Research in Progress Islamic Thought in the South Asian Subcontinent: The Eighteenth Century The International Institute of Islamic Thought-Islamabad, the Islamic Research Institute, and the International Islamic University, Islamabad, are conducting ongoing seminars on the history of Islamic thought in eighteenth-century South Asia. What follows is a report of some activi- ties and decisions taken to date. Recent studies of Islamic thought have generally attributed the rise of Muslim reform and revival movements, as well as the intellectual activi- ties undertaken during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, to the impact of Europe and the influence of its academic, social, political, and technological advancement. This raises the following question: If the Muslim world had not come into contact with Europe, would it have remained a totally unchanged and unchanging society? In order to answer this question, it is essential to: 1. Study and examine how Muslim thinkers analyzed their society in the precolonial period 2. Explore whether there was any dissatisfaction with the status quo among Muslims; 3. Detemine whether there were any trends of reform, revival, ijtihad or whether there was any significant interest in philoso- phy and rational sciences. Was there any interest in reinterpret- ing Islamic teachings in order to meet the challenges of modernity in general and of the western intellectual experience in particular; 4. Study whether the foundations of the political movements, reli- gious organizations, and sects that arose in the subcontinent (i.e., Ahl-i gadith, D e o h d i , and Bardawi) were laid on the emergent attitudes of opposition and resistance to British rule or whether their origins can be traced in the pre-British period; and 5. Investigate principles and concepts (i.e., bid’ah, taqlid, ijtihad, diir d b r b , jihad, and hijrah) used by Muslim thinkers for total acceptance, rejection, or adaptation of political, social, and reli- gious ideas and practices and of modern science and technology. How were these developed, refiied, restated, or reconsh-ucted? 124 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 12: 1 A study of the twelfth century A.H. / eighteenth century C.E. might just hold a key to answer a great many of these questions. Despite its signifi- cance, such a study has not yet been conducted seriously. The eighteenth century is a very significant period in the history of Islamic thought. Though it witnessed the decline of the Mughal empire, it was also an era of very creative intellectual, cultural, and practical efforts. Historically speaking, this was a period of stocktaking, a time when Muslim thinkers sat down to analyze, sift, refine, and assimilate the various intellectual and cultural currents in Islamic thought of the previ- ous centuries. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Islamic thought and culture in the subcontinent had been influenced by local religious ideas and move- ments emerging in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. The Bhakti move- ment, the Hindi influence on Persian language and literature, the introduction of music in surmi', as well as the arrival of Sufi orders from abroad are a few examples. Along with Sufi orders came such doctrines as w u m t ul w u j a (the unity of being). The developments in Hanafi fatwa literature in Central Asia weakened the rigidity of legal thought, and Shi'i theological and educational literature from Iran encouraged interest in the rational sciences. This rapid traffk in ideas and the ensu- ing tensions and conflicts generated a dialectical process in the Islamic thought of the subcontinent. The seventeenth century witnessed an open conflict between such mutually conflicting ideas and groups as w u w t a1 w u j a / wuwut ul shuhiid, Shi'i / Sunni, Qadin-/ Naqshbanck all of which constituted the main lines of division in the area's Muslim society. These intellectual movements struggled continuously to gain the support of the court and, when successful, used it to suppress their opponents. When political power declined during the eighteenth century and these movements were deprived of any possibility of political patronage, they tended to explore a middle path between the extremes. The eighteenth century is, therefore, presumably characterized by a search for synthesis and reconciliation. It is also significant as a period of enlightenment, a fact that has been stressed in some recent studies, for this was a time when human thought was waking from its slumber of tra- dition and stagnation and endeavoring to discover a new world. Instead of authority, reliance was now placed on reason and observation. The French Revolution, the American Declaration of Independence, and the enactment of a republican constitution in the United States are considered milestones of this century. In the Muslim world, the three great Muslim empires-Safavid Iran, Ottoman Turkey, and Mughal India-that dominated the old world were now in a period of rapid decline due to mutual feuding and external threats from Russia, France, and Britain. The political power of the three empires was undergoing rapid disintegration, and local and provincial governors were rising in rebellion against the center. However, political decline did not entail necessarily an intellectual and cultural collapse. The Research in Progress 125 Islamic world showed signs of new energy and was also rising against taqlid and stagnation. Several Muslim thinkers have underscored the significance of the eighteenth century in the history of Islamic thought. As they have assessed it from their respective viewpoints, their assessments are differ- ent from one another. One such person is Sayyid Abti al A‘k al Mawdtidi, who views the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries as a time of such rapid scientific and technological growth in Europe that it virtually changed the whole world. The Indian subcontinent, however, stood still. He feels that a similar awakening could not take place in the Muslim world because they were largely ignorant of these European advancements. He writes: The Sayyid and Shah Isma‘il Shakd, who had practically intended to launch an Islamic revolution, made all possible arrangements. But they did not perform the small task of sending a delegation of perceptive scholars to Europe to investigate the principles of the European civilization which were making it possible for that na- tion to go about dominating the world like a storm, and to identify on the other hand the things that we lacked. (Tujdd wu Zhyc.7-i Din, p. 142) Mawdtidi compares Islamic thought in the subcontinent with that of Europe. He particularly studied the writings and movements led by S h a Waliull& and his family. He recognizes their contribution, and yet he considers the eighteenth century to be, on the whole, a period of Muslim decline. On the contrary, Abti al Hasan ‘MI Nadwi disagrees with the the- sis that political decline necessarily means intellectual decline. He observes that while it may be true of non-Muslims, Muslim history is contrary to that. More often, geniuses were born during the periods. of political decline and internal disrup- tions. The contributions made by these persons are not at all the products of decline..” (Tdrikh-i Du‘wut wu ‘Azimut, vol. 5 , p. 31) Nadwi argues that although the eighteenth century was, on the whole, an era of political decline in which great Muslim empires, even Ehe Otto- man, began to dwindle, the educational activities in the schools and the spiritual purification at the Sufi centers did not decline. Rather “some of them distinguished themselves to such a perfection that we do not see the likes of them in the recent past.” He explains the reason for this by emphasizing that in Islam, the dedication to knowledge and its spread has its source in personal zeal and commitment and does not depend on such external means as support from the government. Khdiq m a d Niguni, a well-known historian of the Muslim histor;y of the subcontinent, also considera the eighteenth century to be distinct from other periods. The seventeenth century, in his view, was marked by a polarization in Islamic thought between supporters and opponents of 1 26 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 12: 1 Ibn al ‘Arabi and Shaykh Alynad Sarhinh. The eighteenth century is a time of attempting to reconcile these extremes. Shslh Waliulliih, Mir Dard, and Sh& Kdimullslh Dihlawi’s contributions in this regard and Sayyid m a d Barelawi’s movement are hallmarks of this century (“Hind,” EZ 2). Qa@ Jawed calls the seventeenth century a period of rising human- ism and freedom of thought in the evolution of the subcontinent’s Islamic thought, but reminds us that sectarian trends arose at the end. The eight- eenth century was a period of searching for the middle path between these two extremes. Shslh WaliulldYs contribution, which has a synthetic and reconciliatory attitude, is an outstanding event in this period (Burr-i Saghir men Muslim Fikr kii Irtiqd’). In the light of the above remarks, one may almost describe the eigth- eenth century as a connecting link between the Muslim awakening’s medieval and modem periods. In view of this significance of Islamic thought in the eighteenth-century Indian subcontinent, the International Institute of Islamic Thought-Islamabad and the Islamic Research Insti- tute have jointly started a year-long seminar on this theme. The papers contributed to this seminar will be edited and jointly published by the two institutes. The particular details of the proposal are presented below. Themes and Topics The main proposed theme is: “Islamic Thought in the Subcontinent: The Eighteenth Century.” Under the umbrella of this general theme, the following expressions of intellectual contribution will be studied: writ- ings, movements, institutions, organizations, and biographical literature. The theme will be explored biographically. The focal point of each paper will be one Muslim thinker of this period, his immediate environ- ment, education and training, works, ideas, disciples, and influence with reference to the following questions: How was Islamic society conceived in terms of its ideals? Was there a feeling of imminent decline and, if so, was there any contemplation on its causes? How was this decline defied: politically, socially, economically, or religiously? Were there any solu- tions or remedies offered? What other avenues of self-criticism, if any, were available? The contributors shall also explore the linkages of these persons and institutions with other persons and institutions at the local level as well as within the Indian subcontinent and the Islamic world. Data will be col- lected from their biographical accounts. Any continuity of relationships with persons, institutions, and movements in the subsequent centuries will also be explored. This survey will not be limited to any one particu- lar branch of learning, trend, Sovement, or group. It will include histori- ans, jurists, m u m i t h i i n , poets, Sufis, philosophers, and physicians, as well as the popular literature in the regional languages. Research in Progress 127 A List of Muslim Thinkers 1. Shaykh Alpnad Mull% Jiwm (d. 1130). Writings: Tafsir-i Ahmadi; Niir a1 Anwcir; a1 Sawcinih; Mandqib a1 Awliyci’; Adub-i Ahmud. 2. Abu a1 Hasan N~ir al Din Maammad ibn ‘AM al Ha& a1 Sin& al Kabir (d. 1138). Writings: a1 Hawcishi a1 Siltah ‘alci a1 S i g h a1 Sittah; Commentary on Fath a1 Qadir; a1 Aycit a1 Bayyimit. 3. Shaykh ‘Iniiyatull& Qadifi L&6n (d. 1141). Writings: Ghaycit a1 Hawcishi; Multaqat a1 Haqci’iq; Tanqih a1 Murcim. 4. Shaykh Kahmulliih Jahfin%ba& (d. 1141). Writings: Kashkd; a1 Muraqqa‘; Saw2 a1 Sabil; ‘Ashrah-’i Kcimilah; Riscilah dar Radd-i Rawcifid; Sharh a1 Qciniin li Ibn Sin& Tafsir-i Qur’cin Majid; Maktiibcit Kalimi. 5. N i g m al Din Sihalawi (d. 1181). Writings: Risalahfi Wu&i a1 Rasiil; Sharh a1 Tahrir fi Ujiil a1 Din; Sharh Musallam a1 Thubiit; a1 Subh a1 Scidiq; Sharh Mancir a1 Anwcir; Hcishiyah Sharh ‘Aqci’id-’i Dawwcini; Sharh Rasci ’il-i Mubciriziyah; Hcishiyah a1 Shams a1 Bcizighah; Hcishiyah Sharh Hidciyat a1 Hikmah; Mandqib-i Razzciqiyah. 6. Shaykh Maammad Hayat Sin& (d. 1163). Writings: a1 jqcif ‘ a h Sabab a1 Ikhtilcifi Tuhfat a1 Ancim fi a1 ‘Amal bi Hadith a1 Nabi ‘alayh a1 Salcit wa a1 Salam; Fath a1 Ghafir fi W a g a1 Aydi fi a1 Salcit ‘ a h a1 Sudiir; Tuhfat a1 Muhibbinfi Sharh a1 Arba‘in a1 Nawawiyah; Sharh a1 Targhib wa a1 Tarhib li a1 Mundhiri; Mukhtasar a1 Zawcijir ‘an Iqtircif a1 Kabci’ir; S h q h a1 Hikam a1 ‘Ata’iyah; Muqaddimahfi a1 ‘Aqci’id; I r s k d a1 Naqqcid ilci Taysir a1 I j t i k d ; Sharh Hikam a1 Haddcidiyah; Riscilah fi Radd-i Bid’at a1 Ta’ziyah; Riscilah fi a1 Nahy ‘an ‘Ishq a1 Mard wa a1 Niswcin; I‘fci’ a1 Lihyah. 7. Khawja M@ammad Nagir ‘Andabb (d. 1172). Writings: Nalah-’i ‘Andalib Riscilah-’i Hash Aficz; Diwcin-i ‘Andalib. 8. Sh& W a h l l & Dihlawi (d. 1176). Writings: Fath a1 Rahmdn; a1 Fawz a1 Kabir; Fath a1 Kabir; Mujaffci; Musawwci; Hujjat Allah a1 Balighah; a1 Budiir a1 Bcizighah; Izcilat a1 Khafci; Qurrat a1 ‘Aynayn; a1 Insciffi Sabab a1 Ikhtilcifi ‘Iqd a1 Jid; Tafiimdt-i Ilcihiyah; a1 Khayr a1 Kathir; Fuyiid a1 Haramayn; Anfcis a1 ‘Ar$n, a1 Qawl a1 Jamil; Altdfii Quds; Sata‘cit; Lama‘&; Siiriir a1 Mahziin; a1 Juz’ a1 La.L$ Thvil a1 A m t h . 9. Qa@ M*bulliih BihM (d. 1119). Writings: Sullam a1 ‘Ulzim; Musallam a1 Thubiit; a1 Jawhar a1 Fard; Mugklatah-’i ‘Ammat a1 WurzZd. 128 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 12: 1 10. Mirza M&ar JSmjSmSm (d. 1195). Writings: Athcir; Letters; Lliwdn. 1 1 . Khawajah Mu Dard Dihlawi (d. 1199). Writings: ‘Ilm a1 Kitdb; Asrdr a1 Saldt; Wliridcit; Nalah-‘i Dard; Ah-i Surd; Sham‘-i Ma&X Dard-i Dil; Hurmat-i Ghind; Wliqi‘at Dard; Sbz-i Dil; Diwdn-i Fdrsi; Diwdn-i Urdd. 12. M&ammad A’la Thanawi. Writings: Risdlah-’i Malguzliri-’i Ziamin; Kashshcif Is+tila&t a1 Fundn. In addition to the above, the followingpersonalities are also included, some of whom survived into the nineteenth century but whose writings had appeared already in the eighteenth century: Abii Tdib; Mir ‘Mi Sher QWi; G h u l h h a d Bilgbihii; Sayyid ‘AM al Hayy Hasani; Haydar ‘Mi; Tipii Sul.Em; Murta#t Zabldi; Saghm; GhulCim Husayn JawnpWi; ‘Abd al Qadir Bedil; Makhdam Hashim Thattawi; Hakirn Shafif KhSm; Bulleh Shiih, WCtrith Shiih; Shiih ‘Abd al Lafif Bhitii’i; @aj@ Shafi‘at Al€5h; Sachal Sarmast; ]Hak.im ‘Alwi Khw; H a h n Sayyid M&ammad Husayn; Shiih ‘Abd al ’Aziz Dihlawi; Shiih Rafi‘ al Dm; Nawwab ‘Mi Ibrilh-m KhSm ‘Azimiibadi; Maw1Smf.i Dildilr ‘Mi; ‘ A l l W Tafa&lul Husayn. Bibliography General Reading for the Seminar 1. Shaykh M&ammad I k r h : Rdd-i Kawthar; Mawj-i Kawthar. 2. Abii al Ijasan ‘Mi Nadwi: Tdrikh-i Da‘wat wa ‘Azimat, vol. 5 3. AbO al A’la Mawdiidi: Tajdid waflhyd-’i Din. 4. Marshal Hodgson: Venture of Islam, v d . 3, pp. 134-61. 5. Qa@ Jawed: Burr-i Saghir mZn Muslim Fikr kd Irtiqli’; Hindi Muslim Tahdhib. Source Material 1. Nawwab Sddiq Hasan Kh&x Abjad a1 ‘Uldm, Bhopal, 1295 A.H.; 2. Al.W al RalpnW Ahwdl ‘Ulamd-i Farangi M a b l , Delhi, n.d. 3. Ra& HamldanXAddiyat-i SarMd, Peshawar, 1953. 4. M&ammad Sarwar: Armughdn-i Shiih Watiulldh, Lahore, Insti- 5. S a m al Dm ‘AM al RalpMn: Bazm-i Taymurzyah, Azamgadh, Itti&f a1 Nubald’, Kanpur, 1288 A.H. tute of Islamic Culture. D& al Mu$annifin. Research in Progress 129 6. Khahq m a d Ni@rni: Tiirikh-i Mashij’ikh-i Chisht, Delhi, Nad- 7. -I‘jaz al Haqq Quddisi: Tadhkirah-’i Sujiyii’-i Sindh, Karachi, 8. M-ad Din Fawq: Tadhkirat a1 ‘Ulamti’ wa a1 Mashci’ikh, 9. Mawlavi M&ammad InayatullZh: Tadhkirah-’i ‘Ulama-’i Farang 10. RalpnZtn ‘Mi: Tadhkirah-’i ‘Ulamti-’i Hindi, Lucknow, 1914. 11. Raljim Bakhsh Dihlawi: Hayiit-i Wan, Lahore, 1955. 12. Tufayl m a d ManglOfi: Musalmandn kii Rawshan Mustaqbil, 13. Shaykh Mdpnrnad I k r & ~ Riid-i Kawthar, Lahore, 1986; Mawj-i 14. Ghulam ‘Mi Azsld B i l g i m i : Rawdat a1 Awliyii, Hyderabad, 15. ‘Abd a1 uayy Lakhnawi, Tarb a1 Amtithil, Lucknow, 1921; a1 16. SulaymZtn Nadwi: Maqaliit-i Shibh, vol. 3, Azamgadh. 17. Maammad MiyZtn: ‘Ulamti-’i Hind kii Shiindcfr Mii& vol. 2, 18. ‘Abd a1 Hayy Hasani Lakhnawi: Nuzhat a1 K h i i j i r , vol. 6.; al 19. M-ad Ishiiq Bhatfi: Barr-i Sagfir Piik wa Hind mdn ‘Zlm-i 20. Ibn @sin: Dawlat-i Mughtiyah ki Hay’at-i Markazi, Lahore, 1958. 21. Abii al Hasan ‘Mi Nadwi: Sirat Sayyid Ahmud Shahid. 22. Ghuliim Husayn Taba.tab&’t Siyiir a1 Muta’cikhWzirin, Lucknow, n.d. 23. Maammad Y*ya Tanha: Siyiir a1 MuSamifin, Delhi, 1921. 24. Riyaat ‘Mi NadwT ‘AM-i Isliimi kii Hindzistiin, Patna, 1950. 25. MirzA M u m a d msan: Mir’at-i Ahmadi, Calcutta, 1927. 26. Panjab University: Tcirikh Adabiyiit Musalmamin-i Pakistiin wa 27. Zubayd m a d Indian Contribution to Arabic Literature! 28. Nayyir Wasifi: Rawiibit-i Pazushki-’i Iran wa Pdkistiin. 29. Jam11 Jalibi: Tiirikh Adab-i Urdu. 30. Muhammad Sadiq: History of Urdu Literature. 3 1. Qudaratullah FaJimi: Bibliography on Sindh. 32. Pakistan Historical Board: History of Freedom Movement. 33. A. Schimmel: Islamic Literature in India (?); Mystical Dimensions 34. History and Culture of Indian People, vols. 8 and 10. 35. Historians of India, Pakistan and Ceylon. 37. Cambridge History of India. 38. William Irvine: The Later Mughals. 39. The Encyclopedia of Islam, old and new editions (relevant articles). wat a1 MuSamifin. 1959. Lahore, 1338 A.H. M a k l , Lucknow, 1931. Lahore, n.d. Kawthar, Lahore, 1986. 1301; S u b k t a1 Mirjiira, Bombay, 1393 A.H. Fawii’id a1 Bahiyah, Cairo, 1324 A.H. Lahore, 1977. ThaqiSfah a1 Isliimzyahfi a1 Hind, Damascus, 1958. Fiqh, vol. 5, Lahore, 1955. Hind. of Islam. 36. A Comprehensive History of India. r, 130 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 12: 1 40. Urdu Dii’irah Mii‘iirif-i Isliimiyah. 41. Azra Butt, “AthW-m Sadi ke’ Fuqahli’,” MA thesis, Islamic Studies, Panjab University. 42. Sajidah Khattin: “AthWin Sadi ke Mu‘asharati wa Ma‘ashi Haat,” MA thesis, Panjab University. 43. Firdaws Akhtar: “Atharhawin Sadi ke Maadditliin.” 44. Ma‘iirif: Azamgadh, India. 45. Islamic Culture: Hyderabad, India. 46. a1 Ma‘iirif: Lahore. 47. Fikr wa NaZar: Islamabad. 48. Islamic Studies: Islamabad. 49. Oriental College Magazine: Lahore. 50. Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society: Karachi. &far 1. Ansari IIIT Office-Pakistan Islamabad, Pakistan Call for Papers International Conference on Science in Islamic Polity in the Twenty-first Century (25-29 Shawwd 1415 /March 26-30,1995) Themes: A. B. C. D. Islamic thought and scientific creativity: Areas of future research. Present-day science and technology scenario in the Muslim world and the measures needed €or a radical improvement. Challenges and opportunities for the Muslim world in the fields of science and technology in the twenty-first century. Actions and initiatives needed to be taken to enter the twenty-first century. For further information, please contact: Dr. Muzaffar Iqbal Conference Secretary COMSTECH Secretariat 3, Constitution Ave., G 5 / 2 Islamabad4NIO0, Pakistan Ph: 22068 1-3; Fax: (92) 05 1-220265; Telex: 54349 COMST PK Last date for receipt of synopsis: October31, 1994. Papers must be received by: December 31, 1994.