American Journal of Islam and Society Vol 38 No 3-4.indb


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Sufism in Ottoman Egypt: Circulation, 
Renewal and Authority in the 

Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries

N E W  Y O R K :  R O U T L E D G E ,  2 0 1 9 .  1 7 1  P A G E S .

R A C H I D A  C H I H

This book examines Sufism in Ottoman Egypt in the seventeenth and 
eighteenth centuries. Contrary to the traditional historiography that 
interpreted these two centuries as a period of stagnation and/or decline 
for Sufism and Sufi scholars, Rachida Chih argues that these centuries 
were fruitful, productive, and dynamic for Sufism in Ottoman Egypt. 
Chih builds her narrative around the mobilization and interaction of 
ideas, people, and institutions, focusing her thesis on the Khalwatiyya 
Sufi order.

In the first chapter, the author describes how Ottoman Egypt of the 
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was a lively destination for eth-
nically and socio-economically diverse religious scholars from various 
Ottoman provinces. Al-Azhar served as a significant meeting point for 
scholars both in the formation and function of this intellectual network, 
which was notable as al-Azhar was dominated both intellectually and 
administratively by scholars who were followers of the Khalwatiyya 
Sufi path. The author also shows that this dynamic circulation was 



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enriched by the mobility of scholars and students in al-Azhar, together 
with the service of mushrooming religious institutions such as madrasas, 
mosques, and zawiyas.

In the second chapter, the author outlines the spiritual and practical 
principles of the Khalwatiyya Sufi order through examination of three 
handbooks written by Qāsim al-Khāni (d. 1697), Muḥammad al-Munīr 
al-Samanūdī (d. 1785), and Aḥmad al-Dardīr (d. 1786). While al-Khānī’s 
work was more concerned with the spiritual aspect of the Sufi path, 
such as methods of the spiritual journey towards God (sulūk), the other 
two works focused on practical principles such as dhikr ceremonies 
and mutual responsibilities of master (shaykh) and disciple. By indi-
cating the commonalities of these works, specifically where it comes 
to the propagation and pedagogy of the Sufi order, Chih also points out 
the increasing popularity of the handbook genre and transmission of 
knowledge in the Sufi environment of the seventeenth and eighteenth 
centuries in Ottoman Egypt.

The third chapter of the book is devoted to a discussion of a partic-
ular concept, the Muhammadan path (ṭarīqa muḥammadiyya), and the 
conceptualization of the term by contemporary Sufis. The chapter begins 
with discussion and critique of the term ‘neo-Sufism’, a term invented 
by Fazlur Rahman. Chih then illustrates how the concept ‘Muhammadan 
path’ was formulated by Sufis and evolved through scholarly circulation. 
For this purpose, the author scrutinizes various genres and practices 
interrelated with the Muhammadan path such as taṣliya (the invocation 
of God’s blessing upon the Prophet Muḥammad), mawlid (the celebration 
of the birth of the Prophet Muhammad) and mi’raj (celestial ascension 
of Prophet Muhammad) narratives.

In the final chapter, the author discusses the sainthood cult through 
the examination of the hagiography of Shaykh al-Hifnī (d. 1767), who 
was one of the most influential Khalwatiyya sheikhs in eighteenth-cen-
tury Ottoman Egypt. Chih provides a detailed examination of al-Hifnī’s 
hagiography composed by ‘Alī Shamma al-Fuwwī al-Makkī (d. 1763). 
She shows that the sainthood cult was highly embedded in the Prophetic 
heritage, as al-Hifnī’s hagiography constantly draws parallels between 
the paradigmatic life of the Prophet and al-Hifnī. The chapter continues 



B O O K  R E V i E W S     159

with analyzing al-Hifnī’s social and political authority and his influence 
on political elites. The rest of the chapter focuses on reactions to Sufism 
as it was exemplified by the Kadızadeli movement (an anti-Sufi and puri-
tanical religious movement) in the Ottoman Empire and the emergence 
of Wahhabism on the Arabian Peninsula.

Given the scarcity of studies in Western languages on the topic, this 
book fills a gap in the literature. It will prove an invitation for further 
research not for only researchers of the seventeenth and eighteenth 
centuries but also for researchers of the long nineteenth century. The 
high number of primary sources in Arabic that the author utilized con-
stitutes another factor that makes this study valuable. Nevertheless, 
there are a few shortcomings that need to be addressed. Although Chih 
attempts to reveal the relationship between Sufis and political elites in 
the final chapter, these efforts lack detail. A more thorough analysis of 
the relationship would have better supported the purpose of the study. 
Another deficiency, considering the abundance of archival materials on 
the subject in Ottoman archives, is that the author does not utilize pri-
mary sources in Turkish. This inhibits a fuller understanding of how Sufi 
scholars of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Egypt were interrelated 
with the rest of the Ottoman world. These shortcomings aside, this book 
is well-structured and rich. It will remain a significant reference for those 
who conduct research on Egyptian Sufism.

Talha Murat 
MA student, Aga Khan University (International), UK/ 

Institute for the Study of Muslim Civilisations 
London, UK

doi: 10.35632/ajis.v38i3-4.3002