Pa ge 1 Pa ge 6 American Journal of Human Psychology (AJHP) The Joint predictive effects of Teachers’ Enjoyment, Anxiety, and Boredom on Students’ Enjoyment in Higher Education Settings Elmakki Amiri1* Volume 1 Issue 1, Year 2023 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp Article Information ABSTRACT Received: July 18, 2023 Accepted: August 04, 2023 Published: August 07, 2023 The flourishing of positive psychology (PP) in education has shifted the focus to the crucial role of neglected emotions (e.g. enjoyment, boredom, hope). Yet, studies about how teachers’ emotions are combined and have joint effects in predicting students’ emotions are hardly available. The current study aimed to investigate the relationship between student- perceived teacher enjoyment (PTE), anxiety (PTA), and boredom (PTB) and students’ self- reported enjoyment (SE). As such, how the three perceived teacher emotions jointly predict SE was also investigated. A total of 760 university students (Mage= 21.07, SD = 3.59), enrolled in a public university in Morocco, participated in this study through completing an anonymous questionnaire. Statistical analyses (correlation and regression) showed that PTE and PTB were found to be the only significant predictors of SE. They contributed uniquely and significantly to the overall model, which explained 9% (R2 = .9) of the variance in the outcome variable (SE). The effect of PTB was increased within the regression model compared to the independent effect. This is interpreted as a demonstration of the positive emotional crossover from teachers to students. Furthermore, PTA did not emerge as a significant predictor for SE. Implications for future research and educational practice are discussed. Keywords Perceived Teacher Enjoyment, Perceived Teacher Anxiety, Perceived Teacher Boredom, Emotion Contagion, Higher Education Settings 1 Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, Fez, Morocco * Corresponding author’s e-mail: elmakki.amiri@usmba.ac.ma INTRODUCTION The topic of emotions has largely been left in the shadows with the exception of anxiety which has been extensively studied in education (Dewaele & Li, 2020; MacIntyre, 2017; Teimouri et al., 2019). In this regard, Swain (2013) pinpointed that “emotions are the elephants in the room – poorly studied, poorly understood, seen as inferior to rational thought” (p. 195). Yet, since the emergence of PP, emotions has been attracting academic interest, triggering a surge of interest among researchers, and prompting a more in-depth exploration of positive emotions. This marked a significant shift in psychology’s focus, moving beyond merely addressing life’s challenges to actively cultivating the most enriching aspects of human experience. The aim was to foster a fresh perspective on the subject matter (Seligman, 2018). The introduction of PP into applied linguistic research revolutionized the field by shifting the focus into the important role of neglected positive emotions (e.g., enjoyment, joy, pride, love and hope) and negative emotions (e.g., boredom, shame, anger) (see Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014; Kruk & Zawodniak, 2018; Putwain et al., 2018; MacIntyre et al., 2019; MacIntyre & Vincze, 2017; Boudreau et al., 2018; Teimouri, 2018; Amiri & El Karfa, 2023). Since the turn of the third millennium, few studies investigated the joint predictive effects of teachers’ enjoyment, anxiety and boredom on students’ emotions, academic achievement and motivation (e.g., Alberth, 2022; Joelle et al., 2008; Li et al., 2019; Amiri et al., 2023;Jin & Zhang, 2018). However, research on how the three aforementioned teachers’ emotions jointly predict students’ enjoyment is hardly available. Given this, such study may make a noteworthy contribution to the scarcity of empirical research on the role of teachers’ emotions in different contexts. The current study aims at investigating the independent and joint predictive effects of PTE, PTA, and PTB on SE in higher education settings. LITERATURE REVIEW Positive Psychology in Education Needless to say that cognitive research has been the core focus of applied linguistics research, relegating the exploration of emotions to a secondary position. It is until recently, particularly around the start of the third millennium, that scholars have started to show interest in investigating positive and negative emotions within teaching and learning processes. Despite extensive investigations into anxiety and its various roles in the classroom setting, other aspects of this subject have been largely overlooked and remain relatively under-researched (Dewaele & Li, 2020). Over the past decade, there has been a growing fascination with emotions, particularly in educational environments where both students and teachers experience a wide range of positive and negative emotions. Numerous studies have emerged in prominent psychology journals since Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi’s (2000) groundbreaking special issue of American Psychologist on PP. It is worth noting that PP has received considerable attention in educational contexts, but positive emotions have largely been overlooked. However, in recent years, there has been a significant increase in research, resulting in a substantial body of literature that provides valuable insights. The introduction of PP, along with its underlying theories like the control-value theory CVT (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2007) and the broaden-and-build theory of Pa ge 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp Am. J. Hum. Psychol. 1(1) 6-15, 2023 emotions (Fredrickson, 2001, 2003, 2006), into applied linguistics sparked researchers’ interest in examining positive emotions (e.g., enjoyment, hope, joy, happiness) more comprehensively. Consequently, psychology has shifted its focus from solely addressing life’s challenges to fostering the best aspects of existence, ultimately seeking a fresh understanding of this matter. Teachers’ Enjoyment, Anxiety and Boredom In recent years, there has been a growing fascination with the examination of achievement emotions, largely attributed to Pekrun’s development of the CVT in 2006. The CVT represents one of the most extensively studied theoretical frameworks concerning achievement emotions, focusing exclusively on academic emotions and achievement settings within a three-dimensional taxonomy. The insights derived from the CVT have shed light on the substantial influence emotions have on students’ learning, performance, engagement, and even their personality development. As a result, a diverse range of emotions such as enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom, have captured the attention of academics in various educational contexts, including pedagogical, linguistic, cultural, and social aspects. Consequently, a noticeable increase in researchers exploring emotions in educational environments has occurred, as the learning environment’s impact on students’ academic achievement is widely acknowledged (Amiri & Elkarfa, 2021). It is worth noting that Several researchers (e.g. Kruk et al., 2022; Derakhshan et al., 2022; Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2016; Boudreau et al., 2018; Putwain et al., 2018) have extensively examined three academic emotions, namely enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom. Their influential contributions have triggered an “emotional turn” and kindled the interest of other researchers in the field, leading to broader discussions on the significance of various academic emotions explored through different frameworks (Dewaele & Li, 2020). However, studies on the joint predictive effects of teachers’ enjoyment, anxiety and boredom on students’ emotions are scarce. It should be stated here that the previously mentioned emotions are three of the frequently experienced emotions in academic context (Goetz et al., 2007; see Li & Wei, 2022; Tsang & Dewaele, 2023). Enjoyment Within general psychology, enjoyment received relatively little attention in research (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2016). However, with the rise of PP and the broaden- and-build theory, numerous scholars have directed their focus towards this topic (Dewaele & Alfawzan, 2018). Enjoyment is considered a pleasant activating positive emotion (Fredrickson & Cohn, 2008; Frenzel et al., 2007), particularly among teachers (Sutton & Wheatley, 2003). Importantly, several researchers, such as Izard (1977), Plutchik (1980), and Ekman Scherer (1982), have classified enjoyment as a basic emotion. In order to fully grasp the concept, Csikszentmihalyi (2008) distinguished between enjoyment and pleasure. They stressed that pleasure refers to the contentment experienced from fulfilling routine and biological needs, like food, rest, sleep, and sex. It is associated with satisfying basic desires. On the other hand, enjoyment, which is an essential component of flow experiences, surpasses planned, expected, or imagined experiences. It emerges after enjoyable events and is not dependent on routine needs, making it more enduring compared to pleasure. Moreover, the CVT posits that enjoyment can foster more creative approaches among students, as greater enjoyment is linked to higher achievement. Considering the reciprocal relationship between academic achievement and academic emotions, creating an atmosphere that cultivates greater enjoyment becomes crucial for academic success. Anxiety Notably, anxiety is the most extensively studied emotion in the realm of second and foreign language learning (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014; MacIntyre, 2017; Boudreau et al., 2018). In the context of language learning and teaching, anxiety can be described as “the feeling of tension and apprehension specific to second language situations, including speaking, listening, and learning” (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1994, p.284). It encompasses negative emotional states and worries (MacIntyre, 1999), making it a psychological concern (Spielberger, 1983) that often arises during second language acquisition. The significance of anxiety in teaching and learning became evident with the influential work of Horwitz et al. (1986), who developed a well-known scale for its measurement. Furthermore, anxiety has been found to exert influence over other essential skills like motivation and self-esteem, consequently affecting students’ proficiency (Crookall & Oxford, 1991). In summary, for the vast majority of students, anxiety proves to be a hindrance to academic achievement. Boredom Academic boredom is a prevalent emotion commonly encountered in educational settings (Li, 2021; Amiri et al., 2022). The definition of boredom poses a challenge, as scholars in the field hold divergent views on its general meaning. Some consider it to be related to underlying mental processes (Eastwood et al., 2012), while others associate it with disengagement and attention deficit (Fahlman, 2009) when individuals experience it. This negative emotion can have detrimental effects on psychological vigilance (Pekrun et al., 2010) and leads to decreased interest and concentration (Nett et al., 2010) during specific activities or tasks. Significantly, Putwain et al. (2018) distinguish between trait boredom and state boredom. The former is regarded as an intrinsic aspect of human nature, while the latter is considered a situational and momentary experience. In the context of foreign language learning, trait boredom is experienced when learners perceive the environment Pa ge 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp Am. J. Hum. Psychol. 1(1) 6-15, 2023 as lacking stimulation and engagement (Bench & Lench, 2013). According to CVT, academic boredom and academic achievement share a reciprocal relationship, where lower performance and success correspond to greater levels of boredom. Emotional Contagion Process and Mechanisms Emotional contagion refers to the “process in which a person or group influences the emotions or behavior of another person or group through the conscious or unconscious induction of emotion states and behavioral attitudes” (Schoenewolf, 1990, p. 50). As such, crossover theory, in its original conceptualization, looked at the consequences of work-related stress and pressure on other people (e.g. Bolger et al., 1989). This study was the first to give direct quantitative evidence of stress contagion among married couples. Both work-to-home and home-to-work contagion have been demonstrated in the study. It is until recently that such a theory has developed to cover both positive and negative emotions including well-being, joy, flow, sadness, depression, and anger (Becker et al., 2014). Although some studies on emotional crossover processes contributed to bringing the topic to academic contexts, it is still largely overlooked. In his study, Bakker (2005) investigated flow among 178 music teachers and 605 of their students. The study yielded that flow is contagious; the higher the frequency of such experiences among their students, the more flow experiences music teachers reported. Students in fact tend to imitate their happy and cheerful teachers. In a similar vein, Moskowitz & Dewaele (2021) investigated the crossover of happiness from teachers to students. They used an online questionnaire to collect data from 129 adult students. They were asked how they perceive teacher happiness and the impact of their perception on their own motivation and attitudes. The results of statistical analyses showed that students’ perceptions of different aspects of teachers’ happiness correlate positively with their motivation and overall attitude (positive emotional contagion). Interestingly, in the literature, three main mechanisms underlying the emotional crossover phenomena have been proposed. In their article “The importance of teachers’ emotions and instructional behavior for their students’ emotions - An experience sampling analysis”, Becker et al. (2014) shed some light on these mechanisms stating that emotions may be captured in a variety of ways. First, emotional contagion could be automatic, uncontrollable and unconscious. This mechanism was proposed by Hatfield et al. (1992) and is referred to as primitive emotional contagion. It refers to the “tendency to automatically mimic and synchronize facial expressions, vocalizations, postures, and movements with those of another person and, consequently, to converge emotionally” (Hatfield et al., 1994, p. 5). Hatfield and her colleagues provided considerable evidence to support their proposition. They stated that because of such facial, verbal, and postural input, people tend to (a) imitate the facial expressions, voice expressions, and postures of others around them, and (b) “catch” other peoples’ emotions. The majority of this imitation occurs without any conscious or purposeful thinking. They argued that some kinds of emotional contagion are the product of even more basic associative processes; people can catch other people’s emotions if their answers trigger an unconditioned emotional reaction in them (unconditioned emotional response). People constantly replicate and coordinate their movements with the facial expressions, postures, voices, and instrumental actions of others when they are conversing. Importantly, they claimed that one or more of the following factors might have an impact on people’s emotional experiences. The first factor is the central nervous system commands that direct such imitation/ occurrence. The second has to do with the afferent feedback from such verbal postural, facial, or imitation/synchrony. The third is the self- perception procedures in which people infer their own emotional state from the emotional displays and actions elicited by another person’s emotional condition. Furthermore, Westman and Vinokur (1998) proposed the second mechanism that shows that crossover processes might be explained by empathy on the receiver’s part. Sympathetic reactions can occur in the transfer of emotions, stress, or well-being since interaction partners generally know each other well. Moreover, conscious emotional contagion is a third mechanism in crossover processes. Unlike primitive emotional contagion, conscious emotional contagion focuses intensively on social comparison processes in which individuals actively seek for emotions as a sort of social data (Hennig-Thurau et al., 2006). It entails intentionally seeking out emotions in order to gather social knowledge. For instance, People who are attending their first opera and are unsure of what emotions are suitable may notice how others display their emotions and tend to use them as clues for their own conduct (Becker et al., 2014). Research questions RQ1. What are perceived teachers’ levels of enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom during classes? RQ2. What are the independent effects of PTE, PTA, and PTB on SE in higher education settings? RQ3. What are the joint predictive effects of PTE, PTA, and PTB on SE in higher education settings? METHODOLOGY Participants A total of 760 university students participated in this study. They were enrolled in a public University, Morocco, at the time of the study. There were 313 (41.2 %) males, 426 (56.1 %) were females, 20 (2.6 %) preferred not to say, and one (0.1 %) missing. The average age was 21.07 (SD = 3.59). They were from five different disciplines. A total of 600 participants were from English Studies, while the rest were from Applied Linguistics (39), Translation Studies (49), Cultural Studies (20), and Language, Communication and Society (52). They were asked and Pa ge 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp Am. J. Hum. Psychol. 1(1) 6-15, 2023 instructed to fill an anonymous questionnaire with three main sections, including TPE, TPA, TPB, and SE. Instrument The main questionnaire that was adopted to measure the independent and dependent variables was comprised of four sections. The first part was devoted to collect basic demographic data including age, gender, grade, and major. The second section comprised an adapted version of the short version of the Achievement Emotions Questionnaire (AEQ-S) (Bieleke et al., 2021) that was used to assess PTE, PTA and PTB. The items in this scale consist of six affirmative statements with five response options ranging from “1. Always” to “5. Never”. The scale measured three achievement emotions experienced during class: enjoyment (2 items; e.g., My teachers probably enjoy being in class) anxiety (2 items; e.g., My teachers feel nervous in class), and boredom (2 items; e.g., My teachers probably get bored). As such, to assess students’ academic emotions of enjoyment (dependent variable), the class-related emotions items of the AEQ-S were used (two items). Student participants were instructed to indicate how they feel during classes. The items in this scale consist of two affirmative statements (see appendix A) with five response options ranging from “1. Always” to “5. Never”. The scale assessed SE experienced during class (I enjoy being in class and I enjoy participating so much that I get energized). Two questionnaires were disregarded and excluded as they were not properly completed. Data Analysis The data obtained from 760 university students using questionnaires were analyzed, through conducting Pearson correlation and multiple regression analyses, to address the RQ2 and RQ3 using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 26.0 (SPSS) software package. A regression analysis with PTE, PTA, and PTB as independent variables and SE as the dependent variable was performed. The purpose of such equation modeling was to examine the intricate connection between the dependent and independent variables and determine the combined predictive effect of the three perceived teacher emotions on students’ SE. In order to achieve this objective, PTE, PTA, and PTB were simultaneously incorporated into a single regression model to predict students’ SE. Besides, an examination of quantitative data was conducted, involving the inspection of data to perform a descriptive analysis of the fundamental features of the data (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018). To address the RQ1, Descriptive statistics (means, standard deviation, minimum and maximum and variance) were determined for all study variables. Normality tests were also calculated. Histograms and Q-Q plots showed normal distribution for all study variables. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Descriptive Statistics To address RQ1, the issue was explored through looking at the means of the study variables, as shown in Table 1 below. Based on the findings presented in table 1, overall means revealed that participants, across all subjects, generally expressed high levels of enjoyment (M = 2.10, SD = 0.80), and rarely experienced anxiety M = 3.80 (SD = 0.80) and boredom M= 3.83 (SD = 0.81). As such, students also generally reported strong levels of enjoyment M = 2.15 (SD = 0.81). Table 1: Descriptive Statistics of Perceived Teacher’s Enjoyment, Anxiety, Boredom and Students’ Enjoyment Study variables N Min Max M SD Var St St St St St St PTE 760 1.00 5.00 2.10 .80 .64 PTA 760 1.00 5.00 3.80 .80 .64 PTB 760 1.00 5.00 3.83 .88 .77 SE 760 1.00 5.00 2.15 .86 .75 Valid N (listwise) 760 To assess the association among study variables, a Pearson product-moment correlation analysis was performed. Additionally, a multiple linear regression analysis was conducted, with SE as the dependent variable and PTE, PTA, and PTB as the independent variables. Correlation between perceived teacher enjoyment, anxiety, boredom and students’ self-reported enjoyment Table 2 below is the correlation matrix that shows a Table 2: Pearson Product–Moment Correlations among the Study Variables (N = 760) Variables PTE PTA PTB SE .29** -.10 -.17** Note. **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). list of correlation coefficients for every combination between independent variables (PTE, PTA, and PTB) and the dependent variable (SE). PTE was positively and significantly related to SE, r(756) = .29, p < .01. As such, Surprisingly, PTA and SE correlation was not statistically significant, and thus might have occurred by chance r(756) = -.10, p = .17. In addition, as expected, a significant negative correlation was identified between PTB and SE r(756) = -.17, p < .01. Regression of Students’ Enjoyment on Perceived Teacher’s Enjoyment, Anxiety And Boredom Tolerance hover between .78 and .90 and Variance Inflation Factor (VIF), which detects multi-collinearity (correlation Pa ge 10 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp Am. J. Hum. Psychol. 1(1) 6-15, 2023 between predictors in a model) in regression ranges from 1.11 to 1.28, which does not exceed the problematic amount cutting off point of 5 (Chatterjee & Simonoff, 2013; James et al., 2013; O’Brien, 2007). This suggests that there was a small amount of collinearity among the predictors, which increased the reliability of regression results. As such, the model was significant, F(3, 756) = 24.61, p < .001, explaining 9% (R2 = .9) of the variance in the outcome variable (Students’ enjoyment). It should be noted also that perceived teacher enjoyment (β = .27, t = 7.02, p < .001) and boredom (β = -.08, t = -2.07, p < .001) were the only predictors that contributed uniquely and significantly to the model. Perceived teacher’s anxiety, on the other hand, was not a significant predictor (β = .05, Figure 1: The Joint Predictive Effects of Perceived Teacher Enjoyment, Anxiety, and Boredom on Students’ Self-Reported Enjoyment Table 3: Multiple regression analysis for the Study Variables Predictors Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig. B Std. Error Beta (Constant) 1.65 .23 7.29 .000 Perceived teacher’s enjoyment .29 .04 .27 7.02 .000 Perceived teacher’s anxiety .06 .04 .05 1.38 .167 Perceived teacher’s boredom -.08 .04 -.08 -2.07 .039 t = 1.38, p = .17) (See table 3 above). Put it differently, Perceived-teacher anxiety offered nothing uniquely in terms of predicting students’ enjoyment. Dependent Variable: Students’ Enjoyment In addition, a Durbin Watson (DW) statistic test for autocorrelation was 1.89, which suggested that DW test values are not cause for concern, and thus indicating no autocorrelation in the regression model. Furthermore, a scatterplot (figure 3) was created to examine the assumption of constant variance (homoscedasticity) of the residuals, or error term. A roughly rectangular distribution with most of the scores were clustered in the center, which indicated no violation of linearity assumption. That is, while the value of the predictor variables varies, the error term does not change significantly. A P-P plot indicated a normal distribution of the residual value (figure 2). Figure 2: A Scatterplot of the Regression Residuals DISCUSSION The first RQ addressed PTE, PTA, PTB and SE levels. Consistent with our expectation, results showed that both teachers and students experienced a high level of enjoyment M = 2.10 (SD = 0.80) and M= 2.15 (SD = 0.86) for teachers and students respectively. As such, teachers rarely experienced anxiety (M = 3.80, SD = 0.80) and boredom (M = 3.58, SD = 0.80). Furthermore, Building upon previous studies (e.g., Jiang & Dewaele, 2019; Li, 2021; Li & Dewaele, 2021) that have consistently found a higher prevalence of positive emotions compared to negative emotions among teachers and students in academic environments, the current research further substantiates this trend and offers valuable insights into the prevalence of both positive and negative emotions. The second RQ dealt with the independent effects of PTE, PTA, and PTB on SE in higher education settings. Our findings revealed that PTE and PTB were significantly linked to SE, while PTA had no significant effect on SE. Consistence with previous research (see Bakker, 2005; Frenzel et al., 2009; Frenzel et al., 2018; Moskowitz Figure 3: Dependent variable: Students’ Enjoyment Pa ge 11 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp Am. J. Hum. Psychol. 1(1) 6-15, 2023 & Dewaele, 2021; Talebzadeh et al., 2020), teachers’ emotions were found to be contagious and thus affect students’ emotions and their academic achievement. This indicates that students who perceived their teachers as enjoying their classes tended to experience enjoyment in the classroom more, and students’ perception of teachers as bored had detrimental effects on their enjoyment during classes. The third RQ concerned the combined predictive effects of PTE, PTA, and PTB on TEI. When the multiple regression analyses used to predict the dependent variable (SE) was conducted, the effect of PTE remained at a medium size and was much larger than that of PTB, suggesting that SE was more predicted by PTE than by PTB. As such, the effect of PTB was increased within the regression model compared to the independent effect. PTA was found to be insignificant. This indicates that SE may be more subject to teachers’ positive emotions than negative emotions. Yet, PTB may have detrimental effects to students’ overall well-being and academic achievement. Importantly, previous studies (e.g., Li & Han, 2022; Dewaele, 2021; Dewaele et al., 2022) revealed different results when it comes to predicting students’ proficiency. For example, Dewaele et al. (2022) investigated the effect of enjoyment, anxiety and boredom on students’ proficiency. They found that anxiety was the only predictor of proficiency, while enjoyment predicted nothing unique within the model. Having said that, Dewaele (2021) concluded that both anxiety and enjoyment significantly and uniquely predicted proficiency. This suggests that different variables (e.g., age, culture, gender) interfere in determining the linearity between emotions and other variables. Taken together, the findings imply that establishing clear boundaries in the emotional relationship between teachers and students is vital for fostering a positive and personal relationship in the classroom. The emotional boundaries of teachers are highly sensitive and necessitate their active involvement in creating a safe environment that promotes emotional well-being (Aultman et al., 2009). This involves implementing suitable norms and standards to guide their interactions (Shutz, 2014). Limitations and Future Directions Undoubtedly, the outcomes of this study have significantly added to the limited body of empirical research concerning the examined matter, effectively addressing a crucial gap in the existing literature on teacher-student emotions. Alongside the valuable theoretical and practical implications, it is important to acknowledge certain limitations that can guide future investigations. To begin with, instead of examining emotions specific to particular subjects, this study focused on assessing generalized emotional traits, thereby overlooking the assumption of domain specificity in academic emotions as proposed by Goetz et al. (2007). The participants were drawn from five different disciplines, all of which utilized English as the language of instruction. While the study respected the notion of context-specific emotional effects by conducting it within a single context, it failed to consider the perspective that emotions should be organized in domain-specific ways. Consequently, the study only assessed three academic emotions—enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom—that are highly significant for both students and teachers according to Pekrun et al. (2002). This limitation also implies that the generalizability of the findings may be restricted to these three emotions. In future studies, it would be crucial to include other academic emotions such as anger, hope, and hopelessness in regression models to determine their influence on students’ emotions and the extent to which they account for variances. Theoretical and Pedagogical Implications The findings of this study on the links between teachers’ emotions of enjoyment, anxiety and boredom and SE in Moroccan universities revealed several enlightening implications for researchers and practitioners. Theoretical Implications The findings of this study have provided valuable insights into the pervasive nature of teachers’ emotions in academic settings and their potential impact on emotional contagion in education. These results contribute to the expanding research on this topic and shed light on previously unexplored aspects, particularly the relationship between students’ and teachers’ emotions and how they mutually influence each other within the classroom. This study’s contribution can aid in the advancement of models and theories concerning the emotional dynamics of teaching and learning, offering fresh perspectives on the subject matter. Furthermore, an important theoretical implication to consider is the formulation and construction of future hypotheses pertaining to the role of teachers’ emotions in predicting students’ emotions. Notably, the analysis and discussion chapters of this study revealed that anxiety did not uniquely or significantly predict outcomes in the four multiple regression models. Thus, it is recommended that future research statistically explore the predictive effects of teachers’ anxiety in diverse educational contexts, across different age groups and disciplines. Practical Implications The practical implications of the study findings primarily target teachers, offering actionable insights that can be directly implemented in the classroom to enhance teaching practices and improve student outcomes. The results suggest that in classroom settings, where emotions like enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom coexist, enjoyment emerges as the most influential positive predictor of students’ enjoyment. Placing greater emphasis on cultivating enjoyment becomes a key factor in fostering a more effective teacher-student relationship. This knowledge empowers teachers to develop strategies for effectively managing emotions in the classroom and create a positive and supportive learning environment by Pa ge 12 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp Am. J. Hum. Psychol. 1(1) 6-15, 2023 displaying a sense of enjoyment, enthusiasm, and passion during instruction. In this regard, teachers can make informed decisions regarding the adoption of relevant techniques, approaches, and methods that contribute to their professional development and positively affect students’ learning experiences during classroom interactions. CONCLUSION The present paper sought to investigate the impact of perceived teacher enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom on students’ enjoyment. The study also explored how PTE, PTA, and PTB SE. The study yielded that teachers generally reported a medium level of enjoyment and a low threshold of anxiety and boredom. As such, the regression model explained 9% (R2 = .9) of the variance in the outcome variable (students’ self-reported enjoyment), with both PTE and PTB making distinct and significant contributions to the overall model, whereas PTA did not emerge as a significant predictor. Importantly, the influence of teachers’ emotions on students’ academic performance and emotions in higher education is highly significant, there is a considerable lack of research on this subject. Therefore, the current study significantly contributes to addressing the scarcity of empirical investigations concerning the role of teachers’ emotions. Given this, the findings of the current study offer empirical evidence of the independent and joint predictive effect of PTE, PTA, and PTB in shaping SE. The findings provide useful theoretical and practical implications for researchers and practitioners. REFERENCES Alberth (2022). Predicting sense of classroom community from foreign language enjoyment and anxiety in an English as a foreign language classroom. International Journal of Emotional Education, 14(1), 38-52. Amiri, E., & El karfa, A. (2021). The Impact of Learning Environment on EFL students’ Academic Achievement: A study of Socio-Cultural Factors Affecting Academic Achievement. Arab World English Journal, 12(4) 387-400. https://dx.doi.org/10.24093/ awej/vol12no4.25 Amiri, E., & EL karfa, A. (2023). Flourishing of Positive Psychology in Education: ‘Emotional Turn’ and Measurement Issues. Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Studies, 5 (8), 10-18. https://doi.org/10.32996/ jhsss.2023.5.8.2 Amiri, E., EL karfa, A., Jabbouri, A. (2023). Examining the Joint Predictive Effects of Perceived Teacher Enjoyment, Anxiety, Boredom on Students’ Attitudes: A Multi-Dimensional Approach. European Journal of Education Studies, 10(9). http://dx.doi.org/10.46827/ ejes.v10i9.4954 Amiri, E., Elkarfa, A., Sbaihi, M., Iannàccaro, G., & Tamburini, E. (2022). Students’ Experiences and Perceptions of Boredom in EFL Academic Context. International Journal of Language and Literary Studies. 4(4).273-288. http://doi.org/ 10.36892/ijlls. v4i4.1140 Aultman, L. P., Williams-Johnson, M. R., & Schutz, P. A. (2009). Boundary dilemmas in teacher–student relationships: Struggling with “the line.” Teaching and Teacher Education, 25(5), 636–646. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.tate.2008.10.002 Bakker, A. B. (2005). Flow among music teachers and their students: The crossover of peak experiences. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 66(1), 26–44. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2003.11.001 Becker, E. S., Goetz, T., Morger, V., & Ranellucci, J. (2014). The importance of teachers’ emotions and instructional behavior for their students’ emotions – An experience sampling analysis. Teaching and Teacher Education, 43, 15– 26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2014.05.002 Bench, S. W., & Lench, H. C. (2013). On the function of boredom. Behavioral Science, 3(3), 459–472. Bieleke, M., Gogol, K., Goetz, T., Daniels, L., & Pekrun, R. (2021). The AEQ-S: A short version of the Achievement Emotions Questionnaire. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 65, Article 101940. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101940 Bolger, N., DeLongis, A., Kessler, R. C., & Wethington, E. (1989). The contagion of stress across multiple roles. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 51(1), 175 183. https://doi.org/10.2307/352378 Boudreau, C., MacIntyre, P. D., & Dewaele, J. M. (2018). Enjoyment and anxiety in second language communication: An idiodynamic approach. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 8(1), 149-170. Chatterjee, S., & Simonoff, J. S. (2013). Handbook of regression analysis. New York, NY: Wiley. Crookall, D. & Oxford, R. L. (1991). Dealing with anxiety: some practical activities for language learner and teacher trainees. In E.K. Horwitz & D.J. Young (Eds.). Language Anxiety: From Theory and Research to Classroom Implications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 141-150. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2008). Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. New York: Harper Perennial. Dewaele, J. & MacIntyre, P. (2016). Foreign Language Enjoyment and Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety: The Right and Left Feet of the Language Learner. In P. MacIntyre, T. Gregersen & S. Mercer (Ed.), Positive Psychology in SLA (pp. 215-236). Bristol, Blue Ridge Summit: Multilingual Matters. https://doi. org/10.21832/9781783095360-010 Dewaele, J. -M. (2021). The predictors of exam performance of Kazakh university students and secondary school pupils learning Turkish: An exploratory investigation. ITL Journal of Applied Linguistics 173(1). 94–119. Dewaele, J.-M., & Alfawzan, M. (2018). Does the effect of enjoyment outweigh that of anxiety in foreign language performance? Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 8(1), 21–45. https://doi. org/10.14746/SSLLT.2018.8.1.2 Pa ge 13 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp Am. J. Hum. Psychol. 1(1) 6-15, 2023 Dewaele, J.-M., & Li, C. (2020). Emotions in second language acquisition: A critical review and research agenda. Foreign Language World, 196(1), 34–49. Dewaele, J.-M., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2014). The two faces of Janus? Anxiety and enjoyment in the foreign language classroom. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 4(2), 237–274. https://doi. org/10.14746/ssllt.2014.4.2.5 Dewaele, J.-M., Botes, E. & Greiff, S. (2022) Sources and effects of Foreign Language Enjoyment, Anxiety and Boredom: a structural equation modelling approach. Studies in Second Language Acquisition. https://doi. org/10.31234/osf.io/d2axt Dewaele, J.-M., Chen, X., Padilla, A. M., & Lake, J. (2019). The Flowering of Positive Psychology in Foreign Language Teaching and Acquisition Research. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02128 Eastwood, J., Frischen, A., Fenske, M. J., & Smilek, D. (2012). The Unengaged Mind. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(5), 482–495. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612456044 Ekman, P., & Scherer, K. R. (1982). Emotion in the human face. Cambridge University Press Fahlman, S. A., Mercer, K. B., Gaskovski, P., Eastwood, A. E., & Eastwood, J. D. (2009). Does a lack of life meaning cause boredom? Results from psychometric, longitudinal, and experimental analyses. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 28(3), 307-340. https:// doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2009.28.3.307 Fredrickson, B. (2003). The Value of Positive Emotions. American Scientist, 91(4), 330. https://doi. org/10.1511/2003.26.330 Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218 226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218 Fredrickson, B. L. (2006). The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. In M. Csikszentmihalyi, and I. S. Csikszentmihalyi (eds), A life worth living: Contributions to positive psychology (pp. 85–103). Oxford University Press. Fredrickson, B. L., & Cohn, M. A. (2008). Positive emotions. In M. Lewis, J. M. Haviland-Jones, & L. F. Barrett (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 777–796). The Guilford Press. Frenzel, A. C., Becker-Kurz, B., Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., & Lüdtke, O. (2018). Emotion transmission in the classroom revisited: A reciprocal effects model of teacher and student enjoyment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(5), 628–639. https://doi.org/10.1037/ edu0000228 Frenzel, A. C., Goetz, T., Lüdtke, O., Pekrun, R., & Sutton, R. E. (2009). Emotional transmission in the classroom: Exploring the relationship between teacher and student enjoyment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(3), 705–716. https://doi.org/10.1037/ a0014695 Frenzel, A.C., Thrash, T.M., Pekrun, R., & Goetz, G. (2007). Achievement emotions in Germany and China: A cross-cultural validation of the academic emotions questionnaire - mathematics. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 38(3), 302-309. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/0022022107300276 Goetz, T., Frenzel, C. A., Pekrun, R., Hall, N. C., & Lüdtke, O. (2007). Between- and within-domain relations of students’ academic emotions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(4), 715–733. https://doi. org/10.1037/0022-0663.99.4.715 Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J. T., & Rapson, R. L. (1992). Primitive emotional contagion. In M. S. Clark (Ed.), Emotion and social behavior (pp. 151–177). Sage Publications, Inc. Hennig-Thurau, T., Groth, M., Paul, M., & Gremler, D. D. (2006). Are All Smiles Created Equal? How Emotional Contagion and Emotional Labor Affect Service Relationships. Journal of Marketing, 70(3), 58– 73. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkg.70.3.058 Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety. The Modern Language Journal, 70(2), 125–132. https://doi. org/10.2307/327317 Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety. The Modern Language Journal, 70(2), 125–132. https://doi. org/10.2307/327317 Izard, C. E. (1977). Human Emotions. New York, NY: Plenum Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899- 2209-0 James, G., Witten, D., Hastie, T., & Tibshirani, R. (eds.). (2013). An introduction to statistical learning: with applications in R. New York: Springer. Jiang, Y., & Dewaele, J.-M. (2019). How unique is the foreign language classroom enjoyment and anxiety of Chinese EFL learners? System, 82, 13–25. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.system.2019.02.017 Jin, Y., & Zhang, L.-J. (2018). The dimensions of foreign language classroom enjoyment and their effect on foreign language achievement. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. https://doi.org/10 .1080/13670050.2018.1526253 Kruk, M., & Zawodniak, J. (2018). Boredom in practical English language classes: Insights from interview data. In L. Szymanski, J. Zawodniak, A. Łobodziec, & M. Smoluk (Eds.), Interdisciplinary views on the English language, literature and culture (pp. 77e191). Zielona Gora: Uniwersytet Zielonog orski. Kruk, M., Elahi Shirvan, M., Pawlak, M., Taherian, T., & Yazdanmehr, E. (2022). Potential sources of foreign language learning boredom: A Q methodology study. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 12(1). 3758. https:// doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2022.12.1.3 Li, C. & Dewaele, J.-M. (2021). How classroom environment and general grit predict foreign language classroom anxiety of Chinese EFL students. Journal for the Psychology of Language Learning, 3(2). 86–98. Li, C. (2021). A Control–Value Theory approach to boredom in English classes among university students Pa ge 14 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp Am. J. Hum. Psychol. 1(1) 6-15, 2023 in China. The Modern Language Journal, 105(1), 317–334 Li, C. (2021). A Control–Value Theory approach to boredom in English classes among university students in China. The Modern Language Journal, 105(1), 317–334 Li, C., & Han, Y. (2022). The predictive effects of foreign language anxiety, enjoyment, and boredom on learning outcomes in online English classrooms. Modern Foreign Languages, 45(2), 207–219 Li, C., & Wei, L. (2023). Anxiety, enjoyment, and boredom in language learning amongst junior secondary students in rural China: How do they contribute to L2 achievement?. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 45(1), 93-108. https://doi.org/10.1017/ S0272263122000031 Li, C., Dewaele, J. M., & Jiang, G. (2020). The complex relationship between classroom emotions and EFL achievement in China. Applied Linguistics Review, 11(3), 485-510. https://doi.org/10.1515/applirev-2018-0043 MacIntyre, P. D. (1999). Language anxiety: A review of literature for language teachers. In D. J. Young (Ed.), Affect in foreign language and second language learning (pp. 24-43). New York: McGraw Hill Companies. MacIntyre, P. D. (2017). An overview of language anxiety research and trends in its development. In C. Gkonou, M. Daubney & J. -M. Dewaele (eds). New insights into language anxiety: Theory, research and educational implications (pp. 11–30). Bristol: Multilingual Matters. MacIntyre, P. D. (2017). An overview of language anxiety research and trends in its development. In C. Gkonou, M. Daubney & J. -M. Dewaele (eds). New insights into language anxiety: Theory, research and educational implications (pp. 11–30). Bristol: Multilingual Matters. MacIntyre, P. D., & Gardner, R. C. (1994). The Subtle Effects of Language Anxiety on Cognitive Processing in the Second Language. Language Learning, 44(2), 283–305. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1994. tb01103.x MacIntyre, P. D., Dewaele, J.-M., Macmillan, N., & Li, C. (2019). The emotional underpinnings of Gardner’s Attitudes and Motivation Test Battery. In P. D. MacIntyre, & A. Al-Hoorie (Eds.), Contemporary language motivation theory: 60 years since Gardner and Lambert (1959) (pp. 57-79). Bristol: Multilingual Matters. MacIntyre, P. D., & Vincze, L. (2017). Positive and negative emotions underlie motivation for L2 learning. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 7(1), 61-88. https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2017.7.1.4 Moskowitz, S., & Dewaele, J. M. (2021). Is teacher happiness contagious? A study of the link between perceptions of language teacher happiness and student attitudes. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 15(2), 117–130. https://doi.org/10.1080/1 7501229.2019.1707205 Nett, U. E., Goetz, T., & Daniels, L. M. (2010). What to do when feeling bored? Students’ strategies for coping with boredom. Learning & Individual Differences, 20(6), 626–638. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. lindif.2010.09.004 O’Brien, R. M. (2007). A caution regarding rules of thumb for variance inflation factors. Quality & Quantity, 41, 673-690. Pekrun, R. (2006). The Control-Value Theory of Achievement Emotions: Assumptions, Corollaries, and Implications for Educational Research and Practice. Educational Psychology Review, 18(4), 315–341. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-006-9029-9 Pekrun, R., Frenzel, A. C., Goetz, T., & Perry, R. P. (2007). The control-value theory of achievement emotions: An integrative approach to emotions in education. In P. A. Schutz & R. Pekrun (Eds.), Emotion in education (pp. 13–36). Elsevier Academic Press. https://doi. org/10.1016/B978-012372545-5/50003-4 Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., Daniels, L. M., Stupnisky, R. H., & Perry, R. P. (2010). Boredom in achievement settings: Exploring control–value antecedents and performance outcomes of a neglected emotion. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(3), 531–549. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019243 Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., Titz, W., & Perry, R. P. (2002). Positive emotions in education. In E. Frydenberg (Ed.), Beyond coping: Meeting goals, visions, and challenges (pp. 149–174). Oxford, UK: Elsevier. Plutchik, R. (1980). A general psychoevolutionary theory of emotion. In R. Plutchik & H. Kellerman (eds.), Emotion: Theory, research and experience, Theories of emotion (pp. 3–33). New York: Academic Press. Putwain, D. W., Becker, S., Symes, W., & Pekrun, R. (2018). Reciprocal relations between students’ academic enjoyment, boredom, and achievement over time. Learning and Instruction, 54, 73–81. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.0 Ruthig, J. C., Perry, R. P., Hladkyj, S., Hall, N. C., Pekrun, R., & Chipperfield, J. G. (2008). Perceived control and emotions: Interactive effects on performance in achievement settings. Social Psychology of Education, 11, 161-180. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-007-9040-0 Schoenewolf, G. (1990). Emotional contagion: Behavioral induction in individuals and groups. Modern Psychoanalysis, 15(1), 49–61. Schutz, P. A. (2014). Inquiry on Teachers’ Emotion. Educational Psychologist, 49(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/00461520.2013.864955 Seligman, M. (2018). PERMA and the building blocks of well-being. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 13(4), 333–335. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2018.1 437466 Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55(1), 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.5 Spielberger, C. D. (1983). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Consulting Psychologists Modern Language Journal, 70, 125-132. Sutton, R.E., and Wheatley, K.F. (2003). Teachers’ emotions and teaching: A review of the literature and directions for future research. Educational Psychology Review, 15, 327–58. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1026131715856 Pa ge 15 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajhp Am. J. Hum. Psychol. 1(1) 6-15, 2023 Swain, M. (2013). The inseparability of cognition and emotion in second language learning. Language teaching, 46(2), 195-207. https://doi.org/10.1017/ S0261444811000486 Talebzadeh, N., Shirvan, M. E., & Khajavy, G. H. (2020). Dynamics and mechanisms of foreign language enjoyment contagion. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 14(5), 399–420. https://doi.org/10.1080 /17501229.2019.1614184 Teimouri, Y. (2018). Differential roles of shame and guilt in L2 learning: How bad is bad? The Modern Language Journal, 102(4), 632e652 Teimouri, Y., Goetze, J., & Plonsky, L. (2019). Second language anxiety and achievement: A meta-analysis. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 41(2), 363-387. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0272263118000311 Tsang, A., & Dewaele, J. M. (2023). The relationships between young FL learners’ classroom emotions (anxiety, boredom, & enjoyment), engagement, and FL proficiency. Applied Linguistics Review, (0). https:// doi.org/10.1515/applirev-2022-0077 Westman, M., & Vinokur, A. (1998). Unravelling the relationship of distress levels within couples: common stressors, empathic reactions or crossover via social interaction? Human Relations, 51(2), 137-156. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1023/A: 1016910118568.