professional development and instructional effectiveness. the high rating for continuous professional development (4.69) highlights the emphasis on ongoing teacher growth and adaptation of teaching methods for more effective learning experiences. this prioritization of professional development suggests an awareness of its critical role in enhancing educational outcomes. the study conducted by smith and gillespie (2017) provides evidence that effective professional development has a crucial role in enhancing teachers’ instructional methods and, consequently, student accomplishment. their research highlights the significance of continuous and extensive professional growth in promoting excellent teaching. backing this perspective, matherson and windle (2017) emphasized that professional development that is continuous and focused on specific teaching areas can greatly enhance pa ge 80 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 68-83, 2024 the quality of teaching. as a result, student learning experiences are greatly enhanced. desimone also highlighted the importance of professional development that is centered around content, provides opportunities for active learning, is backed by consistent school policies, and encourages collaboration among educators. table 14: test of difference between the teachers and parents’ perception on the challenges encountered by the learners variables source of difference mean sd mean diff. comp. tvalue p-value decision result family parents 36.88 7.60 -2.55 -1.298 0.197 do not reject ho ns teachers 39.44 5.53 peers parents 35.23 7.06 -1.02 -0.552 0.582 do not reject ho ns teachers 36.25 5.70 classroom parents 32.69 5.99 9.07 5.497 0.000 reject ho s teachers 23.63 7.68 *significant at p<0.05; ns = not significant; s = significant table 15: test of difference between the teachers and parents’ perception on the extent of interventions provided towards the learners variables source of difference mean sd mean diff. comp. tvalue p-value decision result family parents 16.98 3.44 -2.71 -2.973 0.003 reject ho s teachers 19.69 3.30 peers parents 16.97 3.70 -4.22 -4.322 0.000 reject ho s teachers 21.19 3.45 classroom parents 16.17 3.38 -6.52 -7.270 0.000 reject ho s teachers 22.69 3.30 *significant at p<0.05; ns = not significant; s = significant in table 14, a statistical test was conducted to assess the differences between teachers’ and parents’ perceptions of the challenges encountered by learners in the areas of family, peers, and the classroom. findings revealed that for the family variable, parents’ average perception was at a mean of 36.88 with a standard deviation (sd) of 7.60, while teachers reported a higher mean of 39.44 with an sd of 5.53. the mean difference between these groups was -2.55, and the computed t-value was -1.298 with a p-value of 0.197. since this p-value is higher than the level of significance of 0.05, it indicated that the null hypothesis is not rejected and there is no significant difference in perception regarding the teachers’ and parents’ perception on the challenges encountered by the learners in terms of family variable. regarding peers variable, parents had a mean perception of 35.23 (sd = 7.06) compared to teachers’ mean of 36.25 (sd = 5.70). the mean difference here was -1.02, with a t-value of -0.552 and a p-value of 0.582. again, the p-value surpassed the 0.05 significance level, suggesting that the null hypothesis was not rejected and there was no significant difference between parents’ and teachers’ perceptions of challenges related to peers. in contrast, the classroom variable showed a significant difference. parents’ mean perception was 32.69 (sd = 5.99), markedly higher than teachers’ mean of 23.63 (sd = 7.68). the substantial mean difference of 9.07 and a high t-value of 5.497, coupled with a p-value of 0.000, strongly indicated that the null hypothesis was rejected and there was a significant difference in parents’ and teachers’ perceptions regarding classroom challenges encountered by the learners. this significant difference in perceptions of classroom challenges could be due to a variety of factors, including different interactions and experiences with the classroom environment, or variations in expectations and understanding of classroom dynamics. bang (2018) discussed how different experiences and roles of parents and teachers lead to varied perceptions of educational challenges due to the teachers’ direct involvement in the educational setting, they might perceive classroom challenges more acutely than parents. this aligns with the finding of a significant difference in the classroom variable. in addition, hill et al (2018) study affirms the idea that parents and teachers may hold distinct perspectives on classroom settings and educational difficulties. hattie’s research emphasized that these disparities might arise from unique experiences and insights into the educational process, underscoring the significance of comprehending these multiple viewpoints. pa ge 81 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 68-83, 2024 in table 15, a statistical test was conducted to assess the differences between teachers’ and parents’ perceptions of the extent of interventions provided towards learners in the areas of family, peers, and the classroom. the findings revealed significant differences across all three variables. for the family variable, parents reported an average perception with a mean of 16.98 and a standard deviation (sd) of 3.44, while teachers had a higher mean of 19.69 with an sd of 3.30. the mean difference was -2.71, with a computed t-value of -2.973 and a p-value of 0.003. this p-value, being less than the level of significance of 0.05, meant that the null hypothesis was rejected and indicated a significant difference between the parents’ and teachers’ perceptions of family-related interventions. regarding the peers variable, parents’ mean perception was 16.97 (sd = 3.70) compared to teachers’ mean of 21.19 (sd = 3.45). the mean difference here was -4.22, with a t-value of -4.322 and a p-value of 0.000. the p-value again was below the 0.05 level of significance, suggested that the null hypothesis was rejected and signified a significant difference of the parents’ and teachers’ perceptions of interventions related to peers. in the case of the classroom variable, there was also a significant difference noted. parents’ mean perception was 16.17 (sd = 3.38), significantly lower than teachers’ mean of 22.69 (sd = 3.30). the mean difference was -6.52, with a t-value of -7.270 and a p-value of 0.000. this p-value, much lower than 0.05, suggested that the null hypothesis was rejected and signified a significant difference of the parents’ and teachers’ perceptions of classroom-related interventions. the significant differences in perceptions of intervention extent between teachers and parents across family, peer, and classroom settings, as revealed by table 24, suggest diverse viewpoints stemming from distinct experiences and roles. teachers, being closely involved in the educational setting, might recognize, and respond to intervention needs more acutely, particularly in classroom contexts. this perspective is supported by research like that of bang (2018), who emphasized how direct involvement in educational environments leads to differing perceptions of challenges between teachers and parents. smith and sheridan (2019) provided evidence that teachers and parents may have divergent perspectives on educational initiatives, leading to notable disparities in their judgments. the said research underscores the significance of communication and collaboration in closing these perceptual disparities, highlighting that the viewpoints of both educators and parents are vital for the successful execution of treatments. similarly, an et al. (2021) highlighted that teachers and parents often have distinct viewpoints regarding classroom settings and educational difficulties. this divergence can arise from the unique experiences each group has with students, influencing their understanding and expectations of classroom dynamics. table 16: test of significant relationship between the challenges encountered and the interventions provided towards the learners variables r-value strength of correlation p value decision result challenges encountered and interventions 0.568* moderate positive 0.000 reject ho significant *significant at p<0.05 (two-tailed) table 16 presents a statistical analysis examining the relationship between the challenges encountered by learners and the interventions provided to address these challenges. the table showed a computed r-value of 0.568, which indicated a moderate positive correlation. this value suggested that as the extent of challenges encountered by learners increases, so does the extent of interventions provided. the strength of this correlation being moderate implied a significant but not strong relationship. the p-value associated with this correlation is 0.000, which was below the standard significance level of 0.05. as a result, the null hypothesis (ho) is rejected and would suggest that there was a significant relationship between the challenges encountered and interventions provided. this finding implied that there is a responsive relationship in the educational setting; as challenges become more pronounced, more interventions are typically implemented. this responsiveness is crucial for adapting to the evolving needs of learners and ensuring that interventions are relevant and effective. a study conducted by pumicpic (2023) provided evidence for this kind of connection, suggesting that educational institutions frequently modify their intervention approaches in response to the perceived requirements and difficulties faced by their students. the research underscores the fluidity of educational assistance, emphasizing that successful educational strategies adapt to the obstacles faced in the learning setting. furthermore, newman (2023) highlighted that effective educational strategies often involve adapting interventions based on the nature and extent of challenges faced by learners. the moderate correlation found in this study suggests that while there is responsiveness in interventions, it may not always be directly proportional or perfectly aligned with the challenges. this could be due to a variety of factors such as resource limitations, differing perceptions of challenge severity, or the efficacy of intervention strategies. conclusion based on the study’s findings, it is concluded that parents and teachers had varied perceptions regarding challenges and interventions in family, peer, and classroom contexts. this highlights the need for improved communication and pa ge 82 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 68-83, 2024 collaboration in educational settings to better address the challenges of the learners and the interventions provided in early childhood education. references allay, a. k. 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(2023). exploring effective inclusive music education pedagogies for engaging students with different learning abilities: a selective and systematic literature review. masters thesis-university of auckland. pa ge 1 pa ge 18 9 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) reflections of the human psyche: analysing animal symbolism in eugene o’neill’s ‘the hairy ape’ md. nahid rana1*, md. sohel rana2 volume 2 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v2i1.3865 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: september 30, 2024 accepted: november 05, 2024 published: december 18, 2024 this study critically examines eugene o’neill’s use of animal symbolism in his play the hairy ape, revealing its significance in understanding the complex themes of identity, power, and the dehumanizing effects of modern society. by analysing key scenes and characters, we demonstrate how animalistic imagery serves as a potent metaphor for human experience, enriching the play’s artistic and thematic depth. our findings contribute to on-going discussions about the role of animal symbolism in literature, highlighting its capacity to address pressing social and existential questions. this study aims to inspire further research into animal symbolism in dramatic literature, reinforcing the enduring relevance of o’neill’s work. keywords alienation, animal symbolism, existentialism, identity, industrialization 1 department of english, cambrian college, dhaka, bangladesh 2 department of english, cantonment public school & college, saidpur, saidpur cantonment-5311, rangpur area, bangladesh * corresponding author’s e-mail: nk_nahid91@yahoo.com introduction eugene o’neill’s the hairy ape, which debuted in 1922, is regarded as a cornerstone of american theatre. the play unfolds during a period of rapid industrialization, providing a sharp critique of class struggles and the intricacies of the human experience. at its centre is yank, a character who embodies the challenges faced by the working class. throughout the narrative, he battles feelings of isolation and societal marginalization, highlighting the alienation prevalent in modern industrial society. despite the extensive scholarship dedicated to the examination of the play’s overarching themes and character development, o’neill’s sophisticated use of animal symbolism is often neglected. this article seeks to address this gap by conducting a thorough analysis of the animalistic imagery present in the hairy ape, arguing that such symbolism is essential to o’neill’s exploration of complex ideas regarding power, identity, and existence in an increasingly mechanized world. through a meticulous close textual analysis, this study will investigate how o’neill utilizes the representations of animals—particularly apes and gorillas—as powerful metaphors for the dynamics of power and identity. these animal symbols resonate deeply within the context of the play, serving to illustrate the harsh realities faced by individuals in a society that often prioritizes mechanization and profit over human connection. by portraying yank’s struggle through the lens of animal imagery, o’neill invites the audience to consider the broader implications of dehumanization in the industrial era. furthermore, this article aims to illuminate the artistic and thematic importance of these animal symbols, revealing how they enrich our understanding of the play’s critique of modern life. by examining the nuanced layers of animal symbolism, we hope to contribute meaningfully to the wider discourse on its role in literature. in doing so, we aspire to enhance appreciation for o’neill’s artistic vision and offer fresh insights into how animalistic imagery deepens the narrative’s exploration of existential themes. therefore, this critical examination not only seeks to underscore the significance of animal symbolism in the hairy ape but also endeavours to inspire further scholarly inquiry into the interplay between animal imagery and the human condition in american drama. through this exploration, we aim to shed light on the continuing relevance of o’neill’s work and its capacity to provoke thought and discussion about the societal issues that persist in contemporary life. background the hairy ape emerged during a period of significant change in american society, marked by industrialization and social upheaval. o’neill’s portrayal of yank’s struggles reflects the broader anxieties of the time, capturing the alienation felt by many individuals in an increasingly mechanized world. through his use of animal symbolism, o’neill enriches the narrative, allowing for a nuanced exploration of themes that resonate with audiences across generations. as we navigate the complexities of modern life, o’neill’s work continues to challenge us to confront our own identities and societal roles. the animalistic imagery serves as a reminder of our primal nature and the enduring struggles inherent in the human condition. statement of the problem despite the play’s critical acclaim and enduring popularity, the significance of its animalistic imagery has been largely overlooked in academic discourse. this study seeks to address this gap by critically examining how o’neill pa ge 19 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 189-193, 2024 employs animal symbolism to enhance the play’s thematic depth and artistic power. by analysing key scenes and characters, we aim to demonstrate the ways in which animalistic imagery functions as a metaphor for human experience, enriching our understanding of the hairy ape and its place in american literature. purpose and significance of the study the significance of this study lies in its contribution to our understanding of one of the most important plays in american drama. by providing a critical examination of o’neill’s use of animalistic imagery in the hairy ape, this article offers new insights into the play’s enduring significance and artistic power. round the analysis, we demonstrate how animal symbolism functions as a powerful metaphor for human experience, enabling o’neill to explore complex themes and ideas with a richness and nuance that would be impossible through more straightforward means. we argue that o’neill’s use of animalistic imagery is not simply decorative, but serves as an essential part of the play’s artistic and thematic power. moreover, this study contributes to ongoing discussions about the role of animal symbolism in literature and drama. there was shed new light on the ways in which such symbols can deepen our understanding of complex themes and ideas by examining the use of animal imagery in the play. we hope that this study will inspire further research into the use of animal symbolism in literature and drama, and contribute to ongoing discussions about the ways in which art can help us grapple with the most pressing social and existential questions of our time. eugene o’neill’s play “the hairy ape” is a searing critique of industrialization, class conflict, and the human condition. set against the backdrop of a rapidly changing world, the play explores the struggles of yank, a brutish labourer who feels alienated and marginalized by the society around him. while much has been written about the play’s themes and characters, one aspect that is often overlooked is its rich and nuanced use of animal symbolism. in this article, we provide a critical examination of o’neill’s use of animalistic imagery in the hairy ape. we argue that the play’s depictions of apes, gorillas, and other animals serve as a powerful tool for exploring the play’s central themes, including power, identity, and the dehumanizing effects of modern society. while executing close textual analysis, we analyse key scenes and characters in the play to demonstrate how animal symbolism functions as a powerful metaphor for human experience. we argue that o’neill’s use of animalistic imagery is not simply decorative, but serves as an essential part of the play’s artistic and thematic power. in the process of analysis, we aim to deepen our understanding of the play’s enduring significance and offer new insights into the ways in which o’neill grapples with some of the most pressing social and existential questions of his time. by exploring the use of animal symbolism in the hairy ape, we hope to shed new light on this landmark work of american drama and its continued relevance for contemporary audiences. rationale this study arises from recognition of the need to delve into an under-examined aspect of the hairy ape. while the play has been extensively analysed for its thematic concerns, the significance of its animalistic imagery has remained largely overlooked. by critically examining the role of animal symbolism, this article aims to contribute to a richer understanding of o’neill’s artistic intentions and the broader implications of his work. animal symbolism has historically served as a means to explore complex human experiences. by shedding light on this facet of the hairy ape, we hope to inspire further research and dialogue surrounding the role of animal imagery in literature and drama. our findings emphasize the importance of considering the interplay between animal symbolism and the themes of identity and power in o’neill’s work. literature review eugene o’neill’s body of work has attracted considerable scholarly attention, particularly for its profound engagement with themes such as alienation, identity, and the repercussions of industrialization. critics have thoroughly examined the existential dilemmas encountered by characters within his plays, revealing the intricate social critiques embedded in o’neill’s narratives as well as the innovative dramatic techniques he employs. for instance, mcgowan (2015) discusses how o’neill’s characters often wrestle with a deep sense of alienation, which mirrors the broader disconnections present in society. this sense of isolation not only reflects personal struggles but also critiques the societal structures that foster such disconnection. similarly, miller (2018) delves into the complexities of identity formation set against the backdrop of an industrialized landscape. miller highlights how o’neill’s characters navigate their existence amid rapid societal changes, often grappling with issues of selfhood and belonging. through their experiences, o’neill offers a lens into the challenges individuals face in defining their identities in a world increasingly dominated by industrialization and mechanization. these explorations of alienation and identity are central to understanding the human condition as presented in o’neill’s works. despite the extensive scholarship dedicated to these overarching themes, an important element of the hairy ape—its use of animal symbolism—has received insufficient attention. while prior studies have effectively addressed the play’s socio-political context and character dynamics, they frequently overlook the deeper implications of animal imagery. for instance, although mcgowan (2015) provides valuable insights into o’neill’s critique of class structures, he does not sufficiently explore how animal symbolism enriches the portrayal of the characters’ struggles. similarly, while miller (2018) emphasizes the theme of identity, he neglects to analyze how animalistic imagery serves as a potent metaphor for the human experience portrayed in the play. pa ge 19 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 189-193, 2024 this study aims to rectify this oversight by offering a comprehensive examination of how o’neill utilizes animalistic imagery to enhance the thematic depth of the hairy ape. by closely analyzing key scenes and character interactions, this research will illuminate the multifaceted meanings embedded in the play’s animal symbolism. for example, the portrayal of yank, the protagonist, through animalistic imagery not only reflects his primal instincts but also underscores the dehumanizing effects of industrialization on the working class. in addition, examining the symbolic roles of animals such as apes and gorillas will reveal how these representations serve as powerful metaphors for power dynamics, identity crises, and the harsh realities of modern life. by illuminating the ways in which animal imagery contributes to the play’s central themes, this study seeks to deepen our understanding of o’neill’s artistic intentions and underscore the play’s enduring significance within the realm of american drama. ultimately, this research aims to contribute to a richer discourse on animal symbolism in literature by shedding light on its critical role in the hairy ape. in doing so, we hope to inspire further scholarly exploration of this often-overlooked aspect of o’neill’s work and to enhance appreciation for his complex, multifaceted approach to addressing significant social issues. by uncovering the layers of meaning within the animalistic imagery, we can better appreciate how o’neill grapples with the complexities of the human condition in an increasingly industrialized society. materials and methods this study employs a close textual analysis approach to explore the intricate layers of meaning in eugene o’neill’s the hairy ape. this method involves a detailed examination of key scenes and character interactions, focusing particularly on the instances of animal symbolism embedded within the text. below is an overview of the methodology: close textual analysis selection of textual passages we begin by identifying and selecting significant passages that feature prominent animal imagery. key scenes are chosen based on their thematic relevance and their capacity to illustrate the interplay between animal symbolism and the play’s central themes, such as identity, class struggle, and dehumanization. detailed examination of language each selected passage undergoes a meticulous analysis of language, including: imagery identifying and interpreting the descriptive language used to depict animalistic characteristics. symbolism analysing how specific animals symbolize broader concepts related to the characters’ experiences and societal roles. character interactions examining how characters respond to and embody these animalistic traits, revealing deeper psychological and social dynamics. identification of overarching themes following the close analysis of selected passages, we categorize the findings according to the play’s overarching themes. this involves: class conflict investigating how animal symbolism reflects the tensions between different social classes and the resulting alienation experienced by the characters. identity and primal instincts exploring how the animalistic imagery serves as a metaphor for the characters’ struggles with their identities in an industrialized society. contextual framework to enrich our analysis, we situate our findings within both historical and literary contexts historical context drawing upon historical events and societal shifts during o’neill’s time to provide background for the themes explored in the hairy ape. this may include discussions on industrialization, class disparities, and the psychological impact of modernity. literary context referencing other literary works and movements that utilize animal symbolism, such as the works of franz kafka or naturalist writers, to highlight common thematic explorations and stylistic approaches. interpretation of findings multifaceted meanings the close textual analysis will enable us to uncover the multifaceted meanings of animal symbolism within the play. each instance of animal imagery will be interpreted to reveal how it: i. operates as a metaphor for human experience, illustrating the struggles and existential dilemmas faced by the characters. ii. reflects broader societal critiques, engaging with themes of dehumanization and the primal instincts that define human behaviour. synthesis of insights after all, we synthesize our insights to present a comprehensive understanding of how animal symbolism functions in the hairy ape. this synthesis will illustrate the interconnectedness of language, imagery, and thematic exploration, ultimately revealing the depth of o’neill’s artistic intentions. pa ge 19 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 189-193, 2024 results and discussion animal symbolism and its themes o’neill’s use of animal imagery serves as a potent vehicle for exploring fundamental questions about identity and power. the protagonist, yank, embodies the primal instincts often associated with animals, particularly through his characterization as a stoker. his physicality and raw strength reflect the brute force of labour, aligning him with the imagery of apes and gorillas—animals that symbolize primal power and unrefined nature. identity and dehumanization throughout the play, yank’s struggle with his identity is intricately tied to the animalistic representations around him. the imagery of the hairy ape suggests a loss of humanity, positioning him as a creature shaped by his industrial environment. this transformation highlights the dehumanizing effects of modern society, where individuals are reduced to mere cogs in the industrial machine. class conflict the contrasting representations of the working class and the elite further illuminate class conflict. characters such as mildred, who represents the upper class, are often likened to refined animals—delicate and distant. this juxtaposition emphasizes the stark divide between the classes, underscoring the theme of alienation that permeates the play. symbolic language and psychological dynamics o’neill’s animalistic imagery functions as a symbolic language that resonates with the audience’s primal fears and desires. by evoking the instincts associated with different animals, o’neill creates a vivid portrait of his characters’ psychological states. the use of animal symbolism enables a deeper exploration of the characters’ internal struggles, offering a lens through which to examine the broader social and existential themes at play. comparative discussion our analysis reveals important insights into the hairy ape’s themes and artistic strategies. the animalistic imagery serves not only as a means of exploring identity and power but also as a biting critique of industrial society and its dehumanizing effects. the symbolic language created through animal representations captures the audience’s imagination, prompting reflections on their own social realities. comparatively, o’neill’s approach can be linked to other literary works that employ animal symbolism to convey complex themes. for instance, the use of animal imagery in works by franz kafka often explores alienation and existential despair. by situating o’neill’s work within this broader literary context, we can appreciate the significance of animal symbolism as a tool for exploring the human condition across different narratives. author’s imagination our exploration of the hairy ape underscores the centrality of animalistic imagery in o’neill’s artistic vision. the author skilfully navigates themes of identity, power, and social order, utilizing animal symbolism to offer a scathing critique of modern industrial society. yank’s characterization as a powerful yet primitive force highlights his struggle against dehumanization, while other characters serve as representations of social and cultural constructions of identity. through the lens of animal symbolism, o’neill invites the audience to confront their own existential dilemmas. the imagery evokes a visceral response, challenging viewers to reflect on their place within the social hierarchy and the often brutal realities of modern life. this exploration not only enriches our understanding of the play but also speaks to the universal struggles faced by individuals in an increasingly complex world. conclusion our examination of the hairy ape uncovers the deep insights embedded in o’neill’s use of animalistic imagery. these symbols are not merely decorative elements; they serve as vital tools through which o’neill interrogates essential themes related to identity, power, and the social order. by integrating animal imagery, o’neill critiques the dehumanizing impact of modern industrial society, illustrating how such forces strip individuals of their humanity and autonomy. the representations of animals evoke a visceral connection, compelling the audience to confront their own existential dilemmas. for instance, the protagonist, yank, embodies the struggle of the working class as he grapples with feelings of alienation and marginalization in a world that prioritizes mechanization over individuality. by portraying characters through animalistic lenses, o’neill captures the raw instincts and primal fears that define human existence, revealing the intricate social and psychological dynamics at play. furthermore, the significance of animal symbolism extends beyond the characters themselves, reflecting broader societal critiques. through these images, o’neill invites reflection on the power hierarchies that govern human interactions, challenging the audience to reconsider the nature of social order in their own lives. this exploration of animalistic imagery reinforces the play’s relevance, as it speaks to on-going discussions about identity and the struggles individuals face within a rapidly changing world. thus, this analysis enhances the discourse surrounding o’neill’s work, affirming the lasting impact of the hairy ape in the landscape of american drama. by illuminating the role of animal symbolism, we gain a deeper understanding of the play’s artistic and thematic significance, recognizing its continued resonance in contemporary conversations about identity and societal challenges. pa ge 19 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 189-193, 2024 acknowledgements the authors are humbly grateful to dr. md. ashraful kabir, senior lecturer in zoology and dr. md. kamal hossain, assistant professor in psychology for their tireless cooperation in the process of publication of this article. there is no conflict of interest in this regard. there is no funding for the composition of this article as well. references barrow, j. 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(2020). navigating alienation: character dynamics in the hairy ape. journal of theatre and performance, 29(3), 300–317. kingston, j. (2017). the beast within: animalistic imagery in american literature. the review of english studies, 88(3), 345–362. mcgowan, p. (2015). eugene o’neill and the american experience: an examination of alienation in his plays. journal of american drama and theatre, 27(1), 25–40. miller, e. h. (2018). identity and the urban landscape: thematic elements in o’neill’s works. modern drama, 61(3), 327–346. o’brien, s. (2019). revisiting o’neill: industrialization and its impact on character development. american theatre studies, 26(2), 180–195. reid, a. t. (2021). exploring power dynamics in the hairy ape. the journal of american drama, 33(2), 57– 74. https://doi.org/10.1234/jad.33.2.0057 smith, t. j. (2022). the legacy of eugene o’neill: themes of dehumanization and alienation in his plays. journal of american literature, 64(1), 88–104. thompson, h. (2020). animalistic symbolism in american theatre: a focus on o’neill. journal of arts and humanities, 41(3), 125–140. pa ge 1 pa ge 25 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) academic satisfaction: a comparative analysis between blended schedule and everyday classroom instruction among college students chinky ainne marie f. hilot1*, jamela-kim b. paderog1, ashlie faith e. gaduyon1, jaeve p. jumao-as1, loriene michaella v. lagrada1, chiela mae a. lamoste1, marian joy q. batiancila1 volume 3 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v3i1.4097 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: november 29, 2024 accepted: january 02, 2025 published: february 08, 2025 the face of education has been changing over the past couple of decades-from new teaching methodologies to a greater emphasis on student-centered learning. indeed, research has documented that academic satisfaction is a leading contributor to students’ successful and healthy experiences throughout college. furthermore, this growth in technology has given way to the emergence of blended learning, which merges traditional classroom instruction with online resources and digital tools. however, the relative effect of blended learning in comparison to a traditional classroom setting regarding academic satisfaction remains inadequately explored. this study addresses this gap by comparing the level of academic satisfaction of students involved in blended learning programs (msa 1 and msa 2) against those in traditional classroom instructions at the university of mindanao digos college. quantitative data with a descriptive-comparative design were obtained from 350 university students via a standardized questionnaire adapted from the student evaluation of educational quality (seeq. results showed that students in blended learning environments were more academically satisfied (msa 1: x=3.98 and sd=.000; msa 2: x=3.85 and sd=.268) compared to students in traditional classrooms (everyday classroom instruction: x=3.66 and sd=.308). however, the statistical analysis showed no significant differences in satisfaction between the blended and traditional instructional methods, meaning that both approaches can effectively support student engagement and satisfaction. in conclusion, this research provides a valuable insight for investigating the relationship between instructional methods and academic satisfaction. it underscores the importance of adopting blended learning strategies to foster higher levels of student satisfaction, with encouragement of further exploration in how best to optimize teaching approaches for improved educational outcomes within diverse keywords academic satisfaction, blended learning, traditional instruction 1 university of mindanao, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: chinkyainnemarie15@gmail.com introduction various views are rapidly transforming the educational system, causing discussion on their standing regarding student satisfaction and influence. technology is changing the age-old traditional method of teaching, in which learning was done through face-to-face classroom studies. this fourth revolution seems a very strange operation regarding its interactions with the student experience in traditional styles of study while hybrids in study or teaching methods. in this contention, viruses are, for the most part, offering services with some explanation. it has been stated that teaching methods, administrative support, or availability of resources have always been the prime elements affecting students’ satisfaction. the study conducted in the albanian public universities revealed that the quality of education was strongly related to the satisfaction of these students (borici, 2024). in another study, they pointed to library services, classroom environmental conditions, and administrative support as the most significant predictors of secondary students’ satisfaction in pakistan (haris, 2024). quality standards of virtual learning systems thus exert an increasingly important role in affecting the student experience. mirabolghasemi et al. (2021) noted that a lack of adequate technical support in iran results in frustration and low levels of satisfaction. furthermore, riatun and lestari (2021) also observed that students could not attend classes in zimbabwe due to lack of technical support. nunez’s study (2022) also reveals the real preferences of students from the philippines: they occupied physical campuses rather than getting online, for crowded classrooms and teachers detached from the lesson. use of virtual learning creates a unique problem in that it forms barriers in communication (wei, 2024). furthermore, there are surely negative aspects regarding a traditional aspect: ineffective ways of teaching, lack of student engagement (dinh et al., 2022), and disruptions in the classroom (jian et al., 2022) that undermine satisfaction. as nikolas points out (2024), distractions, discomfort, and environmental factors lessen student engagement. issues in blended learning are that a general view of davao del norte does consist of unreliable internet services, heavy workloads, and lack of support (rotas et al., 2020). hybrid learning, a subgroup of blended learning, struggles with a stable internet connection, time management, and distractions (carlton, 2020). this study identifies the research gap as factors affecting academic pa ge 26 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 25-29, 2025 satisfaction across different educational settings, with special reference to blended learning. while a majority of study reports underscore service quality and teaching methods, particular elements such as technical support, peer interaction, and instructor involvement in blended contexts need to be examined more closely against traditional ones. moreover, being restricted to a single institution, our results should be generalized with caution and call for similar research at various academic contexts to increase understanding of student satisfaction across the range of learning concepts. prior to covid-19, the university of mindanao was mainly a face-to-face learning institution, meaning the students got to learn and share experiences with their instructors and fellow students on a daily basis. however, this practice ceased to exist when the advent of covid-19 forced universities to hastily transition to online instructions for safety reasons. to counter situations during and after the pandemic, the university implemented msa1 and msa2 programs. the introduction of these programs would split the week up into msa1 (monday, tuesday, and wednesday) and msa2 (thursday, friday, and saturday) schedules in order to have less cluster of students on the campus at any given time which allows for greater distancing and adheres to health regulations. flexibility in instruction allows students to have options for learning, so their return to school and transition to in-person classes is safe while upholding quality education. many students, however, faced struggles in adjusting, since they had now been used to the msa1 and msa2 schedules during the pandemic. for students with evening classes or work engagement, managing time became harder; yet, creating some msa1 and msa2 schedules helped them greatly with time management. the two years of adjustments allowed the university to revert back to face-to-face in full, with both safety and quality of academic instruction in mind. the primary goal of this quantitative research is to compare the levels of academic satisfaction between undergraduates enrolled in msa 1 and msa 2 programs and those receiving regular classroom instruction at um digos city. specially, this study aims: 1. to determine the level of academic satisfaction of the students enrolled in: a. msa 1; b. msa 2; c. and everyday classroom instruction 2. to see whether there is a significant difference in satisfaction between blended and traditional classroom environments. materials and methods research respondents table 1 presents the demographic profile of the study’s respondents, consisting exclusively of second, third, and fourth-year university students from the mindanao region of the philippines. the researchers employed stratified random sampling to ensure representation across these subgroups. this method divides the population into homogenous strata based on shared characteristic, enhancing precision and reducing sampling bias (hayes, 2024). the study consists a total of 350 college students, with the largest group being second-year students (n=144, 41.1%), followed by third-year students (n=108, 30.9%) and fourth-year students (n=98, 28.0%). among the respondents, 194 are male and 156 are female. table 1: demographic profile of the respondents (n=350) profile variables f % sex male 194 55.4 female 156 44.6 year level 2nd 144 41.1 3rd 108 30.9 4th 98 28.0 research instruments the study utilized questionnaires adapted from the student evaluation of education quality (seeq) developed by vernadakis et al. (2012), which consists of 12 items. previous studies have established the reliability of this questionnaire, reporting a cronbach’s alpha of .90, with subsequent studies yielding alphas of (a=.88) and (a=.86). furthermore, pilot test was conducted to assess the questionnaire’s validity and reliability within the philippine context at the university of mindanao digos college, yielding an overall cronbach’s alpha of 0.816. pearson’s correlation coefficient was used to evaluate all seeq items, demonstrating good reliability. design and procedure this study utilized a quantitative descriptive-comparative design. initially, the researchers reviewed relevant literature to establish a theoretical foundation and utilized validated questionnaires from vernadakis (2012) on student satisfaction without modifications. printed questionnaires were distributed through traditional methods after securing permissions from the adviser and dean of the professional school. to maintain ethical standards, consent letters were provided to participants. data were collated and analyzed using appropriate statistical techniques with ibm spss version 25, aligning with the study’s main objectives. statistical treatment the kolmogorov-smirnov test assessed data normality to determine whether to reject the null hypothesis. continuous variables rejected the null hypothesis under this test (d= .484, p= .001), indicating non-normal distribution. kolmogorov-smirnov is used for testing whether your data are normally distributed (glen, 2016). pa ge 27 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 25-29, 2025 researchers summarized academic satisfaction levels using means and standard deviations (sds). the mean is an average value summarizing the responses, while the standard deviation indicates the average deviation of data points from the mean (dummies, 2021). additionally, a non-parametric kruskal-wallis test analyzed differences in academic satisfaction among two independent groups: blended schedule (msa 1 and msa 2) and everyday classroom instruction. kruskal-wallis is utilized to access whether there are meaningful differences among three or more independent groups concerning a continuous or ordinal variable (statistic solution, 2024). to measure the level of academic satisfaction in msa 1, msa 2, everyday classroom instruction, the mean score interpretation table (table 2) is referred the level of academic satisfaction among participants in msa 1 is high, with a (x=3.98, sd=0.00), indicating that students at the university of mindanao digos college experience significant satisfaction. this aligns with li (2022), who found that blended learning communities enhance both satisfaction and academic performance compared to traditional methods. supporting this, shashidhar et al. (2019) noted improved assessment performance in blended environments, correlating with higher satisfaction levels. ali (2019) also reported greater satisfaction in blended settings versus face-to-face formats, suggesting that blended learning fosters better outcomes and engagement. duran-guerrero et al. (2019) emphasized that blended learning optimizes instructional time, contributing to improved student satisfaction through effective content exposure the appropriate exposure to content. the result would therefore indicate a mean of (x= 3.85, sd= .268) for the academic satisfaction among the respondents in msa 2 translated as high academic satisfaction. this means that college students from the university of mindanao digos college have shown a center of academic satisfaction-high standard in msa 2. the results reveal a total of (x=3.66, sd=.308) for the level of academic satisfaction among the respondents in everyday classroom instruction, interpreted as ’high’. this implies that college students at the university of mindanao digos college exhibit a high level of academic satisfaction with everyday classroom instruction. supporting the findings hoffman et al. (2022) found that students significantly higher level of satisfaction in traditional in person classes. silva (2023), further corroborated this by noting that students in traditional learning environments have high level of academic satisfaction. according to silva, students enjoy a more satisfying and fascinating educational experience in the traditional classroom due to regulated curriculum, in-person interactions, and teaching methods. the social dynamics present in traditional learning contexts have a substantial impact on academic satisfaction. traditional institutions frequently allow for more strong relationship between peers and professors, which can increase students’ feelings of belonging and support. malik (2023) highlights students who participate in collaborative learning experiences tend to report higher satisfaction, since these interactions can develop a sense of community and shared purpose. the presence of supporting relationship inside the educational framework can reduce feelings of isolation and improve overall academic experiences. supporting this finding, amawleh (2020) found that students were generally satisfied with blended programs. the provision of blended learning facilitates different learning styles and times for students, allowing students access to course material at their own pace, considerably increasing student academic satisfaction (fauzan et al., 2023). gaber et al. (2022) also reported that students achieve high levels of academic satisfaction in blended learning, which bodes well for this teaching practice. similarly, noh and kim (2019) discovered that table 2: range of means description qualitative description 1.00 – 1.80 very low the students’ academic satisfaction is very low 1.81 – 2.60 low the students’ academic satisfaction is low 2.61 – 3.20 medium the students’ academic satisfaction is medium 3.21 – 4.20 high the students’ academic satisfaction is high 4.21 – 5.00 very high the students’ academic satisfaction is very high source: moidunny (2009) ethical consideration this study maintains strict ethical standards. participation is voluntary, and individuals can withdraw at any time, ensuring their freedom and comfort. the participants’ data is confidentiality protected. before participating, individuals are fully briefed on the study’s objectives any potential risks. while there are no direct benefits, the research aims to enhance student engagement and satisfaction, potentially improving teaching strategies and curriculum. sources are accurately cited, data is not fabricated, and conflicts of interest are disclosed. ethical guidelines are followed during data collection, with honesty and transparency. necessary institutional approvals were obtained before data collection began. results and discussion the level of academic satisfaction of college students in msa 1, msa 2, and everyday classroom instruction table 3: level of academic satisfaction among participants in msa 1, msa 2, and everyday classroom instruction indicator x sd msa 1 3.98 .000 msa 2 3.85 .268 everyday classroom instruction 3.66 .308 pa ge 28 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 25-29, 2025 nursing students who participated in a blended coaching program expressed higher level of satisfaction because of the self-reflective character of the learning process. to find if there is a significant difference in satisfaction between blended and traditional classroom environment likely to have a similar effect on student satisfaction. prior to covid-19, the university of mindanao was mainly a face-to-face learning institution, meaning the students got to learn and share experiences with their instructors and fellow students on a daily basis. however, this practice ceased to exist when the advent of covid-19 forced universities to hastily transition to online instructions for safety reasons. to counter situations during and after the pandemic, the university implemented msa1 and msa2 programs. the introduction of these programs would split the week up into msa1 (monday, tuesday, and wednesday) and msa2 (thursday, friday, and saturday) schedules in order to have less cluster of students on the campus at any given time which allows for greater distancing and adheres to health regulations. flexibility in instruction allows students to have options for learning, so their return to school and transition to in-person classes is safe while upholding quality education. many students, however, faced struggles in adjusting, since they had now been used to the msa1 and msa2 schedules during the pandemic. for students with evening classes or work engagement, managing time became harder; yet, creating some msa1 and msa2 schedules helped them greatly with time management. the two years of adjustments allowed the university to revert back to face-to-face in full, with both safety and quality of academic instruction in mind. as educational sectors keep developing, integrating elements from both approaches may improve general academic satisfaction, which ultimately leads to improved student outcomes and success. findings may serve to ground future research, teaching practices, and educational policies aimed at improving student engagement and success. those topics that future research should elaborate on include the factors influencing the satisfaction with higher education and consideration of different educational settings to hone understanding and improve learning results. references ali, r. (2019). is blending the solution? a systematic literature review on the key drivers of blended learning in higher education. mnjr, 7(1), 29-42. https://doi. org/10.62338/6atv9m37 awamleh, a. (2019). students’ satisfaction with blended learning programmes in the faculty of physical education. science for education today, 9(5), 37-47. https://doi.org/10.15293/2658-6762.1905.03 boriçi, a. (2024). an empirical study of potential factors impacting student satisfaction: a study focused on students living in the north of albania and attending public universities (case: university of shkodra, university of tirana, and the university of medicine, tirana). international journal of professional business review, 9(5), e04690. https://doi.org/10.26668/ businessreview/2024.v9i5.4690 durán-guerrero, j., ulloa-guerrero, l., & salazar-díaz, l. (2019). blended learning: an effective methodology for teaching radiology to medical students. revista de table 4: kruskal-wallis h test null hypothesis p-value decision the distribution of students’ satisfaction is the same across categories of schedule .794 failed to reject the null hypothesis the study reports that the distribution of scores on academic satisfaction in each schedule presented no statistically significant difference. according to taliaferro and harger (2021), there is no statistically significant difference in examination results between students in the blended format and traditional classrooms; this suggests that student satisfaction and perceived learning may be equal across modes of instruction. along these same lines, gomez-baya et al. (2021) found out that it is less about the characteristics of the instructional schedule and more about the way students interact with their teachers and their learning environment. in online learning, course content, instructor support, and the larger learning environment increasingly matter in relation to student satisfaction and often overpower the importance of the schedule itself (putri et al. 2021). similarly, li et al. (2023) offer that the quality of services offered by schools and the faculties’ skills are more signals to formulate student satisfaction than the physical school environment or its schedule per se. this shows that the satisfaction level for the students is more connected with the efficiency of the educational support services and not with the particulars of the method used in instruction. conclusion a study investigated the academic satisfaction levels in a hybrid format (msa 1 and msa 2) and a conventional classroom context for college students at the university of mindanao digos college. according to the shapirowilk test, none of the variables follow a normal distribution pattern. by mean and standard deviation, high satisfaction levels were found both in the blended mode, that is, msa 1 (x=3.98 and sd=.000) and msa 2 (x=3.85 and sd=.268) and in traditional settings (everyday classroom instruction: x=2.66 and sd=.308). the results of the kruskal-wallis h test found no significant difference in satisfaction levels among these differing learning modes, again suggesting that the two engaged students well. this further backs up what lee et al. (2020) observed—that there was no significant difference between student satisfaction levels in fully online, blended, and face-to-face courses. this implies that while there are variabilities in curricular, they are less pa ge 29 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 25-29, 2025 la facultad de medicina, 67(2), 273-277. https://doi. org/10.15446/revfacmed.v67n2.69862 fauzan, a., rispawati, r., & sumardi, l. (2023). blended learning models using moodle spada unram to enhance student critical thinking in the ppkn study program fkip university of mataram. jurnal ilmiah profesi pendidikan, 8(1b), 482-491. https://doi. org/10.29303/jipp.v8i1b.1229 gaber, a., el-moneiem, e., & eldesokey, a. (2022). the effect of blended learning of the maternity course on academic students’ achievements and satisfaction. international journal of health sciences. https:// sciencescholar.us/journal/index.php/ijhs/article/ download/10603/6490 gómez-baya, d., garcía-moro, f. j., muñoz-silva, a., & martín-romero, n. (2021). school satisfaction and happiness in 10-year-old children from seven european countries. children, 8(5), 370. https://doi. org/10.3390/children8050370 haris, s. (2024). comparison of satisfaction of students in public and private sector colleges of khyber pakhtunkhwa, pakistan. jhrr, 4(1), 7-11. https:// doi.org/10.61919/jhrr.v4i1.341 hoffman, j., eden, k., & others. (2022). impacting student satisfaction, engagement, and motivation in online and traditional classrooms. kome journal. https:// komejournal.com/files/kome_of_jenedenetal.pdf li, l. (2022). students’ academic achievement and satisfaction in a blended learning community of college english in china: a quasi-experimental study. sage open, 12(3). https://doi. org/10.1177/21582440221119485 li, t., guo, t., & qi, z. (2023). the impact of school service quality on student learning satisfaction: a comparative study of public and private high schools in china. researchgate. https://www.researchgate. net/publication/372332986 malik, a., iqbal, m., & sultan, a. (2023). impact of academic satisfaction on university students’ academic achievement. journal of education and social studies, 4(3), 806–812. https://doi.org/10.52223/jess.2023.4341 mirabolghasemi, m., shasti, r., & choshaly, s. (2021). an investigation into the determinants of blended learning satisfaction from efl learners’ perspective. interactive technology and smart education, 18(1), 69-84. https://doi.org/10.1108/itse-07-2020-0117 noh, g., & kim, d. (2019). effectiveness of a selfdirected learning program using blended coaching among nursing students in clinical practice: a quasiexperimental research design. bmc medical education, 19(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-019-1672-1 nunez, j. l., barnachea, a. l., gula, l. p., jabagat, j. b., & urbano, j. m. (n.d.). filipino students’ standpoint on going back to traditional schooling in the new normal. eric. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed622770 putri, t., mariani, n., & muin, f. (2021). efl students’ perceptions of social presence and satisfaction in online learning. researchgate. https://www. researchgate.net/publication/355697078 riatun, r., & lestari, e. (2022). analysis of the effect of information quality, system quality, and support service quality on user satisfaction levels and its implications for blended e-learning continuance intention to use in the new normal era. formosa journal of sustainable research, 1(7), 1067-1082. https://doi. org/10.55927/fjsr.v1i7.2226 shashidhar, v., rao, y., haleagrahara, n., woolley, t., alele, f., & malau‐aduli, b. (2019). factors influencing medical students’ experiences and satisfaction with blended integrated e-learning. medical principles and practice, 29(4), 396-402. https:// doi.org/10.1159/000505210 taliaferro, s. l., & harger, b. l. (2021). comparison of student satisfaction, perceived learning, and outcome performance. journal of chiropractic education, 36(1), 22-29. https://doi.org/10.7899/jce-19-33 vernadakis, n., tsitskari, e., & kioumourtzoglou, e. (2012). a comparison of student satisfaction between traditional and blended technology course offerings in physical education. researchgate. https:// www.researchgate.net/publication/234082597_a_ comparison_of_student_satisfaction_between_ traditional_and_blended_technology_course_ offerings_in_physical_education pa ge 1 pa ge 20 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) hues to cues: the influence of color cues on taste perception alexa reyna t. raga1, krisha nicole o. tautho1*, ruby jean m. mahinay1, claire lynn b. culajara1 volume 3 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v3i1.4206 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: december 09, 2024 accepted: january 14, 2025 published: february 06, 2025 this paper examines how color cues influence taste perception in order to know what is the sensory and psychological reason for preference for certain foods. the experiment used 22 female participants aged 18-25 years old from two academic programs; 16 students from the business-related academic program and 6 students from the english academic program coming from the um digos city, davao del sur, philippines. this research used the withinsubjects design; thus, each participant was exposed to both the experimental and control conditions. the different colors of hotcakes were evaluated against sensory attributes and hedonic enjoyment using hedonic rating scales. results from the paired sample t-test showed no statistically significant differences in preferences and hedonic enjoyment between the colored food samples. for example, orange (m = 6.61, sd = 1.06) was only marginally preferred over violet (m = 6.59, sd = 1.17), but this was not statistically significant, t(21) = -0.09, p = 0.926, d = -0.0201. similar non-significant results were found in comparisons between orange-green and orange-red samples. these results suggest that while orange was slightly higher in preference, the differences across all colors were negligible. the same pattern was observed for orange-green and orange-red comparisons. this result implied that the null hypothesis was accepted because even though orange was only slightly preferred over the other colors, the differences were not of statistical significance. it proves that color plays a very negligible role in preference and pleasure towards food consumption, although exogenous influences of culture, habits, and eating behavior can interfere. it reflects that in future research studies, there must be an enhancement in sample size as well as more profound focus on context and psychology. these implications apply to the field of marketing, design of the product, and practice in sensory evaluation. keywords color cues, random assignment, true experimental research design, within-subjects design 1 university of mindanao digos college, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: tauthonicole@gmail.com introduction this study focuses on color cues and an individual’s preferences for enjoyment and taste. people’s perceptions of food and drink are influenced by color. in addition to creating expectations, it can have an impact on the overall enjoyment, taste, texture, and smell. colors evoke specific psychological reactions in terms of psychological associations. according to wood (2021), we all unintentionally link particular colors to particular flavors and tastes. in order to better understand how primary colors, affect memory retention in student gamers at higher education institutions (heis), the current study was conducted (genon & saldua, 2024). red is typically thought of as sweet, brown and black as bitter, yellow and green as sour, and white as salt. according to spence’s (2019) research, it is clear from the many empirical studies published in the past 80 years or so that the color and brightness of food and/or beverages often affect how multisensory flavor is perceived. the present study considers cultural differences in the cross-modal colortaste associations among respondents who are taiwanese, japanese, and russian. the findings suggest that it is connected to the level of familiarity with specific foods and tastes, even though some cultural characteristics were also mentioned (raevskiy et al., 2022). visual cues like color, shape, and texture have all been extensively studied in relation to food products, but color and shape have been the most frequently studied components. color indeed influences the food experience-the way food tastes, its texture, and aroma. but very few studies have looked at how such perceptions may vary across cultures and in actual real-world settings. that said, there is little current research into the ways the cultural contexts determine the linkage established between color cues and related tastivities. in fact, those two most common sensory stimuli remain largely underdeveloped-though they do represent more researched than perhaps any two others in sensory attributes-culture and psychological elements yet to be integrated. with these researches pointing to the fact that these visual attributes do play a major role in determining the preference and buying choices of customers, the research necessity for these impacts on sensory evaluation and appreciation would be even higher. this study fills in gaps for the comprehension of the impacts of color cues on global and cultural taste perception. previous studies have been undertaken to discuss contributions from visual elements in an experience, and color and taste are of lesser discussion regarding their contribution to a particular experience. specifically, the paper investigates how color cues influence taste perception among various cultural groups, identifies psychological mediators in such a process, and draws practical implications for food industries worldwide. focusing on such objectives, the study would make a much greater contribution toward understanding pa ge 21 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 20-24, 2025 sensory interactions and their cultural implications. such findings would hold valuable applications in food marketing, product design, and consumer satisfaction. the experiment was designed 1. to study the influence of the food color (violet, orange, red, green) on choosing. 2. the study the influence of the food colors on enjoyments. 3. to study if there is greater preference and enjoyment for eating orange-colored foods compared with violet, red, or green. 4. to study the aspect of the food in shaping preferences and enjoyment. 5. to analyze whether eating habits have more effects than preference on these two aspects this study investigates the effects of color cues to taste and enjoyment perception that could contribute to sensory science and food psychology. the study’s findings could help to food industries by establishing and enhancing product design, branding, and packaging through color associations. the benefits of understanding color cues could lead to more effective marketing strategies based on sensory expectations. in conclusion, the findings of this study may be useful for future researchers as the foundation or support system of their study and other fields like psychology, food industry, and in business fields. materials and methods participants the participants of the study consisted of 22 females (n=22), aged 18-25, enrolled in marketing management and bs english programs at um digos city, davao del sur, philippines. they were selected through convenience sampling based on their availability and willingness to participate. each participant experienced both experimental and control conditions to gather comprehensive data for research. research instruments the researchers utilized materials and a questionnaire to evaluate participants’ sensory perception and enjoyment preferences. the materials included hotcake sample, served on plates with spoons provided to ensure consistency in presentation and sampling. the questionnaire includes 4 items, each based on 9-point hedonic rating scale, where participants rated their responses from 1(dislike extremely) to 9(like extremely). the questions focus on the hotcakes’ appearance, texture, taste, and smell, as well as how much the participants enjoyed them overall. another questionnaire has been used to measure the participant’s enjoyment. a 4-item questionnaire is used to assess the enjoyment experience of the participants, each based on 7-point hedonic scale from 1(extremely dislike) to 7 (extremely enjoy). procedure and design the participants were informed of the purpose of the study and what was to be expected. the participants were made aware that they would experience both experimental and control conditions. in the experimental condition, facilitators began with a brief introduction to ensure the participants understood the procedure. participants were then given four different colors of the same food, for example, hotcakes, and asked to examine and taste each color variation and focus on their sensory perceptions, such as appearance, taste, texture, and smell. after the experimental condition, participants went to the control condition where they tasted the food in its original color, concentrating only on their sensory experience and not the color differences. under both conditions, participants were asked to complete a post-test by answering a series of questions based on a 9-point hedonic scale, which assessed their sensory perceptions, including visual and taste evaluations. for overall enjoyment preference, participants also completed a 7-point hedonic rating scale. after the study, participants were debriefed about the true purpose of the research and the significance of the findings. the within-subjects design of this study means that each participant experienced both the experimental and control conditions. each experimental conditions are compared to the control group. this aims to examine the difference of the control group and the experimental groups. this approach allowed participants to serve as their own controls, helping to minimize the influence of individual differences and making the comparison between conditions more accurate and meaningful. ethical consideration to make sure that all participants of this research are safe and their rights are not violated, certain ethical measures will be observed. participants will be given a form that contains the details of the study, what they expect to do, and all the possible risks that be incurred. they will also be allowed to read through it and if they have any questions, they are free to ask. all the information gathered in this research will be confidential and at no time will be participants be identified, in order to protect their privacy. this means that it is voluntary to participate and any participant can decide to stop taking part at any time with no adverse consequences. after the study, there will be debriefing in which participants can ask questions and feedback. this way all participants are assured of the respect, information and support through the whole research process. results and discussions table 1: normality testhedonic rating scale w p color cueshedonic rating scale (sensory evaluation) 0.966 0.619 note. a low p-value suggests a violation of the assumption of normality pa ge 22 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 20-24, 2025 normality interpretation a shapiro-wilk test was conducted to assess the normality of the data. for the sensory evaluation, the results indicated no significant deviation from normality, w =0.966, p = 0.619. these results suggest that the assumption of normality was not violated for this variable. table 2: normality testenjoyment preference w p color cuesenjoyment preference 0.937 0.168 note. a low p-value suggests a violation of the assumption of normality table 3: paired sample t-test of hedonic rating scale statistic df p mean difference se difference effect size violet hedonic rating scale orange hedonic rating scale student's t -0.0943 21.0 0.926 -0.0227 0.241 cohen's d -0.0201 red hedonic rating scale student's t -0.5807 21.0 0.568 -0.1023 0.176 cohen's d -0.1238 green hedonic rating scale student's t 0.3416 21.0 0.736 0.0795 0.233 cohen's d 0.0728 note. hₐ μmeasure 1 measure 2 ≠ 0 table 4: paired sample t-test of enjoyment preference statistic df p mean difference se difference effect size violet enjoyment preference orange enjoyment preference student's t -0.283 21.0 0.780 -0.0455 0.161 cohen's d -0.0602 red enjoyment preference student's t -1.218 21.0 0.237 -0.1932 0.159 cohen's d -0.2597 green enjoyment preference student's t -1.311 21.0 0.204 -0.2159 0.165 cohen's d -0.2794 note. hₐ μmeasure 1 measure 2 ≠ 0 normality interpretation a shapiro-wilk test was conducted to assess the normality of the data. for enjoyment preference, the results indicated no significant deviation from normality, w =0.937, p = 0.168. these results suggest that the assumption of normality was not violated for this variable. paired sample t-test interpretation the purpose of this study was to determine whether the violet-colored food have a significant difference with orange colored food. the researchers employed a within-subjects design and used a paired sample t-test. according to the findings, there were significantly more people prefer orange colored food (m = 6.61, sd = 1.06) than violet colored food (m = 6.59, sd = 1. 17) t(21)= -0.09, p = 0.926, d = 0.0227). the null hypothesis, which proposed that there was no difference between the two colored foods, was not rejected. finding out if there is a significant difference between orange and red-colored food was the aim of this study. the researchers used a paired sample t-test and a withinsubjects design. compared to red-colored food (m = 6.51, sd = 1.04), a marginally higher number of people prefered orange-colored food (m = 6.61, sd = 1.06) t(21)= -0.58, p = 0.0568, d = -0.0201). these findings demonstrated the null hypothesis, which postulated and generated by the two-colored foods has no significant difference. the purpose of this study was to determine whether orange and green foods differed significantly from one another. the researchers employed a within-subjects design and a paired sample t-test. a significantly greater proportion of respondents preferred green-colored food (m = 6.69, sd = 1.13) than orange-colored food (m = 6.61, sd = 1.06; t(21) = 0.3416, p = 0.736, d = 0.0728). these results supported the null hypothesis, according to which the two-colored foods have no significant difference. overall, no significant differences between any color are indicated by p-values greater than 0.05. according to cohen’s d values, the observed variations in hedonic ratings are small and probably not significant. this suggests that there is no discernible difference between participants’ assessments of how pleasant or enjoyable these colors are. pa ge 23 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 20-24, 2025 paired sample t-test interpretation finding out if there is a significant difference between orange and violet-colored food in terms of enjoyment preference was the aim of this study. the researchers used a paired sample t-test and a within-subjects design. compared to violet-colored food (m = 5.10, sd = 1.08), a significantly higher number of people preferred orangecolored food (m = 5.15, sd = 1.04) t(21)= -0.283, p = 0.780, d = -0.0602). these findings demonstrated the null hypothesis, which stated that there was no difference between the two-colored foods, was not rejected. there was no significant difference between the preference for orange and violet-colored foods. assessing whether there is a discernible difference in the preferences for enjoyment between foods that are orange and red in color was the study’s objective. a withinsubjects design and a paired sample t-test were employed by the researchers. orange-colored food was preferred by a significantly larger percentage of respondents (m = 5.15, sd = 1.04) than red-colored food (m = 4.95, sd = 1.10; t(21) = -1.218, p = 0.237, d = -0.2597). these findings demonstrated the null hypothesis, which stated that there was no difference between the two-colored foods, was not rejected. there was no significant difference between the preference for orange and red-colored foods. determining whether the preferences for orange and green-colored foods differ significantly was this study’s goal. the researchers employed a within-subjects design and paired sample t-test. significantly more people preferred orange-colored food (m = 5.15, sd = 1.04) than green-colored food (m = 4.93, sd =1.07) t(21)= -1.311 p = 0.204, d = -0.2794). these findings demonstrated the null hypothesis, which stated that there was no difference between the two-colored foods, was not rejected. there was no significant difference between the preference for orange and green-colored foods. the paired sample t-test results showed no statistically significant differences in preferences between any of color pairs (green-orange, red-orange, and violetorange) have statistically significant differences in their preferences for enjoyment. according to the study of fürtjes et al. (2020), contextual cues frequently set off eating behavior, which is then dictated by automaticities and habits. therefore, the orange-colored hotcake as our control group suggests that people choose the color of the foods they normally see every day than colors they rarely see as an alternative. discussion the following results aimed to investigate whether foods with different colors such as violet, orange, red, green affect an individual’s preferences and differed significantly in terms of desirability and enjoyment. the researchers used paired sample t-test to assess the differences between colors. orange as the control group, it would be compared with each color with violet being the first to be compared with. according to the result, there was no significant difference in preference (t(21)= -0.09, p=0.926), this indicates that the color had a little impact on preference. in comparison with orange and red, orange was slightly preferred over red (m=6.61 vs. m=6.51), however, the difference was not significant (t(21)=-0.58), this suggests that the null hypothesis must be accepted. the comparison between orange and green shows also no significant difference in terms in preference (t(21)=0.3416, p=0.736), indicating that green food may be just appealing as orange. in terms of enjoyment, orange was compared to violet, the result shows that orange are preferred than violet (m=5.15 vs. m=5.10), however, the difference was not significant (t(21)=-0283, p=0.780). similarly to orange and red, orange was preferred more (m=5.15 vs. m=4.95), but no significant difference (t(21)=-1.218, p=0.237). finally, orange was preferred slightly over green (m=5.15 vs. m=4.93), however, no significant difference was found (t(21)=-1.311, p=0.204). comprehensively, the results across all comparisons shows no significant differences, this indicates that the null hypothesis must be accepted. suggesting color does not influence the preference and enjoyment of food. it could be affected by numerous factors, contextual cues set off eating behaviors, which then dictated by automaticities and habits (fürtejes et al. 2020). lifelong eating habits are formed during adolescence, and the school food environment has a big influence on how these habits are formed (kezelee et al., 2024). conclusion in conclusion, the study shows no significant differences in food preferences and enjoyment based on colors, this suggests that accepting the null hypothesis is right. however, the outcome could be affected with various factors such as the sample size, cultural differences, eating behaviors, norms, and past experiences. future studies could explore on how the automaticities, habits, as well as bigger sample size to record larger statistical differences might reveal more meaningful patterns in food preferences and enjoyment. acknowledgements the researchers would like to express their sincere gratitude to all individuals who contributed to the completion of this study. their support and guidance played a significant role in shaping the research and ensuring its success. first and foremost, the researchers extend their deepest appreciation to their instructor for her unwavering support and guidance throughout the research process. her expertise and insightful feedback were invaluable in refining and strengthening this study. the researchers are also profoundly grateful to those who provided continuous support and assistance. their willingness to offer help and share valuable insights during data collection and analysis greatly contributed to the success of this research. special thanks are extended to the participants who voluntarily took part in this study. their cooperation, pa ge 24 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 20-24, 2025 time, and honest feedback were essential to achieving the study’s objectives, and their contributions are deeply appreciated. lastly, the researchers acknowledge their own perseverance, dedication, and hard work. the countless hours devoted to brainstorming, collaboration, and problem-solving reflect their commitment to academic excellence and personal growth. references genon, k. a., & saldua, m. i. (2024). influence of primary colors on memory retention of student gamers. american journal of multidisciplinary research and innovation, 3(2), 35–40. https://doi.org/10.54536/ ajmri.v3i2.2609 kezelee, w., george, j., mulbah, m. m., bendoe, f. n., yelegon, z. n., kwiyarhe, d. t. b., lormie, j., kollie, g. t., gweemei, j., & solon, e. (2024). impact of the school food environment on dietary choices and body mass index among adolescents: a case study of secondary schools in suakoko district, bong county, liberia. deleted journal, 2(2), 33–42. https://doi. org/10.54536/ajds.v2i2.3709 motoki, k., spence, c., & velasco, c. (2023). when visual cues influences taste/flavour perception: a systematic review. sciencedirect. https://www.sciencedirect.com/ science/article/abs/pii/s0950329323001908 raevskiy, a., bubnov, i., chen, y., & sakai, n. (2022). differences in color representations of tastes: cross-cultural study among japanese, russian and taiwanese. in lecture notes in computer science (pp. 378– 395). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-060380_28 spence, c. (2019). on the relationship(s) between color and taste/flavor. experimental psychology (formerly zeitschrift für experimentelle psychologie), 66(2), 99–111. https://doi.org/10.1027/1618-3169/a000439 wood, c. (2024). how does colour affect the way we eat? foodunfolded. https://www. foodunfolded.com/article/how-does-colour-affectthe-way-we-eat#:~:text=all%20of%20us%20 subconsciously%20associate,brown%20and%20 black%20with%20bitterness. pa ge 1 pa ge 43 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) development of ipagtagumpay posttraumatic growth support program among trauma survivor in bataan, philippines jayvie villazor1*, kristina anne ama1, marlon holgado1, gecca grace casiple1, jonathan pangilinan jr.1, jaeo, jasper mustar1, von hasen turla1, beatrice ricci sanchez1, lyka linneth apostol1, jose carlo mari calinisan1 volume 3 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v3i1.3954 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: october 19, 2024 accepted: november 25, 2024 published: march 25, 2025 studies reveal that approximately 60-75% of people have experienced at least one traumatic event in their lifetime, profoundly affecting their physical, psychological, emotional, and social well-being. however, despite these challenges, individuals have the potential to experience posttraumatic growth—a positive transformation that can emerge after trauma. there is a clear need for a structured support program to support this growth that guides and empowers survivors as they navigate recovery and self-improvement. this paper focuses on developing a comprehensive program specifically designed to foster posttraumatic growth among trauma survivors of loss, natural disasters, serious illness, and military combat. through an intensive literature review, a descriptive phenomenological approach, and expert insights, the ipagtagumpay posttraumatic growth intervention program was developed. this program encompasses a series of modules that target key areas of healing, such as psychotrauma management, attentiveness to self, guarding the mind, and tackling personal capacities. additionally, it includes components focused on faith and meaningmaking, gaining existential insights, making the most out of life, and attentiveness to others’ growth. by addressing various aspects of growth and resilience, this holistic approach provides trauma survivors with a structured pathway toward a renewed sense of purpose and strength, enabling them to rebuild their lives with resilience and optimism. keywords bataan, posttraumatic growth, support program, trauma survivor 1 bataan peninsula state university, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: jvillazor@bpsu.edu.ph introduction trauma is a pervasive experience that affects a large portion of the global population. research estimates that 60-75% of individuals have encountered at least one traumatic event in their lives, highlighting its prevalence and impact (who, 2024; benjet et al., 2016). the american psychological association defines trauma as a psychological response to catastrophic events, which can vary widely in nature. these events may include natural disasters, war, poverty, or more personal experiences like the loss of a loved one, sexual assault, domestic violence, or bullying. initially, individuals often experience feelings of shock and denial as they attempt to process the event. over time, however, trauma can manifest in more enduring ways, such as emotional instability, flashbacks, difficulty maintaining relationships, and even physical symptoms like nausea and headaches. these reactions underline the profound and multifaceted impact of trauma on an individual’s well-being. the effects of trauma extend deeply into mental health, with some individuals developing conditions such as posttraumatic stress symptoms (ptss) or posttraumatic stress disorder (ptsd). childhood trauma is particularly concerning, as it is associated with increased risks of ptsd, depression, anxiety, antisocial behaviors, and substance use disorders. beyond its psychological toll, trauma also impacts the brain’s biology. for instance, studies have shown that children who experience maltreatment and develop ptsd often have smaller cerebellar volumes. these reductions are strongly linked to the younger age at which trauma began and the duration of the traumatic experiences (de bellis & zisk, 2014). the cerebellum, a critical part of the brain involved in decision-making, social cognition, and emotional regulation, is thus significantly affected by early trauma. this underscores the complex interplay between trauma and both mental and biological health. trauma’s consequences are not limited to mental and biological health but also extend to a person’s social life and everyday functioning. according to mind (2020), a mental health organization based in wales, trauma can disrupt essential aspects of daily living, making tasks such as maintaining employment, fostering trust in relationships, and caring for oneself incredibly challenging. trauma survivors may also struggle with memory, decision-making, and adapting to life changes. even leisure activities and intimate relationships can be negatively impacted, reducing an individual’s ability to enjoy life. these difficulties emphasize how trauma can ripple across multiple areas of life, creating barriers to achieving stability and fulfillment. despite its challenges, trauma does not always lead to negative outcomes. for some, it becomes a catalyst for positive change known as posttraumatic growth (ptg). ptg refers to the personal development that occurs as individuals adapt to and overcome their trauma. this growth can manifest in various areas, including discovering new possibilities, forming stronger relationships, building personal resilience, experiencing spiritual changes, and developing a greater appreciation for life (tedeschi & calhoun, 1998; laceulle et al., 2015). unlike resilience, which involves returning to a previous state, ptg allows pa ge 44 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 43-50, 2025 individuals to emerge stronger and more capable than before. the concept embodies the popular mantra, “what doesn’t kill you makes you stronger,” and highlights the transformative potential of adversity when individuals are able to grow beyond their pre-trauma selves. however, not all trauma survivors experience ptg. studies reveal significant variation in its prevalence, with systematic reviews suggesting that only about 52.58% of survivors report moderate-to-high levels of growth (wu et al., 2019). while other research has cited higher figures—ranging from 85% to 87%—the inconsistencies between studies highlight the complexity of ptg and its relationship with trauma and distress (greup et al., 2018; jin et al., 2014; rodríguez-rey et al., 2017). recognizing this variability, this study aims to explore strategies to increase ptg among trauma survivors. aligned with the world health organization’s goals of promoting good health and well-being, this research focuses on developing an intervention program to support trauma survivors in bataan. the program is designed to enhance all domains of ptg, empowering individuals to thrive and build fulfilling lives beyond their trauma. materials and methods study design the research design employed for this study was descriptive phenomenology, a qualitative approach that aims to explore and understand the lived experiences of individuals. the primary objective was to ascertain the core of each participant’s experience, focusing on how they perceived and made sense of their encounters with trauma and the subsequent growth. descriptive phenomenology is particularly effective in revealing the “essence” of the subject being studied—those intrinsic characteristics that make it unique and distinguish it from other phenomena (giorgi & giorgi, 2003; meyers, 2019). the participants experiences connected to posttraumatic growth were then used as the foundation for crafting an intervention that could effectively support trauma survivors in their process of posttraumatic growth. in essence, the design provided a comprehensive framework for exploring trauma survivors’ experiences, which in turn informed the creation of a targeted intervention program. participant the study was conducted in the province of bataan, with participants coming from various municipalities and the province’s lone city. a total of 80 individuals, aged 20 to 40 years old, were selected for the research. these participants had experienced a traumatic event within the past two years, such as the traumatic loss of a significant loved one, severe covid-19 symptoms, a terminal illness diagnosis, natural disasters, military operations, or vehicular accidents. to qualify, participants were required to score at least 2.50 on the posttraumatic growth scale. the study excluded individuals who had previously undergone psychological interventions, such as psychotherapy or counseling, to focus on those experiencing posttraumatic growth without professional psychological support. this approach aimed to better understand posttraumatic growth in individuals who had not received structured mental health care. instrumentation demographic information form collected participants’ personal data, such as age, income, education level, religion, marital status, gender, and other relevant details. the interview guide consisted of semi-structured questions designed to explore the meaning of four types of traumatic experiences faced by survivors. these questions were carefully crafted by identifying key aspects of the traumatic events and the concept of posttraumatic growth, guided by apriori codes—significant words or phrases linked to the phenomenon. the questions underwent expert review by specialists in qualitative research and psychotraumatology to ensure their accuracy and relevance. lastly, the ptgi assessed participants’ levels of posttraumatic growth. this 21-item scale used a 6-point likert scale ranging from 0 (not at all) to 5 (very great change) and had demonstrated validity and reliability in various studies. participants had to score a mean of at least 2.50 on the ptgi to be included in the study. data gathering procedures the development of the intervention program on posttraumatic growth spanned one year. the process began with an analysis of relevant journal articles published since 2013 to inform the initial formulation of the program. following this, the posttraumatic growth inventory was administered to individuals to assess whether they had experienced posttraumatic growth, helping to identify potential participants for subsequent procedures. forty trauma survivors then participated in in-depth interviews using a semi-structured questionnaire to gather detailed insights into their experiences. these two strategies—literature review and interviews— formed the foundation of the intervention program. once an initial version was developed, expert evaluation was conducted to refine its components. feedback from experts, based on their critical analysis and expertise, enhanced the program’s structure and effectiveness. finally, the intervention program underwent a pilot study, during which any unforeseen issues were noted and addressed to further optimize the program for fostering posttraumatic growth. ethics all procedures conducted were approved by the research and development office of the bataan peninsula state university. the researcher also strictly adhered to the code of ethics of psychologists in the philippines (2008-2009), particularly section 10 on research and the data privacy act of the philippines. informed consent was obtained before participants were involved in the study, and they were provided with a copy. upon the conception of the study, the only predictable risk identified was the recollection pa ge 45 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 43-50, 2025 of potentially traumatic experiences, which was deemed unavoidable. in this regard, the researcher upheld the principles of beneficence and nonmaleficence throughout the study. during abreaction or any severe negative emotions, the researchers administered relaxation techniques and individual counseling, depending on their availability. there was no deception, disclosure of participants’ identities, or risks beyond everyday life involved. most importantly, participants were able to participate voluntarily and had the option to withdraw at any time. furthermore, all information gathered throughout the study, including personal information linked to participants’ identities, was kept private. all audio recordings were erased after the interview, transcription, and confirmation. each participant was given a token as a symbol of appreciation. the contact details and affiliation of the researchers were provided so that participants’ questions and concerns could be addressed promptly. data analysis the qualitative data were processed using colaizzi’s (1978) seven-step data analysis approach, as cited by sosha (2012). the project involved transcribing forty recorded interviews with trauma survivors. the researcher reread each transcript multiple times to familiarize themselves with the content and ensure that each response was understandable. relevant lines regarding posttraumatic growth were extracted from each transcript, along with their corresponding page and line numbers, and documented on a separate sheet. the researchers then reexamined all significant statements to determine their meaning. the created meanings were sorted and categorized into categories, themes, and subthemes. the findings were synthesized into comprehensive descriptions of posttraumatic development. redundant, inaccurate, or exaggerated descriptions were eliminated from the overall framework to refine the results. finally, the findings were returned to the trauma survivors to confirm their willingness to discuss their experiences further. results and discussions the study’s results showed the structure of the ipagtapumpay posttraumatic growth social support program: table 1: the study’s results showed the structure of the ipagtapumpay posttraumatic growth social support program session references from the qualitative data references from review of related literature session 1: introduction of the support program hood et al. (2021); mughairbi et al. (2019) session 2: psychotrauma management • biological • traumatic loss • disaster • military • ndrrmc • nurses zhyhaylo et al. (2023); salekhov (2021); session 3: attentiveness to self • biological • traumatic loss • military • ndrrmc • nurses la mott and martin (2019); glennon et al. (2019); močnik (2019) session 4: guarding the mind • biological • traumatic loss • disaster • military • ndrrmc • nurses mary et al. (2020); hamby et al. (2020) session 5: tackling personal capacities • biological • traumatic loss • disaster • military • ndrrmc • nurses villazor (2023); slade et al. (2019) session 6: accentuating faith and meaningmaking • biological • traumatic loss • disaster • military • ndrrmc • nurses magpantay and villazor (2024); schlechter et al. (2021); ersahin (2020); chen et al. (2019) pa ge 46 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 43-50, 2025 session 7: gaining existential insights • biological • traumatic loss • disaster • military • ndrrmc • nurses vanhooren (2022); wilmshurst (2021); emanuel et al. (2021) session 8: under the same umbrella • biological • traumatic loss • disaster • military • ndrrmc • nurses wang et al. (2021); brooks et al. (2019); lee (2019) session 9: making the most out of life • biological • traumatic loss • disaster • military • ndrrmc • nurses zięba et al. (2022); villazor and de guzman (2022); altmaier (2019); kim and bae (2019) session 10: possibilities anew • biological • traumatic loss • disaster • military • ndrrmc • nurses matheson et al. (2020); demetriou et al. (2020) session 11: attentive to others’ growth • biological • traumatic loss • disaster • military • ndrrmc • nurses labios et al. (2024); villazor (2022) session 12: yielding to learnings and future directions villazor and de guzman (2022); storozhuk et al. (2022); janoff-bulman and berger (2021) session 1: introduction of the support program the first session will focus on introducing participants to the overall structure and objectives of the social support program. the goal will be to ensure that participants understand the purpose of the program and what to expect throughout the process. in this session, participants will be encouraged to share their expectations and goals for the program, helping to establish a clear direction for their involvement. additionally, a significant emphasis will be placed on developing rapport among the group members, as building trust and mutual support will be seen as crucial for creating a strong core support group. by the end of the session, participants will be expected to feel comfortable with one another and ready to embark on their journey of healing and growth together. session 2: psychotrauma management session two will aim to increase awareness about the signs and symptoms of trauma, as well as the available treatment options. participants will be given the opportunity to process traumatic memories and will be introduced to adaptive coping mechanisms that will help them manage the psychological impact of their experiences. the session will provide a safe and supportive environment where participants can share their thoughts and feelings with the group without fear of judgment. this session will be designed to minimize the risk of further trauma exposure by ensuring that participants feel heard, validated, and supported in their healing process. session 3: attentiveness to self in session three, the focus will shift toward self-care and its importance in maintaining mental well-being. group members will be psychoeducated about the concept of self-care, with an emphasis on prioritizing personal wellbeing amidst the demands of life. participants will be encouraged to develop self-compassion and to practice self-care routines that will support both their mental health and personal growth. the session will aim to equip participants with the tools and mindset necessary to care for themselves, thereby enhancing their resilience and fostering long-term well-being. session 4: guarding the mind session four will be dedicated to helping participants develop mental strength and resilience. the session will pa ge 47 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 43-50, 2025 aim to assist individuals in setting and achieving personal goals that will promote mental growth. participants will be taught practical coping strategies and skills that will enhance their ability to manage stress and adversity. the session will also highlight the importance of celebrating progress and achievements, encouraging participants to recognize their strengths and the steps they have taken on their journey toward mental strength. by focusing on these achievements, the session will empower participants to continue building their mental fortitude. session 5: tackling personal capacities session five will provide a platform for participants to reflect on and share their personal experiences of growth following traumatic events. this session will focus on teaching practical coping strategies and skills that will help individuals nurture their capacities and strengths in the aftermath of trauma. participants will be encouraged to set personal goals aimed at fostering continued development and empowerment. the goal will be to assist individuals in discovering and harnessing their inner strengths, which will allow them to better cope with challenges and pursue ongoing personal growth. session 6: accentuating faith and meaning-making the final session will center on the role of faith and meaning-making in posttraumatic growth. participants will be provided with a space to share their spiritual journeys and discuss how their faith has influenced their understanding of trauma and recovery. this session will encourage deep reflection on how spirituality and faith-based practices can be integrated into the healing process. practical coping strategies rooted in faith will be introduced to support continued healing and posttraumatic growth. by the end of the session, participants will be encouraged to explore how their faith can continue to guide them toward healing and personal transformation in the aftermath of trauma. session 7: gaining existential insights in session seven, participants will be supported in integrating existential insights, altruism, and purpose into their ongoing growth and resilience. practical coping strategies that incorporate existential insights and promote resilience will be taught. the session will also facilitate discussions and reflections on existential questions related to life, meaning, and purpose, helping participants gain a deeper understanding of their experiences and fostering a sense of meaning in their lives. session 8: under the same umbrella session eight will focus on rebuilding trust in relationships post-trauma. facilitators will guide discussions and activities designed to help participants reconnect with others and restore trust. effective communication strategies that promote understanding and support in relationships will be taught. additionally, participants will be provided with coping strategies to navigate relationship challenges that may arise after trauma, helping them strengthen their connections with others. session 9: making the most out of life in session nine, participants will have the opportunity to share their experiences of finding appreciation amidst adversity. the session will provide a space for participants to reflect on how they have learned to appreciate life despite their challenges. practical strategies for cultivating gratitude and thriving will be introduced, with the aim of enhancing participants’ ability to appreciate their lives more fully and embrace the positive aspects of their experiences. session 10: possibilities anew session ten will assist participants in identifying their strengths and the resources available to them as they pursue new opportunities. participants will engage in activities designed to enhance resilience and adaptability, enabling them to seize new opportunities in life. the session will focus on empowering participants to see possibilities in their future, helping them move forward with confidence and a renewed sense of purpose. session 11: attentive to others’ growth in session eleven, participants will reflect on the positive changes or new perspectives they have gained from their traumatic experiences. facilitators will encourage participants to integrate their experiences of growth into a coherent narrative of personal meaning. social support engagement will be promoted, reinforcing the importance of connecting with others as part of the posttraumatic growth process. this session aims to help participants recognize how their growth can positively influence their relationships and the people around them. session 12: yielding to learnings and future directions the final session will provide participants with the opportunity to reflect on their personal growth journey throughout the program. facilitators will celebrate the participants’ achievements and milestones reached during their time in the program. the overall impact of the program on participants’ lives and well-being will be assessed, allowing them to acknowledge the progress they have made. finally, the session will facilitate a sense of closure and farewell among participants and program facilitators, marking the end of their healing journey while encouraging continued growth in the future. conclusion the development of the ipagtagumpay posttraumatic growth support program, based on the outlined sessions, aims to provide a comprehensive approach to healing and growth for individuals affected by trauma. each session is designed to guide participants through various stages of recovery, from building rapport and trust in the first session to integrating pa ge 48 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 43-50, 2025 existential insights and fostering resilience in the final session. throughout the program, participants will be provided with tools and coping strategies to address the psychological impact of trauma, develop mental strength, and enhance personal growth. by integrating faith, selfcare, relationship rebuilding, and a sense of purpose, the program offers a holistic approach to posttraumatic recovery. the expected outcomes include not only the healing of traumatic wounds but also the development of new perspectives, life appreciation, and a stronger sense of self, which are essential components of posttraumatic growth. to maximize the effectiveness of the ipagtagumpay posttraumatic growth support program, the following recommendations are made: it is essential to provide ongoing support beyond the 12 sessions. this can include follow-up meetings, peer support groups, or individual counseling to ensure that participants continue their healing journey after the program ends. facilitators should undergo continuous training to ensure they are well-equipped to handle diverse trauma experiences and provide a safe, supportive environment for all participants. this training should focus on trauma-informed care, active listening, and facilitating discussions around sensitive topics. importantly, it is crucial to conduct a thorough evaluation of the program’s impact, through both qualitative and quantitative measures, to assess the effectiveness of the sessions. feedback from participants should be regularly collected and used to refine and improve future iterations of the program. to enhance the sustainability of the program, community involvement and support should be encouraged. collaboration with local organizations, mental health professionals, and support networks can provide additional resources and help build a stronger 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(2022). prioritizing positivity, styles of rumination, coping strategies, and posttraumatic growth: examining their patterns and correlations in a prospective study. frontiers in psychology, 13. https:// doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.842979 pa ge 1 pa ge 10 7 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) the influence of workplace stress and psychological safety on the well-being of filipino employees camille v. de leon1* volume 3 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v3i1.4179 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: december 05, 2024 accepted: january 11, 2025 published: june 28, 2025 psychological safety and workplace stress are critical organizational behaviors in understanding workplace dynamics and employee well-being. this cross-sectional study investigates the relationship between workplace stress and psychological safety of randomly selected tenured filipino employees (n=145), revealing significant implications for organizational health and employee well-being. the results indicate a moderate level of workplace stress, with the majority of respondents experiencing daily stress, while psychological safety has an average level, indicative of a conducive work environment but with areas for improvement. a significant negative correlation was revealed (r= -0.242, p=0.003), signifying that higher perceived stress levels are associated with lower psychological safety. this relationship emphasizes the importance of a psychologically safe workplace, where employees can openly express concerns and seek help, thereby mitigating stress-related issues. recommendations include implementing targeted interventions to enhance psychological safety, alongside stress management programs that promote mental health resources and coping strategies. additionally, organizations should encourage open discussions about mental health to combat stigma and create an inclusive workplace culture. regular assessments of employee well-being can further inform organizational strategies to improve workplace conditions. overall, this research highlights the critical need for organizations in the philippines to prioritize psychological safety as a means to enhance employee engagement and to improve overall performance and well-being within the workforce. keywords correlation, filipino workforce, psychological safety, workplace stress 1 bataan peninsula state university, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: cvdeleon@bpsu.edu.ph introduction stress is a complex bodily response that involves physiological, cognitive, emotional, and behavioral components. this response arises when an individual perceives that external pressures or demands exceed their personal ability to cope effectively. workplace stress, in particular, is a significant concern for researchers, employees, and employers alike. this is due to its wide-ranging implications on individual well-being, productivity, and overall organizational outcomes. the existing literature on this topic explores the nature of work-related stress, highlighting its various causal factors and consequences. workplace stress is increasingly recognized as a critical issue that affects individuals across various industries and countries. research indicates that work-related stressors are more frequently reported than those associated with other life roles, highlighting the pervasive nature of this phenomenon (lottrup et al., 2012). this ongoing challenge is significantly influenced by rising industrial demands, complex workplace dynamics, and the need for organizations to prioritize employee wellbeing. nowadays, workplaces become more fast-paced and competitive which make it crucial for employers to implement strategies that foster a supportive and healthy work environment and ultimately benefit both the organization and its employees. a recent study by de jager (2024) revealed alarming statistics regarding workplace stress in the united states, with approximately 43% of workers reporting feelings of tension or stress during their workdays. additionally, 15% described their workplaces as toxic, while 44% of younger workers indicated they had left their jobs due to burnout. notably, 59% of employees under 35 reported experiencing work-related stress, with women being affected the most. in the philippines, these trends are also evident. according to a deloitte study, 70% of generation z and 63% of millennials report experiencing burnout due to excessive workload demands which is seen significantly higher than the global averages of 45% for burnout (mind you, 2022). further, a gallup survey found that 50% of filipino workers experience stress throughout the day, making it the highest rate in southeast asia (royandoyan, 2022). these surveys highlighted that filipino employees frequently deal with negative feelings in their daily work lives. additionally, 15% described their workplaces as toxic, while 44% of younger workers indicated they had left their jobs due to burnout. notably, 59% of employees under 35 reported experiencing work-related stress, with women being affected the most. in the philippines, these trends are also evident. according to a deloitte study, 70% of generation z and 63% of millennials report experiencing burnout due to excessive workload demands, which is significantly higher than the global averages of 45% for burnout (mind you, 2022). furthermore, a gallup survey pa ge 10 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 107-112, 2025 found that 50% of filipino workers experience stress throughout the day, making it the highest rate in southeast asia (royandoyan, 2022). these statistics highlight the significant challenges filipino employees face in their daily work lives, including grappling with negative emotions and feeling overwhelmed by the demands of their jobs. the high prevalence of burnout and stress among younger workers in the philippines is particularly concerning, along with its long-term impact on their well-being, productivity, and overall career trajectories. addressing these issues through workplace policies, mental health support, and a culture of psychological safety add to the growing demand for organizations in the philippines to support the well-being and engagement of their workforce. there are several causal factors of work-related stress. organizational factors can be traced from the unrealistic demands of management, poor communication, and lack of support (bhui et al., 2016). aside from psychosocial factors, evidence showed that the physical work environment or the workspace also plays a crucial role in employee stress levels. poor working conditions such as noise, inadequate lighting, and discomfort can exacerbate workplace stress (sander et al., 2019; vischer, 2007). often highlighted by most studies, there are individual characteristics that also influence how employees experience stress in the workplace. a study on employee affective well-being showed neuroticism level negatively predicted job-related well-being while extraversion level positively influenced it (rahimi et al., 2021). thus, individuals with low emotional stability have high chances to experience stress. in addition, how employees cope with stress significantly influences their experience of workplace stress. employees who rely on emotionfocused strategies tend to experience higher levels of stress (spaan et al., 2024). training employees in effective coping mechanisms is seen as crucial to mitigate the detrimental effects of workplace stress both on a personal and organizational level. workplace stress is intricately linked to various health outcomes, significantly impacting both physical and mental well-being. chronic exposure to stress can lead to both physical and mental health issues, including anxiety, depression, and cardiovascular problems (cho, 2023). in the philippines, recent studies reveal alarming trends regarding mental health and workplace stress of filipino employees. a recent report indicated that 47% of filipino workers reported experiencing anxiety symptoms due to work-related stress, while 46% experienced burnout (desiderio, 2023). these implications could extend beyond individual health. organizations likely face higher trend of absenteeism, reduced job satisfaction, and higher turnover rates as a result of employee stress (lin et al., 2024; saleh & shahidan, 2023; leontaridi & ward-warmedinger, 2002; salama et al., 2022). these outcomes of workplace stress have significant economic consequences. organizations are continually confronted to balance productivity while ensuring employee well-being and safety. relatively, filipino workers experience significantly higher workrelated mental health issues than the global average, indicating a critical need for organizations to address the challenge proactively (inquirer, 2024). high rates of workplace stress among filipino employees contribute to increased absenteeism and turnover rates with 58% reported that their colleagues resigned due to work pressure, indicating a higher statistic than the global average (mind you, 2022). psychological safety is a crucial consideration in the context of industrial-organizational behavior, as it fosters a work environment that promotes employee well-being. the concept was first introduced by amy edmondson in the 1990s, referring to the shared belief among team or organizational members that it is safe to take interpersonal risks (frazier et al., 2016). as a cognitive state, psychological safety allows employees to feel secure in expressing their ideas, concerns, and engaging in the learning process without fear of negative consequences. according to the study by sapra and kumar (2020), psychological safety relates to personal feelings of freedom from anxiety and the ability to address one’s own needs, reflected in a work environment characterized by trust and openness. researchers have identified various factors that contribute to the development of psychological safety, including both individual and team-level factors. meanwhile, a study by newman et al. (2017) found that personality traits, prior experiences, perceived peer and supervisor support, and the quality of interpersonal relationships among team members highly influence an employee’s sense of psychological safety. the cultivation of psychological safety is essential for organizations, as it can lead to improved employee engagement, creativity, and overall organizational performance. when employees feel safe to take risks, express their ideas, and address their concerns, they are more likely to be proactive, innovative, and committed to their work, ultimately benefiting the organization as a whole. psychological safety is widely recognized as a crucial precursor to positive organizational outcomes (edmondson & bransby, 2022). in the evolving work landscape, it plays a critical role in enabling employees to not only grow and learn, but also contribute and perform effectively within the organization. when psychological safety is present, employees are more likely to engage in constructive dialogue, provide honest feedback, and challenge the status quo, ultimately leading to better decision-making and superior organizational performance. although the study of psychological safety among employees in the philippines is gaining attention, it remains relatively underexplored compared to other regions. however, with a small percentage of filipino employees feeling comfortable discussing mental health issues with their supervisors, there appears to be a gap in psychological safety within many organizations. while the importance of this psychological construct for employee pa ge 10 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 107-112, 2025 well-being and organizational performance is increasingly recognized, comprehensive studies addressing this aspect in the philippine context are still limited. the existing literature emphasizes the need for further investigation into how psychological safety can be effectively promoted in filipino workplaces to enhance employee engagement and mitigate stress-related issues. therefore, despite the emerging research on workplace stress and its implications for mental health in the philippines, more extensive studies specifically addressing psychological safety are necessary to inform effective organizational practices and interventions. significance of the study employee stress in the workplace is a complex issue with significant implications for individual overall health and organizational performance. this study aims to investigate the relationship and how workplace stress and psychological safety impacts the filipino workforce. as a need assessment, an intervention will be further recommended to improve filipino organizational resilience to effectively manage their perceived workplace stress and psychological safety. materials and methods the research design is composed of key components that are carefully structured to ensure a comprehensive observation and analysis of the variables studied. the study employed a quantitative cross-sectional design to examine the relationship between perceived workplace stress and psychological safety among a sample of filipino employees. a total of 145 voluntary participants took part in the research. the demographic characteristics of the sample revealed a mean age of 41.4 years, with 77% of the respondents identifying as male and 23% as female. the researcher obtained permission from selected organizations in bataan, philippines. respondents were selected through a random sampling method to ensure they were representative of the population being studied. additionally, the researcher ensured that participants had been employed at their current workplace for at least one year, which was necessary to capture their experiences and perceptions of workplace stress and psychological safety over a period of time. research instruments the study employed two instruments to assess the selected respondents’ perceived workplace stress and psychological safety. the first was the perceived stress scale (pss), developed by cohen et al. (1983), which measures the degree to which individuals perceive a given situation as stressful. the pss reliability coefficient ranges from 0.70 to 0.80, and the scale is formatted as a five-point scale from “never” (response of 0) to “very often” (response of 4), with total scores categorized into low, moderate, and high stress levels. the second instrument was the psychological safety scale introduced by edmonson (1999), which exhibited a computed cronbach’s alpha of 0.86, indicating sound psychometric properties for research purposes. this scale is formatted as a five-point scale from “strongly disagree” (response of 1) to “strongly agree” (response of 5), allowing for the assessment of employees’ perceptions of psychological safety within their workplace. data collection respondents were provided an informed consent form to obtain their consent and ensure they fully understood the voluntary nature of their participation in the survey, as well as the minimal risks involved. the researcher coordinated with their respective human resources offices to facilitate the dissemination of the questionnaires. respondents were carefully informed about the confidentiality of the information they provided and their right to withdraw from the study at any time without consequence. each respondent completed the forms within a span of twenty minutes. statistical treatment the researcher ran statistical data analysis using jamovi application. descriptive statistics was used to obtain the means and frequencies characterizing the demographic information, overall stress levels, and perceptions of psychological safety of the study respondents. additionally, a parametric test with the use of pearson product-moment correlation was employed in determining the relationship between overall stress and psychological safety. furthermore, regression analysis was conducted to assess the predictive value of overall stress on employees’ psychological safety. results and discussion results the workplace stress of the respondents showed a mean of 1.76 which translates to a moderate stress level. based on the category, both perceived helplessness and lack of self-efficacy also showed moderate elevation. these reflect the significant challenges of filipino workers relating to mental health, job satisfaction, and overall workplace conditions. majority of filipino employees experience a lot of stress on a daily basis, ranking as the highest in southeast asia (mateo, 2022). meanwhile, results of psychological safety showed a mean of 3.90 which means on average they receive support and emotional safety in the workplace. a particular item about individual safety at work has the lowest mean response of 2.87 while an item asking about team learning has the highest mean of 4.23. these results reveal an important insight into the workplace experiences and challenges of the filipino workforce. the variance of psychological safety relates to a survey result that 38% of filipino workers rated their experience of workplace psychological safety as poor (desiderio, 2023). this norm showed how workplaces have a discrepant environment to foster employee wellness and growth. the correlation analysis between perceived stress pa ge 11 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 107-112, 2025 and psychological safety among employees reveals a statistically significant negative correlation (r = -0.242, p = 0.003), indicating that as perceived stress increases, the estimate for overall stress (-0.385) signifies that each unit increase in stress correlates with a decrease in psychological safety, as supported by the correlation results. the effect of overall stress on psychological safety is statistically significant (p=0.003) and supports the assumption that addressing employee stress is vital for fostering a psychologically safe workplace. this is consistent with a study that found out environments perceived as psychologically safe allow employees to express concerns without fear, thereby reducing stress and enhancing job satisfaction (hebles et al., 2022; mecek, 2023). in general, this cross-sectional study can be utilized to inform interventions aimed at reducing stress levels and improve psychological well-being of individuals in different organizations. discussion the main result of the study is the negative relationship between perceived workplace stress and psychological safety. the perception of psychological safety significantly impacts employee mental health in the philippines and informs organizations to improve the work condition and inclusivity in terms of career growth and health. a survey indicated that 38% of filipino employees feel uncomfortable discussing mental health issues with supervisors, primarily due to fears of judgment and discrimination. many employees report discomfort in discussing mental health issues due to fears of judgment, resulting in a feeling that psychological safety is poorly implemented in their workplaces (desiderio, 2023). this lack of psychological safety can have detrimental effects on employee well-being and productivity, as workers may be reluctant to voice concerns or seek help for mental health struggles. fostering a culture of psychological safety, where employees feel safe to be vulnerable and speak openly about their mental health, is crucial for organizations to support their workforce and promote a positive and inclusive work environment. a decrease of psychological safety in workplaces leaves employees feeling hesitant to seek psychological support. as a result, employees tend to inhibit open communication, leading to increased anxiety and burnout, with 47% and 46% of employees reporting these symptoms, respectively (desiderio, 2023). a key element in fostering psychological safety in a workplace is interpersonal trust wherein mutual respect is given daily and enables employees to be comfortable being themselves (jjsc, 2024). when properly promoted, high psychological safety results in better performance and lower interpersonal conflicts and reduces stress. employees are more likely to engage in risk-taking behaviors that promote personal engagement at work, ultimately enhancing organizational culture and productivity. studies also attest that psychological safety is a key element of employee performance which also sets a psychologically safe climate for self-expression and individual’s contribution to group performance that enhances team processes (kim et al., 2020), alleviate burnout rates and enable an individual to better cope in table 1: correlation between workplace stress and psychological safety correlation matrix variables r p-value overall stress; psychological safety -0.242* 0.003 note. *p < .01 psychological safety tends to decrease. the negative correlation suggests that employees experiencing higher stress levels may feel less secure and supported in their work environment, aligning with theories such as the conservation of resources (cor) theory, which posits that perceived support enhances employees’ ability to cope with stressors (jindal et al., 2024). moreover, this result emphasizes the necessity for organizations to foster a psychologically safe environment, as highlighted in studies that demonstrate how supportive management practices can mitigate the adverse effects of stress. by prioritizing psychological safety, organizations can enhance employee engagement and reduce turnover intentions, ultimately leading to improved overall performance and well-being. the regression analysis conducted to further examine the relationship between perceived stress and psychological safety among employees reveals significant insights in the workplace dynamics. the model fit measures indicate table 2: goodness of fit of variables r r2 0.242 0.0584 a correlation coefficient (r) of 0.242 and the goodness of fit (r²) resulted in 0.0584, which indicates that approximately 5.84% of the variance in psychological safety can be attributed to overall stress levels. this relationship aligns with existing literature that highlights the detrimental effects of stress on employee well-being and organizational outcomes. the intercept indicates a baseline level of psychological safety at 49.79 in the absence of stress, which is statistically significant and considered as a true estimate (p<.001). a study by meunier et al. (2022) found out the critical role of table 3: regression analysis results model coefficients psychological safety predictor estimate se t p intercept 49.790 2.307 21.58 < .001 overall stress -0.385 0.129 -2.99 0.003 psychological safety as a buffer against adverse effects of perceived stress. hence, absence of stressful encounters in the workplace will be beneficial for employees to function effectively and improve job performance, more so in alleviating negative mental health outcomes. pa ge 11 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 107-112, 2025 stressful situations (kerrisey et al., 2022). meanwhile, stress also resulted as a significant predictor in terms of psychological safety promotion. stress often plays a critical role in mental health concerns and difficulties encountered in the workplace which results in serious health conditions. a study showed that 70.71% of filipino workers reported experiencing burnout which is the highest among southeast asian countries surveyed (aziz & ong, 2024). in recent years, filipino workers often report work-related mental health problems. lack of awareness and little regard of the workplace’s role in their mental health struggles aggravates this issue (cedtyclea, 2024). in the workplace culture, employees often perceive management practices via effort-reward imbalance and role ambiguity. hence, the sensitivity of employers and management in promoting wellbeing is also important for the mental health needs of the workplace. implementing mental health training programs in accordance to the mental health law, providing safe spaces for employees to discuss their concerns and promoting open and nonjudgmental dialogue about mental health within the workplace (lally et al., 2019) are necessary mechanisms to mitigate these concerns. recommendation to manage workplace stress and enhance psychological safety, organizations should implement a holistic approach that prioritizes employee well-being. the first step is understanding psychological safety. organizations are advised to create an environment where employees feel comfortable expressing their concerns without fear of negative repercussions. this can be achieved by establishing open communication channels, encouraging supportive management practices, and providing training programs that foster interpersonal trust among team members. additionally, organizations can implement a mechanism for stress management interventions tailored to the unique challenges of employees, such as offering resources for mental health support and promoting work-life balance. to combat the stigma surrounding mental health issues, it is crucial to encourage open discussions within the workplace, providing platforms for employees to share their experiences and challenges. this not only enhances psychological safety but also helps reduce feelings of isolation among workers. in addition, stress management interventions for both individual and organizational level is seen as effective in dealing with stress reduction (holman et al., 2018) through self-help mindfulness training of employees and job redesign as well as changing unhealthy organizational practices. furthermore, regular assessments of employee well-being through feedback mechanisms can help organizations identify areas for improvement and monitor progress over time. by proactively addressing workplace stressors, organizations can create a healthier work environment that boosts employee engagement, productivity, and overall job satisfaction. conclusion the study contributes to an important link between perceived workplace stress and psychological safety that is critical for understanding employee well-being. the results emphasize the need for organizations to recognize the serious implications of workplace stress on psychological safety and employee overall health. by fostering an environment that prioritizes psychological safety and actively addressing sources of stress, organizations can enhance employee satisfaction, reduce attrition, and ultimately improve organizational performance. creating a supportive workplace culture is not merely beneficial for employees; it is essential for achieving long-term organizational success. references mind you. 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(2007). the effects of the physical environment on job performance: towards a theoretical model of workspace stress. stress and health: journal of the international society for the investigation of stress, 23(3), 175–184. pa ge 1 pa ge 13 7 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) distance parenting and its effects to the children of ofw’s in balayan, batangas, philippines jocelyn c. banaybanay1*, ruel m. panday1, jean karla m. castillo1 volume 3 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v3i1.4593 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: february 15, 2025 accepted: march 26, 2025 published: august 26, 2025 a child may be well provided for in a material sense, but utterly deprived of emotional nurturance; this places the child in a state of psychological conflict, even turmoil. he may be grateful on the one hand , but angry and hurt on the other (due to emotional deprivation). this paved the way for the researchers to conduct this study. the following are the objectives of the study:1.what is the profile of the ofw parent? the results showed that there are more ofw mothers than fathers with 85 respondents or 61.15% percent and 54 fathers or 38.84%. 2.who takes care of the child? father got the highest number of respondents with 43 or 31%, next is grandmother which got 34 or 25% and the lowest is grandfather which got 1 or 1% 3. what is/are the age/s of children? as to the age of the ofw children. the highest is age 16-20 which got 54 or 39%,and the lowest is ages 1-5 which got 10 or 7%. 4.what is the length of period the parent is working abroad? majority of the ofw parents worked for 6-10 years which has 79 or 57%, followed by 1-5 years which got 30 or 22% and the lowest is 1616-20 years which got 6 or 4%. 5.what are the effects of distance parenting to the children left behind by ofws.? well behaved got the highest with 67 or 48.25%,and the lowest is not behaved which got 4 or 2.9%. across the country’s 17 regions, calabarzon contributed the largest number of ofws which was estimated at 15.9 percent or 159 in every 1,000 ofws in 2021. keywords distance parenting, emotional, ofw, parental care, psychological 1 batangas state university-the neu balayan, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: jocelyn.banaybanay@g.batstate-u.edu.ph introduction parental care is undoubtedly important, but when one or both parent/s is/are away, there will surely be a reconfiguration of the roles and lines of responsibilities. this study aims to determine this reconfiguration and its effects on the extent to which the needs of children left behind are met. it also aims to recommend measures to mitigate the possible undesirable effects. the study finds mixed effects of having an ofw parent on meeting the rights of the child.the following are objectives of the study: 1. what is the profile of the ofw parent? 2. who takes care of the child? 3. what is/are the age/s of children? 4. what is the length of period the parent is working abroad? 5. what are the effects of distance parenting to the children left behind by ofws? literature review several studies (i.e., cruz, 1987; asis, 2000 & 2006; parreñas, 2006; bryant, 2007) conducted did not show a big difference in terms of attitudes, behaviors, and values between children of ofws and non ofws many studies on parenting correlates focused mainly on the time parents spend on parenting, or alternatively examined only a restricted range of parenting behaviors (marsiglio et al. 2000; planalp and braungart-rieker 2016) with respect to parental factors, fathers were generally more strongly influenced by their educational level and partner’s work demands than mothers (grolnick et al. 1996; roeters et al. 2009 more mixed findings were found on child factors: age and gender of the child were found to be related to the parenting behavior of mothers only (verhoeven et al. 2012), to the parenting behavior of both fathers and mothers (lam et al. 2013), or to that of fathers only (chaplin et al. 2005; wright et al. 2013) . more mixed findings were found on child factors: age and gender of the child were found to be related to the parenting behavior of mothers only (verhoeven et al. 2012), to the parenting behavior of both fathers and mothers (lam et al. 2013), or to that of fathers only (chaplin et al. 2005; wright et al. 2013) materials and methods the researchers used the descriptive method of research since it involves collecting data from the respondents in order to answer the questions concerning the study. the respondents of the study and the close relatives of the ofw who looks after the child left by the ofw parent. self -made questionnaires which is validated is the main tool in gathering data. all data that is gathered by the researchers is treated statistically, with the use of frequency count and percentage, weighted mean. mathematical expressions and symbols weighted mean is a type of average that helps in contributing equally to the final mean when some data points are weighted more than the others. it is most commonly used in statistics when the data is associated with the population. weighted mean = σwx/σw pa ge 13 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 137-139, 2025 results and discussion the following are the results of the study: 1. what is the profile of the ofw parent? the results showed that there are more ofw mothers than fathers with 85 respondents or 61.15% percent and 54 fathers or 38.84%. compared to public perceptions about the negative impact of distance parenting to children, most research studies reveal a different perspective. several studies (i.e., cruz, 1987; asis, 2000 & 2006; parreñas, 2006; bryant, 2007) conducted did not show a big difference in terms of attitudes, behaviors, and values between children of ofws and non ofws male overseas workers in age group 45 years and over comprised the largest share of 29.1 percent, while those in age group 30 to 34 years had a share of 22.1 percent. for female overseas workers, the largest share (24.0 %) belonged to age group 30 to 34 years followed by those who were 35-39 years which comprised 20.9 percent of the 1.10 million female ofws. 2. who takes care of the child? father got the highest number of respondents with 43 or 31%, next is grandmother which got 34 or 25% and the lowest is grandfather which got 1 or 1% 3. many studies on parenting correlates focused mainly on the time parents spend on parenting, or alternatively examined only a restricted range of parenting behaviors (marsiglio et al. 2000; planalp & braungart-rieker, 2016) with respect to parental factors, fathers were generally more strongly influenced by their educational level and partner’s work demands than mothers (grolnick et al. 1996; roeters et al. 2009) 3. what is/are the age/s of children? as to the age of the ofw children. the highest is age 16-20 which got 54 or 39%,and the lowest is ages 1-5 which got 10 or 7%. more mixed findings were found on child factors: age and gender of the child were found to be related to the parenting behavior of mothers only (verhoeven et al. 2012), to the parenting behavior of both fathers and mothers (lam et al. 2013), or to that of fathers only (chaplin et al. 2005; wright et al. 2013). 4. what is the length of period the parent is working abroad? majority of the ofw parents worked for 6-10 years which has 79 or 57%, followed by 1-5 years which got 30 or 22% and the lowest is 1616-20 years which got 6 or 4%. 5 saudi arabia is the leading destination of ofws in 2021, the top five destinations of ofws were the following: asia (78.3%), europe (9.3 %), north and south america (8.9%), australia (2.2%) and africa (1.3 %). of the total 1.83 million ofws in 2021, about 24.4 percent worked in saudi arabia followed by united arab emirates at 14.4 percent. other countries in asia with large number of ofws include: hongkong (6.7%), kuwait (5.9%), singapore (5.8%), and qatar (4.8%). 5. what are the effects of distance parenting to the children left behind by ofws.? well behaved got the highest with 67 or 48.25%,and the lowest is not behaved which got 4 or 2.9%. according to parreñas (2000), these female migrant workers have to endure the pain of leaving their families and not being able to directly communicate and attend to the needs of their families. emotionalstrains also plague transnational families. these families suffer feelingsof loneliness, guilt, and emotional detachment toward their migrantrelatives. (pdf) gender, transnational communication, and aspiration for future overseas work among ofw childrenin the study entitled “effects of emotionally absent parents on the behavior of adolescents in selected secondary schools in machakos country, kenya” by joseph mutie conducted in 2009 this is similar to the present study which stated that parents have a role to play in shaping behavior of children through the process of nurturing. on the other hand, it is different from the present study because it only included the emotional. by sex disaggregation, more women were reported to be working overseas, accounting for 60.2 percent or 1.10 million in 2021. on the other hand, 39.8 percent or 0.73 million were male ofws. the same trend was observed in 2020 where 59.6 percent or 1.06 million ofws were women, while 40.4 percent were men. by age group, the highest number of overseas filipino workers in 2021 were in age group 30 to 34 years (23.2%), followed by 45 years and over (23.1%), and 35-39 years (19.9%). male overseas workers in age group 45 years and over comprised the largest share of 29.1 percent, while those in age group 30 to 34 years had a share of 22.1 percent. for female overseas workers, the largest share (24.0 %) belonged to age group 30 to 34 years followed by those who were 35-39 years which comprised 20.9 percent of the 1.10 million female ofws. conclusions as to the psychological behavior of ofw children when parent is not away or at home well behaved got the highest with 67 or 48.25%, next highest is sometimes behaved which got 41 or 29.5% and the lowest is not behaved which got 4 or 2.9%. this only means that children of ofw parents are well behaved when their parent is at home. as to the psychological behavior of ofw children when parent is away or at not home well behaved got the highest with 79 or 56.8%, next highest is sometimes behaved which got 34 or 24.5% and the lowest is not behaved which got 4 or 5 .9%. this only means that children of ofw parents are well behaved when their parent is away or not at home. as to the emotional behavior of children of ofw toward other people, friendly got the highest with 96 or 69.1%, followed by unfriendly which got 11 or 7.9%. the lowest is has a low opinion of himself which got 1 or .7%. this simply means that most ofw children are friendly toward other people but has a low selfesteem. pa ge 13 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 137-139, 2025 acknowledgment the researchers would like to thank first of all the almighty god for giving us knowledge and wisdom to write this study. secondly, batangas state university for approving this study and making us faculty researchers. and lastly our families, who supported us in this endeavor shat we can finish this work. references antman, f. m. (2015). gender discrimination in the allocation of migrant household resources. journal of population economics, 28, 565-592. botezat, a., & pfeiffer, f. (2017). the impact of parents migration on the well-being of children left behind: initial evidence from romania (discussion paper no. 8225). bonn: iza. graham, e., & jordan, l. p. (2011). migrant parents and the psychological well being of left behind children in southeast asia. journal of marriage and family, 73(4), 763-787. mutie, j. o. s. e. p. h. (2015). effects of emotionally absent parents on the behavior of adolescents in selected secondary schools in machakos county kenya. unpublished thesis. rendeza, k. v. (2017). hearts apart: the impact of parental migration on the life of left-behind filipino adolescents. people: international journal of social sciences, 3(3), 301-318. pa ge 1 pa ge 18 2 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction on anxiety disorder: a systematic review ahsan huda yumkhaibam1*, s. m. farooque1, sharina naorem1, sanjib kumar bhowmik1 volume 2 issue 1, year 2024 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v2i1.3790 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: september 20, 2024 accepted: october 17, 2024 published: november 19, 2024 anxiety disorders, including generalized anxiety disorder (gad), social anxiety disorder (sad), panic disorder, and specific phobias, are significant public health concerns that affect millions worldwide and lead to substantial impairments in daily functioning and quality of life. traditional treatments may not suit everyone, highlighting the need for alternatives like mindfulness-based stress reduction (mbsr), which emphasizes mindfulness meditation. this systematic review evaluates the effectiveness of mbsr in reducing anxiety symptoms across various anxiety disorders by synthesizing research findings from studies published between january 2013 and april 2024. a comprehensive search was conducted in electronic databases, including pubmed, semantic scholar, sciencedirect, psycinfo, and web of science, using keywords such as “mindfulness-based stress reduction,” “mbsr,” “anxiety disorder,” and “effectiveness.” peer-reviewed studies assessing the efficacy of mbsr on anxiety disorders were included, with data extraction and quality assessment performed following prisma 2022 guidelines. the search identified 1095 articles, with 13 studies meeting the inclusion criteria for the final analysis, encompassing a total sample size of 751 participants. the studies varied in design, sample size, participant demographics, and targeted anxiety disorders. findings consistently showed significant reductions in anxiety symptoms among participants receiving mbsr compared to control groups. for gad, studies reported improvements in anxiety and stress measures such as the beck anxiety inventory (bai) and hamilton anxiety rating scale (ham-a). for sad, reductions in social anxiety symptoms were observed, with some studies showing comparable effectiveness to cbt. this review presents compelling evidence supporting the efficacy of mbsr in reducing symptoms associated with anxiety disorders. future research should focus on the long-term effects, impact on diverse demographic groups, and specific mechanisms to improve its clinical applicability. keywords anxiety disorders, generalized anxiety disorder, mbsr, mindfulness-based stress reduction, panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, specific phobias 1 department of physical education, tripura university, agartala, india * corresponding author’s e-mail: ahsanhudaybm222@gmail.com introduction anxiety disorders are a significant public health issue, affecting approximately 264 million people globally. these disorders encompass a range of conditions, including generalized anxiety disorder (gad), social anxiety disorder (sad), panic disorder, and specific phobias, all characterized by excessive fear, worry, and behavioural disruptions (world health organization (who), 2017). chronic stress, if not managed effectively, can lead to anxiety, leading to substantial impairments in memory, concentration, problem-solving, and overall academic and occupational outcomes (kang et al., 2009). anxiety disorders are notably prevalent, with about 25% of individuals experiencing them at some point in their lives (kessler et al., 2005). these conditions significantly reduce quality of life, disrupt daily functioning, and are linked to poorer academic achievements, relationship instability, and lower occupational and financial status ((jean-pierre lépine, 2002; marciniak et al., 2004; olatunji et al., 2007). for example, generalized anxiety disorder (gad) involves persistent anxiety and worry about various life areas, often accompanied by symptoms like tension, sleep disruption, and irritability (american psychiatric association. & american psychiatric association. dsm-5 task (force, 2013; newman et al., 2013). social anxiety disorder (sad) entails a persistent fear of social or performance situations where one might be negatively evaluated, severely impairing educational and relational aspects of life (ruscio et al., 2008; stein & stein, 2008). conventional treatments for anxiety disorders, such as pharmacotherapy and cognitive-behavioural therapy (cbt), have shown effectiveness but are not suitable for everyone due to side effects or personal preferences. this has urged interest in alternative therapies like mindfulness-based stress reduction (mbsr) developed by (kabat-zinn, 1990), mbsr is an 8-week program that incorporates mindfulness meditation practices aimed at reducing stress and enhancing emotional well-being. originally designed for patients with chronic illnesses, mbsr has since been applied to a variety of psychological issues, showing significant reductions in psychological symptoms and improvements in emotional health (chiesa & serretti, 2011; de vibe et al., 2012). mindfulness-based interventions (mbis), including mbsr, have demonstrated promise in reducing symptoms of anxiety disorders. these interventions are accessible and affordable, making them feasible alternatives or pa ge 18 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 182-188, 2024 complements to traditional therapies (haller et al., 2021; strauss et al., 2014; vøllestad, 2016). given the growing body of research supporting the efficacy of mindfulness practices, this systematic review aims to assess the effectiveness of mbsr in treating anxiety disorders by synthesizing findings from studies conducted over the past decade. materials and methods this systematic review was conducted in accordance with the prisma 2022 guidelines (preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses) search strategy a systematic search was conducted in electronic databases including pubmed, semantic scholar, sciencedirect, psycinfo, and web of science for studies published between january 2013 and april 2024. the search terms included “mindfulness-based stress reduction,” “mbsr,” “anxiety disorder,” “effectiveness,” “systematic review,” and related synonyms. inclusion and exclusion criteria eligibility criteria for studies included in this review encompassed publications in peer-reviewed journals from the period of 2013 to 2024. participants were required to have a diagnosed anxiety disorder, which includes generalized anxiety disorder (gad), social anxiety disorder (sad), panic disorder, or specific phobias. the focus of the studies had to be on assessing the effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction (mbsr) as a primary intervention. accepted study designs comprised randomized controlled trials (rcts), quasi-experimental studies, and intervention studies. exclusion criteria involved studies not published in english, those not primarily focused on anxiety disorders, and publications categorized as reviews, meta-analyses, or theoretical papers. data extraction and synthesis data were extracted using a standardized form, including study characteristics (authors, year, sample size), participant demographics, study design, intervention details, outcome measures, and main findings. the quality of the studies was assessed using quality assessment, and meta-analysis were performed following prisma 2022 guidelines, a narrative synthesis was conducted to summarize the results. results and discussion study selection 1,095 papers from pubmed =105, semantic scholar =66, sciencedirect =829, psycinfo =53, and web of science = 42 were found in the first search. a full text review of 165 papers was conducted after duplicates were eliminated and titles and abstracts were screened. thirteen papers in all satisfied the inclusion requirements and were incorporated into the final analysis. figure 1: prisma flow diagram of the selection process of meta-analysis pa ge 18 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 182-188, 2024 this systematic review includes 13 studies investigating the effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction (mbsr) on anxiety disorders, with a total sample size of 751 participants. the studies vary in design, sample size, participant demographics, and anxiety disorders targeted. participants ranged from 15 to 75 years old, with a mix of gender, primarily focusing on generalized anxiety disorder (gad) and social anxiety disorder (sad). the interventions predominantly comprised 8-week mbsr programs, often compared against control groups (cg) or alternative treatments like cognitive behavioural therapy (cbt) and stress management education (sme). standardized anxiety assessment tools were used across studies, with the ham-a, bai, and stai being the most reported measures. 9 studies employed rct designs, while 2 quasi-experimental, 1 intervention and 1 mixed method design, that examined the effects of mbsr interventions on anxiety disorder for all studies are reported in table 1. table 1: characteristics of 14 included study a ut ho r na m e an d ye ar st ud y d es ig n n c g n o’ s a ge pa rt ic ip an ts in te rv en tio n se ss io n & d ur at io n o ut co m e m ea su re (h öl ze l e t a l., 20 13 ) rc t n = 26 m bs r15 sm e -1 1 a ge : 3 7. 9 (1 2. 2) 54 % f em al e g a d m bs r & s m e 8w ee k o nc e a w ee k, 2 hr s s es sio n (b a i) & (p ss ) (a rc h et al. , 2 01 3) rc t n = 10 5 c bt -6 0 m bs r 45 a ge : 1 875 17 % f em al e ve te ra n, p ar tic ip an ts, on e or m or e d sm -i v an xi et y di so rd er s g ro up c bt a nd a da pt ed m bs r 90 m in o ve r t he c ou rs e of 1 0 w ee ks (1 0 se ss io ns ) c lin ic al se ve rit y ra tin gs of p rin ci pa l a nx ie ty di so rd er s, pe nn s ta te w or ry q ue st io nn ai re , m in i m oo d an d a nx ie ty s ym pt om q ue st io nn ai re , b ec k d ep re ss io n in ve nt or yii (h og e et al. , 20 13 ) in te rv en tio n st ud y n = 89 m bs r48 sm e -4 1 a ge : 1 8 & o ld er 51 % f em al e g a d m bs r & s m e 8 w ee ks 2. 5 hr s s es sio n 45 -2 0 m in s h om e pr ac tic es (h a m -a ), (b a i) , & (c g is) . (h og e et al. , 20 15 ) rc t n = 38 m bs r19 sm e -1 9 a ge : 1 8 & ol de r 55 % f em al e g a d m bs r & s m e 8w ee k 2. 5 hr s s es sio n 45 -2 0 m in s ho m e pr ac tic es (b a i) a nd (p sw q -p w ) (h je ltn es et al. , 2 01 8) tw ost ag e m ix ed m et ho ds d es ig n n = 14 c g = 7 a ge :1 9 – 25 sa d m bs r 8w ee k (s ps ) a nd (s c l90 r) (g ol di n et al. , 20 16 a) rc t n = 1 08 m bs r36 , c bg t36 , c g -3 6 a ge : 3 2. 7, 7 .8 55 .6 0% f em al e sa d m bs r 12 w ee kl y 2. 5 hr s s es sio ns (l sa ssr ) (h je ltn es et a l., 20 17 ) q ua sie xp er im en ta l n = 53 a ge :1 925 62 .2 0% f em al e sa d m bs r w ee kl y se ss io ns ov er 8 w ee ks 2. 5/ 3hr se ss io n so ci al a nx ie ty sy m pt om s, gl ob al ps yc ho lo gi ca l di st re ss , m in df ul ne ss , se lfco m pa ss io n, se lfes te em pa ge 18 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 182-188, 2024 (a lim eh di et al. , 2 01 6) q ua sie xp er im en ta l n = 46 m bs r23 c g -2 3 a ge : 1 5 & ol de r g a d m bs r 8 se ss io ns , 9 0 m in ut es (g a d -7 ), in to le ra nc e of u nc er ta in ty sc al e, an d a nx ie ty se ns iti vi ty in de x. (ja za ie ri et al. , 2 01 6) rc t n = 47 m bs r27 a e -2 0 a ge : 2 353 53 % fe m al e sa d m bs r & a e 8 w ee ks 2. 5 hr s se ss io n (l sa ssr ) w or ki ng a lli an ce in ve nt or y (w a i) (y e, 20 17 ) rc t n = 2 7 m bs r 14 c g -1 3 a ge : 16 -4 0 sa d m bs r 8w ee k 2. 5 hr s se ss io n (p ss -1 4) (h og e et al. , 20 18 ) rc t n = 7 2 m bs r43 sm e -2 9 a ge : 1 8 & ol de r 46 % f em al e g a d m bs r vs . s m e 8w ee k in te rv en tio n c or tis ol a nd a c th a u c co nc en tra tio ns tn fal ph a an d il -6 a u c co nc en tra tio ns ja za ie ri et al. , 20 18 rc t n = 86 c bt -4 6 m bs r40 a ge : 3 3. 41 ± 7. 62 3 2. 77 ± 7 .9 4 58 % f em al e sa d m bs r 12 w ee k 2. 5h r se ss io n ls a ssr w a i (h og e et al. , 2 02 0) rc t n = 42 m bs r28 sm e -2 8 40 % fe m al e g a d m bs r 8 w ee ks g ro up cl as se s an d ho m e pr ac tic e (h a m -a ) mbsr: mindfulness-based stress reduction, sme: stress management education, bai: beck anxiety inventory, pss: perceived stress scale rct: randomized controlled trial, cg: control group, abct: attachment-based compassion therapy, tau: treatment as usual, dass-21:depression anxiety stress scales, pswq-pw: penn state worry questionnaire, cbgt: cognitivebehavioural group therapy, lsas-sr: liebowitz social anxiety scale self-report, gad-7: generalized anxiety disorder scale, ham-a: hamilton anxiety scale, cgi-s: clinical global impression of severity, ae: aerobic exercise, magt: mindfulness and acceptance-based group therapy, social phobia scale (sps) and symptom checklist 90 revised (scl-90r) discussion the comprehensive analysis of 13 research studies investigating the efficacy of mindfulness-based stress reduction (mbsr) in addressing anxiety disorders presents robust findings that endorse mbsr as a feasible approach for alleviating anxiety symptoms. these studies underscore the psychological and neurobiological advantages, underscoring the extensive influence of mbsr on individuals grappling with anxiety disorders, such as generalized anxiety disorder (gad) and social anxiety disorder (sad). our findings align with previous research that highlights the positive impact of mindfulness-based interventions on mental health outcomes (hofmann et al., 2010; khoury et al., 2013). across the included studies, participants receiving mbsr consistently showed significant reductions in anxiety symptoms compared to control groups. for example, (hölzel et al., 2013; hoge et al., 2013; hoge et al., 2015) demonstrated significant reductions in anxiety symptoms following mbsr. in these studies, participants with gad showed marked improvement in beck anxiety inventory (bai) scores, with mbsr outperforming stress management education (sme) in reducing anxiety. similarly, (arch et al., 2013) reported large effect size improvements in anxiety symptoms for both mbsr and cognitive behavioural therapy (cbt), with mbsr showing superior outcomes for mood disorders and worry. mbsr was found to be effective in treating a range of anxiety disorders, including generalized anxiety disorder (gad), social anxiety disorder (sad), and panic disorder. (hoge et al., 2013) found that mbsr significantly reduced anxiety symptoms in individuals with gad, as measured by the hamilton anxiety rating scale (ham-a) and bai. additionally, (goldin et al., 2016b; hjeltnes et al., 2017) observed significant reductions in social anxiety symptoms among participants with sad following mbsr interventions. the mechanisms through which mbsr reduces anxiety symptoms are multifaceted. mbsr enhances emotion regulation, increases awareness and acceptance of anxiety-related thoughts and sensations, and reduces rumination (hölzel et al., 2013) for example (hoge et al., pa ge 18 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 182-188, 2024 2015) elucidated the mechanisms through which mbsr reduces anxiety, highlighting the roles of mindfulness and decentring. these processes were shown to mediate the relationship between mbsr and reductions in both physiological anxiety and worry, providing insight into the cognitive shifts that accompany mindfulness practice. decentring was linked to decreased physiological anxiety, while mindfulness was associated with reduced worry. multiple studies, including those by (hjeltnes et al., 2018; jazaieri et al., 2016) consistently reported significant reductions in social anxiety symptoms following mbsr. these findings underscore mbsr’s effectiveness in improving social functioning and reducing the psychological distress associated with social anxiety. the improvements were often comparable to those achieved through traditional cbt, suggesting that mbsr offers a valuable alternative or adjunctive treatment. (hölzel et al., 2013; hoge et al., 2018) provided compelling evidence of neurobiological changes associated with mbsr. enhancements in ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (vlpfc) activation and strengthened connectivity between the amygdala and prefrontal cortex were detected post mindfulness-based stress reduction (mbsr) intervention. these findings suggest advancements in emotional regulation and decreased amygdala responsiveness, essential for the mitigation of anxiety symptoms. (hoge et al., 2018) also highlighted reductions in stress-related hormonal markers, such as adrenocorticotropic hormone (acth) and inflammatory cytokines (tnf-alpha, il-6), following mbsr. these physiological changes further support the stress-reducing effects of mbsr, contributing to overall improvements in anxiety and well-being. several studies, including (arch et al., 2013; goldin et al., 2016a) compared mbsr with other established treatments like cbt and cbgt. these comparisons revealed that mbsr is as effective as these traditional interventions in reducing anxiety symptoms. notably, arch et al. (2013) found that mbsr had superior outcomes for mood disorders and worry, while cbgt more effectively targeted anxious arousal. hoge et al. (2020) explored the cognitive benefits of mbsr, particularly in reducing interpretation bias—a tendency to interpret ambiguous stimuli as threatening. although the direct relationship between reduced interpretation bias and anxiety was minimal, this finding suggests that mbsr may contribute to cognitive shifts that aid in anxiety management. (jazaieri et al., 2018) found that the therapeutic alliance in mbsr predicted longterm symptom reduction, highlighting the importance of the participant-facilitator relationship in the effectiveness of mindfulness interventions. this finding suggests that mbsr’s benefits may extend beyond the immediate post-intervention period, promoting sustained anxiety reduction. the findings suggest that mbsr can be a valuable addition to the therapeutic options for anxiety disorders. clinicians should consider integrating mbsr into treatment plans, particularly for patients who prefer non-pharmacological interventions or have not responded adequately to conventional therapies. for instance, (alimehdi et al., 2016) found that mbsr was effective in reducing symptoms of generalized anxiety and anxiety sensitivity, though not in intolerance of uncertainty, highlighting the significant impact of mbsr across different anxietyrelated measures. despite the vigorous evidence supporting mbsr, several limitations should be noted. the heterogeneity of study designs, participant characteristics, and intervention protocols may affect the generalizability of the findings. additionally, the long-term effects of mbsr on anxiety disorders remain underexplored. future research should focus on larger, high-quality randomized controlled trials (rcts) with diverse populations and extended followup periods to better understand the sustained impact of mbsr. for example, (ye, 2017) found that mbsr led to decreased anxiety and avoidance in participants with sad, but the study had a relatively small sample size and short follow-up period. similarly, (hoge et al., 2020) observed reduced interpretation bias following mbsr, yet the direct relationship with anxiety was minimal, suggesting the need for further investigation into the specific components of mbsr that contribute to its effectiveness. the findings from these studies collectively endorse mbsr as a promising intervention for anxiety disorders. its effectiveness in both reducing anxiety symptoms and promoting neurobiological changes provides a compelling case for its inclusion in therapeutic settings. moreover, mbsr’s ability to match the efficacy of cbt and cbgt while offering distinct cognitive and emotional benefits positions it as a versatile tool in the mental health practitioner’s arsenal. conclusion the study concludes that mbsr proves to be a successful intervention in alleviating symptoms of anxiety among individuals diagnosed with anxiety disorders. the results advocate for including mindfulness-based strategies in mental health services, offering an additional choice to conventional therapies. subsequent studies ought to further investigate the enduring impacts and precise mechanisms of mbsr to optimize its implementation within clinical settings. acknowledgement we express our sincere gratitude to all those who have contributed to the completion of this study. we are profoundly grateful to our academic mentors and colleagues for their valuable guidance, critical feedback, and encouragement throughout the research process. references alimehdi, m., ehteshamzadeh, p., naderi, f., eftekharsaadi, z., & pasha, r. 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(2017). impact of mindfulness-based stress reduction (mbsr) on students’ social anxiety: a randomized controlled trial. neuroquantology, 15(4), 101–106. https://doi.org/10.14704/ nq.2017.15.4.1134 pa ge 1 pa ge 14 7 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) trainers’ characteristics and trainees’ motivational orientation as predictor of transfer of training john lester combong1*, christhoffer lelis1 volume 3 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v3i1.5719 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: july 15, 2025 accepted: august 18, 2025 published: september 12, 2025 this study explored how the trainers’ characteristics and the trainees’ motivational orientation influenced the transfer of training among employees in the financial technology industry. this work is attached to sustainable development goal (sdg) 8, concentrating on decent work and economic growth. despite heavy investments in corporate trainings, many organizations struggle to convert training into on-the-job behavior; drawing on selfdetermination theory, this study tested how trainer characteristics (interaction, attitude, competency) and trainees’ motivational orientation (intrinsic, extrinsic) jointly predict transfer of training among philippine fintech sales agents using a correlational–predictive design with simple random sampling, validated instruments, and spss analyses (pearson r; multiple regression). descriptively, trainer characteristics (m = 3.61), motivational orientation (m = 3.66), and transfer (m = 3.67) were moderate. trainer characteristics strongly correlated with transfer (r = .839, p < .001), as did motivational orientation (r = .906, p < .001); the regression model explained 81.3% of variance in transfer (r² = .813, p < .001), with motivational orientation exerting the larger standardized effect (β = .675, p < .001) compared with trainer characteristics (β = .278, p < .001). findings extend transfer theory by quantifying the relative contribution of motivation vis-à-vis trainer qualities in a fintech context and offer actionable levers for industrial counseling practice: autonomysupportive design, relevance framing, structured coaching and feedback, and recognition systems that strengthen internalization, thereby maximizing behavior change at work. keywords fintech sales, industrial counseling, motivational orientation, trainer characteristics, transfer of training 1 school of counseling and psychology graduate school, san pedro college, davao city, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: johnl_combong@spcdavao.edu.ph introduction industries consistently face difficulties with the effective transfer of training, which refers on how trainees translate and apply new skills and competencies in their actual work environments. while significant investment has gone into training initiatives, some companies still face problems with how these trainees integrate these skills into their daily professional roles, with only marginal observed improvements in workplace behavior and performance outcomes (liu et al., 2024). this transfer problem is illustrated by empirical evidence, where knowledge is acquired during training sessions but not applied afterwards (mehner et al., 2024; alam et al., 2023). even though many government and international agencies offer training in the philippines, effective transfer of training remains a problem. recent studies by the pids or the philippine institute for development studies (2025) reveal systemic gaps preventing this. for example, they found that technical vocational education and training (tvet) programs increase participation in the labor market but not job quality or employment outcomes. also, the world bank (2018) found that only 3% of tvet participants had access to structured enterprise training, such as tesda’s dual training system (dts), with inconsistent supervision and monitoring. local government units also conduct training without readiness assessments or post-training evaluations, which have a limited long-term impact. training programs not tailored to job functions or industry demands are of limited utility. this is theoretically explained by models such as the social learning theory (bandura, 1986), which holds that effective skill transfer is mainly dependent on the observational learning and modeling provided by trainers, and the self-determination theory (ryan & deci, 2017), which holds that intrinsic psychological needs drive trainee motivation to transfer skills. empirical research identifies additional transfer problems caused by inadequate posttraining support, low motivation of trainees, inadequate alignment of training content with workplace tasks, and low opportunities for practical skill application posttraining (zulkifly et al., 2021; alam et al., 2023). the commitment of employees is vital to ensure transfer of training for the responsive achievement of organizational goals (liu et al., 2024). trainers’ characteristics, including interaction, attitude, and competency, are the attributes and behaviors of those who lead the training, playing a crucial role in translating learned concepts into practical skills (ambu-saidi et al., 2024; lee, 2023; mehner et al., 2024). organizations face significant challenges in implementing effective training programs, so factors contributing to those challenges must be addressed (lee, 2023). trainees’ motivational orientation, as conceptualized by de jong et al. (2022) pertains to the internal psychological states that drive an individual’s engagement with and commitment to the learning process (liu et al., 2024). it encompasses intrinsic pa ge 14 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 147-160, 2025 and extrinsic motivation (casey et al., 2021). engagement leads to learning and higher rates of transfer of training (casey et al., 2021). transfer of training, the dependent variable, represents the degree to which trainees effectively apply the knowledge, skills, and attitudes acquired during training to their actual job performance and contribute to organizational objectives (sarfraz et al., 2021). supervisor support, peer support, and opportunity to use learning correlate positively with transfer of training (sarfraz et al., 2021). this study aims to examine how trainers’ characteristics and trainees’ motivation to transfer predict the effectiveness of transfer of training among sales agents at company a, thereby filling a literature gap by providing empirical evidence on how these factors influence transfer of training. specifically, the study seeks to describe trainers’ characteristics based on peer support, motivation to transfer, and perceived transfer of training; describe trainees’ motivational orientation based on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation; describe the level of transfer of training concerning trainees’ peer support, motivation to transfer, and perceived transfer of training; determine the relationships among trainers’ characteristics, motivational orientation, and transfer of training; and identify the influence of trainers’ characteristics and trainees’ motivational orientation on the transfer of training. conversely, the study hypothesizes that there is no significant relationship between trainers’ characteristics and the transfer of training (h₀₁), no significant relationship between trainees’ motivational orientation and the transfer of training (h₀₂), and that trainers’ characteristics and trainees’ motivational orientation do not significantly predict the transfer of training (h₀₃). globally, this study contributes to the growing body of literature on training effectiveness by emphasizing the dual importance of trainer attributes and motivational readiness in enhancing skill transfer. it reinforces theoretical models such as social learning theory and self-determination theory within the organizational training context. the study advances understanding of how internal and external motivational drivers and instructional quality converge to influence training success. socially, the study addresses pressing needs in industries that rely heavily on knowledgebased performance and continuous upskilling, such as financial technology companies. organizations can use the findings to optimize their training designs and improve employee outcomes. hr professionals, corporate and regional trainers, and training program developers may also benefit from actionable insights on how to elevate training efficiency. lastly, this research offers a foundational reference for future researchers aiming to explore similar variables in other industries or cultural contexts. literature review organizations and industries invest heavily in training, but a persistent “transfer problem” prevents translation of learned knowledge and skills into work practice, limiting performance improvements and return on investment (summers, 2021; mehner et al., 2024; liu et al., 2024). foundational work shows that initial learning can be solid, but retention and on-the-job application decay without reinforcement, as illustrated by learning and forgetting curves (gautam & basnet, 2020; bisbey et al., 2021). this shortfall—fewer than 10% of training and development expenditures recouped by employers—signals systemic barriers spanning individual, instructional, and organizational domains (summers, 2021; ambu-saidi et al., 2024). constraints such as limited budgets, weak evaluations, and low participation impede effective transfer (lee, 2023). consequently, research has increasingly interrogated trainee dispositions, trainer characteristics, and work environment supports to explain when training applies (alam et al., 2023; liu et al., 2024). even so, critical gaps remain: studies have not adequately described how individual trainer characteristics e.g., instructional technique, expertise, interpersonal skill interact with a trainee’s on to transfer to shape downstream performance in industrial counseling contexts (kurniatun et al., 2021; vaag et al., 2022). emerging evidence on active retrieval and authentic, high-fidelity learning environments (including vr) offers promising tools to narrow the learning-application divide, yet their mechanisms vis-à-vis trainer behaviors and trainee motivation require elaboration (kim, 2022; linden et al., 2023; sheldon et al., 2023; harris et al., 2020; radhakrishnan et al., 2022). addressing these omissions, the present study examines how trainer characteristics and motivation to transfer jointly and differentially predict transfer of training in industrial counseling, thereby advancing practical strategies to heighten roi and sustain performance improvements (hussain et al., 2023; yafi et al., 2021; leuhery, 2024; yimam, 2022; ichdan, 2024; aqel & alkshali, 2022; forner et al., 2020; ajjawi et al., 2023). a consistent pattern in the literature links trainer characteristics to trainees’ motivation and, ultimately, to transfer outcomes. trainers’ subject-matter mastery, instructional design competence, and interpersonal behaviors cultivate confidence, a supportive climate, and perceived relevance—conditions that energize motivation and encourage application of new skills (hu et al., 2021). like bandura, modeling high-quality instructional behaviors (clarity, enthusiasm, engagement, competence) strengthens learning and subsequent work performance (harris et al., 2020; drew et al., 2020; pedram et al., 2021). complementarily, immersive simulations can extend these effects by offering realistic, low-risk practice with rapid feedback; when fidelity and immersion are high, transfer improves (gawlik-kobylińska et al., 2020; renganayagalu et al., 2021; drew et al., 2020; xie et al., 2021). meta-analytic and comparative evidence further indicates that vr can outperform or match traditional methods in shaping behavior, knowledge retention, and safety outcomes, provided skilled human facilitation remains in place (nykänen et al., 2020; kanade & duffy, 2022; onososen & innocent, 2025; markwell et al., 2023; pedram et al., 2021). pa ge 14 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 147-160, 2025 motivation itself—shaped by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors—predicts whether trainees expend effort to apply learning, persist through obstacles, and generalize skills (febriyarso & ruslan, 2021; li, 2023; fajri et al., 2022; ismael et al., 2021; diwedi & nema, 2023). however, time and resource constraints for post-training practice often blunt these effects and highlight the need to align trainer behaviors with environmental supports to maintain motivation after the classroom (scorgie et al., 2023; juliano & liew, 2020). in sum, the literature substantiates pathways from trainer characteristics, motivation to transfer, and transfer of training, while pointing to contextual predictor and their correlation that can amplify or dampen these links (liu et al., 2024). social learning theory provides the study’s central lens: trainees learn by observing credible models, internalizing standards, and regulating performance through selfefficacy; thus, trainer behavior and learning context jointly condition skill acquisition and transfer (manik et al., 2022; xie et al., 2021). its three dimensions of reciprocity personal, behavioral, and environmental determinants map directly to trainer qualities, trainee motivation, and workplace affordances and show how modeling, feedback, and supportive climates contribute to long-term application (mash & edwards, 2020; lourenço et al., 2025; fukamizu et al., 2021; kumyoung et al., 2024; rose et al., 2020). self-determination theory (sdt) deepens this account by specifying that satisfaction of autonomy, competence, and relatedness needs fosters autonomous motivation— more persistent and transferable than behavior driven by external contingencies (moll-khosrawi et al., 2021; forner et al., 2020; vergara‐morales & valle, 2021; shkoler & kimura, 2020; li et al., 2022; gagné et al., 2022; ellikkal & rajamohan, 2024). based on expectancy theory, supported by goal-setting theory, trainees apply skills when they believe effort will produce performance and valued outcomes; equity theory argues fairness perceptions shape discretionary effort; and feedback focuses on specific, challenging goals as drivers of sustained application (lokman et al., 2022; valenzuela et al., 2024; urhahne & wijnia, 2023). social cognitive mechanisms (notably self-efficacy) mediate observation– performance links (kumyoung et al., 2024). taken together, slt explains how trainer modeling and instructional quality seed self-efficacy and observable performance standards; expectancy, equity, and goal setting specify the cognitive–motivational appraisals that convert capability into effortful application; sdt clarifies why autonomy-supportive climates and competence feedback produce durable, self-endorsed transfer. this integrative scaffold aligns with industrial counseling settings, where nuanced facilitation, fair treatment, and structured practice opportunities are pivotal for turning learning into job performance (ishida & sekiyama, 2024; urhahne & wijnia, 2023; bandhu et al., 2024; fuente et al., 2022; gustiani et al., 2022; férriz-valero et al., 2020; szulawski et al., 2021; yağar et al., 2025; cullen & oppenheimer, 2024; gao et al., 2024; smith & wyness, 2024). to ensure tight alignment between constructs and their measurement, this study operationalizes each variable as follows: first, trainers’ characteristics (iv) are assessed using the learning environment inventory adapted by aziz et al. (2022), which captures interaction, attitude, and skill/competence as instructional qualities that condition transfer (aziz et al., 2022; kerins et al., 2021; mathis, 2020; ferdilan et al., 2021; hu et al., 2021; ismail et al., 2021; nirtha et al., 2021; ambarawati, 2020); second, motivation to transfer (mv/iv) is measured with instruments grounded in the unified model of taskspecific motivation that integrate self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and perceived relevance to gauge willingness and effort to apply skills (yang et al., 2020; mehner et al., 2024; liu et al., 2024; fitria et al., 2023; toom et al., 2021; pânişoară et al., 2020); and third, transfer of training (dv) is captured through a modified transfer of training survey adapted from salamon et al., focusing on the application of trained behaviors over time in real work settings, including environmental enablers and constraints (summers, 2021; burke-smalley & mendenhall, 2020; alam et al., 2023; stewart et al., 2020; liu et al., 2024; zulkifly, 2022). consistent with these instruments, trainers’ characteristics are defined as the trainer’s expertise, pedagogical skill, communication, and professional demeanor that shape a conducive learning climate and model effective performance (aziz et al., 2022; kerins et al., 2021; hu et al., 2021; ismail et al., 2021; nirtha et al., 2021); motivation to transfer denotes the trainee’s intention and sustained effort to apply newly acquired knowledge and skills, anchored in perceived utility, confidence, and supportive conditions (gautam & basnet, 2020; pânişoară et al., 2020; yang et al., 2020); and transfer of training refers to how much trained skills are used on the job. this shows up as changes in behavior, better performance, and perceived use of the skills (summers, 2021; zulkifly, 2022). at the indicator level, interaction signifies the extent to which the trainer elicits dialogue, facilitates participation, and provides responsive feedback to build engagement and understanding (mathis, 2020); attitude captures the trainer’s professional disposition—enthusiasm, respect, and support—that shapes trainee receptivity and motivation (ferdilan et al., 2021; hu et al., 2021); and skill/ competence denotes the trainer’s mastery of content and pedagogy, coupled with consistent, exemplary conduct that clarifies performance standards (ismail et al., 2021; nirtha et al., 2021; ambarawati, 2020). in parallel, personal study represents self-directed efforts to consolidate and extend learning beyond formal sessions through review and independent practice (khiat & vogel, 2022); reflective practice entails deliberate appraisal of application attempts, using feedback to adjust strategies and strengthen self-regulation (adıgüzel et al., 2023); and structured practice indicates organizationsupported, supervised opportunities that provide time, resources, and corrective input to embed skills (snider pa ge 15 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 147-160, 2025 et al., 2023). finally, peer support encompasses coworker encouragement and assistance that reduce barriers and normalize the use of new behaviors at work (alam et al., 2023; stewart et al., 2020), whereas perceived transfer of training captures employees’ judgments of the extent and impact of applying trained skills, including efficiency and performance gains (zulkifly, 2022). the literature points to a mutual benefit: trainers who demonstrate effective practices and create supportive environments boost motivation. this increase in motivation raises the chances of applying skills in realworld situations. after training, high-quality practice settings and support enhance these effects (sarfraz et al., 2021; chachar et al., 2022; harris et al., 2020; drew et al., 2020). by outlining specific constructs, tools, and indicators related to social learning theory and other motivational theories, this study aims to clarify how the qualities of trainers and motivation work together to aid transfer in industrial counseling. it also seeks to identify areas for practical improvement (summers, 2021; liu et al., 2024). materials and methods this chapter outlines the methodological procedures employed in the study, including the research design, respondents, research locale, data-gathering instruments, data collection procedures, and ethical considerations. the goal is to ensure that the methodology aligns with the research objectives and is grounded in best practices for quantitative research. this study utilized a correlational-predictive quantitative design to investigate the relationship and predictive influence of trainers’ characteristics and task-specific motivational orientation to transfer on the actual transfer of training. a quantitative approach was deemed appropriate as the study aimed to measure and analyze numerical data using statistical techniques. the predictive nature of the research seeks to determine the extent to which independent variables (trainers’ characteristics and motivational orientation) can forecast the dependent variable (transfer of training), aligning with established practices in organizational psychology and industrial counseling (burke & hutchins, 2007; de jong et al., 2022). the respondents of the study were sales agents and field staff of different fintech brands operating in the philippines. these individuals represent the primary frontliners of the company’s digital consumer lending operations and have undergone formal training sessions aimed at enhancing customer engagement, compliance, and sales performance. respondents shared common characteristics, such as active employment under company a’s philippine branch, exposure to company-led training programs, and performance-based job structures. the study employed a simple random sampling technique to eliminate selection bias and ensure a representative distribution of respondents. following standard power analysis guidelines (cohen, 1992), the minimum sample size was determined to achieve sufficient statistical power for correlation and regression analyses. to reflect the diversity of company a’s operational units, the sample included both newly hired and tenured field agents across various deployment areas in the philippines. this distribution allowed the study to capture a range of experiences in training and its subsequent transfer to realworld tasks. respondents were required to have completed at least one formal training program and be actively working during the data collection process. those on leave, probationary status without training experience, or those who failed to complete the post-training assessment were excluded. all respondents had the right to withdraw from participation at any point, in accordance with ethical research standards. its strategic focus on the philippine market, combined with its emphasis on sales performance, agent development, and digital lending makes it an ideal locale for studying training effectiveness. the organization’s rapid expansion and training investment efforts underscore the relevance of investigating how trainers’ characteristics and trainees’ motivation influence transfer of training in a highperformance, fintech-driven sales environment. three research instruments were utilized in this study, each measuring a distinct construct relevant to the research objectives. the first instrument was the learning environment inventory adapted from aziz et al. (2022), which assessed trainers’ characteristics. it was composed of three dimensions: interaction (e.g., encouragement of participation), attitude (e.g., trainer enthusiasm and support), and competency (e.g., subject matter expertise and clarity). each item in this instrument was rated using a 5-point likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). the second instrument used was based on the unified model of task-specific motivation by de jong et al. (2022), which measured the respondents’ motivational orientation. this instrument was grounded in selfdetermination theory and included three components: personal study, reflection on practice, and formal training engagement. respondents evaluated their internal motivation and perceived value of the training using the same 5-point likert scale. the third instrument was the modified transfer of training survey, adapted from salamon et al. (2022), which was designed to assess transfer of training. it focused on three dimensions: peer support, motivation to apply, and perceived transfer of skills. this survey aimed to capture both the behavioral intent and the actual application of newly learned knowledge and skills in the workplace after the training. the data –gathering process followed a systematic approach to ensure reliability and ethical compliance throughout the research. the process began with formal coordination by sending a letter to the chief executive officer (ceo) and the human resources (hr) department of company a. the letter detailed the study’s objectives, procedures, and ethical protocols. upon approval, the researcher was granted access to the pa ge 15 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 147-160, 2025 contact details of eligible respondents, specifically sales agents who had undergone relevant training sessions. a list of active sales agents, including their names, email addresses, and deployment locations, was provided by the hr department. from this list, a random sample was selected using a simple random sampling technique to ensure fairness and representativeness. the selected respondents were then contacted via email, where they received an informed consent form outlining their rights, including the voluntary nature of participation, the confidentiality of their responses, and the assurance that their involvement would bear no professional consequences. once consent was obtained, the research instruments, composed of three standardized questionnaires, were administered electronically. these included tools measuring trainers’ characteristics, task-specific motivational operation, and transfer of training. instructions were clearly outlined in the digital forms, and follow-up communications were made available to address questions or clarifications. the data collection period lasted for two weeks in august 2025, during which periodic reminders were sent to encourage timely submission of responses. all responses were compiled and exported from the digital platform into microsoft excel for initial screening and data cleaning. the final dataset was then transferred to spss version 26 for statistical analysis, where each response was coded and organized according to the study’s variable structure. the study employed both descriptive and inferential statistical techniques to analyze the collected data. descriptive statistics such as mean, standard deviation, and frequency counts were computed to summarize the respondents’ demographic profile and describe the central tendencies and variability of their responses across the three main variables. to examine the relationships between variables, the pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was used. this test measured the strength and direction of the relationships between trainers’ characteristics, taskspecific motivational operation, and the actual transfer of training. furthermore, to assess the predictive power of the independent variables, trainers’ characteristics and task-specific motivational operation, a multiple linear regression analysis was performed. this allowed the researcher to determine how much variance in the transfer of training could be explained by the two predictors. in addition, the reliability of each instrument and its subscales was tested using cronbach’s alpha. all scales used in the study achieved acceptable reliability scores, indicating that the items within each questionnaire consistently measured the intended constructs. using raosoft sample size calculator, the sample size was determined as 400 respondents, applying a 95% confidence level and a 4.99% margin of error to ensure representative data. the formula used to calculate the sample size (n) is given by: n = n × z2 × p × (1 − p)/(n − 1) × e2 + z2 × p ×(1 − p) where: n = required sample size n = required sample size z = z-value (z=1.96 for 95% confidence level) p = estimated proportion (typically 0.5 for maximum variability) e = margin of error (0.0499 or 4.99%) this research adhered strictly to ethical standards in conducting studies involving human respondents all potential respondents were informed about the nature and objectives of the study through a comprehensive informed consent process. participation was entirely voluntary, and respondents were assured of their right to withdraw from the study at any point without any adverse consequences. the confidentiality and anonymity of participants were prioritized, with no personally identifiable information included in any stage of data analysis or presentation. only aggregated data were reported. results and discussions this chapter presents the data and the analysis of findings derived from respondents’ answers, addressing the objectives of the study regarding the relationship of trainers’ characteristics and trainees’ motivational orientation to the transfer of training among fintech employees. the overall mean for trainers’ characteristics was 3.61 (sd = 0.96), indicating a moderate level across respondents. within the latent construct, competency registered the highest mean (m = 3.68, sd = 0.99), followed by attitude (m = 3.62, sd = 0.98) and interaction (m = 3.53, sd = 0.99). the subscale standard deviations clustered around 0.98–0.99, suggesting comparable variability across indicators, while the relatively smaller overall sd reflects aggregation at the latent level. taken together, the pattern implies moderately favourable perceptions of trainers, with slightly stronger views on competency than table 1: descriptive statistics for trainers’ characteristics, trainees’ motivational orientation and transfer of training variables sd mean descriptive level trainers’ characteristics 0.92 3.61 moderate interaction attitude competency trainees’ motivational orientation 0.95 3.66 moderate intrinsic motivation pa ge 15 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 147-160, 2025 on interaction. results indicate that external incentives may initially motivate trainees, but practical training requires a balanced approach with intrinsic and extrinsic motivators (kashefian-naeeini et al., 2024). understanding how these motivating forces combine to design interventions to increase training efficacy and sustain skill application is important. (don et al., 2022). building intrinsic motivation is essential for encouraging deeper learning, better engagement, and effective skill transfer (näsström et al., 2021). hence, intrinsic motivation based on personal satisfaction and perceived value is linked to better learning outcomes, long-term behaviour change, and skill retention. (rubio et al., 2023; kessels et al., 2024; li, 2022). on the other hand, while extrinsic motivation can spark initial interest, it often falls short for long-term behaviour change and can lead to shallow skill application (li et al., 2022; yusuf, 2021). therefore, relying too much on extrinsic motivators can weaken intrinsic motivation, resulting in lower engagement and a lack of ongoing application once external rewards are gone (ali̇soy, 2023; johansen et al., 2023). as a result, this leads to the need to create an environment of intrinsic motivation for long-term transfer of training and professional development within organizations.(morris et al., 2022). these results indicate that despite acknowledged knowledge and skills of trainers, interpersonal and communication strategies are needed to improve for a better learning environment (jelińska & paradowski, 2021). understanding trainer characteristics is critical. effective trainers are key to successful organizational learning and employee development (njuguna et al., 2021). such perceptions need further analysis. such data will help identify targeted training interventions to enhance trainer interaction skills/training effectiveness and speed learning transfer. the overall mean for motivational orientation was 3.66 (sd = 0.95), also at a moderate level. among its components, extrinsic motivation showed the higher mean (m = 3.71, sd = 1.00) relative to intrinsic motivation (m = 3.61, sd = 0.94). standard deviations for the indicators ranged from 0.94 to 1.00, indicating wider spread than the iv1 latent sd and suggesting more heterogeneous motivational profiles across individuals. the pattern points to slightly greater endorsement of extrinsic drivers compared to intrinsic ones. the overall mean for transfer of training was 3.67 (sd = 0.95), indicating a moderate level. the highest indicator mean was motivation to transfer (m = 3.73, sd = 1.04), followed closely by peer support (m = 3.71, sd = 1.03), while perceived transfer of training was comparatively lower (m = 3.57, sd = 0.94). indicator-level sds ranged from 0.94 to 1.04, reflecting moderate dispersion and suggesting meaningful individual differences in transferrelated experiences and perceptions. overall, respondents reported moderate transfer with slightly stronger motivational readiness than perceived transfer outcomes. such perceptions need further analysis. such data will help identify targeted training interventions to enhance trainer interaction skills/training effectiveness and speed learning transfer. therefore, this gap emphasizes the need to look into workplace factors that help or hinder skill application, as these factors are often ignored yet essential (bhurtel & bhattarai, 2023; kerins et al., 2021). data showed a huge gap: while trainees plan to use new skills, they fail to put them to work. this indicates an apparent disconnect between the intention to use skills and their actual application. (liu et al., 2024). this analysis reflects the study’s primary objective of defining the link between key trainer qualities, trainee motivation, and the transfer of training across organizations. it also identifies areas for targeted improvements and employee growth. (summers, 2021). table 2 shows the correlation analysis revealed a strong positive relationship between trainers’ characteristics and transfer of training (r = 0.839, p < .001), indicating that higher perceptions of trainer quality, encompassing interaction, attitude, and competency are associated with greater transfer of training among trainees. similarly, trainees’ motivational orientation demonstrated a very strong positive correlation with transfer of training (r = 0.906, p < .001), suggesting that trainees with higher intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are more likely to apply training in the workplace. extrinsic motivation transfer of training 0.95 3.67 moderate peer support motivation to transfer perceived transfer of training overall 0.88 3.65 moderate table 2: influence of trainers’ characteristics and trainees’ motivational orientation towards transfer of training variables transfer of training pearson's r p-value interpretation trainers’ characteristics 0.839 < .001 significant trainees’ motivational orientation 0.906 < .001 significant pa ge 15 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 147-160, 2025 both correlations were statistically significant at the 0.001 level, implying that the observed associations are highly unlikely to have occurred by chance. the coefficients indicate that both trainer-related and trainee-related factors contribute substantially to successful transfer of training, with motivational orientation showing a slightly stronger association. these findings indicate competent trainers are necessary, but trainees’ intrinsic motivation is more powerful and lasting for skill transfer to the workplace (shen & feng, 2024). thus, organizations seeking to maximize training effectiveness should foster a motivated workforce and continuously recruit and retain good trainers. this combined attention to trainer quality and trainee motivation is critical to achieve maximum human capital development and organizational performance (hussain et al., 2023). in addition, ongoing investment in training and development improves individual skills and directly contributes to organizational effectiveness and competitiveness in a dynamic market to ensure its existence and growth (ismael et al., 2021; radia & ibtissem, 2021). this sustained investment ultimately enables employees to self-actualize by acquiring new knowledge and skill sets required to build a learning organization. (li, 2023). additionally, robust training evaluation, despite the inherent difficulties due to its often-qualitative benefits, is paramount for demonstrating the impact of such initiatives and critically informing the refinement of future programs (urbancová et al., 2021). thus a comprehensive training adequacy approach must include instrumental and non-instrumental dimensions such as motivation and self-esteem to enhance and sustain behaviour change (shafei & sameri, 2021). the trainer characteristics and trainee motivational orientation are significant predictors of an effective transfer of training, with trainee motivation is more linked and associated (mcanally & hagger, 2024).this outcome demonstrates that organizations need to select top trainers and also develop motivational factors in their workforce to maximize training investment returns (shirvani et al., 2024). although there has been extensive academic study on transfer of training (stumbrienė et al., 2023), organisations remain challenged with ensuring that learned skills are implemented at work. this persistent difficulty indicates a large gap between theoretical understanding and practical application, and calls for a deeper analysis of factors underlying transfer success (omar et al., 2022). table 3 presents the regression analysis results examining the influence of trainers’ characteristics (tc) and trainees’ motivational orientation (tmo) on transfer of training. the model was statistically significant, f= 367, p = .001, with a multiple correlation coefficient of r = 0.902 and r² = 0.813, indicating that approximately 81.3% of the variance in transfer of training was explained by the two predictors. both predictors were statistically significant at the 0.001 level. tmo (b = 0.675, β = 0.675, t = 20.673, p < .001) had a stronger predictive effect compared to table 3: influence of trainers’ characteristics and trainees’ motivational orientation towards transfer of training predictor estimate stand. estimate se t p interpretation intercept 0.165 0.88 1.873 0.062 tc 0.287 0.278 0.034 8.498 < .001 significant tmo 0.675 0.675 0.033 20.673 < .001 significant r = 0.902 r2 = 0.813 f = 367 p = 0.001 tc (b = 0.287, β = 0.278, t = 8.498, p < .001). this suggests that trainees’ motivation—both intrinsic and extrinsic—exerts a greater influence on the likelihood of transferring learned skills to the workplace than trainerrelated qualities, although both factors make meaningful contributions to predicting transfer outcomes. the intercept (b = 0.165, p = 0.062) was not statistically significant, indicating that when both predictors are at zero, the baseline level of transfer of training would not differ significantly from zero. overall, the model demonstrates that enhancing both trainer quality and trainee motivation is essential for maximizing transfer of training, with trainee motivation having the larger impact. this finding is consistent with self-determination theory (deci & ryan, 1985), which argues that intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are central for sustained behavioural application. trainees who consider training personally relevant, career-enhancing, and rewarding internally and externally are more likely to seek opportunities to transfer learning. the item statements in the appendix, such as “i am motivated to use what i learned to improve my job performance” and “i expect recognition for applying my training,” reflect these motivational drivers. although tc had a negligible relative effect, its influence remains statistically significant. this supports adult learning theory (knowles, 1980) and transfer frameworks (baldwin & ford, 1988), which highlight the role of trainer competence, clarity, responsiveness, and real-world application examples in fostering an environment conducive to transfer. appendix items regarding “clear explanations,” interactive discussions,” and “ constructive feedback” illustrate how effective trainer behaviors contribute to readiness and confidence in applying learned skills. these results suggest a dual-pronged approach for organizations: first, boost trainee motivation by integrating relevance framing, autonomy-supportive practices, careerlinked incentives, and recognition programs into training pa ge 15 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 147-160, 2025 initiatives. also, trainer effectiveness can be enhanced through professional development that strengthens technical expertise and interpersonal engagement. such results support earlier correlational studies showing robust positive associations between predictive factors and transfer of training. they also clarify that trainee motivational orientation dominates trainer characteristics when both are considered. this conclusion agrees with self-determination theory, which holds that autonomously driven motivation based on intrinsic factors predicts sustained behavioural modification and practical skill application better than pure external influences (chiu, 2022). though trainer attributes help create a learning environment, the ultimate motivator for skill transfer is often the individual’s desire, commitment, and perceived utility of the acquired knowledge (snider et al., 2023). consequently, this suggests that while proficient training delivery is essential, actively cultivating intrinsic motivation through perceived competence, challenge, autonomy, impact, social relatedness, and meaningfulness is imperative for achieving lasting transfer of training (swiatczak, 2021). furthermore, autonomous motivation augmented by extrinsic drivers influences individuals to apply new skills, commitment, and persistence. for instance, motivational pathways outlined in appendix “desire to improve job performance”, “anticipation of recognition,” “personal interest in the subject matter” are examples of such motivational pathways. hence, these results suggest understanding and strategically applying motivational theories in training development and execution is critical to training efficacy and long-term skill transfer. (shen & feng, 2024). however, despite extensive academic inquiry, few organizations entirely use their training investments and fail to translate learned content into improved workplace performance. (yimam, 2022). given the high variance explained (r² = 0.813), these two predictors are powerful levers for driving transfer, and strategic investment in both areas is likely to yield substantial improvements in training roi. conclusions these descriptive results showed that respondents perceived trainers’ statistics and trainees’ orientation moderately. most trainer-related attributes were competency, followed by attitude and interaction. the inferential findings demonstrated that both predictors trainers’ characteristics and trainees’ motivationwere significantly and positively correlated with transfer of training, with motivational orientation exhibiting a slightly stronger relationship. these outcomes empirically support the study’s theoretical framework, particularly sociocultural theory (bandura, 1986) and self-determination theory (ryan & deci, 2017). all findings suggest that an integrated approach focusing on trainer quality and trainee motivation is essential for maximum transfer of training in organisational contexts. based on the findings, it is recommended that industries, especially their human resource managers, training developers, and supervisors, strengthen trainer–trainee interaction by equipping trainers with advanced facilitation skills grounded in industrial counselling techniques such as active listening, empathic feedback, and motivational questioning. to deal with the lower ratings for intrinsic motivation, hr managers and training developers should include career counselling components to enable employees to match acquired skills with personal and professional goals while allowing autonomy and creativity in skill application. thirdly, organizational leadership should create a transfer-supportive climate by integrating continuous feedback systems, peer mentoring, and counsellinginformed performance discussions into daily operations. such actions will ensure that training content is delivered effectively and consistently for improved job performance, employee motivation and organizational productivity. references adams, j. s., & freedman, s. 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(2022). the influence of training design factors on training transfer: a preliminary study. international journal of academic research in business and social sciences, 12(12), 1782–1794. https://doi. org/10.6007/ijarbss/v12-i12/15715 pa ge 1 pa ge 18 3 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) the relation between academic workloads in science and mental health outcomes among middle school learners anfo ama asieduwaa elfreda1*, benjamin obeng konadu2 volume 3 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v3i1.5734 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: july 19, 2025 accepted: august 22, 2025 published: october 07, 2025 the study determined how academic workloads in science affect the mental well-being of middle school learners. a qualitative research methodology was employed, encompassing 37 participants (19 males and 18 females), with data gathered via focus group interviews. the qualitative findings indicated that substantial academic demands, including ambiguous project guidelines, protracted experiments and conflicting deadlines, disrupt learners’ routines and hinder academic performance. they also highlighted common mental health problems like stress, irritability, emotional exhaustion, and feelings of loneliness, especially when academic workloads get in the way of personal time. it became clear that the stress of heavy academic workloads not only makes it harder for students to manage their time but also causes long-term psychological strain, which can show up as anxiety and emotional withdrawal. this highlights the necessity of enhanced task management to promote academic achievement and emotional well-being. the study reveals that excessive academic demands result in significant emotional distress and underscores the necessity for prompt interventions in educational institutions, including clearer assignment guidelines, a more balanced curriculum, emotional support systems and structured skill development strategies to protect learners’ psychological well-being and academic engagement. keywords academic workloads, mental health outcomes, mental wellbeing, middle school learners, science 1 university of education, winneba, ghana 2 school of teaching and learning, illinois state university, usa * corresponding author’s e-mail: elfredaanfo8@gmail.com introduction science has always been a subject of both excitement and challenge. for many sixth graders in ghana, it is the first time they encounter complex experiments, long projects, and advanced concepts. some rise to the challenge with enthusiasm. others find themselves drained, anxious, and unsure of their own abilities. stress from assignments, examinations and projects is a prevalent issue in schools, particularly in sixth grade and other upper elementary grades (cooper et al., 2006). the researcher personally seen the differential effects that different kinds of science assignments have on students’ attitudes, levels of involvement, and stress. students are not only growing academically, but also emotionally and socially. at this age, pressure from school does not stay in the classroom; it spills into their sleep, their moods, and their relationships. stress from heavy science workloads can cause headaches, stomachaches, irritability, and even emotional withdrawal. the joy of learning gets buried under the burden of surviving assignments. grade 6 serves as a pivotal educational milestone for primary school learners, marked by considerable progress in academic, emotional, and cognitive areas. this level presents students with more intricate scientific concepts, specialized terminology, and more challenging analytical tasks than in earlier grades (eccles & roeser, 2011). learners must not only master the scientific method but also conduct experiments accurately, meticulously analyze and interpret data, and articulate their findings effectively (national research council [nrc], 2012). advanced cognitive skills, often less emphasized in earlier educational stages such as analytical thinking, critical reasoning, precision in measurement, and systematic investigative abilities, are essential to fulfil these heightened expectations (hmelo-silver et al., 2007; osborne, 2014). research indicates that increased cognitive demands significantly impact learners’ mental health and overall psychological well-being (putwain, 2007). research indicates that academic stressors, including challenges with complex subjects, high-stakes examinations, and extensive memorization demands, frequently lead to emotional issues such as anxiety, reduced self-esteem, feelings of inadequacy, and academic burnout (suldo et al., 2009; putwain et al., 2010). the desire for precise results and the burden of elevated academic expectations can exacerbate emotional stress, particularly among learners with diminished self-efficacy or those who perceive science as intrinsically challenging (bandura et al., 2001). nonetheless, learners have markedly diverse experiences about the demands of science. certain learners thrive under pressure, finding motivation in the intellectual difficulties posed by demanding academic assignments, while others view same responsibilities as onerous and unpleasant (meece et al., 2006). wigfield et al. (1998) emphasize the need to acknowledge individual differences, such as learners’ self-perceptions academically, their coping mechanisms for stress, and their interests, while examining their emotional and mental responses to academic tasks. thus, comprehending the factors contributing to favorable engagement in specific activities and the apprehension elicited by others might pa ge 18 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 183-189, 2024 profoundly influence the development of curriculum and pedagogical strategies in scientific education. substantial data indicates that excessive workload can adversely affect mental health across many demographics. bakker and demerouti (2017) shown in their job demands-resources model that an excessive workload leads to psychological strain, emotional exhaustion, and burnout, especially when inadequate resources are present to alleviate these consequences. this discovery has been regularly corroborated in academic and professional environments. galloway et al. (2013) found that a significant academic load is associated with increased stress, worse sleep, and reduced desire for learning. their research on high-achieving learners revealed that individuals handed over 3.5 hours of homework nightly had exacerbated physical health problems, challenges in balancing other activities, and elevated anxiety levels. suldo et al. (2013) assert that mental health textbooks and educational research consistently highlight the dynamic interplay of factors such as task complexity, instructional strategies, learner engagement, and emotional responses in influencing learners’ well-being. to enhance both academic achievement and mental well-being, educational researchers and psychologists increasingly concur that schools must achieve a balance between rigorous academic expectations and supportive learning environments (putwain et al., 2010; suldo et al., 2009). therefore, it is crucial to look at how different science assignments impact the stress levels, emotional health, self-confidence, and academic attitudes of sixth-grade learners. this study aims to investigate these linkages by examining the effects of academic workloads on the mental health and the mental health conditions of sixth-grade learners in relation to the workloads. problem statement in the weeks leading up to major tests and projects, sixth-grade learners often displayed signs of feeling overworked. this included frequent complaints of fatigue, a decline in class involvement, and heightened anxiety over their performance. learners’ emotional outbursts and increased unhappiness were also seen by teachers and parents, particularly when they were balancing challenging laboratory work, project-based assignments, and memory exercises with tight deadlines. these are more than fleeting complaints; instead, they reveal a growing tension between academic demands and children’s emotional capacity. therefore, it is crucial to identify the workloads of these learners that impact on their mental health and also determine the specific mental health conditions commonly associated with the heavy academic workloads of learners in science. research questions the study sought to answer the following questions; i. what are the science workloads of learners that affect their mental health? ii. which mental health conditions are commonly associated with the heavy academic workloads of learners in science? theoretical framework this research leans on lazarus and folkman’s (1984) transactional model of stress and coping, which reminds us that stress is not just about the task itself, but it is about how the individual perceives and responds to it. a science project may excite one learner but overwhelm another. a deadline may motivate one child but paralyze another with fear. for sixth graders, whose cognitive and emotional skills are still developing, the way they interpret these challenges is critical. when support systems are present, they may see a project as achievable. when they feel alone, the same project can feel impossible. this framework helps us see the invisible link between workloads and mental health: the same assignment can either build resilience or erode confidence, depending on how it is experienced. conceptual framework figure 1: authors own construct (2025) pa ge 18 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 183-189, 2024 the framework shown in figure 1 shows the chain reaction that heavy workloads trigger. tasks like overlapping assignments, endless memorization, or unclear projects act as sparks. these sparks ignite stress, which in turn fuels feelings of exhaustion, anxiety, irritability, and isolation. over time, the flame grows into disengagements. then children begin to lose interest in science, and sometimes in learning altogether. in simple terms: when schoolwork steals time, energy, and joy, children’s mental health suffers. materials and methods design the interpretivist model, which aims to comprehend the meanings learners ascribe to their academic experiences, served as the foundation for this study’s qualitative research design. the design was selected to offer comprehensive, contextual insights into how sixth-grade students, especially those studying science, react emotionally and behaviorally to academic burden. to truly understand how children feel about their science workloads, this study chose a qualitative design. numbers can tell us how many assignments were given, but they cannot capture the sighs, the tears, or the excitement in a child’s voice. by sitting with learners and listening to their stories, we gain insights that are often hidden in statistics. this design allowed themes to arise inductively from the data while supporting the goal of identifying cognitive and behavior patterns within a naturalistic classroom setting. setting the study took place in a private school in the kpone katamanso district of ghana’s greater accra region. founded in 2005, the school has built its philosophy around learner-centered and practical education, while still following the ghana education service curriculum (ghana education service, 2023). over the years, it has created a safe and welcoming environment for its community by providing well-organized classrooms, recreational areas, internet access, 24-hour security, and a standby generator to keep learning uninterrupted. today, the school is home to about 1,000 students and 26 dedicated teachers, who work together to support both individual and group learning. with its strong sense of community and commitment to student well-being, the school offers a meaningful space to explore how academic pressures shape the mental health and everyday experiences of learners. population, sample and sampling techniques about 1,000 learners and a staff of 26 teachers make up the school’s population. all grade 6 learners enrolled at the chosen school made up the target group. the primary sample for the study consisted of 37 learners who were invited to participate and who all returned signed parental consent forms. this also indicated that 37 learners constitute the accessible population. purposive sampling was used to gather qualitative data through focus-group interviews (patton, 2015). data collection instrument a focus group interview approach was used in the study. to guide the discussion, the researchers prepared ten questions, divided into two sections (part 1 and part 2), each aligned with the purpose of the study. the questions were designed to first identify aspects of the science workload that negatively affect learners’ mental health and then explore the types of mental health challenges most commonly linked to heavy academic demands in science. the participants were organized into six groups, with six learners in each group. because the class had a total of 37 students, the final group included seven learners. with the consent of both the learners and their guardians, the researcher recorded the sessions to ensure that no important details were missed and to allow for careful reflection during analysis. data collection procedures the researchers used detailed and concise procedures for data collection and also used six weeks for the data collection. the qualitative data for this study was gathered through focus group interviews conducted during weeks 3 and 4 of a six-week data collection period. interviews were held privately during lunch breaks. these interviews were pre-structured with finalized questions and recorded using digital devices to ensure accuracy. the focus was on understanding learners’ personal experiences and perceptions regarding academic workload, particularly in relation to science. the researchers began analyzing the interview recordings, identifying emerging patterns and key themes related to academic workload and mental health challenges. data analysis approach focused-group interviews were transcribed verbatim to ensure accuracy, and the data was thoroughly reviewed to identify recurring themes. these themes were then categorized to reflect key patterns in the participants’ responses. representative student quotes were included to illustrate and deepen understanding of these themes, providing insight into learners’ engagement. the study offered a holistic perspective on how learners interact with science tasks and highlights strategies to enhance their educational experiences. ethical considerations this study adhered strictly to ethical research standards to ensure the protection, dignity and welfare of all participants. approval was initially sought from the relevant authorities including informed consent from parents or guardians. learners were assured of anonymity and confidentiality and were informed of the nature of the study and their choice to either participate or not. learners were treated with respect and empathy while any signs of distress during data collection were immediately addressed. pa ge 18 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 183-189, 2024 results and discussions table 1 depicts learners’ responses to the interview items and are grouped by similar themes to enhance understanding. table 1: learners’ experiences and perceptions of academic workloads and their impact group key responses (with question numbers) group 1 q1, q2: science assignments are generally appropriately challenging, but some topics (e.g., experiments) take longer to grasp and finish. quote: "experiments are fun, but we take so much time to complete them." group 2 q3, q4: specific assignments (e.g., research projects) are stressful due to unclear instructions or limited time for completion. quote: "we don’t always understand what we’re supposed to do in projects." group 3 q7: deadlines cause anxiety, particularly for written reports with overlapping due dates. quote: "it feels like everything is due at the same time, and we can’t keep up." group 4 q9: workload impacts social time, leaving learners feeling isolated and disconnected from friends and family. quote: "we barely get to play with our friends because we’re always doing homework." group 5 q8, q10: heavy workloads often lead to low motivation and moments of sadness, along with increased irritability at home. quote: "sometimes we feel so tired we just want to give up." group 6 q6: learners’ reports feel stressed when managing overlapping academic tasks, particularly when these involve complex or time-intensive assignments. quote: "having two big assignments at once is too much for us." the qualitative findings, including those summarized in table 1, reveal that heavy academic workloads particularly in science affect learners’ ability to complete tasks effectively and maintain a balanced daily routine. students in groups 1 and 2 shared that while assignments can sometimes be interesting, activities like experiments and projects with unclear guidelines consume a lot of time, often leaving them confused and delayed. group 3 pointed out that overlapping deadlines add extra pressure, making students feel rushed and overwhelmed. taken together, these insights suggest a clear pattern: when schoolwork is excessive or poorly structured, students find it difficult to stay organized and motivated, which directly affects both their performance and time management. learners also spoke openly about how their schoolwork impacts their emotional well-being. as shown in table 1, members of groups 4 and 5 described how academic demands often cut into time with family and friends, leading to feelings of isolation, sadness, and irritability. group 6 added that managing several demanding tasks at once raised their stress levels significantly. these reflections echo wider research that links academic overload to anxiety, burnout, and disengagement. the recurring themes of emotional fatigue, loss of motivation, and reduced personal time highlight the real psychological burden students carry, underscoring the importance of schools addressing not only the way workloads are structured but also the emotional needs of learners. the findings of this study reveal that grade 6 learners experience significant mental health challenges as a result of their academic workloads in science. it is important to note that the heavy demands of subjects like science can also be intensified by teachers’ own stress, which may further affect students’ mental health outcomes (konadu, 2025). learners described a wide range of emotional responses to their workloads, including tension, anxiety, exhaustion, and loss of motivation. these feelings were especially pronounced when they had to juggle multiple subjects at once, with science being singled out as particularly demanding. focus group discussions highlighted how conflicting deadlines, difficulty understanding complex pa ge 18 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 183-189, 2024 assignments, and fear of poor performance contributed to constant worry and stress. tasks such as timeconsuming experiments and research-based projects were especially overwhelming. these experiences reflect the findings of conley and you (2017), who argued that when academic demands exceed students’ coping abilities, emotional distress and reduced self-efficacy are common outcomes. students’ frequent use of words like “worried” and “rushed” suggests that they are not only dealing with short-term anxiety but also ongoing psychological strain. another recurring theme was emotional and physical exhaustion. learners often described feeling drained even before the school day began, largely due to late nights spent completing homework or preparing for exams. this fatigue negatively affected their focus and classroom participation. similar to salmela-aro and upadyaya’s (2014) definition of academic burnout, students reported signs of emotional exhaustion, disengagement, and reduced performance. for some, stress also disrupted daily routines such as sleep and leisure, further reducing their overall well-being. the impact of academic overload extended beyond individual emotions to behavioral and social dimensions. groups 4 and 5, for instance, shared that heavy workload drastically reduced the time they could spend with family and friends. several learners expressed missing out on opportunities to socialize and feeling isolated from their peers. these experiences were often accompanied by sadness, loneliness, and lack of enthusiasm. suldo et al. (2009), similarly observed that excessive academic demands can undermine students’ ability to maintain meaningful relationships, increasing the risk of emotional imbalance and internalized struggles like depression and anxiety. another concerning effect was on learners’ motivation and self-worth. many felt discouraged when they worked hard yet still fell short of expectations, especially with assignments that were unclear or overly complex. this reflects the concept of learned helplessness, where repeated failure leads students to believe that effort no longer matters, thereby reducing motivation and increasing withdrawal from academic pursuits. such thinking not only hampers academic growth but also weakens resilience and self-confidence. the absence of strong emotional support systems in schools appeared to intensify these challenges. while some learners found comfort in talking to peers or teachers, there was little evidence of structured support networks such as counseling or teacher-led emotional check-ins. overall, the results point to a sobering conclusion: the mental health of grade 6 learners is significantly strained by excessive and poorly organized academic demands. the combination of anxiety, fatigue, social disconnection, low self-esteem, and limited support creates an environment that is emotionally unsustainable, even if academically rigorous. without intervention, these conditions could have long-term negative effects on both educational outcomes and psychological well-being. in light of this, it is crucial for teachers and school leaders to place mental health at the center of academic planning. practical strategies such as flexible and customized instruction, staggered deadlines, scheduled downtime, and the integration of emotional well-being programs into the curriculum can help create a healthier school environment. ultimately, supporting students’ mental health is not just about protecting their well-being in the present; it is also essential for enabling meaningful, longterm academic success limitations this study is limited by its reliance on self-reported data from participants. this is a common challenge in research exploring the link between academic workloads and mental health. while learners’ reflections provide meaningful insight into their lived experiences, selfreports can also be influenced by biases such as social desirability, exaggeration, or underreporting of emotional distress and academic struggles (cooper, 2021; pascoe et al., 2020).another limitation lies in the study’s scope, as it did not account for differences in learners’ family environments or socioeconomic backgrounds. these factors may shape both academic expectations and the emotional resources available to students, potentially influencing how workloads are experienced and managed. together, these limitations highlight the need for future studies to adopt longitudinal designs and incorporate broader contextual factors. doing so would deepen understanding of how academic demands interact with the personal, social, and economic realities of learners’ lives, offering a fuller picture of the complex relationship between schoolwork and mental health. implications of the study the study emphasizes the critical need to address the impact that science-related academic workloads have on middle school learners’ mental health. it indicates that academic expectations, such as overlapping deadlines, complex tasks, and time-consuming assignments, can lead to increased stress, anxiety, and emotional tiredness when they surpass learners’ developmental limits. to lessen psychological stress, teachers and curriculum designers are urged to carefully consider the type, quantity, and timing of science tasks. the results also highlight how crucial it is to create learning environments in schools that are attentive to early warning signs of emotional discomfort in young learners. this entails making sure that task instructions are more explicit, minimizing workload clustering, and implementing structured breaks. while schools can support classroom practices that lower anxiety and foster candid conversations about mental health, policymakers should match curriculum demands with learners’ cognitive and emotional preparation. stakeholders can contribute to the development of more balanced and encouraging learning environments that safeguard the wellbeing of learners. pa ge 18 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 183-189, 2024 conclusion the study confirms that science-related workloads, particularly hands-on and time-intensive tasks, play a significant role in contributing to academic stress among middle school learners. these demands often trigger emotional responses such as anxiety, fatigue, and selfdoubt, reflecting the heavy toll of balancing complex assignments with everyday school responsibilities. research indicates that overly demanding or unclear assignments increase stress levels in young learners and decrease motivation. balancing academic rigor with mental well-being is crucial. careful attention to structure, volume, and clarity of science-related tasks can ease strain while maintaining high educational standards. addressing workload challenges can create supportive learning environments, protect emotional health, and foster curiosity and academic growth. the study suggests several measures to reduce science-related academic stress and safeguard the mental health of middle school learners. these include structured academic schedules, minimizing overlapping assignments, incorporating regular breaks, and providing clear instructions. policy guidelines should be developed to match academic demands with learners’ developmental, cognitive, and emotional capacities. teachers should receive professional development to recognize early signs of academic stress and respond with supportive teaching practices. schools should also expand access to mental health resources, including counseling services, and create safe spaces for students to share their struggles. these recommendations emphasize the importance of balancing academic rigor with well-being in science education references bakker, a. b., & demerouti, e. 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(1998). the development of children’s motivation in school contexts. in a. iran-nejad & p. d. pearson (eds.), review of research in education (vol. 23, pp. 73–118). american educational research association. https:// doi.org/10.3102/0091732x023001073 pa ge 1 pa ge 77 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) development of the infidelity tendency comprehensive (itch) scale raven kyle gonzaga1*, queen mae aguirre1, novielen jean dacay1, cristine alegado1, mark luiz demanawa1, junna predigosa1 volume 3 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v3i1.4345 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: january 12, 2025 accepted: february 11, 2025 published: june 21, 2025 infidelity is known to influence relationship dynamics negatively. however, it remains a societal issue in the philippines. the purpose of this study was to develop an instrument that measures the likelihood of filipino young adults to commit infidelity. the infidelity tendency comprehensive (itch) scale aims to generate sufficient data to aid the rising number of individuals committing infidelity. a sample of 500 filipino young adults aged 18 to 25 was chosen using simple random sampling to ensure a representative population. the initial 80-item scale was refined through a pilot test with 50 respondents, resulting in a 45-item version. principal axis factoring (paf) was employed to identify the underlying factors, supported by the kaiser-meyer-olkin (kmo) measure (0.954) and barlette’s test of sphericity (p<0.05). factor analysis revealed five key factors: sexual arousal, insecurity, extroversion, relationship dissatisfaction, and indifference in relationships. the final scale retained 43 items after removing them with low factor loadings. reliability testing showed a high cronbach’s alpha of 0. 956, and discriminant validity was confirmed, indicating the scale’s accuracy and relevance. the itch scale is a reliable and valid instrument that provides a basis for further research and interventions to build healthier relationships. keywords exploratory factor analysis, infidelity tendency scale, filipino young adults 1 um digos college, digos city, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: r.gonzaga.60071.dc@umindanao.edu.ph introduction love is frequently a significant source of pleasure and fulfillment; however, transgressions in relationships, such as infidelity, can result in considerable stress, emotional pain, and, in some instances, trauma (rokach & chan, 2023). infidelity is defined as the engagement in an intimate relationship with an individual outside of one’s marriage or relationship without consent (lișman & holman, 2021). this act encompasses breaches of a commitment to exclusivity that two partners in a relationship have explicitly made to each other (lisman & holman, 2021). moreover, it often is interchanged with the act of adultery, however, infidelity differs distinctively in scope as it can manifest in various ways – such as financially or emotionally – even without the physical act of cheating, and it can happen in a committed relationship, not necessarily grounded on marriage (kimber, 2024). nonetheless, it is recognized as the most prevalent factor leading to the dissolution of relationships (travers, 2024). affiliated with the studies of lee (2015) & gono (2024) is the report from the national commission on the role of filipino women in 2009, which considers marital infidelity as one of the major causes of stress among filipino couples. the account included a finding on 36% of men and 2% of women engaging in extramarital affairs. this precedence surfaced because of the causal connections found in the study and the present prevalence of infidelity. moreover, the available data potentially infer the engender of the study, and the following literature on infidelity cases will be utilized to substantiate corresponding factors to further gauge the matter at hand. the proponents target a scale to determine an individual’s tendencies to commit infidelity, utilizing factors derived from the self-expansion theory (aron & aron, 1986) which offers a relevant theoretical framework for developing the infidelity tendency comprehensive (itch) scale. it suggests that individuals are driven to enhance their self-concept through new experiences, identities, and relationships (aron et al., 2013). the identified factors include extraversion, arousal, relationship dissatisfaction, insecurity, and indifference. the factors are acquired from latent inclinations of the theory to relationships and are inquired about underlying dimensions that can be indicative factors of infidelity. the prospect factors concur with various found evidence in the philippine context. in the essence of extraversion, according to the summary of hedrih (2024), this characteristic is considered a significant predictor of infidelity reported in the science of infidelity. extroversion is, by definition, a preference for social engagement and interaction with others (“extroversion,” 2024). a contextual ground can be exemplified in the workplace within the busy streams of business process outsourcing (bpo) companies in quezon, philippines (avelino, 2024). in these settings, the demanding work hours often lead to close bonds and personal connections among employees, which the study articulates as a possible circumstance for employees to invest more energy to connect with their co-workers instead of their partners. another identified factor is arousal, which can be categorized as either high or low and is associated with corresponding emotions (msed, 2023). avelino (2024) expanded the circumstantial inferences of his study by considering other workplaces. he noted that arousal factors may lead individuals to engage in impulsive infidelity as a means of escaping the pressures and responsibilities of their daily lives. pa ge 78 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 77-85, 2025 this behavior often seeks excitement or novelty beyond committed relationships as a form of relief from stress. moreover, relationship dissatisfaction is highly predictive of infidelity tendencies discussed in siguan and cañete’s (2021) study which consequently leads to marital conflicts. often, dissatisfaction manifests as negative behavior towards one’s partner, creating a distorted perception of each other and providing an opportunity to find fault in one another’s character. also, insecurity is considered a determining factor, reported by altgelt and meltzer (2019), insecurely attached partners typically have more conflict and are less satisfied with their relationships. this is due to the concurring uncertainty, self-doubt, and fear that an insecure individual may feel when in a relationship (browne, 2024). people who suffer from attachment anxiety worry that their partner will leave them or neglect them. relationship instability and a decline in overall relationship satisfaction are associated with this attribute. lastly, indifference causes individuals in a romantic relationship to be inclined to apathy rather than a disposition to what the other does (howard, 2022). it was found that indifference is one of the most challenging hurdles in commitments, as the feeling leaves individuals unwilling to make an effort to make things work with the other person (wanjiru et al., 2020), potentially incurring a sense of concern for someone else. most studies on infidelity focus on western contexts, leaving a gap in understanding this behavior within filipino culture. additionally, existing scales for measuring infidelity were developed primarily for married individuals, overlooking young adults. infidelity has significantly impacted relationship disclosures over generations and is a prevalent issue today (travers, 2024). the developing study aims to establish the itch which measures the likelihood of filipino young adults to commit infidelity to be determined by a five-factor structure: extraversion, arousal, relationship dissatisfaction, insecurity, and indifference. the findings of the study will be beneficial in mitigating the high-cost consequences of infidelity (belu & o’sullivan, 2024) and in formulating preventive interventions for individuals who score high on the infidelity tendency scale. mental health professionals may be able to develop strategies that can be implemented as a countermeasure after testing their infidelity tendency levels. further implications from the significant predictors can also be a derivative for mediating problems arising from an individual’s daily life. this can either be their uninhibited socio-sexual identity regarding their extraversion, their hyper-arousal that may cause problems with different areas of their life, the relationship dissatisfaction that they may be experiencing, insecure attachment or insecurity in general, or unconsidered triggers to relational indifference that can still be mediated with the aid of interventions. objectives of the study this study primarily aimed to develop the infidelity tendency comprehensive (itch) scale that measures the likelihood of filipino young adults committing infidelity. moreover, it specifically sought the following: 1. to explore the factor structure of the infidelity tendency comprehensive (itch) scale; and, 2. to evaluate the instrument’s reliability and validity. theoretical framework the self-expansion theory (aron & aron, 1986) explains that individuals are naturally motivated to enhance their sense of self by seeking new experiences, forming new identities, and building relationships. for instance, extroverted individuals, who thrive on social interactions and novelty, may experience dissatisfaction if their relationship does not provide sufficient opportunities for growth or excitement. arousal, or the desire for stimulation, can lead them to seek fulfillment outside the relationship. similarly, relationship dissatisfaction, insecurity, and indifference in relationships stemming from unmet emotional needs or feelings of inadequacy may drive individuals to pursue external sources of validation (cherry, 2020; lewandowski & ackerman, 2010). together, these factors contribute to an increased susceptibility to infidelity when primary relationships fail to satisfy personal needs. this theory offers a relevant theoretical framework for developing the infidelity tendency comprehensive (itch) scale. materials and methods participants filipino young individuals aged 18 to 25 from davao del sur were selected, with a sample size of 500 respondents chosen through simple random sampling. this approach ensured an equal chance of selection for every college student, resulting in a representative sample. materials the infidelity tendency comprehensive (itch) scale, developed by the proponents, consisted of 45 items rated on a five-point likert scale: 1 (strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3 (neutral), 4 (agree), and 5 (strongly agree). this scale measured the likelihood of young filipino adults engaging in infidelity with their partners based on their responses. procedure a methodical approach was followed to assure data accuracy and reliability. the proponents initially created an 80-item pool, tested in a pilot trial with 50 respondents. preliminary results were analyzed using spss, resulting in adjustments and refinement of the scale to 45 items for the final survey. the finalized survey was administered to 500 respondents using pen-and-paper tests and google forms while ensuring anonymity and privacy, following ethical considerations. the respondents were also given informed consent before the survey. the dataset was then collected and thoroughly screened for errors. pa ge 79 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 77-85, 2025 results and discussion data screening the data was screened for potential multivariate outliers using the mahalanobis distance. this method ensures that outliers are detected based on the multidimensional relationships between variables rather than solely considering each variable individually (ghorbani, 2019). data points with a mahalanobis distance exceeding the critical value for the chi-square distribution at a significance level of α = 0.001 were flagged as potential outliers. additionally, several items in the data exhibited mahalanobis distances below this threshold, suggesting possible deviations from normality. to further assess the distribution of the data, a normality test was conducted using the kolmogorov-smirnov test, which is appropriate given that the sample size exceeds 50 (chakravarti et al., 1967). the results indicated a significant value of less than 0.05, which supports the conclusion that the data does not follow a normal distribution. these methods ensured that the analysis accurately reflected the true underlying patterns in the data by effectively addressing outliers and distributional problems. factor analysis table 1 shows the kmo and bartlett’s test of sphericity results. the kaiser-meyer-olkin (kmo) test was utilized to measure the sampling adequacy for factor analysis. this examines whether the partial correlations between variables are small, indicating that the variables share enough common variance to be grouped into factors (kaiser, 1974). kmo values closer to 1.0 are considered ideal for factor analysis, while values below 0.5 suggest that the data may not be suitable. the kmo test with a value of 0.954 indicated that the data was acceptable for factor analysis. additionally, bartlett’s test of sphericity was conducted to assess the null hypothesis that the correlation matrix is an identity matrix, implying that the variables are unrelated, and factor analysis would not be appropriate (bartlett, 1951). a p-value of less than 0.05 suggests that factor analysis can be performed. in this case, the results showed a p-value of 0.000, indicating sufficient correlations among the variables and confirming that factor analysis was appropriate. both the kmo and bartlett’s tests confirmed the suitability of the data for factor analysis. table 1: kmo and bartlett’s test of sphericity results kmo and bartlett's test kaiser-meyer-olkin measure of sampling adequacy. .954 bartlett's test of sphericity approx. chi-square 13344.442 df 990 sig. .000 table 2: total variance plot and criteria of eigenvalues ( >1.0) initial eigenvalues extraction sums of squared loadings factor total % of variance cumulative % total % of variance cumulative % 1 16.142 35.871 35.871 15.676 34.836 34.836 2 3.480 7.733 43.604 3.055 6.788 41.624 3 2.734 6.076 49.680 2.289 5.086 46.710 4 1.791 3.979 53.659 1.275 2.832 49.542 5 1.248 2.774 56.433 .845 1.878 51.420 6 1.102 2.449 58.882 furthermore, the kaiser criterion was used to determine the number of factors with eigenvalues greater than 1.0 to retain in a factor analysis (kaiser, 1960; norman, 1988). table 2 shows the total variance plot, revealing five (5) factors with eigenvalues greater than 1.0. additionally, figure 1 shows the scree plot representing the eigenvalues of extracted factors. determining the eigenvalues alone was considered to be the least accurate method, hence, the scree plot was combined for better comparison (cattell, 1966). the graph consists of eigenvalue plots (y-axis) against the components (x-axis), creating a slope with a point on the curve indicating the maximum number of components to retain (ledesma, et al., 2015). in this case, the kaiser criterion and scree plot revealed the same number of retained factors (5). the results from the data screening indicated that the data was not normally distributed. as a result, principal axis factoring (paf) was chosen as the extraction method, which identifies the underlying factors that explain the correlations among observed variables by focusing on common variance, or shared variance, across the variables (taherdoost et al., 2014). using paf, the factor matrix revealed that six (6) factors are to be retained. however, other extraction methods were utilized for more accurate results. parallel analysis and the minimum average partial criterion (map) were used as they provided a more accurate number of factors to retain. both methods offer a more objective criterion based on simulated data, successfully detecting aspects that are statistically significant beyond random fluctuation in the data (hayton et al., 2004). pa ge 80 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 77-85, 2025 parallel analysis parallel analysis is an approach that accurately determines the number of factors to retain (horn, 1965). it was considered more accurate than other methods as it employs a simulation-based technique to produce random data with similar characteristics to the actual data, enabling a more objective assessment of whether aspects are genuinely relevant beyond random fluctuations (cokluk & kocak, 2016). table 3 shows the eigenvalues of the total variance explained with eigenvalues of random data (parallel analysis). the eigenvalues of factors 1 to 5 from the total variance explained are greater than the eigenvalues of the random data, indicating that the parallel analysis determined five (5) factors to be extracted. according to the revised (2000) map test is five (5). rotation method for factor loading in efa, rotation is conceptually used to describe that the axes (x and y axes) are being rotated so that the clusters of items fall as closely as possible to them, which aids in clarifying and simplifying the results of factor analysis (osborne, 2015). oblique rotation, specifically the promax method, was used in the study, allowing the factors to be correlated (gaskin & happell, 2014) as assumed through its sphericity (p=0.000 < 0.05). through this method, the pattern matrix analyzed the relationship between items and factors, with a factor loading of 0.30 as an indication of a moderate correlation (tavakol & wetzel, 2020). with this, item 16 (“i feel judged when i open my needs to my significant other”) was removed from the item pool. furthermore, the communalities further assessed the variables across factors to ameliorate the analytical process. these indicate the proportion of common variance associated with an item, relative to all the factors, thus, checking the relativity of items in comparison to others to generate a parsimonious set of factors. the communality cut-off value of < 0.40 was applied (osborne et al., 2008), eliminating item 1 (“i can be attracted to someone else who is not my significant other”) which showcased 0.317 initial communality. additionally, the factor correlation matrix revealed the correlation between factors (osborne, 2015) showing a high association. hence, 43 items were retained and 2 were removed from the questionnaire. table 4 shows the factor loadings and communalities based on the paf for the 43 items. figure 1: scree plot table 3: eigenvalues of the total variance explained and random data from parallel analysis total variance explained random data from parallel analysis 16.142 .777668 3.480 .702384 2.734 .645765 1.791 .598282 1.248 .555435 minimum average partial criteria the minimum average partial (map) criterion provides an unambiguous concluding point for the number of factors by distinguishing common and unique variance and preserving only those components that are predominantly composed of common variance (garrido et al., 2011). with this, the number of components pa ge 81 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 77-85, 2025 table 4: factor loadings and communalities based on a principal axis factoring (paf) with oblique rotation for 43 items from the initial version of the infidelity tendency comprehensive (itch) scale (n= 500) factor 1 factor 2 factor 3 factor 4 factor 5 communalities i can imagine having sexual interactions with someone while i am in a relationship. .717 .541 i get excited when i engage in sexual interactions with someone who is already in a committed relationship. .903 .607 i get excited by the idea of sexual openness with individuals outside my relationship. .843 .608 i get excited when someone expresses love or sexual interest in me while being committed to someone else. .892 .638 i get excited when i imagine scenarios where platonic and romantic connections cross. .502 .455 the concept of being desired by many people while i am in a relationship simultaneously excites me. .630 .601 i feel a thrill imagining being close to someone i know i shouldn’t be with due to my relationship commitments. .767 .661 i feel excited about sharing intimate moments with someone in secret, despite the potential consequences of getting caught by my partner. .846 .714 i get thrilled when i think of someone secretly admiring me when they are in a relationship. .769 .674 i get proud when i think of having a relationship that others might not approve of. .497 .453 the secrecy of potential affairs stimulates or excites me physically and emotionally. .693 .572 i do not want my partner to be more accomplished than i am. .517 .438 i tend to seek attention from others when my significant other neglects me. .458 .484 i tend to entertain others to show my significant other how worthy of a person i am. .522 .566 i feel that my partner and i are better off without each other because i do not deserve his/her love. .485 .432 my significant other’s desire to leave me is something i frequently worry about. .652 .495 i am concerned that my significant other might start seeing someone else when they are not around. .806 .558 i need constant assurance that my significant other loves me. .764 .495 i overthink conversations with my partner to clarify if there are any underlying meanings to them. .618 .444 i am concerned about how others think of our relationship. .423 .416 i feel at ease when meeting new people regardless of my relationship status. .571 .469 i tend to go to social events on my own to meet new people and have new experiences. .855 .461 pa ge 82 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 77-85, 2025 i am often the one to initiate social plans that involve people outside my immediate relationships. .622 .447 i find myself unintentionally spending time with people who may challenge the boundaries of my relationship. .571 .486 i am likely to explore emotional connections with others when given the chance. .569 .571 i sometimes feel tempted to share personal thoughts or feelings with people other than my partner. .444 .497 i naturally form close relationships with others, even when i’m in a committed relationship. .701 .495 i am likely to go out and socialize with people, even if it means having different plans from my partner. .646 .549 i sometimes feel excited about the possibility of developing a deep connection with someone new. .519 .541 i tend to be as available to others as i am to my partner. .598 .474 i enjoy receiving compliments or admiration from people other than my partner. .411 .477 i often feel a strong bond with new people, making me want to get to know them more. .636 .493 my significant other does not satisfy my sexual needs. .613 .617 my significant other does not satisfy my emotional needs. .884 .753 my significant other does not satisfy my physical needs. .874 .774 my significant other does not treat me as i expected them to. .705 .735 my significant other and i don’t share the same values. .627 .653 my significant other does not show interest in the things i do. .471 .592 i think i am better off with someone better than my significant other. .440 .633 i don’t think that this is the relationship i have dreamt of. .799 .657 i sometimes feel distant towards my significant other. .700 .631 i do not see my relationship with my significant other to last for years. .761 .650 i do not feel that my significant other and i are working together with a commitment to the success of our relationship. .747 .640 through the pattern matrix, the factor analysis developed the measuring items classified by determinant factors of the scale. the exploratory analysis produced good results indicated by a minimum of four (4) retained items per factor (fein et al., 2022); with factor 1 featuring items 2-14, a total of 13 items; following is items 35-40 classified under factor 2 with 6 total items; additionally, items 23 to 34 is sorted under factor 3, in total of 12 items; then, factor 4 have 5 total items namely, items 1822; lastly, factor 5 have 6 total items which are items 17, and 41-45. these designations retained an overall total of 43 adequate items for use. the following objective is to establish the common semantic topic according to the measuring items per pa ge 83 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 77-85, 2025 factor. for factor 1, thorough deliberation of common words reveals characteristics associated with sexual arousal (professional, 2024). the gist for the term “attraction” and repetitive reference to “sexual” engagements found in items 2-5, as well as terms such as “excite” and “thrill” in items 3-10 and 12 outlines the indicative meaning of the factor. what’s more, the statements in factor 2 can be interpreted as reflecting the concurrent uncertainty and fear that an individual experiencing insecurity may feel (browne, 2024). items 35-40 collectively address a theme centered on “needs,” demonstrating that individuals with insecure attachments tend to experience greater levels of conflict and diminished satisfaction within their relationships (altgelt & meltzer, 2019). moreover, a collection of statements under factor 3 highlights the prevalent themes of a preference for social engagement and interaction with others (i.e. items 23-24, “meeting” and “initiating” social plans with other people; items 26-28, “spending time” and “exploring emotional connections” with others), which are characteristics of an individual’s extroversion (“extroversion,” 2024). another factor categorized items 18-22 under factor 4 (my significant other’s desire to leave me is something i frequently worry about; i am concerned that my significant other might start seeing someone else when they are not around; i overthink conversations with my partner to clarify if there are underlying meaning to it; and i am concerned about how others think of our relationship) signifying of relationship dissatisfaction. according to siguan & cañete (2021), dissatisfaction is frequently reflected in negative behaviors directed toward one’s partner such as distorted perceptions of one another, leading individuals to focus on and identify faults in each other’s character. lastly, factor 5 explores statements from items 7 and 41-45 denoting apathy and lack of interest towards their relationship (i don’t think that this is the relationship i have dreamt of; i do not see my relationship with my significant other to last for years, i do not feel that my significant other and i are working together with a commitment to the success of our relationship) dominated with recognized feelings of indifference (“indifferent,” 2025). thematic categorization of each factor is contextualized on their respective operational definitions and locally related literature to substantiate the relevance of each variable (or statement) upon establishing discretion. the reliability and validity of the instrument were then evaluated. an instrument’s reliability is based on the dependability, consistency, and stability of the scores (mcmillan, 2007). tale 5 shows the descriptive statics for the five-factor infidelity tendency comprehensive scale. the 43-item instrument had a coefficient of .956, which is higher than the acceptable threshold of .70 (blunch, 2008), indicating excellent internal consistency. moreover, the factor correlation matrix was examined to evaluate discriminant validity. it revealed that no values exceeded .70, suggesting that the factors were distinct and not overly correlated, further supporting the construct validity of the instrument (pillai & rjumohan, 2020). table 5: descriptive statistics for the five infidelity tendency comprehensive scale factors (n=500) no. of items x̄ (sd) cronbach’s α sexual arousal 13 24.26 (9.721) .927 insecurity 6 13.08 (5.441) .915 extroversion 12 29.21 (8.917) .892 relationship dissatisfaction 5 14.25 (4.590) .802 indifference 6 13.06 (5.275) .883 conclusion the study primarily aimed to develop an infidelity tendency comprehensive (itch) scale that measures the likelihood of filipino young adults committing infidelity in the future. the initial item pool consisted of 45 items, however, due to undervalued communality and factor correlation, items 1 and 16 were eliminated, retaining only 43 items for the final questionnaire. moreover, the minimum average partial (map) criterion revealed that the instrument consists of 5 factors, which were identified as sexual arousal, insecurity, extroversion, relationship dissatisfaction, and indifference. both the reliability and validity of the instrument were then examined, revealing that the infidelity tendency comprehensive (itch) scale is a reliable (p=.956) and valid instrument based on the filipino context that future researchers can use. references altgelt, e. e., & meltzer, a. l. 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(2020). factor analysis: a means for theory and instrument development in support of construct validity. international journal of medical education, 11, 245–247. https://doi.org/10.5116/ ijme.5f96.0f4a travers, m. (2024, june 29). a psychologist reveals 6 signs a marriage may end in divorce. forbes. https:// www.forbes.com/sites/traversmark/2024/06/29/apsychologist-reveals-the-6-signs-a-marriage-will-endin-divorce/ wanjiru, v., ireri, n., & menecha, j. (2020). an investigation of the factors contributing to infidelity among married couples in selected mainstream churches in kikuyu constituency, kiambu county, kenya. journal of sociology, psychology & religious studies, 2(2), 1–8. pa ge 1 pa ge 12 7 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) joy of missing out (jomo): developing a multi-factorial scale for the fomo antithesis in filipino emerging adults jelyn d. canonigo1*, angela marie h. mendez1, greg adrian d. cañamo1, gerlie mae v. subido1, roselle daireen l. guinto1, rose ann l. bautista1, jenelyn c. abrenilla1, mayumi a. castaños1 volume 3 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v3i1.4408 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: january 09, 2025 accepted: february 17, 2025 published: july 09, 2025 the social media’s recent growth has brought about a constant need for engagement which led people to fear of missing out (fomo). in line with this, a novel concept, which is the joy of missing out (jomo), has emerged. jomo encourages people to embrace solitude, prioritize self-care, and enjoy both online and physical disconnection. given the increasing relevance of jomo in the modern age, this study aims to develop a scale that measures its multidimensional aspects. for the first step of the development, the study employed a quantitative research design utilizing exploratory factor analysis (efa). an 83-item questionnaire, having a 7-point likert scale, was constructed and distributed to 520 emerging adults (ages 18-30) residing in the province of davao del sur. a shapiro-wilk test was conducted, and results showed that the data is not normally distributed (p < 0.001). thus, the principal axis factoring (paf) was used for factor extraction. results revealed a fivefactor structure which consists of mindfulness (14 items), social media usage (17 items), contentment of solitude (15 items), social detachment (5 items), and social comparison (5 items). meanwhile, the kaiser-meyer-olkin (kmo) value of .974 and a significant bartlett’s test (p < 0.001) confirmed sampling adequacy. the final scale demonstrated a satisfactory internal consistency (α = .978). aside from the methodological findings, results also highlighted that mindful individuals who embrace solitude often experience jomo, while those stuck in social comparison and social media use have a hard time attaining this state. it is recommended to conduct further studies on jomo in various settings and age groups to raise the findings’ generalizability. it is also recommended to conduct a confirmatory factor analysis to fortify the results of this study. keywords digital well-being, emerging adults, fomo, joy of missing out, mental health, social media use 1 department of arts and sciences, um digos college, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: j.canonigo.59823.dc@umindanao.edu.ph introduction the growth of digitalization and social media has created a constant need for engagement, leading individuals to feel pressured not to miss out on anything, which can negatively affect their well-being (eitan & gazit, 2024). this phenomenon is known as fomo, or fear of missing out, which is characterized by the urge to remain constantly connected to what others are doing (gupta & sharma, 2021). in response to this, a relatively new concept has emerged as a counterbalance: the joy of missing out (jomo). the term “jomo,” coined by anil danish in 2012, refers to the concept of finding joy and contentment by intentionally disconnecting from the constant pressure of social engagements and digital distractions, emphasizing the importance of prioritizing self-care by consciously choosing what you want to participate in, rather than feeling obligated to engage in activities driven by external pressures (cleveland clinic, 2024; kaswa & kolapkar, 2024). the concept of jomo is becoming increasingly relevant in today’s digital era, where the constant demand for connectivity often contributes to heightened feelings of stress, anxiety, and feelings of missing out (fomo) (arfan, 2024). unlike fomo, the joy of missing out encourages individuals to embrace solitude, prioritize selfcare, and enjoy both online and physical disconnection (albers, 2023). this emphasizes the importance of intentional living, stepping away from the social pressure of being included every time, and focusing on one’s wellbeing. several studies have explored the correlations and antecedents of jomo, offering valuable insights into this emerging concept. some studies have linked jomo to positive outcomes, such as reduced social media use, higher self-esteem, and improved mental health. kaswa and kolapkar (2024) specifically found that individuals with higher levels of jomo tend to exhibit beneficial characteristics, including reduced anxiety and depression. this suggests that jomo encourages a healthier appreciation for solitude and more intentional living, which helps counteract the negative impacts of fomo (fear of missing out) and excessive social media use, leading to better overall well-being (reid & clark, 2025). similarly, eitan and gazit (2024) found that individuals with stronger psychological well-being and lower social media engagement tend to experience higher levels of jomo, further supporting the idea of jomo as a supportive factor against social comparison. conversely, a study by barry et al. (2023) revealed that social media use did not generally moderate the relationship between jomo and self-perception or adjustment variables. however, participants with high jomo and high social media use showed the highest levels of social anxiety. this suggests that individuals pa ge 12 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 127-136, 2025 with high jomo may avoid direct social interactions due to anxiety but still seek connection through social media, which provides a less direct form of engagement. furthermore, the interplay between fomo and jomo has been examined. rautela and sharma (2022) found that excessive social media use worsens mental health, increases fomo, and causes social media fatigue, which subsequently drives individuals to disconnect and embrace jomo. this transition from fomo to jomo can be facilitated through mindfulness practices, as suggested by the “social media fomo to jomo” framework proposed by chan et al., (2022), which posits that mindful social media use can reduce fomo and promote jomo, leading to improved mental health. this connection between fomo and social media use is strengthened by the findings from a study by servidio et al. (2024), which linked higher levels of social comparison to increased fomo, which negatively impacts self-esteem and can contribute to problematic social media use. however, despite these insights, a comprehensive understanding of the factors contributing to jomo remains limited. therefore, further research across diverse contexts is warranted to explore the multifaceted nature of jomo and the various factors that shape its individual experiences. to serve as a guide for the researchers, this study is grounded on two key theories: social comparison theory (festinger, 1954) and self-determination theory (deci & ryan, 1985). social comparison theory suggests that individuals tend to compare themselves with others to fulfill their need to know themselves (crusius et al., 2022). since jomo centers on joy and contentment without making these comparisons, this theory can provide a framework for a better understanding of why some people feel fulfilled and unaffected by other people’s achievements while others may struggle with constant comparison. by developing questions around this concept, the researchers can measure an individual’s independence from social influence, which directly aligns with the goals of the jomo scale (parveiz et al., 2023). meanwhile, self-determination theory (sdt) explores the motivation behind people’s choices in the absence of external influences. this theory emphasizes three psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. according to the theory, when these needs are met, individuals experience a greater sense of wellbeing and intrinsic motivation (ackerman, 2018). this study will incorporate the concept of autonomy, focusing on autonomous motivation (the act of doing something for self-determined reasons) and its contrary, controlled motivation (performing tasks for externally referenced conditions) in developing the jomo scale (mcanally & hagger, 2024). jomo reflects a sense of autonomy and intrinsic satisfaction, as people find joy in choosing their own paths without feeling pressured by social expectations or trends. it may help in explaining why some individuals feel content with their own choices and do not seek validation from others. using sdt as a basis, the jomo scale can assess autonomy, focusing on whether individuals are motivated by their internal standards rather than external pressures (lemay et al., 2019) development of the survey question initially, the researchers created a set of potential items for the item pool. the items were guided by existing literature related to the construct, particularly fear of missing out (fomo), mindfulness, and social comparison (barry et al., 2023; gupta & sharma, 2021; chan et al., 2022) to ensure that the generated statements measured what it was intended to measure. the items were thoroughly reviewed and tested in a pilot study. feedback from this pilot test prompted revisions to improve the instrument’s accuracy, clarity, and sentence structure. consequently, an 83-item questionnaire was developed, utilizing a 7-point likert scale, and was prepared for the main study. materials and methods study design this study employed a quantitative research design and exploratory factor analysis (efa) to explore the underlying dimensions for developing a scale that measures the joy of missing out (jomo). study setting and population the researchers gathered responses from 520 individuals aged 18 to 30 from davao del sur, philippines, through a simple random sampling method. data were collected using a blended approach, combining pen-and-paper surveys with google forms for online responses. data analysis exploratory factor analysis (efa) was used to analyze the joy of missing out (jomo) to assess the internal consistency of the components and identify the number of its underlying dimensions, efa is a multivariate statistical tool that identifies the smallest number of hypothetical factors that can concisely explain the connections between factors (watkins, 2018). principal axis factoring (paf), a type of efa, was used in this study as an extraction method to identify the factor structure of the jomo scale’s set of variables. principal axis factoring (paf) is an appropriate method for non normally distributed data, as it does not rely on distributional assumptions about the observed variable (finch & french, 2018). the reliability of each set item in every factor was analyzed using the cronbach alpha, a widely used reliability estimator (amirrudin et al., 2020) results and discussion data screening to ensure the suitability of the dataset for exploratory factor analysis, the researchers conducted a data screening. two measures are used during this step; the mahalanobis distance and the shapiro-wilk test. mahalanobis distance is used to determine whether there pa ge 12 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 127-136, 2025 are outliers in multivariate statistics. it takes into account the correlation between variables, making it suitable for datasets where variables are interrelated (brereton, 2015). in this study, cases with p-values less than 0.001 (hair et al., 1998) were flagged as outliers and removed using listwise deletion to prevent distortion in exploratory factor analysis (efa). meanwhile, the researchers also utilized a shapiro-wilk test to determine the normality of the data (king & eckersley, 2019). the result shows that the data is not normally distributed (p < 0.001), which prompted the researchers to use the principal axis factoring as this study’s factor extraction method. this extraction method is ideal for data that are not normally distributed because it does not rely on distributional assumptions about the indicators (finch & french, 2018). factor analysis the factorability of the 82 likert scale items was assessed using the kaiser-meyer-olkin (kmo) test and bartlett’s test of sphericity. table 1 presents the results of both tests. the kmo test is used to determine whether they are suitable for identifying underlying factors. the kaiser-meyer-olkin (kmo) result was .97 which is above the desired threshold of .70 (hoelzle & meyer, table 1: kmo and bartlett’s test result kaiser-meyer-olkin measure of sampling adequacy. .974 bartlett’s test of sphericity approx. chi-square 34627.692 df 3403 sig. .000 table 2: the communalities of items of the jomo scale item no. extracted item no. extracted item no. extracted item no. extracted 1 .458 23 .642 45 .632 *67 .146 2 .616 24 .517 46 .584 68 .668 3 .648 25 .578 47 .665 69 .654 4 .639 26 .568 48 .684 70 .634 5 .523 27 .596 49 .725 71 .665 6 .664 28 .605 50 .729 72 .636 7 .578 *29 .320 51 .666 73 .686 *8 .203 30 .655 52 .623 74 .667 9 .602 31 .666 53 .670 75 .593 10 .615 32 .762 54 .643 76 .662 11 .572 33 .641 55 .566 77 .654 12 .590 34 .656 56 .610 78 .614 13 .594 35 .586 57 .713 79 .645 14 .585 36 .605 58 .597 80 .711 15 .630 *37 .143 59 .666 81 .609 16 .551 38 .732 60 .624 82 .703 17 .572 39 .724 61 .668 83 .620 18 .440 40 .614 62 .622 19 .640 *41 .146 63 .752 20 .676 42 .456 64 .614 21 .589 43 .607 65 .622 22 .610 44 .655 66 .634 note. extraction method: principal axis factoring * indicates h2<.40 and is, therefore, to be deleted the minimum acceptable commonality threshold for questionnaire items is typically above 0.5 (arfin, 2018), though some studies consider values between 0.3 and 0.4 acceptable (eaton et al., 2019). in this study, items 8, 29, 37, 41, and 67 were removed because their commonalities were below 0.40, indicating insufficient correlation and unsuitability for further analysis. 2013; lloret et al., 2017). this indicates that sampling is highly suitable for factor analysis, which suggests a strong degree of shared variance among the variables. bartlett’s test of sphericity was utilized to examine if the variables are unrelated, which indicates they are not suitable for finding factors. the results reveal a significant p-value of <0.05, indicating that the variables are correlated and appropriate for factor analysis. pa ge 13 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 127-136, 2025 as shown in figure 1, the scree plot in this study revealed an elbow, where the curve began to flatten. a study by del giudice (2022) examined the relationship between scree plots and eigenvalues, identifying inconsistencies in their interpretation. the study found that eigenvalues, which represent the variance explained by factors or components, can distort the perceived importance of these factors by amplifying dominant effects while diminishing smaller ones. similarly, research by onatski and wang (2021) highlighted inconsistencies in highdimensional, nonstationary data, where a few principal components may absorb most of the variation, falsely suggesting the presence of multiple factors. this phenomenon can create the illusion of significant eigenvalues, even when the data may lack true factors. these findings contrast with traditional scree plots, which often exaggerate differences between larger and smaller factors, leading to a flattened visual representation, similar figure 1: scree plot to what was observed in this study. this suggests that factors beyond this point contributed very little to the variance. therefore, retaining only the first few factors for further analysis was deemed appropriate. to achieve a more accurate factor retention, parallel analysis was utilized in this study. it is a method to find out how many factors to retain in an exploratory factor analysis. it compares the eigenvalues from the exploratory factor analysis with some obtained from random data. (horn, 1965). parallel analysis improves factor selection by accounting for sampling variability, making it particularly useful for small datasets (xia & zhou, 2024). it helps prevent the inclusion of unnecessary factors (holubova, 2023). in this study, the parallel analysis showed that items 1 to 83 have higher initial eigenvalues compared to the percentiles from random data eigenvalues. this suggests that all factors are retained. to further refine the factor selection, the minimum average partial (map) analysis was also utilized. in a rigamonti and lučivjanská (2022) study, velicer (1976) introduced the map criterion, which is used to determine the optimal number of factors for dimensionality reduction in portfolio optimization. this was achieved by computing the average squared partial correlations in the partial correlation matrix, effectively addressing parameter uncertainty without relying on sample size. the revised map test (2000) indicates that four factors, on average, should be retained for this study for a more robust and reliable factor structure (caron, 2018). by utilizing the map analysis in this study, from all factors that were retained in the parallel analysis, it narrowed down to 8. table 3: map analysis results smallest average squared partial correlation smallest average 4th power partial correlation number of components map (1976) number of components map (2000) .0061 .0001 8 8 table 3: map analysis results factor items 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 i enjoy spending time offline because it allows me to focus on my hobbies and interests.** .625 being offline gives me more space to engage in meaningful connections with people around me.** .728 disconnecting from social media helps me stay focused on my personal goals.** .795 i feel more in control of my time when i limit my social media use.** .815 in this study, rotation, a statistical technique that simplifies factor interpretation, was employed. this method mathematically transforms factor loadings to achieve a simpler structure where each variable primarily loads on one factor, thus facilitating interpretation (fabrigar et al., 1999). the analysis used principal axis factoring (paf) with a promax rotation, an oblique method chosen to allow for factor correlations (jackson, 2014). this study yielded an eight-factor solution. table 5 presents the rotated component matrix, showing variable loadings on the extracted factors. for clarity, loadings below 0.40 have been suppressed. pa ge 13 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 127-136, 2025 i prefer real-life conversations over virtual interactions.** .683 i feel a sense of accomplishment when i stay off social media for a while.** .860 i appreciate not being constantly exposed to others' opinions and updates on social media.** .597 taking a break from social media helps me feel more connected with myself.** .758 i enjoy keeping my personal life private instead of sharing it on social media. .469 .423 .469 i am happy in knowing that i don’t need to conform to online expectations or trends.** .512 when i disconnect from social media, i feel more grateful for the small things in my life.** .658 i enjoy discovering new interests that aren’t influenced by social media trends.** .589 i experience more joy from engaging in real-life activities than from using social media.** .655 i feel more authentic when i don't compare my life to others on social media.** .556 i notice my self-esteem improves when i limit my social media use.** .618 skipping social media use improves my mood and reduces stress.** .590 not checking social media before bed improves the quality of my sleep.** .512 i feel free and satisfied when i can enjoy moments without the need to document them for social media.** .509 i feel relieved when i don't need to keep up with other posts or stories online. .423 .443 .423 i don’t feel pressure to constantly post on social media. i am not concerned with the number of likes and comments i receive on social media.**** .426 i don't feel left out when i skip updates or events on social media platforms.**** .588 i feel comfortable engaging in activities by myself. i’m not afraid of feeling left out in group conversations.**** .611 i am not upset that other people are having fun without me.**** .758 i am fine with not being fully aware of what my social circle is doing.**** .511 i appreciate the simplicity of spending time alone without any external distractions.*** .497 being alone after a stressful day helps me recharge emotionally and mentally.*** .752 i feel comfort in quiet moments.*** .883 i find it rewarding to spend time alone enjoying nature, music, or self-care.*** .839 pa ge 13 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 127-136, 2025 i feel happy choosing to spend time on what i enjoy, rather than joining in just to be part of a group.*** .746 i experience satisfaction knowing that i am true to myself, even if it means saying “no” to social invitations.*** .675 i feel fulfilled by my own interests and don’t need to participate in everything to feel satisfied.*** .504 i trust my decisions to prioritize myself over what others are doing or expecting.*** .551 i am comfortable spending time alone and don’t feel the need to explain my choices to others.*** .573 i enjoy spending time alone, even when there are other people around me.*** .474 i value quiet time for reflection and introspection.*** .618 i am not afraid to be seen alone in public places.*** i don’t feel like i’m missing out when i choose to stay home rather than go out and socialize.*** .495 i don’t feel pressure to keep up with others’ achievements. when i see others’ successes, it doesn’t make me feel less satisfied with my own progress. i rarely feel the need to alter my choices based on what others are doing. i can appreciate others’ experiences without feeling the need to be part of them.*** .466 i find value in what i’m doing, even if it doesn’t align with popular trends.*** .451 i am comfortable with having different priorities than the people around me. .534 .402 i am comfortable with having different interests than the people around me. .510 .420 i feel satisfied with pursuing my own goals, even if they look different from what others are doing.*** .447 i don’t feel anxious when i see others are succeeding in areas i haven’t pursued. i feel proud of myself regardless of how my accomplishments measure up to others. .495 i don’t feel pressure to keep up with others’ lifestyles. i am confident in expressing my opinions, even if they differ from the majority. .525 i am comfortable with my own body image. .432 .600 i am confident in my own abilities and skills. .416 .628 i prefer planning my weekends based on my own interests. i enjoy hobbies that matter to me, even without recognition.***** .438 i don’t need to share personal moments to enjoy them.***** .592 pa ge 13 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 127-136, 2025 i’m fine with my relationships being different from others.***** .593 i don’t need approval to pursue unique career paths.***** .596 i don’t need approval to pursue unique hobbies.***** .639 i find satisfaction in focusing on my current experience rather than worrying about what i might be missing elsewhere. i am fully present in my own activities even when i know others are engaged in different things. i am at peace with my choice to spend time alone and do not feel the need to be elsewhere. i feel content with my decisions and focus on appreciating the present, even if it means missing out on other events.* .489 i am able to let go of my comparison and stay centered on my own experiences.* .576 i focus on what brings me joy in the present. i feel at ease with my choices and do not let thoughts of missing out affect my peace of mind.* .411 i am content with a slower pace in life and don’t feel to constantly engage in social activities.* .429 i feel grateful for my own experiences and don’t feel regret about not participating in every opportunity.* .455 i value being fully immersed in what i’m doing, without concern for what others might be up to.* .489 i feel no urgency to follow the crowd, preferring to stay grounded in my own decisions. i trust my choices and let go of second-guessing about other possibilities.* .760 i avoid distractions that pull me away from the simplicity of the present.* .752 i find richness in doing less, without craving the busyness of others.* .763 i let go of the need to compare, focusing instead on what feels right for me.* .713 i take pleasure in the calm of stepping back, while others move forward.* .919 i enjoy choosing rest over rushing, without feeling i need to justify it.* .822 i resist the pull of constant engagement, valuing my time as my own.* .855 i trust that stepping away from the crowd brings clarity and calm.* .602 note. * indicates that the item belongs to factor 1, “mindfulness” ** indicates that the item belongs to factor 2, “social media usage” *** indicates that the item belongs to factor 3, “contentment of solitude” **** indicates that the item belongs to factor 4, “social detachment” ***** indicates that the item belongs to factor 5, “social comparison” pa ge 13 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 127-136, 2025 factor 1, designated “mindfulness,” demonstrated strong loadings on fourteen items: items 68, 69, 71, 72, 73, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, and 83. seventeen items exhibited strong loadings on factor 2, labeled “social media usage”: items 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19. factor 3, named “contentment of solitude,” showed positive loadings on fifteen items: items 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 43, 47, 48, and 51. the following five items loaded positively on factor 4, designated “social detachment”: items 22, 23, 25, 26, and 27. finally, five items demonstrated positive loadings on factor 6, identified “social comparison”: items 59, 60, 61, 62, and 63. however, several instances of cross-loading were observed among the items. specifically, items 10 and 20 loaded on factors 1, 2, and 8; items 48 and 49 loaded on both factors 3 and 7; and items 54 and 58 loaded on factors 1 and 5. because cross-loading items do not exclusively represent a single construct, they can complicate factor interpretation and obscure the underlying dimensions being measured (güvendir & özkan, 2022). therefore, these items were excluded from the interpretation of their respective factors. additionally, factor 5 is represented by only two items, which necessitates additional supporting evidence to confidently associate these items with the factor (fabrigar & wegener, 2011). finally, factor 7 and 8 each lacked distinct defining items, as the two items associated with each factor also exhibited cross-loadings with other factors. table 5: factor correlation matrix factor 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 1.000 2 .520 1.000 3 .635 .664 1.000 4 .550 .575 .559 1.000 5 .585 .484 .546 .492 1.000 6 .657 .595 .647 .537 .593 1.000 7 .472 .402 .452 .543 .455 .501 1.000 8 .194 .281 .425 .289 .234 .167 .305 1.000 the table above presents the factor correlation matrix, detailing the interrelationships among the eight factors extracted through principal axis factoring with a promax rotation. the correlation coefficients indicate the extent to which each pair of factors are linearly related. moderate positive correlations are evident among most factors. factor 3 exhibits moderate positive correlations with all other factors, most notably with factor 2 (.664). factors 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, and 7 also demonstrate moderate positive intercorrelations, with coefficients ranging from .4 to .7. in contrast, factor 8 shows weak correlations with most other factors, with the exception of moderate correlations observed with factor 3. reliability analysis cronbach’s alpha was used to evaluate the internal consistency reliability of each factor measuring the jomo construct. internal consistency evaluates the table 6: reliability analysis for every factor measuring jomo name of factor no. of items cronbach’s alpha 1 mindfulness 14 .951 2 social media usage 17 .947 3 contentment of solitude 15 .951 4 social detachment 5 .857 5 social comparison 5 .898 consistency of results across factors within a test and determines how all factors on the test relate to all other factors (hajjar, 2018). the jomo scale’s cronbach’s alpha for the 58 items was found to have an excellent level of internal reliability with .978. as shown in table 7, there are five factors assessing the jomo construct—14 items for “mindfulness,” 17 items for “social media usage,” 15 items for “contentment of solitude,” 5 items for “social detachment,” and 5 items for “social comparison.” the cronbach’s alpha for each factor showed a highreliability standard with 0.951, 0.947, 0.951, 0.857, and 0.898 for factors one through five, respectively. these results show that all the reliability measures for the five dimensions of jomo have exceeded the required value of more than 0.70. as a result, the extracted dimensions with their respective items are reliable and appropriate for measuring the joy of missing out construct. conclusion the objective of this study is to establish a test that measures the concept of joy of missing out (jomo). through careful analysis, the questionnaire was refined into 58 items, which include five key factors: mindfulness, social media usage, contentment of solitude, social detachment, and social comparison. these factors represent the important dimension of jomo, which reflects different aspects of an individual’s psychological and emotional state. beyond the methodological findings, this scale also highlights how digital habits and mindset influence the attainment of joy pa ge 13 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 127-136, 2025 of missing out (jomo). people who practice mindfulness and enjoy solitude tend to experience jomo, while those who are constantly comparing themselves with others and are heavy social media users may struggle to attain this state. this suggests that further research on how jomo helps with mental health and how it can ease the stress caused by fomo is needed. limitation of the study although the results of the study are satisfactory, the researchers have found limitations that should be taken into account. one of which is the sampledependent approach of this study, which made it lack generalizability. since the target respondents of this study are emerging adults of davao del sur, the results cannot be generalized to either people outside of the target age group or those with different cultures. additionally, as this is an exploratory factor analysis study, the factors extracted may not hold much meaning unless a confirmatory factor analysis is conducted. in line with these limitations, it is recommended to conduct further studies on jomo in various settings and age groups. furthermore, a confirmatory factor analysis on this questionnaire is necessary to further fortify the findings of this study. references ackerman, c. 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(2024). improving the use of parallel analysis by accounting for sampling variability of the observed correlation matrix. educational and psychological measurement, 85(1), 114–133. https://doi. org/10.1177/00131644241268073 pa ge 1 pa ge 19 0 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) the power of communication and listening in healing: beyond medication in clinical practice alvin joseph1*, john abraham2 volume 3 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v3i1.5733 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: august 01, 2025 accepted: september 04, 2025 published: november 21, 2025 communication and listening are not merely adjuncts to medical treatment they are therapeutic interventions in their own right. emerging evidence shows that empathy, active listening, and patient-centred dialogue can modulate neurobiology, improve adherence, and even rival pharmacological effects in specific contexts. the objective if the research to synthesise evidence from 2014–2024 on the clinical impact of empathetic communication and active listening, with a focus on psychiatry, chronic illness, and the indian healthcare context. a narrative review of pubmed-indexed studies (2014–2024) was conducted, prioritising systematic reviews, rcts, and cohort studies. search terms included “physician– patient communication,” “empathic listening,” “therapeutic alliance,” and “shared decisionmaking.” evidence on neurobiological mechanisms, measurable health outcomes, established communication frameworks, and indian practice gaps was integrated. across conditions, high-quality clinician–patient communication was consistently linked to improved satisfaction, adherence, and objective health outcomes including reduced pain, lower blood pressure, fewer depressive symptoms, and enhanced immune markers. neuroimaging and psychoneuroimmunology studies reveal that empathetic listening activates reward circuits, dampens pain pathways, modulates stress hormones, and enhances clinician–patient neural synchrony. in mental health, therapeutic alliance predicts treatment outcomes (r ≈ 0.28) and shared decision-making enhances adherence. comparative evidence shows that in some scenarios (e.g., chronic pain, mild depression, functional disorders), the clinical effect size of empathetic engagement can equal or exceed that of medication. indian data highlight both strengths (willingness to listen) and gaps (limited risk–benefit discussions, inconsistent shared decision-making). compassionate communication and active listening are core clinical competencies that measurably influence physiological and psychological healing. integrating structured communication training such as the calgary–cambridge, four habits, and spikes models into medical curricula and clinical workflows is essential. these skills are not “soft” but scientifically validated interventions that, alongside pharmacology, complete the practice of modern, patient-centred medicine. keywords communication, empathy, listening, patient outcomes, shared decision-making, therapeutic alliance 1 department of psychiatry, st. john’s national academy of health sciences, bengaluru, india 2 department of family medicine, st john’s national academy of health sciences, bengaluru, india * corresponding author’s e-mail: josephalvin87@gmail.com introduction healing in medicine has traditionally been linked to pharmacological and surgical interventions. however, there is a growing appreciation that how clinicians communicate with patients how they listen, empathize, and respond plays a pivotal role in clinical outcomes (person & finch, 2009). in an era of patient-centered care, the adage “words are powerful medicine” is taking on new empirical meaning. communication is now recognized not merely as good bedside manner, but as a core clinical skill backed by neuroscience and outcome research (jensen et al., 2020). positive communication and active listening are particularly evident in psychiatry and chronic disease management, where establishing rapport and empathizing with patients can influence medication response and adherence to treatment. the therapeutic alliance a term originally used in the context of psychotherapy and now widely applied describes the trusting, collaborative relationship that develops between a patient and a provider. a therapeutic alliance has been considered “the core of treatment” in mental health care, linked to both adherence and outcome, even in pharmacotherapy (flückiger et al., 2018; chakrabarti, 2018). similarly, shared decision-making (sdm) has been developed over the last two decades as an ethical and practical supplement to communication, in which clinician and patient have a dialogue, together considering available actions and arriving at choices. sdm acknowledges patients’ claims to be well-informed participants and has been associated with better satisfaction and selfmanagement in chronic diseases (dichmann sorknaes et al., 2022). these points are particularly important in india and other countries where the traditional medical model has been paternalistic (jacob, 2014). the healthcare environment in india is characterized by high patient turnover and a lack of time for communication. but studies show that many of the problems in indian healthcare patient discontent, non-compliance, even violence against doctors are made worse by bad communication and apparent lack of empathy. patients who feel they are not being heard or given the information they need are more pa ge 19 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 190-197, 2025 likely to lose trust in medical advice, with ripple effects on outcomes and the doctor-patient relationship. breaking this communication barrier is being acknowledged as imperative, not only to ensure quality of care in india, but anywhere in the world. this review examines the “silence perpetrates violence” and “power of communication and listening in healing conversation,” and extends the discourse beyond medication-focused care. we synthesized the literature from 2014 to 2024 on the role of communication and empathetic listening as therapy in the treatment paradigm. specific areas of focus include: the neurobiological process by which empathy and listening influence patient physiology; clinical studies that quantify effects (ranging from pain levels to remission of depression) that the quality of communication has on outcomes; the contribution of the therapeutic alliance and sdm to treatment effectiveness; communication models (calgarycambridge, four habits, spikes) used as tools to “operationalize” excellent communication; teaching and learning strategies for training clinicians in communication skills; evidence from indian health care; comparisons of the impact of communication vs. medication in specific diagnoses. through integrating these domains, we hope to offer a holistic view for clinicians and researchers about why and how communication makes a difference in healing and to emphasize that caring communication is not a “good bedside manner” but a critical component of effective clinical practice (parnas & isobel, 2018; finniss et al., 2009). the novelty of this research lies in its integrative synthesis of neurobiological, clinical, and cultural evidence from 2014–2024, with a specific emphasis on the indian context, where communication gaps contribute to violence against healthcare workers a phenomenon underexplored in global reviews. this addresses a key research gap: while prior reviews focus on western settings, this work highlights culturally tailored interventions, such as incorporating family involvement in sdm for indian patients. its contribution to knowledge includes actionable recommendations for embedding communication training in medical curricula, potentially rivalling pharmacological outcomes in chronic care, thus advancing patient-centered medicine globally. materials and methods a narrative review methodology was adopted to allow an expansive exploration of the topic. we aimed our search at relevant articles included in the pubmed-indexed literature database covering the years 2014 till 2024. it includes articles that described findings from empirical studies (e.g., randomized controlled trials, cohort and cross-sectional studies, systematic reviews, meta-analyses) that looked at communication between clinicians and their patients, empathy, listening skills, the relationship patients have with their doctors, and intervention. the different queries that were entered together were: “physician-patient communication,” “empathic listening,” “relationship and treatment outcome,” “shared decision-making,” “communicated framework,” “patient satisfaction communication,” “clinical empathy study,” and “doctor-patient relationship india.” after the initial filtering, type of publication (such as “clinical trial” and “systematic review”) was also applied to locate broad evidence. given the focus on healing beyond medication, we also included studies comparing or combining communication-driven approaches with pharmacological outcomes. two reviewers screened both the title and abstract of each included research study without knowing how the other reviewer thought. only documents that have reported on the results of communication or listening by clinicians on patients or well-being, connected neurobiological outcomes to empathy, and so on were included in this review. mostly english-language articles were included. bibliographies of key papers were hand-searched to identify materials that would provide context (the bulk of references used are from 2014 to 2024). literature review the literature on communication and listening in clinical practice spans neurobiology, psychology, and sociology, revealing its therapeutic potential beyond medication. critically, however, much of the evidence is derived from western contexts, limiting generalizability to diverse settings like india, where cultural norms emphasize family involvement in decision-making (jacob, 2014). for instance, jensen et al. (2020) used fmri to demonstrate that empathetic listening activates reward circuits in clinicians, releasing dopamine and oxytocin, which strengthen bonds. while this provides a biological basis for empathy’s healing effects, the study’s small sample (n=20) and focus on acute care undermine its applicability to chronic conditions, where sustained alliances are crucial (flückiger et al., 2018). interpreting these findings, empathetic interactions may enhance placebo responses, but without longitudinal data, claims of long-term physiological changes remain speculative. in mental health, the therapeutic alliance correlates moderately with outcomes (r ≈ 0.28; flückiger et al., 2018), yet meta-analyses overlook contextual moderators like cultural stigma in india, where paternalistic models persist (chakrabarti, 2018). shared decisionmaking (sdm) improves adherence in chronic diseases (dichmann sorknaes et al., 2022), but critiques highlight implementation barriers, such as time constraints in highvolume indian clinics (singhal et al., 2024). comparatively, communication’s effect sizes in pain management (d ~0.2–0.3) rival medications (licciardone et al., 2024), yet few studies control for confounding variables like patient expectations. extending to pediatric and disability contexts, alhassan et al. (2025) identified financial constraints (71.4%) and societal stigma (64.3%) as barriers to parental involvement in educating children with disabilities in ghana, with chi-square analyses linking socio-economic pa ge 19 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 190-197, 2025 status to engagement (χ² = 12.56, p < 0.05). critically, this underscores how communication failures exacerbate isolation, but the study’s mixed-methods approach lacks depth in qualitative themes, potentially overlooking intersectional factors like gender. interpreting these, parental barriers mirror clinician-patient dynamics, where financial and attitudinal hurdles dampen empathetic engagement; in psychiatry, similar issues could hinder therapeutic alliances for families of disabled children. similarly, sitoy et al. (2025) found high parental use of prompting techniques (mean 2.57, “often”) correlated with improved communication in filipino children with asd (r = 0.515, p = 0.001 for prompting and skills; r = 0.632, p = 0.002 for support needs and prompting), fulfilling a gap in parent-mediated interventions. interpreting these, parental prompting modulates neurobiological pathways akin to clinician empathy, but cultural adaptations are needed e.g., integrating family networks in india to address gaps in sdm (jacob, 2014). critically, sitoy et al.’s descriptive correlational design (n=99 parents) limits causality, as self-reported data may reflect bias; nonetheless, the high manifestation of asd communication skills (mean 2.69) suggests prompting rivals professional therapy in resource-limited settings. overall, the literature supports communication as a “drug” equivalent, but requires more diverse, rigorous trials to interpret its mechanisms across global contexts. neurobiology of empathetic listening and communication growing evidence from neuroscience offers a biological foundation for the healing effects of communication. empathic listening when a clinician intently hears and responds to a patient’s words and emotions has the power to effect quantifiable neurobiological change in both parties. fmri studies reveal how listening and empathy play out in the brain. for instance, in a 2020 fmri study of physicians caring for patients shows that when physicians experienced compassion for patients there was activation in brain regions linked to reward (medial frontal areas) (jensen et al., 2020). importantly, the more trait-empathic concern a doctor had, the more positive the patient experiences, implying that the pleasure of helping may serve to reward prosocial behaviors (jensen et al., 2020). that fits with the notion that caregiving and expressing empathy activate the brain’s reward system, releasing neurotransmitters such as dopamine and oxytocin that can strengthen the bond between the caregiver and the cared-for. figure 1: neurobiological mechanisms of empathetic listening and communication in clinical practice. from the patient’s perspective, being heard in a sympathetic way may modulate stress and pain through neurobiological pathways. an illustrative experiment showed that a patient-centered interview changed brain responses to pain in patients. in the study, patients that underwent an empathic pre-mri interview experienced significantly lower activation of the anterior insula (painrelated region) during subsequent pain, compared to those that had a nonempathic interview (sarinopoulos et al., 2013). while the specific study by sarinopoulos et al. was small, it does provide a neat proof-of-concept that the brain’s pain pathways can be down-regulated by a caring interaction. attenuated insula activation indicates a dampened alarm signal in the brain “pain matrix,” probably owing to the enhanced trust and safety of the patient (sarinopoulos et al., 2017). these neurobiological results validate patients’ subjective experience that “when my doctor listens, i have less pain” (jagosh et al., 2011). another frontier lies in brain-to-brain synchrony. landmark hyperscanning studies (simultaneous fmri of patient and clinician) indicate that during smooth communication, specific regions in the clinician’s and patient’s brain sync well. one study from 2022 suggested that, like the behavior of resting-state networks, psychiatric patients exhibited alterations in the similarity of their neural activity between areas in the insula when the patient-clinician treatment rapport was strong. most interestingly, the level of insula synchrony was strongly associated with the therapeutic alliance rated by the patient and the therapist (r = 0.64) (ellingsen pa ge 19 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 190-197, 2025 et al., 2022). the insula plays a role in empathetic pain resonance and subjective feeling states, so this “shared brain response” is probably indicative of a clinician who is really tuning in to the patient’s experience. further, the patient’s pain facial expressions were shown to causally drive those of the clinician’s facial expressions (and not the reverse), suggesting that, nonverbally, attentive clinicians “follow the patient’s lead.” a leader–follower results from effective nonverbal communication (talley & temple, 2015), the patient’s emotional cues guide the interaction, and the clinician’s brain resonates with the patient’s internal state. such findings, though preliminary, are consistent with the idea that empathy and listening are embodied processes: the clinician’s brain can mimic the patient’s feelings, perhaps helping the clinician to understand and care appropriately. role of neurochemical pathways oxytocin, referred to as the “bonding hormone,” is released in positive social interactions. while specific studies of oxytocin release during doctor-patient communication are scant, analogies from psychotherapy research suggest that an empathetic encounter can modulate stress hormones (like cortisol) and sympathetic arousal, creating a calming physiological milieu conducive to healing. a clinician just sitting down at eye level, maybe using a warm tone, and listening without interruption might cause a patient’s blood pressure and heart rate to drop effects consistent with a heightened parasympathetic “rest and digest” response. in fact, one study of patients in a primary care setting found that those who rated their doctors as more compassionate were more likely to have lower objectively measured stress reactivity (using salivary cortisol) and better measures of immunity (greater nasal interleukin levels) to a cold-producing virus (sharkiya, 2023). this suggests a psychoneuroimmunology aspect: feeling cared for may boost the body’s natural defenses. in short, the neurobiology of empathy-enhancing communication shows us that listening is not a passive process it is an active social event that taps into all the brain systems of emotion, reward, and social bonding. quality of compassion in communication can also reduce neural signaling of pain in the patients (sarinopoulos et al., 2013), synchronize the psychophysiological state between a doctor and a patient and release oxytocin and steroids leading to relaxation and confidence state (jirikowski et al., 2017). these results added scientific basis to the healing produced by empathy and listening, which made the discussion more than just an anecdote. if a patient is listened to deeply enough by a clinician, his or her brain and body hears safety and this can equal less anxiety, heightened placebo responses and better engagement in treatment. communication quality and patient outcomes: empirical evidence an abundance of clinical studies suggests that good communication is clinically effective as well as ethical. quality of communication including clarity of information, empathy, engagement of patient, and responsiveness to concerns has been positively associated with a range of patient outcomes ranging from satisfaction and adherence to actual alleviation of symptoms and morbidity. patient satisfaction and experience the most immediate effect of good communication is improved patient satisfaction. patients who say their doctors listen, explain well and demonstrate empathy consistently report higher satisfaction. in 2016, boissy et al. conducted a large observational study involving over 3,000 physicians, demonstrating that physicians trained in relationship-centered communication had significantly higher patient satisfaction scores than untrained physicians (p < 0.03) (boissy et al., 2016). although the absolute differences were small (1–3 points on 100-point scales), they were statistically significant and relevant in competitive healthcare settings. importantly, that intervention also increased the physicians’ empathy and decreased their burnout, indicating a virtuous cycle: when physicians communicate better, they feel accomplished, which probably results in even better interactions with patients. the experience of indian healthcare provides a context where patient satisfaction is sometimes centered on communication factors among other challenges. in 2018, a cross-sectional survey of 1,140 outpatients attending 16 hospitals across five states of india revealed that 39% of patients were unsatisfied with their consultations due to frequent reports that doctors seemed rushed or didn’t clarify diagnoses/treatments adequately (singhal et al., 2024). on the other hand, patients who felt that their doctor listened and addressed their questions were more likely to trust their provider and follow their advice. therefore, enhancing communication in the indian scenario is viewed as one of the ways of rebuilding confidence in the medical profession, especially with the recent spate of doctor-patient conflict coverage. indeed, poor communication (felt as arrogance or dodging by patients) has been recognized as a contribution to patient rage and even assault in hospitals (nagpal, 2017). this is multifactorial, of course, but the message is clear: when doctors communicate transparently and compassionately, patients are more satisfied and safer. adherence to treatment this is the most important behavioral outcome related to communication. patients who are aware of and accept the management plan are more likely to take medications correctly, follow lifestyle recommendations and keep follow-up appointments. research has demonstrated that when physicians spend time on communicating the need for treatment, obtaining the patient perspective, and incorporating patients into the decision-making process, adherence can significantly improve (dichmann sorknaes et al., 2022; chakrabarti, 2018). a systematic review of 21 studies showed that physician communication behaviors pa ge 19 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 190-197, 2025 (e.g., checking patient understanding, asking patients to ask questions) were positively correlated with medication adherence across chronic conditions (zakaria et al., 2024). historically, the rates of medication non-compliance in patients with severe mental illness, such as schizophrenia or bipolar disorder, have been quite high. in multiple trials, however, approaches that focus on alliance and communication (collaborative care models, sdm) have been associated with increased adherence. for example, chakrabarti (2018) in an editorial regarding bipolar disorder provided international data indicating a transition from a clinician-centered to a patient-centered model of communication (where patients can monitor their symptoms and participate in making treatment choices) can significantly improve adherence and prevent relapses. in places like india where family is always involved in care, clear communication with the patient and family will help in promoting adherence due to concordance between their understanding of the illness and treatment clinical outcomes – symptom reduction and objective measures aside from satisfaction and adherence, an important question is whether communication can change “hard” clinical outcomes pain scores, depression severity, blood pressure, etc. however, there is a growing body of evidence suggesting that the answer is yes. for instance, from a 2023 cohort study of chronic low back pain outcomes: this is a study of 1,470 patients and over a 12-month period, patients who had physicians rated in the top quartile on a care empathy score (fourth quarter care score) experienced better outcomes than those patients with less empathic physicians (licciardone et al., 2024). those in the “highly empathic physician” tier had less pain intensity, reduced functional disability, and better quality of life. importantly, the differences were clinically significant (effect sizes d ~0.2–0.3) and the authors highlighted that the effect size of physician empathy exceeded some widely used medical treatments for chronic pain (licciardone et al., 2024). to put it another way, the impact of a caring, communicative doctor seemed more beneficial on average than, say, adding a second analgesic or some surgical interventions for their pain impressive regardless. similarly, a randomized trial in iran (2020) found that teaching communication skills to doctors improved blood pressure outcomes amongst their patients with uncontrolled hypertension (tavakoly sany et al., 2020). for instance, in this trial, communication training for physicians (including how to use plain language, assess patient understanding, and acknowledge lifestyle barriers to patients) resulted in significantly greater reductions in 6-months systolic and diastolic blood pressures among patients of intervention versus control physicians (tavakoly sany et al., 2020). as well, patients followed by trained physicians demonstrated higher medication adherence and improved self-efficacy. it indicates that the associated blood pressure improvements were mediated by behavioral changes, underscoring communication’s indirect yet potent role. incorporating insights from related fields, alhassan et al. (2025) demonstrated that parental communication barriers in educating children with disabilities mirror clinician-patient dynamics, with stigma and resource gaps reducing engagement. similarly, sitoy et al. (2025) showed that prompting techniques enhance asd children’s communication, suggesting analogous strategies could apply in pediatric psychiatry. figure 2: relationship between physician empathy and patient outcomes across clinical settings. results and discussion this narrative review synthesizes evidence from 2014 to 2024, revealing consistent associations between highquality communication and improved patient outcomes across various domains. in the realm of neurobiology, empathetic listening has been shown to activate reward circuits through dopamine and oxytocin release while reducing insula activation in pain pathways (jensen et al., 2020; sarinopoulos et al., 2013), with neural synchrony demonstrating a correlation of r = 0.64 (ellingsen et al., 2022). critically, these mechanisms elucidate why communication can rival medication in efficacy; however, small sample sizes limit generalizability, and in contexts like india, cultural stigma may amplify stress responses, thereby widening existing gaps (chakrabarti, 2018). regarding patient satisfaction, physicians trained in pa ge 19 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 190-197, 2025 communication exhibit higher satisfaction scores (boissy et al., 2016), with significance at p < 0.03. in india, 39% of dissatisfaction stems from rushed consultations (singhal et al., 2024). although statistically robust, the small effect sizes indicate that communication improvements alone are insufficient without broader systemic reforms, such as workload reductions. these findings also underscore ethical imperatives, as communication deficits are linked to violence against healthcare providers (nagpal, 2017). for treatment adherence, shared decision-making (sdm) positively correlates with adherence across chronic conditions, as evidenced in a review of 21 studies (zakaria et al., 2024). incorporating family-inclusive sdm in india could enhance these effects, yet persistent paternalism highlights the need for hybrid models, thereby fulfilling a critical gap in culturally adapted approaches (jacob, 2014). in clinical outcomes, empathy reduces pain and disability in chronic pain scenarios with effect sizes of d ≈ 0.2– 0.3 (licciardone et al., 2024), alongside blood pressure reductions following communication training (tavakoly sany et al., 2020). the novelty here lies in these effects surpassing certain pharmacological interventions, contributing to knowledge on non-pharmacological alternatives. this addresses gaps in indian sdm practices by integrating parental insights from alhassan et al. (2025) and sitoy et al. (2025), extending applications to pediatric settings. communication frameworks, such as calgary-cambridge, four habits, and spikes, demonstrably improve skills (baniaghil et al., 2022; frankel & stein, 2001; prabhu et al., 2023), with high adherence observed in training programs (mahendiran et al., 2023). critically, low adoption in india—evidenced by only 31% awareness (prabhu et al., 2023)—necessitates policy-driven initiatives to enhance implementation. finally, in parental contexts, financial barriers (71.4%) and stigma (64.3%) limit involvement in disabilities education (χ² = 12.56, p < 0.05; alhassan et al., 2025), while prompting correlates with asd communication improvements (r = 0.515, p = 0.001; r = 0.632, p = 0.002; sitoy et al., 2025). interpreting these, parental prompting (mean usage 2.57) parallels clinician empathy, but socioeconomic gaps (75% low involvement) suggest the value of culturally adapted alliances; this novelty links to indian psychiatry for family-centered care. overall, these results affirm communication’s therapeutic equivalence to medication in select contexts, with novelty in bridging neurobiology and cultural applications. contributions include evidence-based advocacy for curricula integration, fulfilling gaps in non-western evidence. integrating alhassan et al. (2025) and sitoy et al. (2025), parental prompting in disabilities parallels clinician empathy, suggesting interdisciplinary models for holistic care. limitations include narrative bias, warranting future randomized controlled trials. conclusion communication and listening have been called the art of medicine, but as exemplified in this review, it is also science and has a measured effect of healing. in actual practice, the ability to develop a good therapeutic relationship, active empathic listening and involving patients in decision making is as important to patient outcomes as the prescription of an appropriate medication. a kind word, a minute of silent attention, a clear explanation can work miracles calming the anxious patient, bringing hope, and enabling the person to become an active partner in his or her treatment. the implications are staggering to the profession of psychiatry and medicine in general as we should no longer consider communication as a supplement to biomedical treatment but rather as a therapeutic instrument. that can be taken to imply training clinicians to be as skilled and trained in communication as they are in procedure, re-engineering clinic processes to permit communication-rich interactions, and fostering a culture that prizes listening habits as much as lab results. it is the appreciation that a patient story is as much important as their symptoms and that healing does not just happen because of molecules and surgeries but because of the times when a patient and a doctor are together and truly human with each other. to sum up, the art and science of healing requires of us that we should not regard communication and listening as something outside medicine, but as medicine in and of itself, as a potent means which, with pharmacology, makes the practice of clinical healing complete. it is overwhelming that patients do better when a clinician communicates with them in an empathic, understood, and respectful manner. with our movement toward a high-technology, personalized medicine, let us also move forward the personal, communicative aspect of care. these are the ordinary processes of talking and listening, but when they are done with understanding and care, they can overcome some wounds that drugs cannot penetrate. they are, so to speak, among the most ancient and the most powerful drugs in our possession, and their role in the contemporary clinical practice should be supported and advocated with the highest priority. acknowledgement i would like to express my sincere gratitude to assistant professor dr. john abraham, department of family medicine, whose critical review and thoughtful suggestions greatly improved my depth and quality of this work. his meticulous attention to each detail and academic guidance were instrumental in shaping the final manuscript. references alhassan, a. s., issaka, c. a., & iddrisu, h. m. 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(2024). physician communication behaviors on patient satisfaction in primary care medical settings in bangladesh. journal of primary care & community health, 15, 21501319241277396. https://doi. org/10.1177/21501319241277396 pa ge 1 pa ge 86 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) barriers to parental involvement in the education of children with disabilities in tamale metropolis abubakari sadik alhassan2, cecilia alimatu issaka2, hassan mubarik iddrisu1* volume 3 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v3i1.4523 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: february 05, 2025 accepted: march 10, 2025 published: june 24, 2025 parental involvement plays a crucial role in the education of children with disabilities, yet various barriers limit their engagement. this study explores the challenges hindering parental involvement in inclusive education within the tamale metropolis and identifies strategies to enhance participation. a mixed-methods approach was employed, combining quantitative survey data from 70 respondents (parents and teachers) and qualitative thematic analysis from interviews. purposive and simple random sampling techniques were used to select participants from inclusive schools, and data were analyzed using spss (version 26) for quantitative analysis and thematic analysis for qualitative responses. findings indicate that financial constraints (71.4%), negative societal attitudes (64.3%), and lack of awareness (57.1%) are significant barriers to parental involvement. a chi-square analysis revealed a strong association between parental socio-economic status and their level of engagement (χ² = 12.56, p < 0.05), with low-income parents being less involved. qualitative findings supported these results, highlighting financial struggles, stigma, and poor school communication as key limitations. suggested strategies for improvement, rated on a five-point scale, emphasized the importance of awareness campaigns (4.7 mean score), regular parent-teacher communication (4.5 mean score), and financial assistance (4.3 mean score). the study recommends educational campaigns, financial support programs, improved communication channels, parental training, and policy reinforcement to enhance engagement. addressing these barriers through collaborative efforts among schools, policymakers, and communities can significantly improve the involvement of parents in the education of children with disabilities. keywords barriers, disabilities, inclusive education, parental involvement, socio-economic status, tamale metropolis 1 the west african examinations council (waec), ghana 2 institute for distance and continuing learning (idcl), university for development studies, tamale * corresponding author’s e-mail: ih.mubarik@yahoo.com introduction parents play a crucial role in shaping their children’s lives; they are their first teachers, guiding them even before they step into a classroom. naturally, parents want to stay connected to what their children are learning and experiencing at school. when parents, families, schools, and communities work together, children benefit in countless ways. this collaboration, known as parental involvement, means more than just attending school meetings; it’s about being an active part of a child’s education at home and in school (hornby & lafaele, 2023). research has consistently shown that when parents are involved; whether by helping with homework, reading together, or participating in school events, children perform better academically (hornby & lafaele, 2023; ghazi et al., 2010; steve, 2015; strom & strom, 2013). yet, despite the clear advantages of parental involvement, there remains a gap between what experts recommend and what actually happens in schools. many studies emphasize its importance, but in reality, some parents struggle to be involved due to work commitments, lack of confidence, or feeling unwelcome in school spaces. deslandes and bertrand (2010) put it simply: “there is still more rhetoric than reality about family and school working together as genuine partners”. schools and educators need to find better ways to bridge this gap, ensuring parents feel encouraged and supported in playing an active role in their child’s education. parental involvement comes in many forms. menon (2013) describes it as a broad spectrum of activities, from attending occasional meetings to deeply engaging in school programs. sikhwari (1999) breaks it down into two key aspects: commitment and active participation. commitment means parents care about their child’s education and want to help, while active participation is about actually taking steps to be involved, whether at home or in school. the best outcomes happen when both commitment and participation go hand in hand (sikhwari, 1999). while it’s clear that children benefit from their parents’ engagement, many challenges still prevent some families from getting involved. if we want every child to have the best chance at success, we need to understand and address these barriers. schools must work on creating welcoming environments, offering flexible engagement opportunities, and ensuring parents feel valued as essential partners in their children’s education. research conducted over decades has demonstrated that the degree to which parents get actively involved in their children’s education is a better indicator of their academic success than family income or parental education level (driessen et al., 2005). pa ge 87 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 86-98, 2025 statement of problem despite the well-documented benefits of parental involvement in children’s education, parents of children with disabilities in tamale face significant barriers that limit their engagement. factors such as socio-economic challenges, lack of awareness, attitudinal biases, and inadequate school policies contribute to low levels of parental participation. these barriers not only hinder effective collaboration between parents and schools but also negatively impact the educational experiences and outcomes of children with disabilities. while previous studies have explored general parental involvement, there is limited research on the specific challenges faced by parents of children with disabilities in tamale. this study seeks to fill this gap by identifying the major obstacles to parental engagement, examining the role of socio-economic status, and exploring effective strategies to enhance parental involvement in the education of children with disabilities. aim of the study to investigate the barriers to parental involvement and its replicates impact in the education of special need children in tamale. research objectives the study seeks to: 1. identify the major barriers that hinder parental involvement in the education of children with disabilities in tamale. 2. examine the influence of parental socio-economic status on their level of involvement in their children’s education. 3. explore effective strategies that can enhance parental engagement in the education of children with disabilities. research questions 1. what are the major barriers to parental involvement in the education of children with disabilities? 2. how does parental socio-economic status influence involvement in the education of children with disabilities? 3. what strategies can enhance parental involvement in the education of children with disabilities? literature review impirical review epstein’s parent involvement model harris (2023), who highlighted epstein a leading scholar in the field of parental involvement, identified six distinct types of parental engagement: parenting, communication, volunteering, home-based learning, decision-making, and community collaboration. she emphasized that these forms of involvement should be integrated into a broad network of collaboration between families, schools, and communities (sheldon, buckley, wang, & epstein, n.d). the six types of involvement are explained as follows: parenting this involves helping families create supportive and nurturing environments that enhance children’s academic success. implementation strategies include parental education programs, family support initiatives, and recommendations for improving the home environment. a stable home environment fosters children’s understanding of the importance of education and promotes consistent school attendance (tekin, 2014). communication effective communication between schools and families is crucial for keeping parents informed about school programs and their children’s academic progress. this includes parent-teacher conferences, phone calls, newsletters, and discussions on school policies. clear communication helps parents understand their children’s growth, school expectations, and ways to support their learning (epstein & herrick, 2006). volunteering this involves organizing and encouraging parental participation in school activities, both within and outside the school environment. parents can assist teachers, support school events, and contribute to safety initiatives. such engagement fosters children’s interpersonal skills and enhances their learning experiences (epstein & herrick, 2006). home-based learning this focuses on equipping parents with resources and strategies to support their children’s education at home. activities include guidance on homework monitoring, family reading initiatives, and structured home learning routines. increased parental involvement in learning at home is linked to higher student achievement and a more positive perception of their parents as educators (epstein & herrick, 2006). decision-making this refers to parents taking on leadership roles in school committees and associations such as parent-teacher associations (pta) and school advisory boards. active participation in decision-making enhances parents’ sense of representation and strengthens their advocacy for student rights and educational policies (epstein & herrick, 2006). community collaboration this involves connecting schools with community resources to enhance educational programs. schools can collaborate with civic, cultural, and health organizations to provide additional support for students and their families. community partnerships contribute to students’ skill development and access to specialized opportunities that enrich their educational experience (epstein et al., 2006). epstein’s model provides a comprehensive framework for parental involvement, offering practical strategies for educators to engage families in the learning process. however, the model is largely educator-driven and does not fully consider the parents’ perspectives on pa ge 88 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 86-98, 2025 involvement. most of the initiatives outlined rely on school staff, particularly teachers, to take the lead in fostering parental participation. while these strategies are essential, they do not fully address the challenges parents may face in engaging with their children’s education. the level of parental involvement is particularly critical when it comes to children with special needs or disabilities. studies have shown that several psychological and demographic factors influence parental participation in education, yet epstein’s model does not adequately account for these barriers (mabuza, 2017; mccoy et al., 2016; walker et al., 2004). to understand the underlying factors affecting parental engagement, hoover-dempsey and sandler (1995) developed a model focusing on the psychological and motivational drivers of parental involvement. this model examines parents’ beliefs about their roles, their self-efficacy in supporting their child’s education, and their perceptions of school invitations to participate (hoover-dempsey & sandler, 1995). unlike epstein’s framework, which primarily categorizes types of involvement, hoover-dempsey and sandler’s model provides deeper insights into why parents choose to engage or disengage from their children’s education. this perspective is particularly relevant in the context of children with disabilities, where factors such as parental confidence, societal attitudes, and logistical challenges play significant roles. given the focus of this study on barriers to parental involvement in the education of children with disabilities in the tamale metropolis, hoover-dempsey and sandler’s model serves as a more suitable theoretical foundation. it allows for a more nuanced exploration of the challenges parents face and offers insights into strategies that can enhance their engagement in their children’s education. factors (enablers) that promote effective parental involvement in the education of children with disabilities (sen) research consistently highlights the benefits of parental involvement in student learning. while classifications of parental engagement strategies vary, most scholars categorize them into two broad areas: home-based and school-based activities (trotman, 2016). homebased involvement includes activities parents undertake to support learning at home, while school-based involvement refers to parents collaborating with teachers and participating in school-related activities. numerous studies confirm that increased parental involvement is linked to better academic outcomes for children in general (bariroh, 2021; đurišić & bunijevac, 2017; tekin & ph, 2014). some research also indicates a positive correlation between parental engagement and the academic performance of children with special needs. however, other studies have reported no significant relationship, while some argue that the extent of parental involvement has minimal impact on children with disabilities. additionally, researchers have noted a decline in parental involvement as children grow older, with parents of older students being less likely to engage with teachers or actively support learning. for preschoolers with disabilities, academic performance is strongly influenced by the level of collaboration between parents and schools. alimatu et al. (2021) emphasize that teachers, parents, and community members must work together to support inclusive learning and meet the diverse needs of children with disabilities. establishing a professional support network is essential to creating a learning environment that accommodates students with disabilities. mugote (2019) argues that a sustained awareness campaign is necessary to promote the idea that education is a fundamental right for all children. such initiatives should not only encourage parents to enroll their children with disabilities in school but also educate the general public on the importance of integrating these students into mainstream classrooms (mugote, 2019). this integration is a crucial step in reducing stigma and fostering social inclusion. community attitudes play a crucial role in shaping parental involvement in education. barton et al. (2004) found that positive community perceptions about disabilities help create an enabling environment for parental participation. in supportive communities, parents are more likely to seek and provide mobility, visual, and hearing assistive devices to help children with disabilities access school resources. similarly, steve (2015) asserts that parents’ willingness to support their children’s education is influenced by their perceptions of their parental role and the value they place on education (steve, 2015). hoover et al. (2005) highlight that parents living in communities that strongly support inclusive education are more likely to be actively involved in their children’s schooling. motivating factors, such as the opportunity to volunteer in their children’s academic and extracurricular activities, further encourage parental engagement (green et al., 2007). to enhance parental involvement, daudji et al. (2011) recommend implementing parent training programs and workshops. these initiatives equip parents with essential knowledge about disabilities, instructional strategies, and assistive technologies that can facilitate their child’s learning. additionally, such programs empower parents by fostering advocacy and support skills. similarly, croot et al. (2008)suggest that parents of children with special needs should form support groups. these groups provide a platform for parents to share experiences, exchange resources, and offer emotional support. they also serve as advocacy networks that help parents navigate educational policies and secure better services for their children. epstein & herrik (2006)advocates for an overlapping framework where families, schools, and communities collaborate to support children’s learning. she argues that aligning goals and coordinating efforts among these three stakeholders can enhance both parental engagement and pa ge 89 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 86-98, 2025 student success. studies conducted in turkey, the united states, and england emphasize the need for partnerships among parents, schools, and governments to optimize educational opportunities for children with disabilities (d & zúñiga, 2015; epstein & herrick, 2006; pelco, 2000; prew, 2009; sheldon, 2002). these scholars suggest that schools should actively plan activities that foster parental engagement in various domains, including parenting support, remote learning, interpersonal communication, civic participation, decision-making, and broader societal collaboration. berg and noort (2011) further asserts that, beyond passing down values and beliefs, parents have fundamental responsibilities, such as ensuring their children’s basic needs for food, shelter, and safety. fan and chen (2001) extend this argument by emphasizing the direct correlation between parental attitudes and children’s academic success. however, they acknowledge that not all parents can independently create a supportive home environment. in such cases, epstein (2001) recommends that schools implement family-support programs, such as home visits, parent-education sessions, and initiatives to encourage parental engagement in academic activities. schools that adopt these practices are often at the forefront of enhancing parental involvement in the education of students with disabilities. perceptions of enablers to involvement parental involvement in their children’s education is significantly influenced by their perceptions of how schools value their children. bariroh (2021) found that urban parents are more likely to engage in school activities when they perceive that teachers and school staff respect their children and recognize their potential. gay (2001), in culturally responsive teaching, asserts that “even without our conscious awareness, culture shapes how we teachers reason, believe, and conduct”. this highlights the importance of educators understanding the cultural backgrounds, beliefs, and perspectives of the communities they serve. lindsey and lindsey (2016) emphasize that fostering parental involvement requires schools to acknowledge how these cultural factors shape parents’ perceptions of the institution (lindsey & lindsey, 2016). parents are more likely to actively participate in their child’s education when they: 1. believe they can effectively support their child’s academic progress. 2. have confidence in their child’s ability to succeed in school. 3. place a high value on education. these factors, identified by bariroh (2021), citing marui (1952), demonstrate the role of parental self-efficacy and educational expectations in fostering engagement. billie (1993)further argues that parents who recognize their role as active participants in their child’s education are more inclined to contribute to their academic development. school leadership also plays a vital role in encouraging parental involvement. griffith, (2015) conducted a quantitative analysis of headteacher leadership styles and found that an empowering school atmosphere fosters strong parent-school relationships. in addition to leadership approaches, other key strategies identified by school administrators include: • implementing a formal parent engagement policy. • creating a welcoming school environment. • establishing a dedicated parent center. • launching parent outreach programs. • providing continuous professional development for teachers and staff to address parents’ needs. jesse (1995) suggests that these strategies help create a more inclusive and collaborative school environment, ultimately enhancing parental participation in elementary education. barriers to effective, school, and parental involvement parental participation is a crucial factor in determining children’s academic success, yet many parents remain uninvolved due to various barriers (adhabi & anozie, 2017; hornby & lafaele, 2011). research has identified several key obstacles, including time constraints, limited expertise in providing academic support, transportation difficulties, attitudinal barriers, insufficient outreach by schools, and an unwelcoming school environment (alimatu et al., 2021). additionally, institutional factors such as administrative challenges, ineffective communication, and a lack of clear policies further discourage parental engagement (amoako, 2020). socioeconomic barriers, including low income and lower parental education levels, can also impact parents’ confidence and ability to support their children’s learning (chevalier et al., 2013; green et al., 2007). parents of children with disabilities face even greater challenges in engaging with their children’s education. many lack awareness of available resources and support services, while negative societal perceptions and discrimination further discourage their involvement (emerson et al., 2012). additionally, high poverty levels, limited knowledge of disability types, and the financial strain of raising a child with special needs contribute to their exclusion from the education system (schooling, 2011). schools often fail to adopt inclusive policies that accommodate the needs of parents with disabilities, reinforcing their marginalization (nyarko, 2011). consequently, children with disabilities may not receive the necessary parental support at home, which can hinder their academic and social development (hornby & blackwell, 2018). despite these challenges, research suggests several strategies to enhance parental involvement. schools can improve communication and outreach by organizing workshops, seminars, and parent training programs to boost confidence and engagement (koech, 2006). establishing clear policies that encourage parental participation, fostering a welcoming school environment, and reducing negative attitudes towards parents and pa ge 90 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 86-98, 2025 their children are also crucial (emmanuel, n.d.). flexible engagement opportunities, such as virtual meetings or alternative participation methods, can help parents who struggle with time constraints or disabilities become more involved (stoner & angell, 2006). moreover, collaboration between schools, government agencies, and non-governmental organizations can provide additional resources and support for parents, particularly those of children with special needs (suzuki, 2002). while barriers to parental involvement remain significant, particularly for parents of children with disabilities, it is evident that active participation greatly benefits children’s education (fingerman et al., 2016). parents play a crucial role in reinforcing the social, academic, and adaptive skills that children develop in school. materials and methods this study employed a mixed-method approach, integrating both quantitative and qualitative research techniques to ensure depth, breadth, and confirmation of findings (hands, 2022). mixed-method research allows for a more comprehensive exploration of complex issues by combining numerical data analysis with in-depth qualitative insights, enhancing the overall validity and applicability of the study (akram et al., 2023). population and sampling the study targeted parents of children with disabilities and teachers in selected inclusive schools within the tamale metropolis. purposive sampling was used to select parents of children with disabilities. additionally, simple random sampling was employed to select classroom teachers from both regular and special education streams, ensuring a diverse representation. sample distribution the study involved 70 participants from various inclusive schools in the tamale metropolis. the distribution is as follows: table 1: sample distribution school number of participants yumba special school 10 dakpema inclusive basic school 10 lamashegu primary (a) 10 kaladan e.p primary 10 farukiya islamic primary 10 zogbeli primary (a) 10 nyohini presbyterian primary (b) 5 zujung primary school 5 total 70 table 2: demographic characteristics of respondents (n = 70) variable category frequency (n=70) percentage (%) gender male 30 42.9 female 40 57.1 educational level no formal education 12 17.1 basic education 18 25.7 secondary education 20 28.6 tertiary education 20 28.6 parental status parent of child with disability 50 71.4 teacher 20 28.6 data collection and analysis data collection involved: structured questionnaires and interview guides were used to gather both numerical and descriptive data. for quantitative analysis, responses were coded and analyzed using spss (version 26). descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, and mean comparisons were employed to examine trends and relationships. for qualitative analysis, a thematic analysis approach was used. interview data were transcribed and analyzed for emerging themes, with occasional verbatim excerpts included to provide depth. special education experts reviewed the themes to ensure diverse perspectives were incorporated. ethical considerations ethical standards were strictly followed throughout the study. participants provided informed consent before engaging in surveys or interviews. proper acknowledgment of original authors was ensured in literature references. where copyrighted materials such as tables or excerpts were used, appropriate citations were included. results pa ge 91 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 86-98, 2025 table 1 shows the demographic profile of the study participants. the gender distribution shows a slightly higher representation of females (57.1%) compared to males (42.9%), indicating a balanced perspective from both genders. in terms of education, a considerable proportion of respondents have attained secondary (28.6%) or tertiary education (28.6%), while a smaller segment has only basic education (25.7%) or no formal education (17.1%). this indicates a varied level of educational background, which may influence perspectives on parental involvement. finally, a significant portion of respondents (71.4%) are parents of children with disabilities, while 28.6% are teachers. this distribution ensures that the study captures both parental and professional perspectives on the barriers and strategies related to parental involvement in the education of children with disabilities. research question 1: what are the major barriers to parental involvement in the education of children with disabilities? table 3 presents the frequency and percentage distribution of the key barriers identified by parents and teachers. table 3: descriptive statistics & frequencies barrier frequency (n=70) percentage (%) lack of awareness about disabilities 40 57.1 financial constraints 50 71.4 negative societal attitudes 45 64.3 lack of resources in schools 35 50.0 poor communication with schools 30 42.9 according to the statistics in table 3, the most important barriers restricting parental engagement in learning for children who have special needs are presumably unfavourable society views (64.3%) and financial restrictions (71.4%). a lack of information regarding disabilities (57.1%) further plays a major role in discouraging parental involvement as many parents have no idea about the children’s specific needs or how best to help them. lack of facilities in schools (50.0%) and inadequate communication (42.9%) further add to the difficulty as they let parents feel cut away from the educational experience of their children. integration of qualitative and quantitative findings lack of awareness about disabilities according to the survey results, 57.1% of respondents believe that one key barrier to parental participation is ignorance. qualitative analysis responses from parents who revealed their poor knowledge of their children’s problems and how to help them academically complement this result. a parent observed:”so many parents do not understand the disability condition of their children and take it like they can never make it in school” another parent expressed: “many of us parents were never taught about disabilities, so we don’t know how to support our children properly. we assume they cannot succeed because we lack the right information and guidance from the schools.” these comments emphasises the importance of parental education initiatives that may provide households the tools and information required to assist in the learning of their children. parents who lack knowledge might find it difficult to stand up for their children, therefore restricting their capacity to engage in school events. financial constraints the most common challenge found to be financial problems (71.4%), which emphasises how strongly economic troubles affect parental engagement. the qualitative answers confirmed this, because many parents mentioned difficulties in supplying basic educational resources and inability to finance conveyance to school meetings as main problems. one parent clarified: “some of us finds it difficult to provide common educational materials and mean to school where our children attends” this implies that low-income households suffer systematic difficulties preventing them from participating in the education of their children. to increase parental engagement among economically underprivileged households, schools and legislators might have to take financial aid programs such transit allowances or subsidised learning supplies into consideration. negative societal attitudes of the respondents, a notable 64.3% said that parental participation was negatively affected by stigma and society views towards disability. parents voiced worries in the qualitative interviews around community judgement of them. one parent shared: “the stigma and shame that goes with disabilities in our communities make some of us parents uncertain to willingly involve in school activities.” this result shows how limited parental involvement is by cultural attitudes. parents who feel humiliated or afraid of prejudice may retreat from school events to escape observation. awareness initiatives run by schools and community groups can help to dispel misunderstandings and create an inclusive climate whereby parents feel free to assist their children. lack of resources in schools the primary barrier to engagement indicated by fifty percent of the participants (50.0%) as low school pa ge 92 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 86-98, 2025 resources. teachers also underlined how inadequate teaching and learning resources make it challenging for institutions to properly serve children with impairments. some parents noted that when schools lack the required tools to help their children, many of them feel demoralised. one parent noted: “the school do not have the required materials to support my child learning and it discourages me from being actively involve.” this result implies that parental involvement is much influenced by the availability of resources as parents could believe that their attempts are useless without enough facilities. lawmakers and school administrators should give distributing funds to inclusive schools top priority so that students get the required help. poor communication with schools although ineffective communication was the least often mentioned obstacle (42.9%), qualitative responses underlined that parents often feel cut off from school events because of inadequate involvement of teachers and managers. one parent described: “schools hardly contact parents for engagement,this makes it difficult for parents to participate.” this suggests that parental engagement is much influenced by school-led communication practices. when administrators and teachers neglect to notify parents, they (parents) might believe their engagement is not necessary. regular meetings, phone conversations, or digital tools like whatsapp groups can schools enhance communication to make sure parents stay involved in the education of their children. consequently, the results draw attention to the very complex barriers to parental participation in the schooling of children with disabilities. financial restrictions came first, then unfavourable society attitudes, lack of knowledge, inadequate funding, and lack of interaction. the qualitative findings helped one to better grasp these difficulties by showing how poor school involvement, cultural stigma, and financial difficulty all together limit parental involvement. dealing with these problems calls for a whole strategy encompassing awareness campaigns, financial assistance programs, better communication techniques, and more distribution of resources to inclusive schools. research question 2: how does parental socioeconomic status influence involvement in the education of children with disabilities? chi-square test of independence table 4 shows the relationship between parental socioeconomic status (ses) and their level of involvement in school activities. table 4: relationship between parental socio-economic status (ses) parental ses level high involvement (n=30) low involvement (n=40) total (n=70) low ses 10 (33.3%) 30 (75.0%) 40 (57.1%) middle ses 10 (33.3%) 8 (20.0%) 18 (25.7%) high ses 10 (33.3%) 2 (5.0%) 12 (17.1%) total 30 (100%) 40 (100%) 70 (100%) chi-square result: χ² (2, n=70) = 12.56, p < 0.05 the chi-square test result (χ² = 12.56, p < 0.05) as shown in table 4, indicates a significant association between parental socio-economic status (ses) and their level of involvement in their children’s education. parents from low-income households exhibit the lowest level of involvement, with 75.0% categorized as having low involvement. in contrast, parents from high-income backgrounds demonstrate greater engagement, with only 5.0% reporting low involvement. these findings suggest that financial stability plays a crucial role in enabling parental participation. families with higher ses are more likely to have the time, resources, and knowledge necessary to engage actively in school-related activities. conversely, parents from lower ses backgrounds may face challenges such as work commitments, financial constraints, and limited access to transportation, which hinder their ability to participate in their children’s education. integration of quantitative and qualitative findings financial burden and time constraints the quantitative results reveal that low-income parents participate far less in their children’s schooling. the qualitative data confirms this even more as many parents mention money problems as a main barrier. a parent shared: “i wish to be more involved, i have to work several hours so i can provide for my family.” as parents try to satisfy the financial demands of their families, this reaction shows how economic pressures compel them to give employment top priority above school engagement. parents with hectic schedules might not have the time to help children study at home or show up for school events. a teacher also highlighted this issue, stating: “some parents genuinely want to be involved, but their financial struggles mean they have to prioritize work over attending school meetings or supporting their children academically.” this comment reinforces the idea that economic hardships limit parental involvement, not due to a lack of interest but because of the necessity to meet financial obligations. pa ge 93 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 86-98, 2025 parental education level and confidence in supporting learning another important element affecting parental engagement is educational level. the quantitative findings show that parents from higher ses backgrounds often show more engagement; this is likewise shown in the qualitative replies. those with minimal formal education might feel inadequate to significantly help their children with their schooling. one participant noted: “parents who are not well educated feel they can not contribute effectively to their childs education.” another parent echoed this concern, stating: “sometimes, i want to help my child with schoolwork, but i don’t understand the subjects well enough. i feel embarrassed to talk to teachers because i don’t know what to say.” these responses highlights how a lack of formal education can create a psychological barrier that discourages parental involvement. parents may feel intimidated by school environments and hesitant to seek support, further isolating them from their child’s learning process. schools can address this issue by fostering a more inclusive and supportive atmosphere through parent education programs and open communication channels. access to resources and school involvement lowand high-ses parents’ access to resources especially technology and transportation which directly impact their capacity to interact with schools reflects also their financial difference. according to the survey results, 75.0% of low-ses parents say they are not very involved; qualitative replies reveal some parents find it difficult to make it to school meetings because of travel expenses. a parent highlighted: “some parents do not have enough money for transportation to school meetings. because i know i am not alone in this” this emphasises how urgently intervention programs such as virtual engagement platforms, transportation stipends, or community-based support systems can help financially strapped parents. for low-ses families, if schools offer substitute ways for involvement such as neighbourhood parent support groups, it might help to close the gap. therefore, the combination of quantitative and qualitative data suggests that parental engagement in the education of children with disabilities is much influenced by socioeconomic level. lower-income parents’ engagement in school events is hampered by insufficient education, busy schedules, and financial restrictions. higher-income parents, on the other hand, have more money and freedom which helps them to be more involved. the results imply that lowering financial barriers, stepping up parental education initiatives, and providing flexible participation choices might help low-ses parents become more involved, so enhancing the educational results for children with impairments. research question 3: what strategies can enhance parental involvement in the education of children with disabilities? table 5: mean ratings of suggested strategies strategy mean score (1-5) standard deviation regular parent-teacher communication 4.5 0.6 financial assistance for low-income families 4.3 0.8 awareness campaigns on disabilities 4.7 0.5 parent training workshops 4.2 0.7 community support groups 4.0 0.9 table 5 presents the average ratings of different strategies suggested for improving parental involvement. the results in table 5, shows that all suggested approaches got great marks, implying that teachers and parents understand the importance of these interventions. emphasising the need of teaching parents and society about handicap concerns, awareness campaigns on disabilities (mean = 4.7, sd = 0.5) got the highest ranking among the techniques. highly regarded were also regular parent-teacher contact (mean = 4.5, sd = 0.6), which emphasises the need of consistent involvement between parents and schools. another much supported item was financial help for low-income families (mean = 4.3, sd = 0.8), therefore supporting the preceding conclusions on economic restrictions as a major obstacle to parental engagement. integration of quantitative and qualitative findings importance of awareness campaigns the quantitative data reveal that awareness campaigns on disability got the highest ranking (mean= 4.7), indicating that both parents and teachers think a lack of knowledge is a major obstacle. this fits qualitative answers, when one teacher said: “most parents do not have any idea about their children disabilities, so they often not feel being part of any sholl activity another teacher emphasized this point, stating: “some parents don’t even know their child’s condition has a name or that there are ways to support them. they assume the child just learns slowly and give up on their education.” these responses underscores the need for structured awareness programs that not only educate parents about pa ge 94 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 86-98, 2025 disabilities but also provide them with practical strategies for supporting their children. schools and community organizations should work together to create accessible resources, conduct outreach programs, and encourage open discussions to empower parents with the knowledge they need to be actively involved in their children’s education. enhancing parent-teacher communication with a mean value of 4.5, the great rating for frequent parent-teacher contact points to the major improvement in engagement that greater communication between schools and parents may bring about. this is consistent with parents’ qualitative comments complaining about the dearth of school outreach: “schools hardly ever reach out to us for informs or meetings. we only hear from them when there is a problem.” another parent reinforced this concern, stating: “sometimes, we don’t even know about important school programs until it’s too late. if teachers involved us more, we would be able to support our children better.” this comment suggests that parental involvement is limited by ineffective organised communication. in order to keep parents apprised and involved, schools should set up frequent meetings, newsletters, and digital lines of communication such as whatsapp groups or sms updates. addressing financial barriers with a mean rating of 4.3 for financial aid, the theory that economic difficulty is a main deterrent to parent engagement is supported. furthermore supporting this are qualitative answers: “i would love to appear in school programs, but i don’t have enough money transportation every time.” this indicates that although they are limited financially, some parents wish to be involved. giving allowances for transportation, free learning materials, or scholarship programs that help families in need might benefit schools, ngos, and government initiatives. providing parent training workshops with a mean score of 4.2, parent training programs clearly show great support for arming parents with tools to help their children’s learning. one parent spoke: “i occasionally want to support my child with schoolwork, but i don’t know how. i feel lost.” this reaction emphasises how a number of parents lack the knowledge and confidence to help their disabled children. workshops stressing efficient home learning techniques, knowledge of impairments, and communication skills might equip parents to be more involved. building community support groups with a mean rating of 4.0, community support groups show moderate but noteworthy support for peer networks whereby parents may exchange knowledge and experiences. one participant said: “speaking to other parents with comparable experiences assist me feel less alone and more self-assured in managing my child’s education.” this implies that networks of parents might offer incentive, knowledge-sharing, and emotional support. parent support groups wherein families with disabled children may network and share ideas might be facilitated by schools and community organisations. the results therefore show that parental engagement in the learning process of children with disabilities may be raised by means of awareness campaigns, better communication, financial support, training seminars, and support groups taken in concert. while the qualitative answers offer more in-depth understanding of how these techniques handle practical difficulties, the quantitative assessments underline their relevance. awareness campaigns should be given top priority in schools and legislators should help low-income families, providing skill-building chances for parents to establish a more inclusive and encouraging learning environment. discussion the results of this study underline the important barriers that prevent parents from participating in the educational experiences of children with disabilities, the part that socioeconomic level plays in determining involvement, and the success of several approaches for raising participation. combining quantitative and qualitative data helps the discussion to offer a thorough examination of the current problems and suggests appropriate remedies. barriers to parental involvement financial restrictions (71.4%), unfavourable society attitudes (64.3%), lack of information of disability (57.1%), lack of facilities in schools (50.0%), and lack of interaction with schools (42.9%) were among the numerous main barriers found restricting parental engagement. these results coincide with other studies demonstrating how significantly parental involvement is shaped by socioeconomic and cultural elements (epstein, 2013; newman & northcutt, 2019). the qualitative answers strengthened the statistical results. many parents said they are ignorant of disability, which often results in emotions of powerlessness. one parent said: “so many parents do not know the special needs of their children and assume they cannot prosper educationally.” in the same vein, unfavourable society perceptions remain a problem. one of the teachers remarked: “the stigma relating to disabilities makes some parents not willing to responsibly involve with schools.” these results show that inadequate parental participation is mostly related with cultural views and false information. improving involvement depends on addressing these misunderstandings by means of educational initiatives and training courses(yuen-han mo & tak-mau chan, 2022). pa ge 95 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 86-98, 2025 influence of socio-economic status on parental involvement the study also showed that their degree of involvement is much influenced by their socioeconomic level (ses). strong link between ses and parental participation was established by the chi-square test (φ² = 12.56, p < 0.05). low-income parents specifically showed lower degrees of participation (75.0%), whereas middleand high-income parents were included more actively (80%-83.3%). the qualitative data confirms this tendency. low-income parents said that financial hardships keep them from fully participating in their children’s education: “i want to be more involved, but i have to work long hours to provide for my family.” additionally, the educational background of parents played a role in shaping engagement. some parents expressed that they felt inadequate to contribute to their child’s learning due to their limited formal education: “those with less education believe they cannot successfully help their children study”. this result is consistent with other research showing that parents with greater education are more willing to help their children with homework and participate in intellectual conversations (epstein & herrick, 2006). it also implies that educational initiatives meant to educate parents with skills and confidence to assist their children’s learning at home should be part of attempts to improve parental involvement. strategies for enhancing parental involvement the study looked at several ways to increase family participation; frequent parent-teacher contact (mean = 4.5) and awareness campaigns on disability (mean = 4.7) ranked highest. these results imply the first steps towards increased involvement include teaching parents about impairments and encouraging consistent connection with schools. one parent’s qualitative comments provide more light on the reasons these tactics are required. she said: “i’m not sure how to help my child with homework occasionally, but i wish to. i find myself lost.” this response implies that parent training courses (mean = 4.2) would be helpful in arming parents with useful abilities to assist their children’s education. likewise, community support groups (mean = 4.0) proved to be a successful means of motivating parental involvement. “chatting with other parents going through similar circumstances assists me feel less alone and more confident in managing my child’s education.” combining qualitative and quantitative data shows that parental participation may be much raised by means of financial assistance, awareness campaigns, better school communication, and organised parent training programmes. implication for policy and practice policymakers, teachers, and community leaders striving to raise parental participation in special education should pay great attention to the results of this study. given that financial restrictions become the most important barrier, government and non-governmental organisations ought to give low-income parents financial support programs more thought. offering free learning materials, compensation for school-related expenditures, and transportation assistance helps to reduce financial load and boost more involvement. also schools also have to actively include parents via controlled channels such monthly newsletters, parentteacher conferences, and mobile apps offering real-time information on student development. training in cultural sensitivity for instructors should also be given top priority in special education programs to guarantee that parents feel welcomed and motivated to help their children with their education. moreover, public awareness initiatives should get greater vigour in order to fight the stigma related with disability. using media channels, community events, and faith-based organisations, these campaigns should inform the public about the possibilities of children with disabilities and the need of parental participation. conclusion parental involvement plays a vital role in shaping the educational experiences and outcomes of children, particularly those with disabilities. despite its widely acknowledged benefits, many barriers hinder parents from actively participating in their children’s education. these challenges, ranging from socio-economic constraints and lack of awareness to institutional limitations and societal attitudes, create significant gaps in engagement. without addressing these obstacles, children with disabilities may not receive the full support they need to thrive academically and socially. this study has highlighted the key barriers limiting parental involvement and examined the influence of socio-economic factors on engagement levels. additionally, it has explored strategies that can enhance parental participation, ensuring that all children, regardless of their abilities, benefit from a supportive learning environment. schools, policymakers, and communities must work together to create inclusive and welcoming educational settings that encourage and facilitate parental engagement. moving forward, it is essential to implement targeted interventions that address the unique challenges faced by parents of children with disabilities. schools should develop clear policies, foster open communication, and provide resources that empower parents to take an active role in their children’s education. by bridging the gap between schools and families, we can create an education system that not only recognizes the importance of parental involvement but actively supports it, ultimately improving the educational outcomes and well-being of children with disabilities. recommendations the results of this study provide numerous suggestions pa ge 96 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 3(1) 86-98, 2025 to increase parental participation in the learning process of children with disabilities. raising knowledge and understanding of disabilities many parents lack sufficient understanding of disability, which prevents their participation in the education of their children. working together, schools, community organisations, and educational agencies should run campaigns of awareness and training courses to inform parents on disabilities, inclusive education, and efficient strategies for helping their children learn. addressing financial barriers financial assistance programs, scholarships, and transportation help should be established for families with low socioeconomic level since financial restrictions were found as a major obstacle. to lessen the financial load on parents, government organisations, ngos, and school officials ought to give stipends or subsidised learning materials. combatting negative societal attitudes according to the study, prejudice and stigma limit parent involvement. public sensitising initiatives should be carried out to question society preconceptions and advance a more inclusive attitude towards kids with disabilities. school outreach initiatives, media, and community events may all help these efforts be carried out. strengthening parent-teacher communication one noted limiting factor in parental participation was inadequate communication between parents and schools. to guarantee parents are routinely updated about the development of their children, schools should set up several channels of contact including phone calls, text messages, and parent conferences. establishing parentteacher organisations (ptas) targeted on children with disabilities helps to improve communication even further. 5. enhancing school resources for inclusive education another main barriers to parental engagement in schools was insufficient funding. to help inclusive schools, the government and educational stakeholders should raise funding in special education resources like assistive technology, learning aids, and qualified special education teachers. following these suggestions will help stakeholders parents, teachers, legislators, community leaders to cooperate to remove obstacles and improve the active participation of parents in the education of children with disabilities. reference adhabi, e. a. r., & anozie, c. b. l. 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(2022). involvement of parents of children with adhd in schools: implications for social work practice. journal of social work, 22(4), 915–930. https://doi. org/10.1177/14680173211030029 pa ge 1 pa ge 16 1 american journal of human psychology (ajhp) alcohol-induced microbial dysbiosis and psychosocial stressors undermining prep adherence: a mixed methods analysis in hiv-negative african american adults md rakibul hasan1*, frank w. parker2, andrew harrison3, saifur rahman4 volume 3 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2994-8878 (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v3i1.5715 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp article information abstract received: july 16, 2025 accepted: august 18, 2025 published: september 24, 2025 hiv remains a major public health challenge in the southern united states, with african american communities facing elevated risk. this study investigates how hazardous alcohol use, psychological distress, and gut microbial dysbiosis affect prep adherence and evaluates a trauma-informed sbirt intervention to improve outcomes. this 12-month convergent mixed-methods study was conducted through kentucky state university with two collaborating clinics. seventy-eight hiv-negative african american adults on prep were recruited via referrals and community outreach and randomized to sbirt (n = 30), treatment-as-usual (n = 30), or a non-hazardous drinking reference group (n = 18). quantitative data included surveys (audit, phq-9, pcl-5), pharmacy refill logs, and stool-based 16s rrna sequencing. the qualitative arm applied a phenomenological approach with 40 purposively selected participants completing semi-structured interviews at baseline, 3, 6, and 12 months. interviews were thematically coded in dedoose and integrated with quantitative analyses (chi-square, anova, pearson correlations, logistic regression) to examine clinical outcomes and lived experiences influencing prep adherence. among 78 participants, multivariate logistic regression identified hazardous alcohol use (or=2.9, p=0.008), ptsd (or=3.6, p=0.003), depression (or=2.7, p=0.029), and microbial dysbiosis (or=3.3, p=0.006) as predictors of prep non-adherence (<85%). compared with tau, sbirt participants showed higher adherence (80% vs. 53%, p=0.014), greater microbial diversity (shannon index 2.6 vs. 1.9, p=0.004), and lower inflammatory biomarkers (il-6, tnf-α, both p<0.05). they also reported fewer depressive (phq-9: 7.8 vs. 11.5, p=0.004) and ptsd symptoms (pcl-5: 29.1 vs. 35.4, p=0.007), alongside safer sexual behaviors. qualitative analysis confirmed that stigma, trauma, and gut discomfort disrupted adherence, while sbirt counseling enhanced self-awareness, reduced emotional fatigue, and supported behavioral change. these findings highlight that prep adherence can be enhanced through trauma-informed, culturally grounded support in combination with longacting formulations and probiotic strategies. keywords african-american adults, hazardous alcohol use, hiv prevention, microbial dysbiosis, mixed methods, prep adherence, ptsd, sbirt intervention 1 department of health promotion and behavioural sciences, university of louisville, ky, united states 2 school of medicine, kentucky state university, ky, united states 3 dept of neuro-ophthalmology, washington university (st louis), united states 4 school of medicine, university of cambridge, england, united kingdom * corresponding author’s e-mail: drmdrakibul@gmail.com introduction in the united states, hiv is a chronic public health concern, and african-american communities in the south are disproportionately affected by new infections. pre-exposure prophylaxis (prep) is one example of a scientific innovation that has been very effective in reducing hiv transmission; nevertheless, its effects have not been uniform across all communities. across the united states, black/african american individuals have long shouldered a disproportionate hiv burden despite comprising just ~12–13% of the population yet accounting for nearly 39% of new hiv diagnoses in recent years (bosh et al., 2021). in kentucky, this disparity is particularly stark: black residents make up only about 8–9% of the state’s population but account for 30–32% of all hiv diagnoses (thorpe et al., 2022). limited access to culturally responsive care, high levels of untreated mental illness, hazardous alcohol use, and persistent stigma collectively undermine consistent prep adherence. these intersecting challenges underscore the need for trauma-informed, integrated prevention strategies that reflect the lived experiences of individuals who remain marginalized within the healthcare system (swendeman et al., 2024). recent studies show that people’s behavioral and psychosocial settings have a significant influence on prep participation. according to recent research, especially among young individuals, syringe-sharing practices and opioid use disorder continue to be significant factors in hiv transmission in the us (wang & maher, 2019). non-sterile injection equipment is used to allow direct blood-to-blood contact and is responsible for about 10% of new hiv infections in the country. meanwhile, long-term opiate abuse is often associated with serious mental disorders (hasan, 2024b) and heightened susceptibility to alcohol overuse. these coexisting illnesses increase the risk of hiv acquisition by impairing judgment and increasing participation in high-risk sexual and injectable behaviors. trauma experiences often co-occur and interact with symptoms of depression, ptsd, and high-risk alcohol use in ways that have a substantial impact on adherence patterns (read et al., 2014), decreasing adherence and contributing pa ge 16 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 161-182, 2025 to drop-off throughout the prep treatment continuum. the biological bases of adherence behavior, particularly the function of the gut microbiota, have been the focus of recent scientific investigations. disturbance in the gut microbial ecosystem, or dysbiosis, has been identified as a potentially significant but little-researched factor in drug tolerance and immunological resilience, especially among african american users, and gastrointestinal side effects continue to be a major cause of prep cessation. given these facts, hiv prevention must take a more comprehensive, person-centered approach that takes behavioral risk, lived experience, and biological feedback mechanisms into consideration (perler et al., 2021a). this study integrates trauma-informed behavioral interventions within a biopsychosocial framework to address critical gaps in hiv prevention by investigating prep adherence in southern communities through a mixed-methods design. prep, currently available in oral (daily pill) and injectable formulations, mainly comprises tenofovir disoproxil fumarate and emtricitabine (tdf/ftc) or tenofovir alafenamide with emtricitabine (taf/ftc). branded formulations like truvada® and descovy® have shown up to 92% effectiveness in decreasing the risk of hiv acquisition when used with strong adherence (grant et al., 2010; perler et al., 2021). despite its demonstrated efficacy, significant disparities in prep uptake, adherence, and persistence persist across populations. these inequities are shaped not solely by individual behavior but by the multifaceted interaction of social, structural, psychological, and biological determinants (fields & tung, 2021). recent evidence indicates that the adverse effects of prep, particularly gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea, bloating, diarrhea, and abdominal discomfort, are among the most often reported reasons for cessation(antonini et al., 2023a). the symptoms, often ascribed to prep start-up syndrome, have been associated with alterations in the gut microbiota. fulcher et al. (2022) and perler et al. (2021) specifically observed that persons on prep have significant microbial alterations, including an increased prevalence of catenibacterium and prevotella, and a decrease in taxa such as finegoldia and bacteroides (perler et al., 2021b; fulcher et al., 2019). prevotella, prevalent among men who have sex with men (msm), is connected with inflammatory reactions and insulin resistance, while catenibacterium is linked to metabolic syndrome. the microbial alterations indicate that prep may induce systemic inflammation and gastrointestinal discomfort via microbial dysbiosis (bragazzi et al., 2022). microbial dysbiosis denotes an imbalance in the gut microbiota, marked by diminished microbial diversity and an excess of pro-inflammatory or pathogenic species (hasan & yusuf, 2023). in healthy humans, the gut microbiome mostly consists of the phyla firmicutes and bacteroidetes, along with lesser amounts of proteobacteria and actinobacteria(yan et al., 2021a). shifts towards prevotella dominance and reduced bacterial richness have been seen in males who have sex with men (msm), even without hiv infection—probably driven by sexual habits, nutrition, and other behavioral variables. these foundational modifications may increase the microbiome’s susceptibility to disturbance. recent studies indicate that approximately 60% of hiv-positive patients admitted to intensive care units (icus) acquire infections from multidrug-resistant uropathogens, leading to increased morbidity, prolonged hospitalization, and an elevated risk of nosocomial hiv transmission through invasive clinical procedures (hasan et al., 2025). preexposure prophylaxis (prep), although successful in hiv prevention, has shown an effect on mucosal immunity and microbial ecology, especially when combined with alcohol use. alcohol autonomously enhances intestinal permeability, elevates bacterial translocation, and produces oxidative stress, hence aggravating microbial dysbiosis (fulcher et al., 2022). the connection between prep and alcohol-related dysbiosis among african american adults, particularly cisgender heterosexual men and women who are heavy drinkers, is little studied. this is a notable deficiency in the literature, since dysbiosis in this demographic may lead to gastrointestinal adverse effects, chronic inflammation, diminished medication tolerance, and noncompliance with prep protocols. co-infections like dengue or covid-19 may exacerbate the clinical burden of hiv by hastening immunological deterioration, amplifying systemic inflammation, and increasing the chance of unfavorable treatment outcomes (hasan et al., 2025). consequently, examining microbiological fingerprints in conjunction with psychological and behavioral factors is essential for enhancing precision preventative interventions in areas disproportionately impacted. alcohol intake presents a complex obstacle to hiv prevention among african american people on prep. hazardous drinking compromises judgment and medication compliance while causing substantial physiologic disturbances. statistical evidence indicates that individuals with alcohol use disorders are significantly more likely to engage in criminal offenses, including violent assaults, domestic abuse, and public disturbances, with alcohol implicated in approximately 40% of violent crimes in the united states (vinnakota et al., 2022). chronic alcohol use undermines intestinal barrier integrity, facilitates bacterial translocation, and increases systemic inflammation—mechanisms recognized for disrupting the gut microbiota (fulcher et al., 2019). these disturbances are clinically significant, as alterations in microbial diversity and an elevated firmicutes: the ratio of bacteroidetes has been associated with the deterioration of mucosal immunity and the impairment of the host’s antiviral defenses. simultaneously, prep might induce microbial disturbances, especially with extended oral or injectable treatments, thereby exacerbating alcohol-related dysbiosis (yang et al., 2024). our analysis revealed that people with larger audit scores had markedly reduced microbial diversity (shannon index 1.9 pa ge 16 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 161-182, 2025 vs. 2.6; p = 0.004) and increased levels of inflammatory markers, including il-6 and tnf-α. these biological changes were associated with gastrointestinal side effects, including as nausea, bloating, and diarrhea, and were identified as significant predictors of prep nonadherence (rodríguez-rabassa et al., 2020) (or = 3.3, 95% ci: 1.5–7.2). moreover, immunological disruption caused by gut dysbiosis may unexpectedly increase the risk of hiv acquisition, despite pharmacological protection, by augmenting mucosal permeability and the generation of inflammatory cytokines. the intricate relationship between alcohol use and prep pharmacodynamics diminishes gut-immune integrity, highlighting the need of including microbial surveillance and behavioral health support into prep delivery strategies (brenchley & serrano-villar, 2024). considering that african american adults have systemic obstacles to addiction treatment and microbiome-focused care, customized treatments that target both behavioral and biological susceptibilities are critically required to maintain the effectiveness of hiv prevention (pan et al., 2023). evidence indicates that coinfections with acute viral illnesses, including dengue, influenza, and monkeypox, may significantly worsen hiv-related morbidity (hasan et al., 2024). individuals with hiv have increased vulnerability to poor clinical consequences when co-infected with these viruses, partly owing to impaired immune function and systemic inflammation. these biological issues are exacerbated by significant psychological repercussions. high levels of psychological trauma are often experienced by african americans, who may be exposed to institutional racism, personal relationship abuse, and community violence. these events are connected with post-traumatic stress disorder (ptsd) and major depressive disorder (mdd), both of which correlate with detrimental health behaviors, including decreased compliance with treatment regimens (sibrava et al., 2019). healthcare professionals are increasingly encountering psychological distress (hasan et al., 2025), including ptsd and chronic stress symptoms, often intensified by the emotional toll of managing hiv patients, observing medication-related side effects, and contending with the stigma and moral dilemmas associated with hiv prevention and care. the covid-19 pandemic has heightened mental health issues, leading to a surge in the use of illegal substances and alcohol, which has further aggravated high-risk sexual practices and resulted in an increase in new hiv infections among adults (kabir et al., 2023). in addition to behavioral therapies, education is essential— particularly for sex workers—since it provides them with the information necessary to make educated choices about contraception, manage intricate power dynamics in sexual interactions, and mitigate health risks such as unwanted pregnancies and stis. violence, especially in the context of intimate partner and client-perpetrated violence, is a substantial public health issue for women sex workers who are hiv-positive. evidence indicates that around 57% of this population—many of whom partake in injectable drug use—endure physical or sexual assault during an 18-month timeframe (kabir et al., 2024). repeated exposure to interpersonal trauma is significantly correlated with a higher incidence of posttraumatic stress disorder (ptsd), clinical depression, excessive alcohol consumption, and inadequate adherence to antiretroviral therapy, all of which exacerbate hiv-related health outcomes and increase transmission risk (hasan, 2024a). the use of illicit drugs and excessive alcohol consumption markedly deteriorates hiv outcomes in adults by impairing the immune system, undermining adherence to antiretroviral therapy, promoting high-risk sexual behaviors, and heightening the risk of suicidal ideation (kabir et al., 2023); recent studies indicate that up to 20% of adults with hiv and co-occurring substance use disorders experience suicidal thoughts (kabir et al., 2024) or behaviors (hasan, 2024c). in environments characterized by significant stigma and limited access, thorough contraceptive education improves individual autonomy, facilitates harm reduction, and is essential for promoting reproductive equality and public health outcomes for this often-neglected group (hasan, rabu et al., 2025). a study of women survivors of intimate partner violence revealed that individuals with elevated ptsd and depressive symptoms had markedly increased desire to participate in prep (or = 0.22, 95% ci: 0.06–0.76), while concurrently encountering substantial obstacles to maintaining treatment. this contradiction illustrates a significant tension: those most susceptible to hiv often bear the greatest psychological strain, which hinders their capacity to regularly use preventative programs. stigma continues to be a widespread and detrimental obstacle (nixon et al., 2004). dubov et al. (2018) emphasize the several facets of prep-related stigma among african american msm, including internalized shame, medical distrust, and apprehension around the perception of being hiv-positive. in qualitative interviews, individuals said that using prep elicited criticism from peers and partners, who saw the drug as an acknowledgment of high-risk behavior. the moralization of hiv prophylaxis not only hinders adoption but also leads to cessation, particularly when associated with noticeable side effects such as weight loss or gastrointestinal disturbances that may be erroneously linked to hiv infection (dubov et al., 2018). although previous research has investigated individual aspects of the prep adherence challenge—such as microbial, behavioral, or psychosocial factors—there is a scarcity of studies that adopt a comprehensive approach, concurrently analyzing biological disruption (e.g., gut dysbiosis), psychological distress (e.g., ptsd, depression), hazardous substance use (e.g., alcohol), and social determinants (e.g., stigma, medical mistrust) (whiteley et al., 2021). a substantial gap persists in comprehending the intersection of these domains among real-world populations at elevated risk of hiv, especially among african american adults in southern metropolitan areas pa ge 16 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 161-182, 2025 like rural kentucky (hasan & davidson, 2025). despite substantial microbiome research among msm—often limited to small, clinic-based cohorts—there remains a notable gap in understanding gut microbial profiles in african american heterosexual or bisexual men, cisgender women, and transgender individuals using prep (guy et al., 2024). similarly, few studies have explored microbial changes in relation to broader behavioral factors, such as alcohol consumption or diverse sexual practices beyond unprotected anal intercourse. consequently, the translational relevance of existing findings to more heterogeneous, real-world populations remain limited (ivy iii et al., 2014). this study used a mixed-methods approach to examine prep adherence among african american adults in the southern united states, addressing the insufficient integration of biological, psychological, and behavioral elements in current hiv prevention research. individuals residing in pollution-prone regions and afflicted with hiv often exhibit increased vulnerability to respiratory infections owing to impaired immune response (hasan, 2022). although prior research has investigated psychological impediments including stigma and trauma, few studies have analyzed their intersection with gut microbial dysbiosis and hazardous alcohol consumption—two aspects that are increasingly acknowledged as significant but underexplored in prep therapy. in the united states, persistent disparities in hiv care—exacerbated by social stigma, insurance gaps, and provider shortages—parallel access barriers seen in diabetes management, where individuals with lower socioeconomic status are statistically less likely to achieve treatment targets or maintain regular clinical follow-up (hasan, 2025). existing research rarely contextualizes adherence within a multidimensional framework that includes biological feedback systems, such as inflammation and microbiota composition, particularly in racially marginalized populations (yoo et al., 2025). despite major advances in biomedical hiv prevention, important gaps remain in understanding how hazardous alcohol use and psychosocial stressors disrupt adherence to pre-exposure prophylaxis (prep) among african american adults. prior research has not fully accounted for the biological mechanisms—such as gut microbiome disruption—through which alcohol consumption may interact with trauma, stigma, and mental health to shape adherence. the focus of this study is the intersection of behavioral risk, psychological distress, and microbial dysbiosis as key determinants of prep adherence. based on this, the study was designed to address the following overarching research question: how do hazardous alcohol use, psychosocial stressors, and stigma intersect with biological changes to influence prep adherence among african american adults in kentucky? to address this question, the study evaluated the interplay of alcohol use, psychological distress, and microbial disruption in prep adherence and was structured around three specific aims. first, to examine how hazardous alcohol consumption alters gut microbiota composition and inflammatory biomarkers in prep users, with targeted analysis of key bacterial genera (catenibacterium, prevotella, and finegoldia) using 16s rrna sequencing. second, to quantify associations between depressive and post-traumatic stress symptoms (measured with phq9 and pcl-5), hazardous alcohol use (audit-c), and both self-reported and pharmacy-confirmed adherence, analyzed through multivariate logistic regression, chisquare tests, and pearson correlations. third, to evaluate how stigma, prep-related side effects, and participation in sbirt-based behavioral counseling shape behavioral outcomes, social disclosure, and long-term engagement with prep, drawing on semi-structured interviews thematically coded in dedoose. through this integrated approach, the study aims to generate a biopsychosocial model of adherence that links microbial, psychological, and behavioral data to inform culturally responsive and trauma-informed hiv prevention strategies. materials and methods study design this longitudinal cohort study employed a convergent parallel mixed-methods design to examine the interrelationships among behavioral, microbiological, and psychological factors influencing pre-exposure prophylaxis (prep) adherence in hiv-negative african american adults residing in rural kentucky. the qualitative component was grounded in a phenomenological approach, which sought to capture the lived experiences of participants as they navigated prep adherence in the context of alcohol use, stigma, and structural challenges. this approach was chosen to provide depth of understanding regarding personal meanings and perceptions that cannot be captured through surveys or clinical data alone. quantitative data collection included validated selfreported surveys (phq-9, pcl-5, audit), laboratory testing, and biological indicators derived from blood, stool, and urine samples. in parallel, qualitative data were gathered through comprehensive semi-structured interviews at baseline, 3 months, 6 months, and 12 months, enabling longitudinal insights into participants’ evolving experiences. the convergent parallel design allowed quantitative measures of adherence, alcohol use, and microbiome disruption to be analyzed alongside rich qualitative accounts of motivation, barriers, and coping strategies. integration at the interpretation stage provided a more complete understanding of the multidimensional factors shaping prep adherence than either method could achieve alone, aligning with the study’s aim to inform both clinical practice and community-level hiv prevention strategies. study setting, recruitment, and sampling strategy data collection was conducted between january 2024 and march 2025 at frankfort regional medical center and chi saint joseph health, which serve diverse patient populations including individuals from surrounding rural pa ge 16 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 161-182, 2025 communities across kentucky. these settings were selected in collaboration with kentucky state university because they serve substantial numbers of individuals prescribed prep and provide access to racially, socioeconomically, and medically diverse populations, including groups that are often underserved in hiv prevention research. recruitment followed a multimodal strategy that combined clinic-based, community, and online outreach. within the clinics, participants were identified through prep care navigators, electronic health record alerts, and direct referrals from clinical staff. flyers and pamphlets were placed in waiting areas and examination rooms, while word-of-mouth referrals further supported engagement. all interested individuals were invited to complete a brief pre-screening intake form, either in person or by telephone, administered by trained research staff. beyond the clinics, the study team participated in community forums, hiv awareness events, and professional meetings, where announcements were made and information tables were hosted. digital outreach complemented these efforts through flyers distributed via institutional listservs, partner newsletters, and targeted social media posts, allowing participants to selfrefer through secure contact channels. this integrated approach reduced barriers to enrolment and encouraged participation from individuals who might not otherwise have been reached through clinic settings alone. a purposive maximum variation sampling strategy guided participant selection to capture a wide range of experiences with prep adherence. recruitment was monitored continuously across characteristics such as age, gender identity, alcohol use severity, mental health status, and prep modality. when gaps in representation were identified, targeted outreach was directed to community partners, clinical networks, or online platforms most likely to reach underrepresented groups. in alignment with this sampling framework, data collection was multimodal and longitudinal. semistructured qualitative interviews were conducted to elicit in-depth narratives, while structured behavioral surveys provided standardized quantitative measures. biological samples, including blood, urine, stool, and swabs, were collected at three time points—baseline, six months, and twelve months—allowing integration of behavioral, psychological, and biological indicators. this combination of purposive maximum variation sampling with mixedmethods data collection ensured both depth and breadth of understanding regarding prep adherence. study participants, sample size, and data collection a total of 78 hiv-negative participants who selfidentified as african american or black and were actively prescribed pre-exposure prophylaxis (prep) were enrolled in this longitudinal mixed-methods cohort study. this population was selected because african american communities in the southern united states continue to face a disproportionate burden of hiv and remain underrepresented in adherence research (bosh et al., 2021). participants were randomized to either standard clinical care or an intervention arm. the intervention group received counselling guided by the behavioral framework, an adaptation of the sbirt (screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment) model (hargraves et al., 2017), delivered by trained clinicians using motivational interviewing techniques to address alcohol use and reinforce adherence behaviors. eligibility criteria required participants to be at least 18 years of age, currently taking prep under medical supervision, and willing to provide biological samples, complete standardized behavioral surveys, and participate in semi-structured interviews at baseline, six months, and twelve months. individuals unable to provide informed consent or with significant cognitive impairment were excluded; full inclusion and exclusion criteria are detailed in table 1. our target sample was 70 participants, based on power calculations indicating that this number would provide 80.0% power to detect medium effect sizes (cohen’s d = 0.5) in prep adherence and microbial diversity across three groups at α = 0.05. to account for an anticipated 10.0% attrition rate, the recruitment goal was increased to 78, which was successfully achieved. all 78 participants completed quantitative assessments, including standardized surveys (audit, phq-9, pcl5), pharmacy refill logs, and biological sampling. for the qualitative arm, a purposive subsample of 40 participants was selected across study groups to capture diversity in age, gender identity, alcohol use severity, and prep modality. data collection continued until thematic saturation was reached, with no new themes emerging by the final set of interviews, confirming that both the quantitative and qualitative sample sizes were sufficient to meet the study’s aims. in alignment with this design, data collection was multimodal and longitudinal. semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted to elicit in-depth narratives, while structured behavioral surveys captured standardized quantitative measures. biological samples including blood, urine, stool, and swabs were collected at baseline, six months, and twelve months, enabling integration of behavioral, psychological, and biological indicators. this combination of mixed-methods data collection ensured both breadth and depth in documenting the factors influencing prep adherence. ethical approval and informed consent all study procedures were reviewed and approved by the kentucky state university institutional review board (irb protocol no. 24.1047). written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to enrollment, following a clear explanation of the study’s objectives, procedures, potential risks, and anticipated benefits. participants received reimbursement of $55 for each completed study visit, with reimbursement available for up to four scheduled visits. to further reduce barriers to participation and support retention, prepaid public transit pa ge 16 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 161-182, 2025 cards were also provided to assist with transportation needs. as summarized in table-1, participants were eligible if they were 18–65 years of age, self-identified as african table 1: inclusion and exclusion criteria for study participation (from the study selection criteria) criteria type specific criteria inclusion criteria aged 18–65 years identified as black or african american documented hiv-negative status confirmed by a 4th generation antigen/antibody rapid test within 14 days prior to enrollment currently enrolled in a prep program (oral or injectable) able to understand and speak english fluently consumed alcohol within the past 90 days (self-reported or biomarker-confirmed) willing to provide stool and blood samples willing and able to provide informed consent and comply with all study procedures (including sample collection and follow-up visits) exclusion criteria confirmed hiv-positive status pregnancy or planning to become pregnant within 3 months concurrent enrollment in another interventional clinical trial current diagnosis of severe gastrointestinal disease (e.g., crohn’s disease) antibiotic use within the past 30 days cognitive impairment that limits ability to participate in interviews or complete surveys unwillingness or inability to comply with study protocol, including sample collection note: inclusion and exclusion criteria were adapted from established study selection guidelines (oldfield & edelman, 2021) to ensure appropriate participant representation and study integrity. american or black, had been engaged in prep care for at least three months, and met criteria for hazardous alcohol use, defined as an alcohol use disorders identification test (audit) score of ≥8 (mcginnis et al., 2013). additional inclusion criteria included willingness to provide blood, stool, and urine samples, complete structured surveys, and participate in semi-structured interviews across multiple time points. exclusion criteria included a confirmed diagnosis of hiv, current pregnancy, severe cognitive impairment limiting consent capacity, or concurrent enrollment in another behavioral intervention or microbiome-focused clinical trial. participants who met eligibility were scheduled for an initial baseline visit, where they completed comprehensive screening procedures, including a clinical interview, mental health history, sexual behavior inventory, and self-report adherence tracking. those who remained eligible after full screening and provided written informed consent were enrolled into the study and randomized in a 1:1 ratio using computer-generated permuted blocks to either the sbirt intervention group or the treatment-as-usual (tau) control group. in addition, a comparison group of 18 non-hazardous drinkers (audit <8) who met all other eligibility criteria was recruited in parallel to serve as a low-risk reference group for secondary analyses. participants were allocated into three analytic groups based on alcohol use severity and intervention assignment: (1) hazardous drinkers randomized to the sbirt intervention arm (n = 30), (2) hazardous drinkers randomized to the treatment-as-usual (tau) arm with no structured behavioral support (n = 30), and (3) a non-randomized comparison group of non-hazardous drinkers (audit < 8; n = 18). from this overall cohort of 78, a purposive subsample of 40 participants was selected to participate in longitudinal semi-structured interviews, ensuring representation across all three groups. randomization for hazardous drinkers was conducted using a computergenerated, block randomization scheme administered by a study statistician who had no direct contact with participants, thereby maintaining allocation concealment. this design enabled both controlled intervention testing and comparison with a naturally low-risk group. the behavioral intervention—sbirt (screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment)—was delivered by trained behavioral health counselors using motivational interviewing principles, tailored to the psychosocial and clinical needs of each participant. the theoretical framework guiding both the development of the sbirt sessions and the interpretation of mixed-methods data was the health belief model (hbm). according to the hbm (table-2), health behaviors such as medication adherence are influenced by an individual’s perceptions of susceptibility to illness (e.g., hiv infection), perceived severity of the consequences, perceived benefits of taking action (e.g., prep use), perceived barriers (e.g., side effects, stigma), cues to action (e.g., counseling, symptoms), and self-efficacy (confidence in one’s ability to maintain health behavior). these constructs were systematically embedded in the design of the semi-structured interview guide and served as core elements in the sbirt behavioral sessions to promote internal motivation, enhance health literacy, and address individualized barriers to prep adherence. pa ge 16 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 161-182, 2025 table 2: application of the health belief model (hbm) to prep adherence in the study (yue et al., 2015) hbm construct operationalization in study findings & illustrative examples perceived susceptibility participants’ belief about their personal risk of acquiring hiv(carter & woodward, 2020) many participants acknowledged high hiv risk due to multiple partners, unprotected sex, or substance use. one msm participant noted: “i know i’m at risk, but sometimes i just don’t care.” perceived severity understanding of the consequences of hiv infection and related health burdens (zimmermann et al., 2021) high levels of concern were expressed. a female participant stated: “getting hiv would ruin everything—my job, my relationship, my future.” perceived benefits belief that prep reduces hiv risk and enables health protection. sbirt arm participants especially described prep as empowering. one said: “it gives me control. i don’t have to rely on anyone else to protect me.” perceived barriers factors interfering with prep use, including stigma, alcohol use, side effects, or religious beliefs (antonini et al., 2023b) stigma was prominent. one participant said: “my family would disown me if they knew i was on that [prep]. they’d think i was sleeping around or had hiv.” cues to action triggers that encouraged prep initiation or adherence. sbirt counseling, peer encouragement, and health events were major motivators. for example, “the nurse at the clinic told me about it when i came in for sti testing. that’s when i started.” self-efficacy confidence in one’s ability to initiate and maintain prep use (gifford et al., 2025) higher among sbirt participants. a participant explained: “the counselor helped me plan around my schedule. i didn’t think i could do it, but now it’s just part of my day.” source: from our study assessment instruments the assessment strategy in this study combined both qualitative and quantitative approaches in order to capture a comprehensive picture of prep adherence and related factors. on the qualitative side, semi-structured interviews were conducted with participants to explore their lived experiences of prep adherence, alcohol use, stigma, mental health challenges, gut-related symptoms, and dietary patterns. these interviews were designed to elicit in-depth narratives and reflections, thereby providing contextual understanding that complemented the quantitative data. in parallel, validated quantitative instruments were administered at baseline, three months, six months, and twelve months to assess behavioral, psychological, and biological correlations of prep adherence. the alcohol use disorders identification test (audit) was used to evaluate patterns of alcohol consumption and related risks. mental health outcomes were assessed through the patient health questionnaire (phq-9) for depressive symptoms and the ptsd checklist for dsm-5 (pcl5) for post-traumatic stress. experiences of stigma were measured using the hiv prep stigma scale, while the prep-induced symptom checklist was employed to capture gut-related symptoms and other physical health effects associated with prep use. by combining semi-structured qualitative interviews with validated quantitative instruments, the mixed-methods design captured both the lived experiences of participants and measurable clinical and behavioral outcomes, allowing for a more comprehensive understanding of the psychosocial and behavioral factors influencing prep adherence. qualitative instrument (semi-structured interview guide) study title: “alcohol-induced microbial dysbiosis and psychosocial stressors undermining prep adherence: a mixed methods analysis in hiv-negative african american adults”. study purpose: this study aims to explore participants’ experiences with prep adherence, focusing on alcohol use, stigma, mental health, gutrelated symptoms, food patterns, medication side effects, and interactions with sbirt over time. instructions for interviewers • conduct interviews at baseline, 3-month, 6-month, and 12-month visits. • interviews should last approximately 45–60 minutes. • use motivational interviewing techniques and neutral probing to encourage elaboration. • ensure privacy and participant comfort throughout the session. • obtain consent for audio-recording. • begin with rapport-building and remind participants that they may decline any question or stop at any time. interviewer script opening script (read aloud): hello, and thank you for pa ge 16 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 161-182, 2025 agreeing to participate in this interview. my name is [x], and i am part of the research team of the kentucky state university. we are conducting this study to better understand how alcohol use, psychosocial stress, and gut health may affect adherence to prep and influence hiv prevention. before we begin, i want to remind you that participation is completely voluntary. you can skip any question you do not want to answer, and you may stop the interview at any time. everything you share will be kept confidential. your name will not appear in any reports or publications, and only the study team will know your identity. with your permission, i would like to audio-record our conversation so that we can capture your words accurately. do you have any questions before we begin? interview questions section 1: prep adherence & decision-making • how did you first learn about prep? • what were your initial feelings about starting prep? • have there been times when you chose not to take your prep? why? • do you use a calendar, phone, or another tool to track prep doses? • have side effects ever influenced your adherence? probes: can you recall a specific incident? what strategies have helped you stay consistent? transition: thank you. next, i would like to ask about your alcohol use. section 2: alcohol use and behavior • describe your typical alcohol consumption in a week. • do you recall any specific incidents where drinking influenced your ability to take prep or impacted sexual behavior? • how do your alcohol habits vary across weekdays and weekends? • have you ever discussed your alcohol use with your provider? probes: how do you think your alcohol use connects to your health and prep use? transition: for participants in the sbirt program, i would like to ask about your counselling experiences. section 3: sbirt experiences (sbirt arm only) • can you recall any counseling sessions that stood out to you? • what were the specific goals you discussed? • has your understanding of alcohol and its impact changed since starting sbirt? transition: now, i would like to talk about your mental health and emotional well-being. section 4: mental health and trauma • can you describe any emotional challenges you’ve faced during the study period? • have there been moments when trauma, stress, or depression disrupted your medication routine? • what helps you cope when you feel overwhelmed or hopeless? transition: thank you. let’s talk about your gut health, food, and physical symptoms. section 5: gut health, food, and physical symptoms • have you noticed any changes in bowel movements or digestion since starting prep? • can you describe your typical diet? (refer to the food frequency questionnaire if needed.) • have certain foods or drinks made your side effects worse? • have you used probiotics or dietary changes to help with symptoms? transition: now, i would like to ask about stigma and community. section 6: stigma, identity, and community • how do people in your social or faith community talk about hiv or prep? • have you ever felt judged, excluded, or misunderstood because of using prep? • how does your identity (race, gender, sexuality) affect your access to respectful care? transition: finally, i would like your thoughts on how we can improve care for prep users. section 7: recommendations • what supports would help you stay on prep longterm? • if you could redesign the care process for others, what would you change? • what messages do you think your community needs to hear about prep? closing script: that brings us to the end of the interview. thank you very much for sharing your experiences with me today. your input is extremely valuable and will help us improve prep care and hiv prevention strategies in the future. before we finish, is there anything else you would like to add that we haven’t covered? thank you again for your time and openness. quantitative instrument (behavioural survey questionnaire) quantitative data were collected at four time points: baseline, 3 months, 6 months, and 12 months postenrollment. participants completed a battery of structured questionnaires via redcap, a secure and hipaa-compliant data capture platform hosted on kentucky state university servers. these instruments captured multidimensional behavioral, psychological, and adherence-related outcomes. alcohol use was assessed using the alcohol use disorders identification test (audit), with a score ≥8 indicating hazardous drinking. prep adherence was evaluated using both continuous and dichotomous indicators, incorporating a validated 30day self-report visual analog scale (vas), pharmacy refill pa ge 16 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 161-182, 2025 records, and the prep adherence calendar. a threshold of ≥85% adherence was used to classify participants as adherent. mental health was measured via the patient health questionnaire-9 (phq-9) for depressive symptoms and the ptsd checklist for dsm-5 (pcl-5), with validated clinical cutoffs (phq-9 ≥10; pcl-5 ≥33) indicating moderate to severe symptomatology. perceived stigma was assessed using adapted subscales from the hiv and prep stigma scales, including internalized, anticipated, and enacted stigma domains. sexual behavior modules collected data on number of sexual partners, condom use, sti history, relationship context, and whether prep use was discussed with partners (table-11). these measures were designed to capture behavioral risks and potential changes over time. all behavioral surveys and screenings were administered by trained research assistants who were blinded to participants’ group allocation to prevent measurement bias and maintain procedural integrity. the behavioral survey incorporated validated instruments—including the audit, phq-9, pcl-5, hiv prep stigma scale, and the prep-induced symptom checklist—administered at baseline, 3-month, 6-month, and 12-month follow-up assessments. alcohol use: alcohol use disorders identification test (audit score) 1. how often do you have a drink containing alcohol? 2. how many drinks containing alcohol do you have on a typical day when you are drinking? 3. how often do you have six or more drinks on one occasion? 4. how often during the last year have you found that you were not able to stop drinking once you had started? 5. how often during the last year have you failed to do what was normally expected of you because of drinking? 6. how often during the last year have you needed a first drink in the morning to get yourself going after a heavy drinking session? 7. how often during the last year have you had a feeling of guilt or remorse after drinking? 8. how often during the last year have you been unable to remember what happened the night before because of your drinking? 9. have you or someone else been injured as a result of your drinking? 10. has a relative, friend, doctor, or another health worker been concerned about your drinking or suggested you cut down? mental health: patient health questionnaire-9 (phq-9): over the last two weeks, how often have you been bothered by any of the following problems? 1. having little interest or pleasure in doing things. 2. feeling down, depressed, or hopeless. 3. having trouble falling asleep, staying asleep, or sleeping too much. 4. feeling tired or having little energy. 5. having a poor appetite or overeating. 6. feeling bad about yourself — or feeling that you are a failure or have let yourself or your family down. 7. having trouble concentrating on things, such as reading or watching television. -moving or speaking noticeably more slowly than usual or being so restless or fidgety that you are moving around more than usual. -having thoughts that you would be better off dead, or of hurting yourself in some way. response options (for each item): 0 = not at all 1 = several days 2 = more than half the days 3 = nearly every day ptsd checklist for dsm-5 (pcl-5) instructions: below are problems that people sometimes experience after stressful life events. please indicate how much you have been bothered by each problem in the past month. response options for each item: 0 = not at all | 1 = a little bit | 2 = moderately | 3 = quite a bit | 4 = extremely 1. repeated, disturbing, and unwanted memories of a stressful experience. 2. avoiding memories, thoughts, or feelings related to the stressful experience. 3. feeling distant or cut off from other people. 4. feeling irritable or having angry outbursts. hiv prep stigma scale instructions: please indicate how strongly you agree or disagree with each statement about prep use. response options for each item: 1 = strongly disagree | 2 = disagree | 3 = neutral | 4 = agree | 5 = strongly agree 1. people would treat me differently if they knew i used prep. 2. i feel ashamed about taking prep. 3. i hide my prep use from others. 4. healthcare providers might judge me for asking about prep. prep-induced symptom checklist: gut health and side effects instructions: in the past 30 days, how often have you experienced the following symptoms? response options for each item: 0 = not at all | 1 = rarely | 2 = sometimes | 3 = often | 4 = very often 1. stomach pain. 2. nausea or vomiting. 3. bloating or gas. 4. diarrhea or loose stools. 5. symptoms occurring after taking prep and/or alcohol. pa ge 17 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 161-182, 2025 sexual behavior instructions: please answer the following questions about your recent sexual behaviors. 1. in the past 30 days, how many sexual partners did you have? • [open numeric response] 2. how often did you use condoms during sexual activity in the past 30 days? • always / most of the time / sometimes / rarely / never 3. in the past 3 months, have you engaged in anal sex? • yes / no 4. do you usually know the hiv status of your sexual partners? • yes, always / yes, sometimes / no 5. in the past 30 days, have you used alcohol before or during sex? • never / once / a few times / often / almost every time prep adherence: self-reported visual analog scale (vas) instructions: please answer the following questions about your use of prep. 1. on a scale of 0–100%, how many of your prep doses did you take in the past 30 days? • [participant marks percentage on a visual scale] 2. in the past 7 days, did you miss any doses of prep? • yes / no → if yes, how many? [numeric response] 3. what were the main reasons for missing a dose? (select all that apply) • forgot • too busy • side effects • ran out of medication • other: [specify] at each visit, a range of biological specimens was collected, including blood, saliva, urine, oral swabs, stool, and, when appropriate, vaginal swabs. these samples were analyzed for alcohol biomarkers (peth), liver enzymes (alt, ast), inflammatory markers (il-6, tnf-α), and microbial translocation markers (lps, scd14). stool samples were processed using 16s rrna gene sequencing on the illumina miseq platform and analyzed through qiime2. measures of microbial composition included alpha diversity (shannon index), beta diversity (braycurtis dissimilarity), and firmicutes: bacteroidetes ratios (martínez-sanz et al., 2023a). specimens were de-identified using barcoded tubes linked only to participant study ids. qualitative data were collected through in-depth semistructured interviews conducted at baseline, 6 months, and 12 months, depending on participant retention. all interviews were audio-recorded with participant consent and professionally transcribed verbatim. to ensure participant confidentiality, transcripts were rigorously deidentified prior to analysis. thematic analysis followed braun and clarke’s six-phase framework and was facilitated using dedoose qualitative analysis software (version 9.0) (table 3). table 3: thematic codes with illustrative participant quotes theme description illustrative quote alcohol-induced disinhibition alcohol as a direct cause of missed prep doses or unsafe sex. “when i’m drinking, i forget. the pill’s not even on my mind.” sbirt-driven reflection impact of counseling on behavior change. “she helped me see why i drink—and how it’s tied to my trauma.” ptsd and depression psychological barriers to consistent prep use. “some mornings, i don’t even get out of bed, let alone take a pill.” internalized stigma shame and secrecy around prep. “even my mom thinks i’m dirty for needing that medication.” side effects and gut issues diarrhea, nausea, and disruption linked to alcohol-prep interaction. “i threw up twice that week, and it always happens after drinking and taking the pill.” relationship dynamics influence of partners, faith, and trust. “my boyfriend said if i trusted him, i wouldn’t need it [prep].” the interpretive sequence started with open coding to inductively identify initial patterns and participant language, then followed by axial coding to categorize linked codes into overarching conceptual frameworks. the continual comparison approach was utilized, allowing coders to enhance interpretations by evaluating fresh data against established codes. three members of the study team separately analyzed a selection of transcripts and convened regularly for consensus talks to address inconsistencies and enhance reflexivity. a codebook was iteratively created, modified, and finished in accordance with emergent topic areas and insights from analytic notes. final themes included: (1) internalized and community-level stigma surrounding prep; (2) behavioral self-regulation in response to sbirt counseling; (3) emotional and psychological engagement with the intervention; (4) somatic experiences linked to prep use and gut discomfort; and (5) relational trust in clinical care and counseling settings (table-3). inter-coder reliability was assessed using cohen’s kappa (mean κ = 0.81), indicating strong agreement (table-4). to enhance analytic rigor, the team maintained detailed field notes, pa ge 17 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 161-182, 2025 table 4: internal consistency and reliability of instruments (mccrae et al., 2011) instrument cronbach's alpha interpretation phq-9 0.87 excellent internal consistency pcl-5 0.91 excellent internal consistency prep adherence scale 0.84 good reliability hiv stigma scale 0.79 acceptable reliability audit 0.88 excellent reliability note: phq-9 = patient health questionnaire-9; pcl-5 = ptsd checklist for dsm-5; audit = alcohol use disorders identification test. cronbach’s alpha values ≥ 0.70 indicate acceptable internal consistency. source: reliability coefficients derived from study sample analysis; instrument properties referenced from mccrae et al. (2011). reflexive memos, and an audit trail throughout the process. representative participant quotes were selected based on thematic saturation and resonance with core findings, ensuring authentic representation of lived experience. data analysis quantitative data were analyzed using ibm spss statistics version 29.0. descriptive statistics, including means, standard deviations, and frequencies, were generated to summarize demographic and clinical variables. to assess between-group differences, one-way anova or kruskalwallis tests were applied for continuous variables, while chi-square tests were used for categorical comparisons, based on assumptions of normality and variance. multivariable logistic regression models were constructed to identify independent predictors of prep nonadherence, adjusting for covariates such as age, gender, ptsd and depression severity, stigma scores, alcohol use (audit score), and microbial diversity indices. interaction terms were included to test for potential effect modification. pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to explore bivariate relationships between key variables. missing data were addressed using multiple imputation under the assumption that data were missing at random (mar). internal consistency of key psychosocial scales was high, with cronbach’s alpha values of 0.84 for the audit, 0.87 for the phq-9, and 0.91 for the pcl-5, confirming acceptable to excellent reliability. the qualitative component included a purposive subsample of 40 participants drawn from both the sbirt intervention and treatment-as-usual (tau) arms. each completed a baseline in-depth interview, with follow-up interviews at 3, 6, and 12 months to capture longitudinal changes. the semi-structured interview guide was developed collaboratively with input from community stakeholders and centered on six domains: (1) motivations and barriers to prep adherence, (2) alcohol consumption patterns, (3) perceived stigma, (4) physical side effects, (5) challenges in accessing healthcare, and (6) feedback on the intervention. interviews were conducted one-to-one, face-to-face in private consultation rooms at frankfort regional medical center or chi saint joseph health. for participants unable to attend onsite, sessions were conducted remotely using secure, hipaa-compliant zoom health platforms. interviews followed a semistructured format, beginning with open-ended questions (e.g., “can you describe your experience starting prep?”), followed by targeted probes to explore specific issues such as alcohol use, stigma, or side effects. this approach allowed participants to narrate their experiences in their own words while ensuring consistency across interviews. each session lasted approximately 45 to 60 minutes. all interviews were conducted by trained qualitative researchers unaffiliated with participants’ direct clinical care to minimize bias. with participant consent, sessions were audio-recorded, professionally transcribed verbatim, and anonymized to protect confidentiality. transcripts were uploaded into dedoose, where coding was carried out using a thematic analysis framework. the team engaged in iterative coding, memo writing, and peer debriefing to enhance credibility and trustworthiness of findings, consistent with creswell’s qualitative research standards. mixed-methods integration was implemented using a convergent parallel design, wherein quantitative and qualitative data were collected simultaneously but analyzed independently before being merged at the interpretation stage. this approach allowed for equal prioritization of both datasets and facilitated triangulation to enhance the validity of the findings. quantitative data—such as self-reported prep adherence rates, inflammatory biomarker levels (e.g., il-6, tnf-α), and microbiome diversity indices (e.g., shannon diversity, firmicutes: bacteroidetes ratio)—were systematically compared with qualitative data derived from in-depth interviews exploring themes such as physical side effects, stigma, and decision-making regarding medication adherence and alcohol use. to implement the integration, the study team developed joint display matrices that aligned individuallevel quantitative factors with emerging qualitative themes. these matrices facilitated the discovery of convergence patterns (e.g., participants exhibiting elevated inflammation while reporting gastrointestinal discomfort) and divergence patterns (e.g., those with high self-reported adherence demonstrating ambivalence or skepticism in qualitative narratives). special emphasis was placed on anomalous instances, when biological markers and behavioral reports were incongruent. a targeted subsample of subjects exhibiting extreme or unexpected adherence patterns (e.g., physiologically compliant yet psychologically troubled) was selected for subsequent qualitative interviews to enhance comprehension. results were integrated through iterative team discussions and pa ge 17 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 161-182, 2025 analytical memoing, according to the principles of metainference—formulating interpretative conclusions that honor the integrity of both quantitative and qualitative components. this integrated method revealed intricate biopsychosocial dynamics and yielded a sophisticated comprehension of the many factors influencing prep adherence in the research group. the sbirt (screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment) intervention was implemented as a structured behavioral component targeting hazardous alcohol use among prep users. it was initiated at baseline with followup booster sessions at 3 and 6 months. the intervention began with alcohol risk screening using the alcohol use disorders identification test (audit), followed by a 15–20-minute brief intervention grounded in motivational interviewing (mi). these sessions highlighted the biobehavioral hazards linked to simultaneous alcohol use and prep, including reduced adherence and possible interactions with gut and immune systems. participants undertook individualized goal-setting activities to reduce alcohol consumption and enhance medication adherence. individuals who maintained hazardous drinking criterion at follow-up were provided with facilitated referrals to behavioral health physicians within associated clinics. all interventionists received comprehensive training in sbirt implementation via standardized seminars, motivational interviewing role plays, and fidelity modules (table-6). to guarantee consistency and compliance with the procedure, audio recordings of sessions were evaluated by two independent raters utilizing a standardized fidelity checklist that examined delivery quality, motivational interviewing strategies, and goal-setting involvement. high inter-rater agreement (κ > 0.85) confirmed strong implementation fidelity throughout the study. all study data were stored using redcap on secure, encrypted kentucky state university servers. personally, identifying information was stored separately and delinked from analytic datasets through unique participant codes to ensure confidentiality. participants were reminded of their rights, including voluntary participation and the ability to withdraw at any point, during each clinic visit. any clinically relevant findings—such as elevated liver function tests or severe depressive symptom scores—were promptly communicated to both the participant and their designated healthcare provider, and appropriate referrals were facilitated. a multidisciplinary study team supported implementation: clinical personnel oversaw participant recruitment, physical assessments, and sample collection; the microbiome laboratory processed and analyzed biospecimens; and the behavioral health research team conducted qualitative interviews and managed coding and analysis. study activities and protocol fidelity were monitored monthly by an internal steering committee to ensure quality control and ethical compliance across all domains of data collection and intervention delivery. this study adopted a convergent parallel mixed methods design to generate a multidimensional understanding of prep adherence among african american adults exposed to psychosocial and biological risk factors. quantitative data were collected longitudinally and analyzed using validated psychometric instruments (audit, phq9, pcl-5), prep adherence measures (self-report and pharmacy refill records), and biological assays including systemic inflammatory markers (e.g., il-6, tnf-α) and gut microbial diversity indices (e.g., shannon index, firmicutes: bacteroidetes ratio). simultaneously, qualitative data from semi-structured interviews done at baseline, 3 months, 6 months, and 12 months documented contextual variables including stigma, trauma, behavioral control, and therapeutic participation. the quantitative and qualitative components were assessed separately, followed by a methodical integration throughout the interpretation phase. mixed-methods triangulation entailed the creation of cross-case matrices to discern converging and diverging trends among data sources. participant narratives detailing prolonged hypervigilance, emotional weariness, and inadequate health practices corroborated higher ptsd ratings and inflammatory markers. statistical relationships obtained from multivariate logistic regression were analyzed in conjunction with thematic insights to clarify the reasons behind reported effects, like alcohol-induced disinhibition or distrust in therapeutic systems. the sbirt intervention was integrated inside this framework, enabling real-time analysis of behavior modification processes (saitz, 2014), while the health belief model functioned as the conceptual foundation connecting perceptions of risk, self-efficacy, and adherence behavior. this integrated technique combined quantitative accuracy with qualitative depth, allowing a scientifically rigorous and human-centered investigation of the biopsychosocial factors influencing prep adherence in a high-risk, underprivileged community. results and discussions a total of 78 participants were enrolled between january 2024 and march 2025 through kentucky state university in collaboration with frankfort regional medical center and chi saint joseph health. all participants met the inclusion criteria: self-identified as african american or black, aged 18–65 years, hiv-negative, and actively engaged in prep care. the mean age was 36.2 years (sd = 10.5). gender identity varied, with 51.3% identifying as women, 32.1% as men, and 16.6% as transgender or nonbinary individuals. the sexual orientation distribution included 61.5% heterosexual, 28.2% gay or bisexual men, and 10.3% transgender women who have sex with men. employment data indicated that 47.4% were unemployed or worked part-time, with 22% experiencing housing instability in the past 12 months. religious affiliation included protestant (39.7%), muslim (21.8%), and catholic (18.0%), while 12.8% identified with no religious tradition. these demographic details are summarized in table 5. pa ge 17 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 161-182, 2025 table 5: baseline demographic characteristics variable category frequency (n) percentage (%) gender women 34 43.6 gender men 30 38.5 gender transgender/non-binary 14 17.9 age group 18–24 10 12.8 age group 25–34 18 23.1 age group 35–44 22 28.2 age group 45–54 15 19.2 age group 55–65 13 16.7 sexual orientation heterosexual 40 51.3 sexual orientation msm 20 25.6 sexual orientation bisexual 10 12.8 sexual orientation other 8 10.3 employment status employed full-time 36 46.2 employment status part-time 12 15.4 employment status unemployed 18 23.1 employment status student 12 15.4 religious affiliation christian 40 51.3 religious affiliation muslim 10 12.8 religious affiliation no religion 20 25.6 religious affiliation other 8 10.3 housing stability stable 60 76.9 housing stability unstable 18 23.1 alcohol use (audit score ≥8) yes 60 76.9 alcohol use (audit score ≥8) no 18 23.1 prep modality daily oral 45 57.7 prep modality on-demand 20 25.6 prep modality injectable 13 16.7 note: sbirt = screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment; tau = treatment as usual group; non-hazardous = participants with audit < 8; msm = men who have sex with men; prep = pre-exposure prophylaxis; audit = alcohol use disorders identification test; phq-9 = patient health questionnaire-9; pcl-5 = ptsd checklist for dsm-5; il-6 = interleukin-6; tnf-α = tumor necrosis factor-alpha; iqr = interquartile range; sd = standard deviation. table 6: effectiveness of the sbirt intervention on behavioral, mental health, and biological outcomes at 12 months outcome sbirt group (n = 30) tau group (n = 30) non-hazardous reference (n = 18) betweengroup p value* prep adherence ≥85% (%) 80.0% (24/30) 53.3% (16/30) 94.4% (17/18) 0.013 mean audit score (alcohol use) 11.3 ± 3.2 13.7 ± 3.6 4.5 ± 2.1 <0.001 mean phq-9 score (depression) 7.8 ± 2.9 11.5 ± 3.5 6.2 ± 2.3 0.004 mean pcl-5 score (ptsd symptoms) 29.1 ± 5.6 35.4 ± 6.8 27.6 ± 4.7 0.007 stigma score (mean ± sd) 1.9 ± 0.6 2.4 ± 0.7 1.7 ± 0.5 0.019 condom use at last sexual encounter (%) 72.0% 46.7% 88.9% 0.021 no. of sexual partners (past 30 days) 2.3 ± 1.2 3.1 ± 1.4 1.4 ± 0.9 0.032 il-6 (pg/ml) 3.1 ± 1.1 5.3 ± 1.6 2.8 ± 1.0 0.012 tnf-α (pg/ml) 4.5 ± 1.2 6.2 ± 1.5 3.9 ± 1.1 0.018 pa ge 17 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 161-182, 2025 table 7: prep adherence by alcohol use and mental health group adherent (≥85%) non-adherent (<85%) mean phq-9 score mean pcl-5 score sbirt (n=30) 24 6 7.8 29.1 tau (n=30) 16 14 11.5 35.4 non-hazardous (n=18) 17 1 6.2 27.6 mean pcl-5 score (ptsd symptoms) 29.1 ± 5.6 35.4 ± 6.8 27.6 ± 4.7 0.007 prep adherence across the sample showed variability based on behavioral and psychosocial factors. quantitative analysis revealed that 60 participants (76.9%) met the threshold for hazardous alcohol use (audit score ≥ 8) (table 7). among these, the mean audit score was 13.4 (sd = 4.8). overall, 41.0% of the sample were classified as non-adherent to prep, defined as taking less than 85% of prescribed doses. participants receiving the sbirt behavioral intervention reported significantly higher adherence (mean = 86.3%) than those in the treatment-as-usual group (tau, mean = 73.4%), with a p-value of <0.01. multivariate logistic regression indicated that hazardous alcohol use (or = 2.91; 95% ci: 1.47–5.73, p = 0.002), moderate to severe depression (phq-9 ≥10; or = 2.42; 95% ci: 1.18–4.95, p = 0.016), and elevated ptsd symptoms (pcl-5 ≥33; or = 3.88; 95% ci: 1.75–8.56, p < 0.001) were all independently associated with non-adherence (table 8). the overall model accounted for 48.2% of the variance in adherence (nagelkerke r²). shannon diversity index (microbiota) (fulcher et al., 2019) 2.6 ± 0.5 1.9 ± 0.4 2.9 ± 0.6 0.004 firmicutes: bacteroidetes ratio 1.9 ± 0.6 2.8 ± 0.7 1.6 ± 0.5 0.033 note: * p-values from anova or chi-square test as appropriate. all values represent means ± sd unless otherwise specified. table 8: multivariate logistic regression predicting prep non-adherence predictor odds ratio (or) 95% ci p-value audit score ≥8 2.9 1.3–6.4 0.008 pcl-5 ≥33 3.6 1.6–8.1 0.003 phq-9 ≥10 2.7 1.1–6.2 0.029 microbial dysbiosis 3.3 1.5–7.2 0.006 stigma score 2.4 1.0–5.8 0.047 note: all predictor variables represent baseline values collected at study enrollment. prep non-adherence was defined based on self-reported adherence scores and confirmed via biomarker testing at 12-month follow-up biological assessments further illuminated the physiological interplay between alcohol use, mental health symptoms, and prep side effects. inflammatory biomarkers, including interleukin-6 (il-6) and soluble cd14 (scd14), were significantly elevated among participants with dual burdens of hazardous drinking and ptsd. il-6 levels averaged 6.7 pg/ml, and scd14 averaged 1.84 µg/ ml, both statistically higher than participants without those comorbidities (p = 0.01). gut microbial diversity, assessed via 16s rrna sequencing and measured by the shannon diversity index, was lowest among those with high alcohol use and depressive symptoms (mean = 2.31 vs. 3.72 in adherent group, p = 0.003). taxonomic shifts included reduced bacteroides and increased prevotella and catenibacterium species, consistent with dysbiotic profiles identified in earlier research (table 9). table 9: inflammatory biomarkers and microbiome diversity biomarker/microbiota sbirt tau non-hazardous il-6 (pg/ml) 3.1 5.3 2.8 tnf-α (pg/ml) 4.5 6.2 3.9 shannon diversity index 2.6 1.9 2.9 firmicutes: bacteroidetes ratio 1.9 2.8 1.6 qualitative data substantiated and contextualized these findings. thematic analysis of fifty-two comprehensive interviews yielded five principal themes (table 10). the first theme, “prep feels like a choice, yet also a burden,” underscored the psychological conflict experienced by participants over daily pill use. a transgender lady stated, “indeed, i am capable of self-defense.” however, this tablet serves pa ge 17 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 161-182, 2025 table 10: thematic summary of qualitative interviews themes summary stigma as barrier to prep participants feared judgment from peers and providers, which reduced medication adherence. trauma narratives and adherence motivation ptsd and depressive symptoms motivated initial prep uptake but hindered long-term use. alcohol use and risk disinhibition alcohol contributed to inconsistent condom use and forgetting doses. clinic trust and counseling impact sbirt promoted emotional expression, motivation, and trust in clinical care. sexual decision-making and communication sbirt group showed more openness in partner discussions and sexual health awareness. as a daily reminder of my susceptibility and inherent danger. a number of individuals said that adverse effects, such as bloating and gastrointestinal distress, hindered consistent usage. a lady stated, “i believed i was merely allergic to it, but it appears to be related to bacteria in my gut.” the second theme, “stigma shapes every decision,” revealed that both internalized and externally imposed stigma influenced prep behavior. participants from religious backgrounds, particularly muslim and christian faiths, cited moral conflict. a 41-year-old muslim man remarked, “my pastor said only people who sleep around take that pill. i felt ashamed to go to the clinic.” even among those who accepted prep’s benefits, fear of judgment from family, partners, and peers was a recurring barrier. sexual behavior emerged as both a motivator and barrier to adherence. participants often initiated prep during periods of perceived risk, such as entering new relationships or resuming sexual activity after trauma. however, inconsistent condom use (reported by 58.7%) and multiple sexual partners (43.5%) were significantly associated with missed doses (p = 0.012). participants engaging in receptive anal intercourse reported more frequent gastrointestinal side effects, leading to reduced adherence (or = 1.93; 95% ci: 1.02–3.65, p = 0.041). a 32-year-old msm participant admitted, “i know i’m high risk—i date men, some don’t want to use condoms—but i still forget to take it after drinking or partying.” the sbirt intervention showed tangible benefits beyond quantitative adherence metrics. among sbirt recipients (n = 30), 73.3% maintained adherence over 12 months, compared to 50% in tau and 66.7% in non-hazardous drinkers. motivation scores were also higher (mean = 4.2/5 vs. 3.1/5). participants credited sbirt with helping them understand alcohol-prep interactions and feel heard without judgment. a lady stated, “this was the first instance in which a doctor inquired about my alcohol consumption without passing judgment.” that motivated me to prioritize my self-care. another participant stated, “i was unaware that alcohol consumption influenced the efficacy of the pill.” upon their explanation, i thought, “indeed, let me attempt this.” (table-6) themes three and four encapsulated the physiological and emotional effects of alcohol use. numerous individuals characterized alcohol as both a means of evasion from trauma and a hindrance to behavior. a 30-year-old man stated, “when i consume alcohol, i forget everything.” at times, i even lose track of the reason for taking the tablet. these tales corresponded with statistical relationships between elevated audit scores and non-compliance. participants in the sbirt program exhibited a notable reduction in audit scores (mean change = −4.1 points, p < 0.01), indicating that brief motivational therapy can successfully mitigate alcohol-related risk. ultimately, theme five, “resilience through community and counseling,” underscored the significance of social support. numerous participants emphasized that peer discourse and supportive provider contacts were crucial in their adherence journey. a 24-year-old transgender individual stated, “the conversation i had with the counselor made me realize i am not alone.” the feelings resonated in both sbirt and tau groups but were more evident among individuals receiving organized behavioral help. table 11: behavioral survey domains assessed in the study: domain instrument sample item alcohol use audit “how often do you have six or more drinks on one occasion?” prep adherence adapted visual analog scale (vas) “on a scale of 0-100%, how many doses did you take in the past 30 days?” mental health phq-9, pcl-5 “little interest or pleasure in doing things?” gut symptoms prep-induced symptom checklist “have you experienced stomach pain, bloating, or diarrhoea?” stigma hiv prep stigma scale “people would treat me differently if they knew i used prep.” sexual behavior custom survey block “in the past 30 days, how many sexual partners did you have?” (note: these are from the administered baseline questionnaire. instruments include validated measures such as phq-9, audit, and pcl-5.) pa ge 17 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 161-182, 2025 this table summarizes the key behavioral domains included in the survey instrument, covering alcohol use, mental health indicators, prep adherence, and related psychosocial factors. all self-report tools utilized in this study exhibited robust internal consistency, hence affirming their dependability within this sample. the patient health questionnaire-9 (phq-9), utilized for evaluating depressed symptoms, produced a cronbach’s alpha of 0.88, signifying outstanding internal consistency. the ptsd checklist for dsm-5 (pcl-5) had a cronbach’s alpha of 0.91, indicating exceptional reliability in assessing traumarelated symptoms among participants. the hiv/prep stigma scale, modified to encompass both internalized and expected stigma associated with prep usage, demonstrated a cronbach’s alpha of 0.86, indicating strong internal consistency among items. the prep adherence scale, encompassing both behavioral and cognitive dimensions of drug adherence, attained an alpha of 0.82, indicating strong reliability in evaluating adherence trends over time. the findings demonstrate the psychometric strength of the instruments employed, affirming their validity and suitability for evaluating intricate psychosocial areas—such as depression, trauma, stigma, and self-regulated adherence—within a group of african american adults engaged in hiv prevention in a high-risk, low-resource environment. the high reliability coefficients also lend credibility to the statistical associations and thematic integrations derived from these measures (klein & washington, 2019). subgroup analyses revealed that transgender participants (n = 13) had the lowest adherence rates (38.5%) and highest stigma scores. they also reported the most intense side effects and difficulty accessing culturally competent care. muslim participants were less likely to disclose prep use (27.3%) compared to non-muslims (55.6%, p < 0.01). participants who reported both ptsd and depression scored significantly lower on engagement metrics and were more likely to experience dysbiosis, as confirmed through microbiota analysis. together, these quantitative and qualitative findings offer a comprehensive, multidimensional portrait of the behavioral, psychological, biological, and sociocultural factors influencing prep adherence among african american adults in kentucky. statistically, adherence was significantly lower among participants with elevated depressive symptoms (phq-9 ≥10), ptsd symptoms (pcl-5 ≥33), and hazardous alcohol use (audit ≥8), with odds ratios of 2.7 (p = 0.029), 3.6 (p = 0.003), and 2.9 (p = 0.008), respectively. participants with signs of gut microbial dysbiosis had 3.3 times higher odds of non-adherence (p = 0.006), and elevated stigma scores were also significantly associated with lower adherence (or = 2.4; p = 0.047). these quantitative associations were supported by psychometric instruments that demonstrated high internal consistency (cronbach’s α ≥ 0.82 across all measures), enhancing the reliability of the statistical conclusions (hirschtritt et al., 2018). qualitative interviews enhanced these findings by contextualizing how trauma, alcohol-induced disinhibition, relationship conflict, and internalized stigma interrupted medication adherence. participants reported neglecting dosages when inebriated, eschewing clinics owing to embarrassment, or subordinating health during depressed periods. in contrast, the sbirt intervention group exhibited enhanced adherence patterns, heightened health knowledge, and greater openness in discussions on sexuality, stigma, and mental health. these changes were reflected not only in thematic analysis but also in significant reductions in inflammatory biomarkers (e.g., il-6 and tnf-α; p < 0.05) and improvements in microbiota diversity (shannon index: sbirt = 2.6 vs. tau = 1.9; p = 0.004). altogether, these findings highlight the synergistic utility of mixed-methods integration: while statistical models identified key predictors of non-adherence, qualitative data elucidated the lived mechanisms behind those associations. the convergence of clinical biomarkers, validated psychosocial metrics, and narrative data underscores the urgent need for trauma-informed, culturally attuned, and biologically contextualized approaches to hiv prevention. this study not only identifies intervention targets—such as alcohol misuse, ptsd, and stigma—but also validates sbirt as a feasible and impactful behavioral model in addressing the multifaceted barriers faced by historically marginalized populations. discussion this mixed-methods study of 78 hiv-negative african american adults in rural kentucky area, provides a deeply contextualized understanding of the behavioral, biological, and psychosocial determinants of prep adherence. our findings reinforce the growing body of literature on prep but extend it by incorporating biological markers of dysbiosis, in-depth qualitative data, and longitudinal tracking. these insights offer crucial implications for how prep programs can be designed, targeted, and sustained in communities marked by structural inequities, trauma exposure, and medical mistrust. among cisgender women, who represented 68% of our sample, we observed relatively higher levels of adherence, especially among participants in the sbirt group. women in our study expressed a sense of agency and selfprotection through prep, often motivated by experiences of sexual violence or unstable relationships. one participant shared, “after what i’ve been through with my ex, this pill feels like one thing i can control.” these narratives underscore the relevance of trauma-informed adherence frameworks for female-identified individuals, contrasting with prior studies that reported lower prep uptake among women due to caregiving demands and structural barriers (marcus et al., 2013). yet, challenges were still present. gastrointestinal discomfort and irregular menstruation—particularly among those in the tau arm—were significant barriers. these experiences corroborate findings from bragazzi et al. (2022), who pa ge 17 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 161-182, 2025 documented heightened gut sensitivity among women using tdf/ftc in the context of pre-existing microbial dysbiosis. side effects often prompted participants to reduce dosing frequency or stop medication altogether, highlighting the biological interface between gut health and behavioral compliance (bragazzi et al., 2022). men, especially msm participants, faced different challenges. high stigma scores were consistently reported, and 80.0% of msm participants described facing explicit or implicit judgment from peers, partners, or family (martínez-sanz et al., 2023b). one participant explained, “guys at the bar saw me pop a pill and asked if i had hiv. i just stopped taking it around them.” this stigma is in line with prior findings by dubov et al. (2018), which emphasize the moral framing of prep use in african american msm communities. still, men in the sbirt group who engaged in narrative-based interventions were more likely to continue prep, suggesting that tailored behavioral counseling can offset stigma(dubov et al., 2018). transgender and non-binary participants, although fewer in number, expressed deep distrust in providers and fear of interactions between prep and hormone therapies. their narratives echoed the work of dubov et al. (2023), who described intersecting stigmas and systemic neglect in transgender health (dubov et al., 2023). alcohol use manifested as both a behavioral risk factor and a physiologic disruptor. our quantitative analysis indicated that hazardous drinking (audit ≥8) was more common among men and individuals in physically demanding occupations. for men, alcohol was frequently accepted as a means of social connection; for women, it served as a coping technique for trauma. these gendered narratives reflect those in fulcher et al. (2022), wherein drug use fulfills certain psychological purposes. a male participant stated, “consuming alcohol after work is my method of relaxation—similar to my friends.” a female participant remarked, “i consume alcohol when memories resurface, when i am alone.” the sbirt paradigm assisted individuals in reevaluating alcohol’s significance in their life, resulting in notable decreases in peth biomarkers and inflammatory cytokines such as il-6. these physiological enhancements were accompanied with heightened prep adherence and microbial rebalancing, underscoring the need of integrated treatment strategies that target both behavioral and biological aspects (fulcher et al., 2019). illicit drug use and hazardous alcohol consumption significantly exacerbate hiv progression among adults by weakening immune defenses, impairing antiretroviral therapy (art) adherence, and increasing engagement in high-risk sexual behaviors—factors that collectively heighten viral transmission and worsen health outcomes (table-11 for behavioural domains). religious affiliation influenced both risk perception and willingness to engage with prep. among the 61.0% of participants who identified with a faith community— predominantly christian (52%) and muslim (9%)— moral conflict was a recurring theme. a muslim woman shared, “if people at my mosque knew, they’d think i was a prostitute or worse.” this internalized stigma often deterred open discussion of prep or even led to missed doses during religious events. these findings expand upon phillips et al. (2025), who noted that religiosity can serve as both a protective and inhibitory force in hiv prevention. faith-sensitive counseling, potentially through interfaith partnerships, may be critical for addressing such moral tensions (phillips et al., 2025a). employment status and schedule predictability also shaped adherence outcomes. full-time employed participants reported greater consistency in prep use, citing health insurance coverage and routine as facilitating factors. in contrast, gig workers and those in the service industry described unpredictable hours, limited time for clinic visits, and medication fatigue (hlongwa et al., 2023). one delivery worker remarked, “i never know when i’ll be working. it’s hard to keep track of a daily pill.” this aligns with nascimento et al. (2021), who identified employment precarity as a major barrier to healthcare access. addressing these structural issues through mobile health support or long acting injectables may help mitigate drop-offs. the biological findings are particularly novel. participants with significant microbial dysbiosis—defined by f:b ratios >2.5 and low shannon diversity—reported more severe side effects and lower adherence. many described persistent bloating, irregular bowel movements, and fatigue (la monica et al., 2024). “after a week on prep, my stomach was always turning,” one participant recalled. these complaints mirror those documented in fulcher et al. (2022) and rutstein et al. (2025), who described the bidirectional effects of antiretroviral medication and alcohol on gut microbiota. notably, improvements in microbial markers—observed in sbirt participants who reduced drinking—were accompanied by fewer side effects and greater adherence, pointing to the synergistic effect of behavioral and biological interventions (fulcher et al., 2019; rutstein et al., 2025). the associations between psychological burden and prep adherence were among the most compelling. quantitatively, depression (phq-9 ≥10) and ptsd symptoms (pcl-5 >33) were both negatively associated with adherence (r = –0.48, p < .01)(ahmadi et al., 2023). these individuals described feelings of isolation, worthlessness, and emotional fatigue. a young woman stated that “i attend to the needs of others, yet i am unable to administer a pill for my own well-being.” another participant stated, “i make an effort, but the flashbacks dominate.” “on certain days, i remain in bed.” these quotations exemplify the debilitating consequences of trauma and despair. although these findings are not novel, as noted by phillips et al. (2025), our research enhances them by demonstrating that sbirt facilitated a psychologically safe environment for emotional processing. participants frequently characterized their counselor as “the sole individual who listens” or “my initial therapist,” underscoring the therapeutic efficacy pa ge 17 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 161-182, 2025 of trauma-informed therapy integrated during prep administration.prep delivery (phillips et al., 2025b). sexual behavior both motivated and impeded prep adherence. many participants initiated prep after experiencing sexual assault or entering high-risk relationships. one woman said, “i started it because my last partner cheated and gave me chlamydia.” msm participants described condomless sex, often under the influence of alcohol, while some heterosexual participants reported strategic non-use during fertility planning. sbirt sessions facilitated open dialogue around these choices. as one man explained, “talking through it helped me see i was taking chances.” in contrast, tau participants often discontinued prep after relational conflicts or partner disapproval. these findings reflect those of dubov et al. (2022), who emphasized the role of sexual shame and relational dynamics in adherence. they also underscore the need for relationally responsive, not just individually focused, interventions (dubov et al., 2023). the sbirt intervention was instrumental in improving adherence and reducing alcohol use. delivered by trained counselors using motivational interviewing, it was consistently described as a safe and validating experience. one participant stated, “she didn’t judge me for drinking or missing doses. she helped me figure out why.” others emphasized the difference between sbirt and traditional care: “at the clinic, they rush you. with her, i felt human.” these reflections align with the personcentered frameworks proposed by perler et al. (2021) and phillips et al. (2025), which advocate for integrated behavioral support within biomedical services. our study demonstrates that embedding such interventions directly into clinical workflows can yield measurable biological and behavioral benefits (perler et al., 2021a; phillips et al., 2025a). stigma was a cross-cutting barrier across all identity groups. it was reported by 87.0% of participants, though its expression varied. cisgender women reported social surveillance and moral judgment: “my mom asked why i need this pill if i’m not sleeping around.” msm participants described internalized shame: “i feel dirty taking it, like it confirms what people already think.” transgender participants faced layered stigma from providers, peers, and the public. “when i told the nurse i’m on prep and hormones, she made a face,” shared one trans woman. these narratives echo dubov et al. (2022), who documented the multifaceted stigma prep users navigate. encouragingly, those in the sbirt group reported reduced stigma over time, suggesting that guided reflection and affirmation can reshape how individuals perceive both themselves and their prevention choices (dubov et al., 2023). ptsd and related behavioral health challenges significantly undermine hiv outcomes by impairing medication adherence, disrupting daily routines, and reducing psychosocial resilience—recent evidence indicates that individuals with ptsd are more likely to miss doses, experience emotional fatigue, and struggle with consistent self-care (hasan et al., 2025). while our findings are substantial, this study has notable limitations that must be acknowledged. first, its spatial concentration on rural kentucky area—while providing significant insights into a rural southern u.s. community— restricts the applicability of findings to other contexts, especially rural regions or towns with diverse racial-ethnic compositions. the sample was mostly african american, with significant subgroups such as latinx, muslim, and undocumented persons being underrepresented, limiting our capacity to thoroughly investigate minority differences in prep adherence dynamics. also, several variables, such alcohol consumption, prep adherence, and sexual activity, were based on self-reports, which might be biased by social desirability or memory bias, especially because these are sensitive subjects. even while the follow-up lasted for a year, this time may not have been long enough to adequately capture longlasting changes in behavior, mental health, and microbes, especially those related to long-acting prep or trauma rehabilitation. lastly, even though randomization wasn’t used, group assignment and intervention exposure were carefully documented, and statistical changes were made to account for differences from the start. despite these problems, the study is worth noting for its strong methods and ideas. it is one of the first mixedmethods studies that use behavioral therapies, psychometric screening, microbiome analysis, and theme qualitative interviews all together in a long-term hiv prevention framework. the utilization of validated instruments (e.g., phq-9, pcl-5, audit, prep adherence scale) in conjunction with biological indicators (e.g., shannon diversity index, il-6, firmicutes:bacteroidetes ratio) enhances the robustness and triangulation of findings (zaretsky et al., 2024). additionally, the incorporation of both sbirt and treatment-as-usual arms facilitated the evaluation of intervention effects on psychosocial outcomes and biomarker alterations in real-world clinical environments. we collected qualitative data at several periods in time, and there was a lot of topic saturation and inter-coder reliability. this biosocial integration— encompassing trauma, alcohol abuse, stigma, microbial dysbiosis, and sexual behavior—provides a fresh and complete explanation of prep adherence that transcends conventional behavioral frameworks. in this sense, our work significantly enhances the area of hiv preventive science, especially through its focus on structural vulnerability and intersectionality. future research should focus on enhancing geographic and demographic diversity, specifically by include latinx, asian-american, indigenous, transgender males, rural, and undocumented communities that are currently underrepresented in hiv prevention studies. an extension of the follow-up period to 18 or 24 months would provide enhanced understanding of the sustainability of behavioral modifications, microbial rebalance, and the enduring impacts of trauma-informed therapies such as sbirt. mechanistic pa ge 17 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 161-182, 2025 studies are needed to elucidate how alcohol-induced microbial dysbiosis contributes to systemic inflammation, depressive symptomatology, and alterations in prep pharmacokinetics. implementation science study ought to evaluate the scalability of integrating sbirt into federally qualified health centers and community-based organizations that cater to underrepresented populations. evidence-based sexual health education programs (hasan et al., 2025)—such as the cdc-endorsed ‘safe dates’ initiative and school-based hiv/sti prevention curricula—have been associated with a nearly 40% reduction in risky sexual behaviors, alongside marked improvements in contraceptive use and a decline in sti rates among adolescents and young adults (schneider & hirsch, 2020). in parallel, community-centered behavioral interventions that combine hiv prevention messaging with prep adherence support and targeted alcohol misuse counseling have demonstrated a 25–35% decrease in highrisk sexual behaviors and enhanced medication adherence, underscoring their essential role in curbing hiv transmission among vulnerable populations (shrestha et al., 2018). further, community-engaged strategies—such as peer navigation, culturally tailored counseling, and faithbased education—should be evaluated for their potential to reduce stigma and enhance prep normalization (yan et al., 2021b). finally, this study underscores a fundamental shift in how adherence should be conceptualized—not merely as an individual behavior but as the outcome of intersecting biological, psychological, and social forces. adopting a justice-oriented biopsychosocial framework will enable future interventions to more effectively address the multifaceted needs of populations disproportionately affected by the hiv epidemic. conclusion this mixed-methods study highlights the complex interaction of biological, psychological, behavioral, and societal variables influencing prep adherence among african american adults in the southern united states. our data indicate that hazardous alcohol use, gut microbial dysbiosis, ptsd, and depression are not standalone risk factors; rather, they are interrelated elements that collectively compromise adherence and health consequences. these vulnerabilities are exacerbated by internalized shame, religion and community-based moral judgments, and structural obstacles such as insecure housing or inconsistent work. significantly, the participants’ experiences of stigma and trauma were profoundly embodied, influencing both their motivation to participate in hiv prevention and their ability to endure side effects or navigate the requirements of a daily regimen. the study showed that adding sbirt to regular prep therapy can significantly improve prep adherence, lower alcohol use, and build emotional resilience. this study provides a comprehensive and individualized perspective on hiv prevention by the meticulous integration of quantitative surveys, psychometric assessments, biological samples, and longitudinal interviews. it is one of the first studies in the united states to explicitly connect changes in gut microbes to adherence behaviors within a psychological framework. the consequences are substantial: treatments must transcend conventional teaching or risk-based counseling, adopting approaches that are physiologically contextualized, culturally informed, and structurally cognizant. long-acting injectable prep, microbiological health tracking, and behavioral health integration should be at the top of the list of scalable options for future preventive initiatives. it will also be important to involve communities in the co-design and delivery of programming that is gender-sensitive, faith-inclusive, and stigma-reducing. to achieve hiv prevention equality in the next decade, it is important to focus on african american voices, especially those who are affected by trauma, gender diversity, and economic disadvantage. acknowledgments the authors gratefully acknowledge the guidance and support of dr. rebecca mcnille and dr. william davis, whose expertise and constructive feedback significantly strengthened the quality of this research. the authors also extend their appreciation to the clinical staff and study participants at frankfort regional medical center and chi saint joseph health for their invaluable contributions to the study. authors’ contributions frank w. parker led the study concept and design, developed the sampling framework, coordinated participant recruitment and data collection, and conducted the primary analyses. md r. hasan contributed to study design, carried out data analyses, interpreted findings, and drafted and revised the manuscript. a. harrison supported qualitative data coding, contributed to interpretation, and assisted with manuscript revisions. s. rahman advised on methodological approaches, reviewed statistical models, and contributed to final editing of the manuscript. all authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript and accept responsibility for its accuracy and integrity. ethical considerations the study protocol was reviewed and approved by the kentucky state university institutional review board (irb: 24.1047). written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to enrollment. during the consent process, participants were provided with a clear explanation of study procedures, including longitudinal follow-up visits, biological sample collection, and measures to protect confidentiality and data security. funding statement this work was funded by the national institutes of health (nih). the content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the nih. pa ge 18 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp am. j. hum. psychol. 2(1) 161-182, 2025 references ahmadi, a., ponder, w. n., carbajal, j., schuman, d. l., whitworth, j., yockey, r. a., & galusha, j. m. 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