In Search of a Boundless Ocean and New Skies: Human Creativity is a Matter of A‘rna‘l, Jihad, and Ijtihad Yusuf Waghid The stars tremble in their courses over man’s upward march lest this fallen star should become the perfect moon!’ The central question this article addresses is whether human beings can act creatively. I shall first tackle the related question of how God’s cre- ativity is distinguished from that of humanity and then move on to the more complex question of the nature of human creativity. God’s Creativity is Different from That of Humankind The Qur’an relates rubb (lord) to khalq (creation): He said: “Our Lord [rubb] is He who gives to everythmg its . . . [khalq] . . . and further gave (it) guidance. (Qur’an 2050)’ The noun khalq is considered by lexicographers to be derived from the root verb khaluqu (to create, to make, to originate)? And if God (ul Khdliq) created or orignated, then khaZuqa is a verb that signifies His cre- ative ability. According to al &@b, h Z 4 is used to describe the cre- ativity (ib&) of a thing without imitation (ikhtizd’): He assigns this role of khulq to God (ul K k l i q ) ? For a1 Tabataba‘i “the God of the universe is one, He alone created and He alone manages it.’“ In fact, the link between God as rabb and khalq is accentuated by al Tabafi, who considers rubb to be “the owner to whom the creation . . . belongs.’“ Moreover, this mean- Yusuf Waghid is associated with the Department of the Philosophy o f Education, Univer- sity of the Western Cape, South Africa. 354 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 13:3 ing of khalq is clarified in terms of ib&, which is derived from abda’a (to originate, to innovate, to bring into existence without the “similitude of anything pre-existing),”* which, according to al Raghib, means without imitation? What follows from this is that God‘s (creation) is recognized by creativity, which is averse to imitation. Qur’an 2: 185 claims that guidance (h&) has been given to humanity (a1 ncrS), the plural fonn of a1 insdn.“ Now, if one considers that the knowl- edge of God is creative, then humanity is the recipient of creative guidance. Does it follow necessarily from this that human beings have to be creative? To answer this question, I shall look briefly at humanity’s nature, purpose, and relationship with the universe. Humanity has accepted the amdnah (trust) that was rejected by other creations of God: We did indeed offer the Trust to the heavens and the earth and the mountains. But they refused to undertake it, being afraid thereof. But man undertook it. (Qur’an 33:72) In this verse, trust refers to the volition and intellect (‘aql) of humanity,” both of which the individual uses to make sense of God‘s guidance. Of course, scholars have interpreted amdnuh in various ways. Abdullah refers to it as the commandments of Allah. However, such an explanation is implausible because everything in the heavens and the Earth functions according to the “commandments of Allah,”” whereas the verse states specifically that the heavens and the Earth refused to accept the amcinah. Now, the application of volition and intellect implies, necessarily, that humanity’s interpretation of the guidance of the Qur’an has to be innovative and creative. Intellect refers to the ability to understand, reason, and learn to adapt to new situations”-in other words, to be creative, imaginative, and innovative. Also, drawing on Abdullah, ‘aql is considered as the suitable tool for understanding revealed knowledge and acquiring new forms of it through reflection on Allah’s signs in the self, the history of past generations and the uni- verse.“ In his a1 Mizdnfi Tafsir a1 Qur‘dn, al Taba-tabii? also depicts ‘aql as denoting “comprehension and understanding . . . by which man differenti- ates between good and bad, distinguishes fact from fiction, and discerns truth and fal~ehood.”’~ For him, ‘aql is that “which benefits a man in his religion, and leads him to true knowledge and virtuous deeds,”I6 as opposed to “idiocy, foolishness and ignorance.”” He argues that the very foundation of human life ought to be constituted by ‘uql, namely, “correct perception and proper thinking, in all its affairs.”18 Hence, because the use of ‘uql is central to human practices and it also underpins creative human activity, humanity has the capacity to be creative. Waghid: Human Creativity 355 Moreover, regarding the creation of human beings, it is stated that: When I have fashioned him (in due proportion) and breathed into him My spirit [rii!~], fall ye down in obeisance unto him.” (Qur’an 15:29) The creation of humanity’s physical form has been superseded by the fact that God endowed each individual with a rzih (soul or con~ciousness).’~ And, because God, in His capacity as the Creator, “created man in the best of moulds’” and endowed each individual with a soul, the very nature of the soul is potentially creative. In support of this, Iqbal claims “that the essential nature of the soul is directive (or creative), as it proceeds from the directive energy of God.”” In addition, if the nature of humanity is inherently creative, its purpose on Earth is to bring out that latent creativity. In other words, each individ- ual should pursue actively hisher capacity for innovative action. In support of this claim, the Qur’an states: It is He [God] who hath made you (His) agents, inheritors of the earth: He has raised you in ranks, some above others that He may try you in the gifts He has given you. (Qur’an 6165) The term khald’ifal ard is the plural form of khalifat a1 ard, which denotes one who has gained possession of (inherited) the Earth and acts according to God‘s guidance.” And, if one acts according to God’s cre- ative guidance, then one’s very actions should be creative. In fact, Abdullah claims the concept of khalifah also refers to one who “emanci- pates” himselfherself from all kinds of Now, if one considers that “slavery” is a term that depicts the lack of “independence” of thought and “individuality”” experienced by dominated individuals, then Mus- lims (in accordance with this idea of khalgah) have to wean themselves from dependency, defined as that which confines and hampers innovative and creative thinking. Furthermore, the relationship between human beings and the universe also demands that human beings be creative. Why? The Qur’anic idea of the universe and the relationship that ought to exist between it and human beings is explained as follows: It is God who hath created the heavens and the earth and sendeth down rain from the skies, and with it bringeth out fruits where- with to feed you: it is He who hath made the ships subject to you that they may sail through the sea by His Command: and the rivers has He made subject to you. And He has made subject to you the sun and the moon both diligently pursuing their courses: and the Night and the Day hath He (also) made subject to you. (Q~r’an 1432-33) 356 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 13:3 What follows from the above is that the entire universe and its contents were made to be explored by humanity. Now, if one considers that the uni- verse and its contents function according to His command, then their oper- ation is creative. In this regard, the Qur’an claims that God “adds to Creation as He pleases,”2‘ which means that creation by God is a creative act, referred to by Iqbal as “a growing Universe, capable of increase and extension.”26 And, if the universe and its contents are to be explored by humanity, creativity cannot be denied from their actions. In support of this, Iqbal claims that this Universe . . . which is an open, unfinished entity, constantly undergoing increase and extension (i.e., being creative), provides a stimulating field for man’s free and creative activity through which, on the one hand, he conquers the world of Nature and, on the other, brings to perfection the latent powers of his own indi- viduality.” Moreover, al R&i contends that the verb khuluqu, from which khulq is derived, is related to God‘s knowledge (‘ilm).28 This makes sense, if one considers that God knows how to create (i.e., that He has ‘ilm) His cre- ations. Ibn Kathir emphasizes the fact that God alone is the Creator (ul Khdliq) to whom all creativity belongsP Consequently, human practices have to be constituted by khulq (a concept that incorporates ibM [creativ- ity]), for the reason that God‘s knowledge (the source of human practices) is linked to khulq. Moreover, in a hadith narrated by Abii Hurayrah, the Prophet is reported to have related the concept of khulq to God’s knowl- edge.Jo Hence, because God‘s knowledge constitutes the major source of human practices and, in turn, this knowledge is linked to khulq (as ibdis’), the latter (in the form of ibM) can be linked to human practices. Bearing in mind that human practices are constituted by khulq, it would appear as if the creativity of human beings, as in the case of God, is also perfect. This is certainly not the case. The fact that humanity was created by God and therefore has the status of makhlziq (created),” implies, necessarily, that a distinction exists between the creativity of God (the A!z.sun a1 Khdiqin [the Best of Creators]”) and that of a created (makhlziq) human being. In essence, all knowledge comes from God, and human beings are the recipients of His knowledge. Consequently, a link exists between God’s role as Creator and human beings’ status as created. This makes sense if one considers Abdullah’s explication of the status of “God‘s khu- lifuh.” Drawing on the ideas of a1 Razi, al Tabaii, al Taba.tababi and a1 Ququbi, he sees a link between God and human beings and argues that khalsfah refers to human beings who behave and act according to God’s guidance.33 And, considering the fact that creativity constitutes God’s guidance, “creative activity” (in order to understand His guidance) can- not be precluded from human practices. In support of this, Iqbal asserts Waghid: Human Creativity 357 cogently that if creativity were denied to human beings, they “could not attach any meaning to the word creation which has a meaning for . . . [them] only in the context o f . . . [their] capacity for [initiative and] orig- inal action.”” However, the creativity of human beings is not perfect, but rather that of a‘mcil (effort), jihad (striving), and ijtihad (intellectual exertion). A‘miil, Jihad, and Ijtihad: Creative Human Practices I alluded to the fact that only God‘s knowledge is complete. By implication, creativity (ib&) and God‘s knowledge thereof are perfect. However, this does not imply that creativity, as articulated by human beings, is (and can ever be) perfect. This is because human knowledge, according to Qur’an 17:85, is “only a little” or, in other words, limited. I shall show later on that such actions as fahm (understanding), fiqh (knowledge), andfikr (thinking) are used exclusively by individuals who are being creative and are not attributed to God alone who, for example, does not think or presume,35 as the Creator and when He “orders.” In fact, Ibn Kathir regards God’s creation (mukhlz7q) as distinctly different from His role as Creator (a1 Khdliq).” This claim also finds support in a hadith: When a religious man is asked, “Who is the most learned person,” it is better for him to attribute or entrust absolute knowledge to Allah and to say, “Allah is the most learned than anybody else.”37 What are the creative practices through which human actions can be shaped? First of all: And obey God and His Apostle. And God is well-acquainted with all that ye do [i.e., a‘md or actions]. (Qur’an 58:13) In this particular verse, reference is made to humanity’s p c t i c e s (a‘mdl or actions”) in conforming to the Qur’an and Sunnah. What follows from this is that human beings practice and develop their actions through a‘miil. Anas narrates a hadith, according to which the Prophet said: He who goes forth in search (to do a‘md) of Allah’s knowledge is in Allah’s path till he return^.^ Hence, a‘mcIl is a creative practice. Moreover, human actions desired by God articulate &qq (truth): That is indeed the truth from thy Lord. And God is not unmindful of what ye do (ta‘maliin) [my emphasis]. (Qur’an 2 149) 358 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 13:3 In fact, in Suhih a1 Bukhciri, a hadith is narrated that describes the ah1 a1 ‘ilm (the learned men, namely, those who pursue creative practices) as people who do u’md as a means to articulate truth: A group of my followers will remah victorious in their struggle in the cause of Truth. Those are the [uhl a1 ‘ilm] (my emphasis).“ Regarding the relation between u‘md and ‘udl (justice), it is stated Be just: that is next to piety: And fear God. For God is well- acquainted with all that ye do [my emphasis}. (Qur’an 5 8 ) What follows from the aforementioned is that desirous human actions articulate truth and justice. This link between human actions, truth, and justice is supported by al-Attas, for whom justice is related to order:’ In his words, “justice means a harmonious [orderly] condition . . . whereby everything [such as a human practice] is in its right and proper place.’** By implication, creative human action articulates justice. Hence, desirous human actions include creative human practices in the pursuit of truth, jus- tice, and creativity. Second, during the period when Muslims were still in Makkah (prior to their emigration to Madinah), the Qur’an constantly exhorted them to make a tremendous effort to disseminate and to implement the Qur’anic guidance (h&) in their practices. In other words, they were urged by the Prophet to perform jihad And who does more wrong than he who invents a lie against God or rejects the Truth when it reaches him? . . . And those who strive in our couse uuhadu, the plural of juhuda from which jihad is derived], we will certainly guide them to our paths . . . [my emphasis]. (Qur’an 29:68-69 [a Makkan revelation]) Why is jihad not related exclusively to war or fighting? I contend that jihad is synonymous with a creative practice of knowledge acquisition and articulation. According to al RZighib, jihad means the exertion of one’s ability, which is of three kinds: to strive against a visible enemy, to repel the devil, and to struggle against oneself.“ Moreover, Lane defines jihad as “the using or exerting of one’s utmost power, efforts, endeavours or ability, in contending with an object of disapprobation.’“ However, a1 E & b also depicts jihad as a practice that “articulates an idea (rci’i) or concept @kr).’M5 Hence, this word cannot be used exclusively for war or fighting. In my view, jihad is also an educative practice to devel- op, through tremendous effort, the notion of Islamic education. In al BuriiSiy’s Tufsir R$I a1 Buyan, under a discussion of God‘s umr and khalq, he asserts that an understanding of God‘s knowledge (ma‘rifat Allah) only becomes transparent through jihad, here defined as constant intellectual striving., Waghid Human Creativity 359 Why is jihad a necessary human practice? The Qur’an, in 29~68-69 and 22:78, establishes a link between jihad and truth. In addition, a1 Bwfisiy accentuates the importance of jihad in attaining yaqin (certainty) and darajdt a1 yaqin (degrees of certainty).“ And, if one considers that certainty is linked to truth,” it can be said that jihad is constituted by truth. In his a1 Mizdn, al Tabs-taba‘i uses jihad to mean “reviving the truth.”49 In Sunan Abi Diiwzid, ’Imriin ibn Husayn reported that the Prophet said: “A section of my community will continue to fight for the . . . [haqq or truth].”so Moreover, the practice of jihad is also designed to articulate justice: And those who strive (jihad) in Our cause, we will certainly guide them to our paths: for verily God is with those who do right (a syn- onym for justice [‘adfl’”’). (Qur’an 29:69) Considering that jihad is pursued to attain truth and justice and that both truth and justice are attained through creative human actions, jihad is also a creative human practice. Third, Qur’an 483 assigns the practice of ijtihad (defined by Lane as “exerting the faculties of the mind to the utmost’”’) to the filfi a1 amr, namely, the prophets or the individuals who possess ‘ilm (knowledge) as stated in chapter 3: When there comes to them some matter. . . they divulge it. If they had only referred it to the Apostle, or to those charged with author- ity (zilii a1 amr) among them, the proper investigators (yostanbitfin) would have tested it. . . [my emphasis]. In E j a1 Ariis, al Husayrii describes yastanbitik as “those individuals who search out for the meaning of something by means of ijtihad (intellec- tual exertion). In fact, Asad describes such individuals as those “engaged in obtaining intelligen~e,”~’ namely, the mujtahidh (those who practice ijti- had). In this way, the Qur’an supports the idea that ijtihad is a practice designed to uncover the meanings of God’s guidance. This understanding also finds support in the ideas of Daud, for whom “every epistemological endeavour is . . . an ijtihad.”” In addition, the famous hadith dealing with Mu’adh ibn Jabal, the Prophet’s appointed governor of Yaman (a province in Arabia), vindi- cates the importance of ijtihad as a human practice. In this hadith, the Prophet praised his governor’s response that, in the absence of evidence from the Qur’an and Sunnah, he would do his utmost to form his own judgment (ajtahidu, from which ijtihad is derived).” This hadith illus- trates an important facet of the Companions’ understanding of both the Qur’anic guidance and the Sunnah: The fact that Mu‘Bdh used “his own judgment” based on the Qur’an and the Sunnah leads to the natural con- clusion that he interpreted the revealed sources of knowledge. In this 360 way, ijtihad recognizes the need for flexibility in the interpretation of what is found in these two sources. This claim is supported by Rahman, who posits that Qur’anic interpretation and understanding cannot be “absolutely monolithic.”s6 He substantiates the importance of flexibility by referring to reports that the Companions had different understand- ings of Qur’anic verses, which means that an insistence on “absolute uniformity and interpretation is therefore neither possible nor desir- able.”” In reality, such different and varied understandings create space for flexibility and show that a certain interpretation, once accepted, is not impervious to change. Abdullah also claims that an “exact [abso- lute] translation of the Qur’anic text is considered to be out of the ques- tion,”% for one can translate its meaning but not the Qur’an itself?9 Such a view allows for greater flexibility in the quest to understand the meaning of the Qur’an. In essence, ijtihad is a creative human practice that provides for flexi- bility in understanding the revealed and “nonrevealed” sources of lcnowl- edge. Moreover, because ijtihad is a human practice, human actions cannot be absolute and perfect, but rather are practices constituted by creativity. Furthermore, Asad identifies practitioners of ijtihad (mjtuhidiin) as those who are intent on eliciting truth.6o Also, the primary meaning of truth is to become “suitable to the requirements of wisdom, justice, right or rightness . . . [my emphasis].’“’ By implication, ijtihad is a practice that seeks to artic- ulate truth and justice. Considering that justice, in the words of al-Attas (who links justice to order, Le., *‘orderliness”)@ “means a harmonious con- dition . . . whereby everything is in its right and proper place,’* it follows that ijtihad is a creative practice that seeks to articulate truth and justice. Thus far, I have established the liis between creative human prac- tices (u‘mijl, jihad, and ijtihad) and their articulation of truth ( k q q ) and justice (‘adl), I shall now look at some of the salient epistemological Underpinnings that, invariably, impact on these creative human practices. It is my contention that the epistemological underpinnings of rqfakkur and its synonyms ( f i q h , f u h , mu‘rifuh, ‘ilm, and hikmah) seek to articulate truth and justice in human practices. The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 13:3 Tqfakkur and Its Links with Creative Practices Thus far, I have argued that cmtive human practices (e.g., a‘rPlcZI, jihad, and ijtihad) seek to articulate truth and justice. I shall now argue that these practices sve underpinned by the notion of tufukkur (thought). In tum, I shall link the creative practice of tafakhr to the application o f f i q h f f h (right understanding), ‘iZm/mu‘r~uh (knowledge), and &nuh. In this way, I hope to establish further the link between creative human practices, truth, and justice. Drawing on h e ’ s definition that a ‘ d means “action of the (human) mind’- and bearing in mind that u ‘ d , jihad, and ijtihad azle all pctices that seek to articulate truth and justice, it follows that these practices are Waghid: Human Creativity 361 actuated by means of “actions of the mind.” What are these actions? First, the Prophet is described as the expounder of Qur’anic guidance: And We have sent down unto thee (also) the Message; that thou mayest explain clearly to men what is sent for them, and that they may give thought [tqfakkur] (my emphasis). (Qur’an 16:44 [late Makkan revelation]) This verse makes it clear that Qur’anic guidance is not just a matter of unquestioning acceptance, but also one of thought, a concept that allows for questioning and challenging. But, how does one give thought (tafukkara)? In Qur’an 45:13, dydt (signs that refer to revealed and nonrevealed knowledge) are connected to the verb tafakkuru: And He has made subservient to you, [as a gift] from Hismelf, all that is in the heavens and on earth: in this, behold, there are (dydt) messagesG for people who think! [my ernpha~is].~ This veme exhorts individuals to embark on tafukkur, by which is meant the ability to reflect and think while pursuing the understanding of the dydt of God. Bearing in mind that u‘r.mil, jihad, and ijtihad are all practices that seek to understand revealed and nonrevealed knowledge, and that tqfakkur is also regarded as an action designed to acquire an understanding of dydt, it can be claimed that creative practices are constituted by tufakkur. Hence, tqfukkur means to reflect and also to mold thoughts in a creative manner in the pursuit of practicing Islam. Second, dydt are coupled with the verbfuqiha: And He is it who has brought you (all) into being out of one liv- ing entity, and (has appointed for each of you) a time-limit (on Earth) and a resting-place (after death): clearly, indeed, have We spelled lfassalu, defined as “to present in a creative order’*’] these messages [Wdt] unto people who can grasp the truth lyafqahiin, which is derived from faqihu and defined as “to understand the truthq.68 In this verse, dydt are depicted as having “creative order.” In other words, dydt dealing with the origin of human creation from one living entity, followed by a description of humanity’s sojourn on Earth and its abode in the hereafter, are presented creatively. What follows from this is that an understanding of the truth of Qur’anic revelation Cfaqiha) pre- supposes a creative understanding of dydt. It is not surprising to note that Sahih al Bukhiri mentions a hadith that considers those who have faqihu (the right understanding) of the Qur’an as having gained the bounty of God: 362 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 13:3 If Allah wants to do good to a person, he makes him comprehend (yufaqqah, derived fromfaqiha) the religion.69 Bearing in mind that faqiha, like tafakkur, is linked to a creative under- standing of revealed and nonrevealed knowledge, the creative actions of a‘mdl, jihad, and ijtihad have to be constituted by fi4h (right under- standing). Third, the Qur’an is replete with verses that link ciyiit to ya‘laminm (derived from ‘alima, which, according to Lane, means “to know or to become acquainted with”).” For example, it is stated that: He it is who has made the sun a [source ofl radiant light and the moon a light [reflected], and has determined for its phases so that you might know how to compute the years and to measure [time). None of this has God created without [an inner] truth. Clearly does He spell out these messages (Cryczt) unto people of [innate] knowl- edge (my emphasis). (Qur’an 27:52)’2 In fact, ‘ d i m (derived from ‘alima) is a term applied to human action, as well as being a “faculty f m l y rooted in the mind.’”-’ It follows from this that human actions, such as to give thought, can be linked to the action of an ‘ d i m (“one who does according to his kn~wledge”).’~ Consequently, the . practices of an ‘ d i m cannot be thoughtless. For this reason, an ‘ d i m is said to possess hikmah (wisdom), which, according to Lane, signifies that notion that restrains or prevents thoughtless action.” And, if an ‘ d i m has to acquire knowledge about ayat, and if an understanding of the latter requires effort (a‘mdl), striving (jihad), and continuous intellectual exertion (ijtihad), it can be said that these creative practices are guided by the actions of an ‘ d i m . It is therefore not surprising that an individual’s capacity (as ‘ d i m in order to be creative through a‘md, jihad, and ijtihad) is considered as one of the reasons for humanity’s “unique position’”6 and, as claimed by al- Attas, “the most valuable and distinctive gift of man.”” In addition, a1 Tah-taba? also considers ‘ilm (a synonym of ma‘rifahn) as the foundation of hikmuh (wisdom) andfahm (understanding).79 Hence, the practices of an ‘ d i m are constituted by the a‘md of wisdom and understanding. It follows that an ‘ d i m is one who embarks upon creative practices in order to understand both revealed and nonrevealed knowledge. Hence, actions of the mind, such as that of an ‘ d i m , seek to articulate truth and jus- tice in creative practices. Such a view is supported by a hadith, narrated by Ibn ‘AbbZs, in which the Prophet is reported to have prayed to God to bestow knowledge (‘allimhu, derived from ‘alima) of the Qur’an on Ibn ‘AbbZs.” In another hadith, Abii Dad$ reports that the Prophet regarded an ‘ d i m as superior to a worshipper: The superiority of the learned man (‘dim ) over the devout man is like that of the full moon over the rest of the stars. The learned are Waghid Human Creativity 363 the heir of the prophets who leave an inheritance. . . only of knowl- edge, and he who acquires it, acquires an abundant portion?' From this hadith, it is evident that the early Muslims practiced thinking and understanding, both of which are essential aspects of creative human practices. In conclusion, I have argued that God's creativity is complete, whereas creative human action is one of u'miil, jihad, and ijtihad. Creative human actions are necessary in order to articulate truth and jus- tice, the concepts that link up conceptually with tufukkur and its syn- onyms, such as fiqh, fuhrn, and mu'rifah. Without creative actions, there would be no scope for innovation and flexibility in thinking and under- standing. Endnotes 1. K. G. Sayidain, Iqbal's Educational Philosophy (Lahore: Tufail Art Printers, 1977), 78. 2. A. Y. Ali, The Holy Qur'an: Text, Translation, and Commentary (Qatar: Publications of the Presidency of Islamic Courts and Affairs, 1946). 799. All Qur'anic citations in this article are taken from this source, unless otherwise indicated. 3. J. M. Cowan, ed., Hans Wehr: A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic (New York: Spoken Languages Services, Inc., 1976), 258. 4. A1 RBghib al IsfahBni, a1 Mufraclritfi Gharib a1 Qur'dn (Beirut: DBr a1 Ma'rifah, n.d.), 158. 5. Ibid., 158. 6. A1 Tabatabii'i, al Mizdn fi Tafsir a1 Qur'cin, trans. S. A. Rizvi (Tehran: Offset Press Inc., 1990). 2:269. 7. AbO Ja'far Mubammad ibn Jafir al Tabafi, The Commentary of the Qur'an, ed. and trans. J. Cooper et al. (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1987), 1:64. 8. E. W . Lane, Arabic-English Lexicbn, vols. I and 2 (Cambridge, UK: Islamic Text Society Trust, 1984). 166. 9. Ibid., 536. 10. W. M. Nor Wan Daud, The Concept of Knowledge in Islam and Its Implications 1 1. M . Asad, The Message of the Qur'an (Gibraltar: Diir al Andalus, 1980). 653; Daud, 12. A. S. Abdullah, Educational Theory: A Qur'anic Outlook (Makkah: Umm al Qurah 13. K. Harber, G. Payton et al., eds., Heineman English Dictionary (London: Heine- 14. Abdullah, Educational Theory, 108. 15. Al TabatabB'i, a1 Mizcin, 2:279. 16. Ibid., 445. 17. Ibid., 4:42. 18. Ibid., 3:273. 19. Asad, Message of the Qur'an, 386. 20. Ali, The Holy Qur'an, 1759. 21. Iqbal, Reconstruction, 103. 22. Abdullah, Educations[ Theory, 49. 23. Ibid., 72. for Education in a Developing Country (New York Mansell Publishing Ltd., 1989). 15. Concept of Knowledge, 18. University: Educational and Psychological Research Center, 1982), 54. man Educational Books, 1979). 566. 364 The American Journal of klamic Social Sciences 13:3 24. 1. H. Qureshi, "Islam and the West-Past, Present, and Future," in The Challenge 25. Ali, The Holy Qur'un. 1 152. 26. Saiyidain, Iqburs Educutionul Philosophy, 69. 27. Ibid.. 70. 28. Fakhr a1 Din p y a ' a1 R&i, Mufdtih al Ghuyb (Cairo: al Mqtba'ah al Husayniyah, 29. Muhammad 'Ah a1 Sabiini, Mukhrusur Tu$W Ibn Kuthir (Beirut: Dilr a1 Qur'iln al 30. M. M. Khan, trans., Suhih ul Bukhciri (Beirut: D& a1 Arabia Publishing, 1985), 3 1. Lane, Arubic-English Lexicon. 803. 32. Qur'an 23:14 and 37:125. 33. Abdullah. Educutionul Theory, 49. 34. Saiyidain, 1qbur.s Educational Philosophy, 75. 35. A1 TabaJabB'i, uI Mizan. 4:42. 36. A1 Sabiini. Mukhtusur, 2:25. 37. Khan, trans., Suhih ul Bukhdri, 1:W. 38. Cowan, ed.. Dictionury, 645; a1 Raghib, ul M@u&t. 360. 39. Im&n Y&ya bin Sharaf-udin at-Nawawi, Riy&iulSdIihkz, vols. 1 and 2, trans. A. 40. Khan, trans., Sahih ul BukMri, 9:309. 41. S . N. al-Attas, Islum, Seculurism urul the Philosophy ofthe Future (London: Man- 42. Ibid., 71. 43. A1 Raghib, ul Mufiu&t. 99. 44. Lane, Aruhic-English Lexicon, 473. 45. A1 Raghib, ulMufuddt, 99. 46. Ism&'il Haqiq? a1 BufiSiy, Tdsir R* UI Buyan (Istanbul: Matba Usmaniyyah, 47. Ibid., 54. 48. In Qur'an 6 9 5 I , a reference is made to &44 01 y 4 i n (absolute truth). 49. A1 Taba.taba'i, ul Mizdn. 4172. 50. A. Hasan, trans., Sunun Abi D&d (Lahore: Ashraf Printing Press, 1984). 2687. 51. Daud, Concept of Knowledge, 32. 52. Lane, Arubic-English Lexicon, 473. 5 3 . Asad, Messuge ofthe Qur'un, 120. 54. Daud, Concept of Knowledge, 85. 55. Hasan, trans.) Sunun Abi D&vid, 3:1019. 56. Fazlur Rahman, I s l m und Modernity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 57. Ibid. 58. Abdullah, Educutionul Theory, 41. 59. Ibid. 60. Asad, Messuge ofthe Qur'un, 120. 61. Lane, Arubic-English Lexicon, 605. 62. AI-Attas, Islum, Seculurism, 101. 63. Ibid., 71. 64. Lane, Arubic-English Lexicon, 21 59. 65. Other Quranic verses in which ayat are linked to the verb tufukkuru include 2:219. 266; 10:24; 13:3; 1611,69; 30:21; and 3942. 66. Asad, Messuge ofthe Qur'un, 766. 67. Cowan, ed., Dictionary, 715. 68. Asad, Messuge ofthe Qur'un, 186. 69. Khan, trans., Suhih uI Bukhdri, 1:61. oflslum, ed. A. Gauhar (Trowbridge, UK: Redwood Bum Ltd., 1978), 245. n.d.). 4: 185. Kafim, 1981),2:25. 4279. R. Shad (Lahore: Kazi Publications, 1988). 235. sell. 1985). 101. 1913), 354. 1982), 144. Waghid: Human Creativity 70. See Qur’an 2:164; 3:118; 6W: 7:32; 9 1 1; 10:s; 13:4; and 16:12. 71. Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon, 2138. 72. Asad, Message ofthe Qur’an, 289. 73. Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon, 2141. 74. Ibid., 2141. 75. Ibid., 617. 76. Daud, Concept cf Knowledge, 16. 77. Al-Attas, Islam. Secularism, 101. 78. Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon, 2141. 79. A1 Tabajaba’i. al Mizcln, 4% 80. Khan, trans., Sahih al B W r i , 1:64. 81. A1 Nawawi, trans., Riy&l a1 Sdihin, 2:236. 365