71221- Cover, page 2 @ Preflight An Outline of the Historical Evolution of Qawā‘id Literature in Islamic Law Necmettin Kızılkaya Abstract The legal rules of each legal system reflect their own nature and primary characteristics in both quantity and quality. Since they comprise the main structure of the system, the study of these rules, therefore, gives an idea about the mechanism of the sys- tem as a whole. An investigation of the principles behind these legal rules, which represent dominant features of several rules is a further step and gives an opportunity to understand the com- mon points of the particular cases. These principles have dif- ferent essences and historical backgrounds in every legal sur- rounding. The settled principles of Islamic law (al-qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah) which reflect the general characteristics of rules, were used in legal corpuses from the early ages and developed at a later stage as an independent subgenre in Islamic law. Not only the four Sunni schools of law, but also Shi‘i jurists have made a consid- erable contribution to the development of the literature in the course of time. In the Muslim world, there are several academic works on the subject such as critical editions, theoretical stuies of the genre, and the investigations and applications of certain qawā‘id in legal corpuses. Nevertheless, this significant subject ________________________________________________________________________ Necmettin Kzılkaya is a PhD candidate at Selcuk University and a research assistant at Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University. An earlier version of this article was presented at the 2009 British Society for Middle Eastern Studies (BRISMES) Graduate Conference, In- stitute of Arab and Islamic Studies, University of Exeter, 3–4 September 2009. I wish to express my gratitude to Berk Koca and Khalil Abdur Rashid for their valuable comments on the earlier draft of this article. Thanks also to the editor who provided detailed com- ments and to the anonymous reviewers and staff of the American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences. 77An Outline of the Historical Evolution of Islamic law has so far found little attention among the West- ern academia. This paper, aims to make a small contribution to this significant component of Islamic law. It is concentrating on al-qawā‘id al- fiqhiyyah, not al-qawā‘id al-usūliyyah (hermeneutic principles). After dealing with the concept of qawā‘id and its importance in Islamic law, the paper presents a historical overview of the development of qawā‘id literature in four Sunni schools of law. The evolution of the genre is examined in three periods: the formative period second/eighth–fourth/tenth centuries), the self-contained compilation period (fourth/tenth–tenth/sixteenth centuries), and the post-compilation period (tenth/sixteenth– thirteenth/nineteenth centuries).The paper concludes with a list of traditional and modern qawā‘id works. Introduction Al-qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah al-kulliyah, by nature, are madhhab transcending principles that contain several particular cases in various fields of Islamic law. They represent the out come of the legal production of the jurists from the formative period of fiqh and express the objectives of Islamic law in short epithetic statements. Although qawā‘id are legal guidelines, which have importance in the formulation of consistent judicial decisions, they do not bind judges while making decisions. This character of qawā‘id ex- pressed by the commission of the Majallah as: “the judges of the courts cannot give judgment by these qawā‘id, unless they find an authority (naql al-ṣarīḥ).”1 Their principle character does not allow us to restrict them with a particular madhhab. For instance, qawā‘id such as “certainty is not over- ruled by doubt” (al-yaqīnu lā yazūlu bi ‘l-shshakk), “custom is made the arbiter” (al-‘ādatu muḥakkamatun), “harm shall be removed” (al-ḍararu yuzāl), “hardship brings about facilitation” (al-mashaḳḳatu tajlibu ‘l-taysīr) are used in the legal corpuses of four Sunni schools and Shi‘i school of law. In addition to these common qawā‘id, however, each school has specific principles that reflect the logic of its legal reasoning. The term al-qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah is commonly translated in English as “legal maxims.” Although there are some similarities between al-qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah and legal maxims—if their cores and historical evolution have been taken into consideration—this translation of al-qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah neither echoes the main characteristic of qawā‘id nor elucidates its mean- ing properly. However, to bring the term into the Western academia’s per- The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 28:178 ception, this translation has been preferred by some scholars.2 Instead of the term legal maxims, the terms al-qawā‘id or al-qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah are used in this article. Although the term legal maxim is not preferred to express al-qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah in the article—since there are parallel characteristics between the two terms—it is useful to give the definition of legal maxim in order to compare it with al-qawā‘id. From this perspec- tive a legal maxim is defined as “a traditional legal principle that has been frozen into a concise expression.”3 As the definition indicates, both al- qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah and legal maxims share the same features in terms of content and form: subject matters of them constitute their legal aspects and their concise expressions is their formal structure. Legal maxims and al- qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah, which are formulated as a result of the concentration of legal reasoning in particular areas of law by reason of deduction, on the one hand, are the intellectual activity of human beings and could be con- sidered as universal law-based products of humanity. On the other hand, they reflect the general viewpoint of their legal surroundings where they flourished. Therefore, every judicial system has produced its own distinc- tive maxims. Compared with other legal systems, al-qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah al-kulliyyah of Islamic law also have specific origins and sources that give them their own characteristics. The Conceptual Analysis of Qawā‘id Qawā‘id is plural of qā‘idah and derived from the verb “q-‘a-d.” Its literal meaning is foundation, base, essence4; it is the foundation of a house,5 the pillars of a house,6 the essences and fundamental of bases.7 The word of qā‘idah or qawā‘id is used to express the foundations of a house in two verses of the Qur’an.8 The concepts of stability and permanency exist in the lexical usage of the word. Thus, the word of qā‘idah is also used for menopausal women and elderly women who have passed the normal age of wedlock.9 The use of qā‘idah in both Islamic sources and lexicons has parallel meaning in its technical usage in the legal texts. Particularly, its stability and base function in Islamic law as a principle underlying legal determinations comes from its literal meaning. Since qawā‘id is not only a legal term, there are several definitions of qawā‘id with regard to disci- plines. I will quote sample definitions of Muslim jurists from both the clas- sical and modern periods, followed by a Western scholar, and then I will give my definition of qā‘idah.10 Before discussing the concept of al-qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah, it is impor- tant to state that there is a specific sort of al-qā‘idah, which is named as 79An Outline of the Historical Evolution al-ḍābiṭah (plural al-dawābiṭ). Although ḍābiṭah is a type of qā‘idah, it differs from qā‘idah in that it is a specific principle that contains a subject or subjects from a single chapter of the fiqh. They are subsidiary princi- ples that directly refer to their own subjects such as cleanliness (kitāb al- ṭahārah), marriage and divorce (kitāb al-nikāḥ, kitāb al-ṭalāq), partnership (kitāb al-sharīkah), and legal penalties (kitāb al-ḥudūd). The following are examples of ḍābiṭah: ignorance about the price of the goods, prevents the validity of the sale contract (jahālat al-thaman tamna‘ ṣiḥḥat al-bay‘),11 a legal penalty (ḥadd) cannot be divided (al-ḥaddu lā yatajazzau),12 and the prayer of the follower (muqtadī) depends on the prayer of the imām” (ṣalāt al-muqtadī muta‘alliqatun bi ṣalāt al-imām).13 Since dawābiṭ contain spe- cific subjects and directly regulate their rules, comparing with qawā‘id, they have less exception. Al-Ḥamawī (d. 1098/1687), the commentator of Ibn al-Nujaym’s (d. 970/1562) Al-Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir, initially gives a general definition of qā‘idah, then explains that since jurists’ understanding of qā‘idah is differ- ent from linguists and legal thinkers, this definition is not applicable to al- qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah. The author, after attracting attention to the difference between al-qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah and the maxims of language (qawā‘id al- lugha) and legal thought (qawā‘id al-uṣūl), defines it as: “qā‘idah, among jurists, is a predominantly, not a generally, valid legal determination (ḥukm) that applies to most of its particular cases (juz’iyyāt) so that their legal determinations will be known from it.”14 After this definition, al-Ḥamawī emphasizes a significant characteristic of qā‘idah which is its comprehen- siveness. Accordingly, although there are exceptions, qā‘idah is a principle that does not fall under another qā‘idah.15 This feature of qā‘idah differs it from legal rules and and dawabit. In addition to medieval Muslim scholars, contemporary scholars de- fined qā‘idah in their works. For instance, the contemporary Syrian scholar Muṣṭafā Aḥmad al-Zarqā’, (d. 1420/1999), who devoted a broad space to al-qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah and comments on them in his Al-Madkhal, defines qawā‘id as “universal legal principles which are formulated in regulative and concise expressions that contain general normative legal determina- tions about the cases of their subject.”16 Joseph Schacht mentions al-qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah in the glossary of his An Introduction to Islamic Law as “rules” and “the technical principles of positive law.”17 This definition on the one hand determines the princi- pal dimension of the qā‘idah, which is appropriate to its function, on the other hand it does not reflect the complete picture of the qā‘idah in that it The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 28:180 stresses positive law. Since the majority of qawā‘id are positive law tran- scending principles, the term positive law does not conform to the essence of qawā‘id. I define al-qā‘idah al-fiqhiyyah as a universal proposition that contains subjects from different chapters of fiqh. Al-Qā‘idah’s inclusion of separate subjects of fiqh makes it different from the qawā‘id of other disciplines and particular propositions and rules of fiqh as well. I use the term universality because of its comprehensiveness to its subject matters and its applicability to them. Being a proposition does not differ it from the qawā‘id of other disciplines. However, it shows that a qā‘idah is an informative proposition that includes a descriptive judgment rather than a constructive proposition that engages belief or action. Qawā‘id are propositions on the one hand, on the other hand, their terse expression distinguishes them from regular propositions. In addition, it shows that a qā‘idah is not a universal concept (mafhūm kullī). The Significance of Qawā‘id in Islamic Law The Maliki jurist al-Qarāfī (d. 684/1285), after dividing Islamic law into uṣūl and furū‘, divides uṣūl into usūl al-fiqh and al-qawā‘id al-kulliyyah. Al-Qarāfī states that al-qawā‘id al-kulliyyah are valuable principles that contain the wisdom and essence (asrār) of Islamic law, and countless rules of furū‘ are built on them.18 Likewise, al-Zarkashī (d. 794/1392) who clas- sified the disciplines relevant to fiqh after categorizing Islamic law into ten branches, indicates that compared with the rest, qawā‘id, which is the tenth science, is the most comprehensive, advanced, and useful discipline. Subsequently, he states that a jurist reaches the degree of ijtihād due to the knowledge of qawā‘id.19 The Hanafi jurist Ibn al-Nujaym (d. 970/1562) who acknowledges qawā‘id as real usūl al-fiqh, is emphasizing the sig- nificance of knowledge of qawā‘id in order to comprehend the intellectual complexity of intra-school disagreements and discussions. According to Ibn Nujaym, by the knowledge of qawā‘id, a jurist rises up to the ability of independent judgment , even in legal verdicts (fatwā).20 The commentator of Ibn al-Nujaym’s Al-Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir, al-Ḥamawī (d. 1098/1687), explains the mujtahid in fatwā as the jurist extracts the legal determinations from the qawā‘id and usūl of the imam of the school and his disciples for new cases that these earlier authorities have not dealt with.21 Accordingly, al-qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah, which are axioms, mediate usūl and furū‘22 and reflect the essence of Islamic law in a concise expression.23 81An Outline of the Historical Evolution The knowledge of qawā‘id, which echoes the general principles that Islamic law relies on and an understanding of furū‘ al-fiqh based on those principles allow an inclusive perception to the approach of different mad- hhabs within the Islamic law tradition. Although Islamic schools of law (madhāhib) share the same common al-qawā‘id, every legal school has its own specific qawā‘id and dawabit that identify its character and differenti- ate it from other schools. Especially the second type of qawā‘id “reflect the logic of a school’s legal reasoning.”24 Additionally, if specific cases in furū‘ books are investigated without taking al-qawā‘id into consideration, at first hand, it might be seen that legal determinations (aḥkām) are disor- ganized fragments and contradictory; however, it could be understood by the knowledge of qawā‘id that those fragments, which are built within a system, have foundations of principles making them different from the oth- ers, and at the same time, falling under another qā‘idah or qawā‘id of the whole system.25 For instance, if a person has taken ablution (wudū’) and is certain about having ablution, and later doubt occurs to him about the continuity of his ablution, that person’s ablution is considered to be intact. On the contrary, if somebody is sure that he does not have ablution and is in doubt as to whether or not he made ablution, in this situation, that person is acknowledged as not having ablution. The point of departure in both cases is the qā‘idah “certainty is not overruled by doubt.”26 The primary situation in ablution is its breaking in both conditions; however, application of the qā‘idah abolishes not having been in ablution in case of doubt.27 Historical Evolution of Qawā‘id Literature Qawā‘id literature has a significant relation with furūq (significant differ- ences of similar cases yielding different legal determinations) literature and cannot be studied unless furūq literature has been taken into consider- ation. This literature specified the differences between seemingly similar cases and concepts or the differences between some of the qawā‘id that are similar to each other but could be distinguished in some respect.28 An- other related term to qawā‘id is al-Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir which is an um- brella title for both qawā‘id and furūq literatures. As Wolfhart Heinrichs states, traditional works devoted to qawā‘id fiqhiyyah, usually have the term qawā‘id in their titles. In the later period (eighth/thirteenth–tenth/ fifteenth centuries), al-Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir became a popular name for qawā‘id works.29 Since this article concentrates on qawā‘id literature and its limit does not allow us to examine related genres in detail, they will be pointed out shortly.30 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 28:182 Qawā‘id literature came into being as an independent discipline af- ter the compilation and doctrinal completion period of Islamic law around fourth/tenth century.31 The existence of legal thinking based on primary principles in the minds of Muslim jurists from the formation process of Islamic law, and the wealth of materials around this comprehension, is one of the first factors of emerging qawā‘id literature.32 Additionally, resolving differences among discussed matters according to the rules by referring to the general principles and objectives of Islamic law in furūq literature is one of the major factors that expedited the rise of qawā‘id literature. Because of this function of furūq literature, it came about first, followed by qawā‘id literature; collecting these two disciplines and adding other subjects led al-ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir literature to increase.33 On the one hand, the previous and major sources of qawā‘id literature, which came to be studied in separate works in later eras, are furū‘ al-fiqh books.34 Specification of qawā‘id after the elaboration of the particular le- gal rules (al-aḥkām al-far‘iyyah) demonstrates that they were collected after investigation of these materials by inductive method. On the other hand, al-qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah, which have taken final form over the course of time, were determined from the doctrinal approaches and ijtihāds of jurists, acquired by induction of the texts (al-nuṣūs) of al-Qur’an and Sun- nah. The sources of al-qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah are not limited with the texts. For instance, the attitudes of the Companions of the Prophet provided an- other basis for solving problems. Likewise, concise expressions narrated from them were another root for qawā‘id literature. Particularly the Com- panions’ methodological approaches to the legal issues enabled the first generation of jurists to expose the legal guidelines behind particular cases. Moreover, if the period of the compilation of separate qawā‘id works is considered, the dominant thought and maxims existed in the early legal treatises of the founder jurists of the schools of law created a significant basis for qawā‘id works. Also, Muslim jurists determined qawā‘id using an inductive method by scrutinizing the goals and objectives of legal cases (al-aḥkām al-shar‘iyyah), the principles of uṣūl al-fiqh, rational principles, underlying common causes (‘ilal) among similar legal rules (aḥkām), and linguistic structure.35 The Formative Period (Second/Eight–Fourth/Tenth Centuries) It is possible to take early types of qawā‘id and the source material of qawā‘id literature, which appeared after establishment of schools of law, 83An Outline of the Historical Evolution back to the first periods of formation of the science of fiqh.36 However, although some normative verses of the Qur’ān and Prophetic sayings have provided the background for the formation of the phenomenon of axioma- tization37 (taq‘īd) in Muslim jurists’ mind, it does not seem reasonable to acknowledge them as the first examples of qawā‘id and estimate them as the inception of axiomatization.38 The aforementioned characteristics of the texts (al-nuṣūṣ) have estab- lished the attitude of ascribing matters to the early foundation of the source material of qawā‘id literature and from fragments toward entirety in the minds of Muslim scholars from the earlier ages. It is possible to observe the first examples of this attitude within the first two generations. Legal opinions (fatāwā) narrated from the companions of the Prophet and the generation who succeeded them, known as the Tabi‘ūn jurists, indicate that they had the idea of axiomatization in their mind and they used them in ap- propriate conditions.39 For instance, Ibrāhīm al-Nakha‘ī’s (d. 96/715) meth- odology of inference (istidlāl) which was a compatible adjudication with the essence of the primary sources (al-nuṣūṣ), is an example of this fact. His attitude to the sources was not based on unrestricted approach to the literal meaning of the texts (al-nuṣūṣ)—instead, it was built on interpreta- tion of the main idea and principles that emanate from the texts. Derivation of legal principles from the texts and their application to various cases are a result of his diligence in the comprehension of legal bases and qawā‘id and deriving legal rules from them.40 Dihlāwī (d. 1176/1762) interpreted a statement about Ḥammād b. Abī Sulaymān (d. 119/737), “Ḥammād b. Abī Sulaymān (d. 119/737) is the best one among those who know Ibrāhīm al-Nakhā‘ī’s (d. 96/715) masā’il”; he is “the best one who knows Ibrāhīm al-Nakha‘ī’s (d. 96/715) al-qawā‘id al-kulliyyah which he selected and fol- lowed in his legal opinions (fatāwā).”41 The era of forming the materials that prepared emerging qawā‘id lit- erature starts from the period of foundation of legal schools and ends until the beginning of fourth/tenth century. The fact that jurists did not exam- ine al-qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah as a subject of separate investigations in this period can be explained by the clear existence of qawā‘id in their minds and by the existence of other controversial issues, such as methodological discussions, which occupied their agenda. Therefore, they did not feel a need for such works.42 Nevertheless, the initial shapes of several qawā‘id were established in this period and took a more specific concise form in later ages.43 According to Muṣṭafā al-Zarqā’, a number of legal maxims and legal rules such as “certainty is not overruled by doubt”, “the norm The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 28:184 (of sharī‘a) is that of non-liability”, “custom is made the arbiter”, “harm shall be removed”, “hardship brings about facilitation” were established by utilizing texts in that period.44. The Self-Contained Compilation Period (Fourth/Tenth– Tenth/Sixteenth Centuries) The collecting of al-qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah in separate books, which is an advanced stage of fiqh literature, started in the fourth/tenth century and this progress flourished in later eras.45 After the formation and characterization of Islamic schools of law in doctrinal structures, some scholars investigat- ed the legal corpuses and analyzed various legal cases deducted by former mujtahids inductively, endeavored to return similar cases to their bases, and collected them under qawā‘id. As a result of these efforts, independent qawā‘id books were compiled.46 Ḥanafī scholars started the first attempt at writing al-qawā’id al-fiqhi- yyah independently in Islamic law. Ḥanafī jurists’ giving more place to opinion (ra’y) in comparison with jurists of other schools in the process of inferring rules, created numerous ijtihād collections which contain broad furū‘ cases over the course of time. Thereby, the exertion of attribution of dispersed furū‘ rules to the principles caused the compilation of al-qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah.47 Furthermore, while building their legal thought (uṣūl), the Ḥanafī jurists’ determination of general principles from their founder mu- jtahids’ opinions created an intellectual background of inferring universal (kullī) ideas and propositions from specific (juz’ī) cases in their minds, and this fact was a significant aspect that led to the phenomenon of axi- omatization.48 The earliest information relevant to collecting al-qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah independently is the narration of Shāfi‘ī jurist al-Harawī (d. 488/1095) about one of the Transoxanian Ḥanafī scholars Abū Ṭāhir al- Dabbās’s49 attribution of the whole Ḥanafī School of Law to seventeen qawā‘id. According to the story, al-Dabbās collected seventeen principles that the Ḥanafī madhhab could be reduced to and repeated these principles in his mosque every night after the people had left. When al-Harawī heard about this, he traveled there and hide himself in al-Dabbās’s mosque to listen him while reciting the principles. After people left the mosque, al- Dabbās started to repeat al-qawā‘id as usual, and when he had only recited seven of them, suddenly by al-Harawī’s coughing, the blind al-Dabbās re- alized that there is someone in the mosque. He stopped reciting, grabbed al-Harawī, beat him, and threw him out. Al-Harawī returned to his disci- 85An Outline of the Historical Evolution ples sadly and transmitted the seven principles he heard from al-Dabbās.50 After quoting the story in detail, al-Harawī (d. 488/1095) says that when al-Qādī Abū Ḥusayn al-Marwarrūdhī (d. 462/1070) heard about this story he reduced the whole Shāfi‘ite madhhab to four principles. These qawā‘id are: “certainty is not overruled by doubt,” “hardship brings about facilita- tion,” “harm shall be removed,” and “custom is made the arbiter.”51 The story is questionable and there are several reasons to be in doubt about its authenticity: for instance, al-Dabbās and al-Harawī are not contemporaries and concealing knowledge is shunned in Islam.52 Abū al-Ḥasan al-Karkhī’s (d. 340/952) Al-Risālah fī al-uṣūl which is composed of thirty nine qawā‘id, is regarded as the earliest qawā‘id book that we have today. Al-Karkhī has formed his Al-Risālah by adding some qawā‘id to al-Dabbās’s list of seventeen qawā‘id.53 The title of Al-uṣūl in his risālah (message) is the same as the term refering to qawā‘id in furū‘ books. In the legal texts, jurists usually prefer to use al-aṣl rather than al- qā‘idah when they state a principle. Al-Karkhī’s (d. 340/952) Risālah starts with the qā’idah “what is proven with certainty is not overruled by doubt” (al-aṣlu anna mā thabata bi al-yaqīn lā yazūlu bi ’l-shshakk).54 His collec- tion of qawā’id is not all articulated in a terse and snappy way, but rather many qawā’id of his Risālah are verbose. As Mohammad Hashim Kamali says, “His equivalent of the concise maxim “custom is a basis of judg- ment,” for example, uses 25 words to deliver the same message.”55 With respect to the fifth/eleventh century, Abū Zayd al-Dabūsī’s (d. 430/1039) Ta’sīs al-naẓār56 was compiled in order to illustrate causes of the disagree- ments of jurists; it contains the qawā’id on which these disagreements were grounded. It is one of the considerable qawā‘id books written in that time.57 Although some contemporary scholars mention that independent books were not compiled in this field from the fifth/eleventh century to the seventh/thirteenth century, but not having any devoted book to the subject does not mean that efforts of jurists on the topic were discontinued.58 Fur- thermore, when the usage of qawā‘id in al-furū‘ al-fiqh books is taken into account it clarifies that legal maxims were attained in a concise structure by being stringently examined in furū‘ books. This fact indicates that the formation process of qawā‘id literature continued until the middle of the seventh/thirteenth century.59 It has been observed that there was a new start of activity with re- gard to qawā‘id literature in the seventh/thirteenth century. Scholars such as Abū Ḥāmid al-Jājarmī (d. 613/1216), ‘Izz al-Dīn Ibn ‘Abd al-Salām (d. 660/1262), and Shihāb al-Dīn al-Qarāfī (d. 684/1285) could be considered as pioneers among those who investigated the subject in that age. The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 28:186 The eight/fourteenth century is the golden age of qawā‘id literature; the most advanced works were written in this century.60 In addition to al-qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah, separate books concerning qawā‘id al-uṣūl and qawā‘id al-lugha al-‘Arabiyyah were compiled, thus the qawā‘id literature of each discipline flourished. Therefore, in this century, a new period began by adopting various compilation methods from former eras in terms of con- tent and classifications.61 One of the significant features of the century is the Shāfi‘ī scholars’ increasing compilation of qawā‘id works.62 Alongside Shāfi‘ī Ibn al-Wakīl (d. 716/1316), Tāj al-Dīn Ibn al-Subkī (d. 771/1369), and Zarkashī (d. 794/1392), Ḥanbalī Ibn al-Taymiyyah (d. 728/1328), Ibn Rajab (d. 795/1393) and Mālikī Maqqarī (d. 758/1357) are among the fore- most jurists of that century who compiled qawā‘id books. Although some new qawā‘id and furū‘ examples were mentioned in the ninth/fifteenth century corpuses, it seems that those works had the same characteristics of the previous century. Therefore, in regard to qawā‘id lit- erature, this era could be expressed as the imitation and recapitulation of the former period.63 The Post-Compilation Period (Tenth/Sixteenth– Thirteenth/Nineteenth Centuries) The period from the tenth/sixteenth century onwards to the composition of the Majallah is the most productive era of mature works in terms of qawā‘id literature. The structure of qawā‘id has been clarified and clas- sification methods of qawā‘id books attained an entrenched system in this time. The contribution of al-Suyūṭī (d. 911/1505) and Ibn al-Nujaym’s (d. 970/1562) Al-Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir stood out as two works, which had the characteristic specialties of that period and served as a basis to the later qawā‘id books. Additionally, at that time, some books were written in a po- etical fashion (manẓūmah) to facilitate memorization. The Mālikī scholar Ali b. Qāsim al-Zaqqāq’s (d. 912/1506) Al-Manhaj al-muntakhab is one of the particular examples of this poetic style.64 Scholars of that time who followed the method of earlier centuries produced considerable material in the field of qawā‘id by writing commentaries, extrapolations (takhrīj), glosses (ta‘līq), and compendiums (mukhtaṣar). The most prolific scholars were Ḥanafī jurists and just commentaries and glosses on Ibn al-Nujaym’s (d. 970/1562) Al-Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir are nearly as whole works of other schools. Ḥanbalī jurists, in comparison with Ḥanafī, Shafi‘ī, and Mālikī jurists, wrote fewer books.65 87An Outline of the Historical Evolution The aforementioned valuable works did not stabilize until the estab- lishment of the commission of Mecelle-i Aḥkāmı ‘Adliyye and the com- pilation of al-qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah in definite arrangement. Therefore, it is possible to say that al-qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah had stabilized and attained their ultimate concise expressive form with the Majallah. Although the commission under the presidency of Ahmad Jawdat Pasha (d. 1312/1895), which followed the Ḥanafite madhhab, made no effort for a new ijtihād, al-qawā‘id al-kulliyyah in the Majallah are compatible with principles that modern law systems have reached after a long period of evolution. A nota- ble part of general principles of modern law is based on the same axiomatic maxims that the Majallah relies upon.66 Due to the significance of qawā‘id literature in Islamic law, the subject is investigated in various contemporary works with multifaceted aspects. Edition critics (taḥqīqāt), treatises investigating the historical develop- ment of the discipline of qawā‘id, qawā‘id encyclopedias, extractions of qawā‘id from legal corpuses, collections of qawā‘id and ḍawābiṭ under a theory of fiqh, and the analyses of the major leading qawā‘id in detail are all dominant studies of this period.67 The most considerable characteristic of modern studies is to concentrate on the scientific legacy of the discipline of qawā‘id in general. Particularly, accelerating academic studies at uni- versities have a significant role in the compilation in terms of both quantity and quality.68 Conclusion The blossoming of qawā‘id literature from the early period of Islamic law expresses a couple points about this legal tradition. First of all, it explains the attempt of the fuqahā’ in order to abstract legal determinations in furū‘ literature by examining their common points. The effort of going over the legal treatises required a high level of sufficiency in the knowledge of the accumulation of the school. If the time of flourishing independent qawā‘id works, which is around the seventh/thirteenth century, has been taken into consideration, it is an important response to the claim of stagnation of Is- lamic law after the formation period. It exposes that fuqahā’ were in an effort of working through their legal heritage and ijtihād continued in a different dimension within a particular method—that is, madhhab. Finally though each school has its particular qawā‘id and ḍawābiṭ, the existence of several madhhab-external qawā‘id can be explained by the development of a common discourse among the schools. These points call for detail The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 28:188 investigations on subgenres such as qawā‘id, furūq, and takhrij al-furū‘ ‘alā ’l-usūl in Islamic law. Qawā‘id Works It is complicated to determine which book belongs to qawā‘id literature from its title. However, the subject matter and main theme of qawā‘id books are the most significant tools to distinguish them from other genres of Islamic law. Here are only the basic classical works of the four Sunnī schools of law and some contemporary treatises of qawā‘id literature have been laid out. Hanafī Karkhī, Abū ’l-Ḥasan ‘Ubayd Allāh b. al-Ḥasan (d. 340/952). Al-Risalah fi ’l-usūl. With al-Dabūsī’s Ta’sīs al-naẓar. Edited by Zakarīyā ‘Alī Yūsuf. Cairo, Egypt: Maṭba‘at al-Imām, 1972. Dabūsī, Abū Zayd ‘Ubayd Allāh b. ‘Umar (d. 430/1039). Ta’sīs al-naẓar. Edited by Zakarīyā ‘Alī Yūsuf. It mostly contains dawabit of Ḥanafī School of Law. (ed. Zakarīyā ‘Alī Yūsuf), Cairo, Egypt: Maṭba‘at al-Imām, 1972. Also it has another publication edited by Muṣṭafā Muḥammad al-Kabbānī, Bayrūt: Dār Ibn Zaydūn, n.d. Ibn Nujaym, Zayn al-‘Ābidīn b. Ibrāhim (d. 970/1563). Al-Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir. Beirut, Lebanon: Dār al-Kutub al-‘Ilmīyah, 1985. Ibn Nujaym’s Al-Ashbāh is one of the brilliant works of qawā‘id lit- erature. Therefore, there are a number of commentaries written on it: Al-Ṭūrī, ‘Alī b. ‘Abd Allāh (d. 1004/1596). Dhakhīrat al-nāẓir sharḥ al-Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir. He is Ibn Nujaym’s stu- dent and it seems that his book is the first commentary on Al-Ashbāh.69 Muṣlīh al-Dīn, Muṣṭafā b. Khayr al-Dīn (d. 1025/1616). Tanwīr al-azhān wa ’l-ḍamā’ir fī sharḥ al-Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir. It is a commentary on the second (al-ḍawābiṭ chapter) part of Al-Ashbāh. 89An Outline of the Historical Evolution Sharaf al-Dīn al-Ghazzī, ‘Abd al-Qādir b. Barakāt b. Ibrāhīm (d. 1034/1624). Tanwīr al-basā’ir ‘alā ’l-Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir.70 Al-Ardabīlī, Isḥāq b. Aḥmad (d. 1055/1645). Risāla ‘alā ’l-Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir. 71 Karaçelebizāde, ‘Abd al-‘Azīz b. Ḥuṣām al-Dīn (d. 1070/1660). Tartīb al-Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir.72 Al-Ramlī, Khayr al-Dīn b. Aḥmad b. ‘Alī (d. 1081/1671). Nuzhat al-nawāẓir ‘alā ’l- Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir. It is a glossary on Al-Ashbāh.73 Al-Ḥamawī, Abū ’l-‘Abbās Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad b. Muḥammad (d. 1098/1687). Ghamz ‘uyūn al-basā’ir sharḥ kitāb al- Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir. Beirut, Lebanon: Dār al-Kutub al- ‘Ilmīyah, 1985. It is one of the most comprehensive com- mentaries of Ibn al-Nujaym’s Al-Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir. Pīrīzāde, Ibrahīm b. Ḥusayn b. Aḥmad (d. 1099/1688). ‘Um- dat dhawī ’l-baṣāir li ḥall mubhamāt al-Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir.74 Al-Barzanjī, Muḥammad b. ‘Abd al-Rasūl (d. 1103/1692). Raf‘ al-ishtibāh ‘an kalām al-Ashbāh.75 Al-Nāblūsī, ‘Abd al-Ghanī b. Ismā‘īl b. ‘Abd al-Ghanī (d. 1143/1730). Kashf al-khaṭāyir ‘an al-Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir.76 Abū ’l-Su‘ūd, Muḥammad b. ‘Ali Iskandar al-Ḥusaynī (d. 1172/1758). ‘Umdat al-nāẓir ‘alā ’l-Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir.77 Ibn ‘Ābidīn, Muḥammad Amīn (d. 1252/1836). Nuzhat al-nawāẓir ‘alā ’l-Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir. Damascus, Syria: Dār al- Fikr, 1986. Ibn ‘Ābidīn’s student Muḥammad al-Bayṭār collected it from his teacher’s footnotes. It was published with Al-Ashbāh. Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir. Iskandariya, Iraq: al-Maṭba‘at al-Waṭaniya, 1289.78 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 28:190 Gözübüyükzāde, Ibrāhīm b. Muhammad b. Sa‘īd (d. 1253/1837). Majmū‘at al-qawā‘id.79 Abū ’l-Fatḥ, Muḥammad al-Ḥanafī (d. 1294/1877). Itḥāf al-absār wa ’l-baṣāir bi tabwīb al-Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir. Iskanda- riya, Iraq: al-Maṭba‘at al-Waṭaniya, 1289.80 Nāẓirzādah, Muḥammad b. Sulaymān, (d. 1061/1651), Tartīb al-la’ālī fī silk al-amālī, (ed. Khālid b. ‘Abd al-‘Azīz b. Sulaymān Âli Sulaymān), Riyāḍ, Saudi Arabia: Maktabat al-Rushd, 2004. It is an alphabetic qawā‘id work that contains qawā‘id of uṣūl and furū‘. Al-Khādimī, Abū Sa‘īd Muḥammad b. Muḥammad (d. 1176/1762). Majāmi‘ al-ḥaqā’iq. Istanbul: Ḥājjī Muḥarram Efendi Maṭbaasi, 1303. Although the book is devoted to uṣūl al-fiqh, al-Khādimī explains a number of selected qawā‘id and ḍawābiṭ alphabetically in the khātimah. It is one of the main sources of the Majallah. There are two significant commentaries on the qawā‘id section of Majāmi‘: Güzelhisārī, Muṣṭafā (d. 1246/1830). Manāfi‘ al-daqā’iq sharḥ Majāmi‘ al-ḥaqā’iq. Istanbul, Turkey: Ḥājjī Ḥusayn Maṭbaası, 1308/1890. Kirkağacī, Sulaymān (d. 1287/1870). Sharḥ khātimat al-qawā‘id al-uṣūl wa ’l furū‘. Istanbul, Turkey: Bosnalī Ḥājjī Muḥarram Efendi Maṭbaası, 1299. Mecelle-i Aḥkāmı ‘Adliyye. Istanbul, Turkey: Ālem Matbaası, 1314/1896. It was written under the presidency of Ahmed Cevdet Paşa be- tween 1869 and 1876. The Majallah has an introductory section of ninety-nine qawā‘id. There are a number of commentaries on the Majallah. Here some of them: Al-Qirimī, ‘Abd al-Sattār b. ‘Abd Allāh (d. 1304/1886). Tashrīḥ al-qawā‘id al-kulliyyah fī aḥkām al-far‘iyya. Istanbul, Turkey: Rıza Efendi Matbaası, 1295. Mes‘ūd Efendī (d. 1310/1892). Mir’āt-i Mecelle-i Aḥkāmı ‘Adli- yye. Istanbul, Turkey: Matbaa-i Osmaniye, 1290. 91An Outline of the Historical Evolution ‘Ātif Efendī, Kuyucaklizāde Muḥammad (d. 1316/1898). Mecelle- i Aḥkāmı ‘Adliyye şerhi ve qawā‘id-i fikhiyyenin īzāhi. Is- tanbul, Turkey: Mahmūd Bey Matbaası, 1318. Al-Atāsī, Muḥammad Khālid b. Muḥammad ‘Abd al-Sattār (d. 1326/1908). Sharḥ al-Majalla. Pakistān: al-Maktabat al- Ḥabībiyyah, n.d. Bāz, Salīm Rustam (d. 1328/1910). Sharḥ al-Majalla. Beirut, Lebanon: al-Maṭba‘ah al-Adabīyah, 1923. ‘Alī Ḥaydar Efendī (d. 1355/1936). Durar al-ḥukkām sharḥ Majal- lat al-Aḥkām. Istanbul, Turkey: Mekteb-i Sanayi-i Şahane Matbaası, 1298/1881. It was written in Ottoman Turkish and then was translated into Arabic by Fahmī al-Ḥusaynī. Beirut. Lebanon: Dār al-Kutub al-‘Ilmīyah, 1985. A-Zarqā’, Aḥmad b. Muḥammad (d. 1357/1938). Sharḥ al- qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah. Beirut, Lebanon: Dār al-Gharb al- Islāmī, 1983. Bigiyaf, Mūsā Jar Allāh (d. 13639/1949). Qawā‘id-i fiqhiyye: Ahkam-ı şer‘iyye Mecellesine medhal olmak sıfatıyla. Kazan, Russia: Örnek Matbaası, 1328/1910. ‘Alī ‘Ulwī. Talkhīs qawā‘id al-kulliyyah wa istilaḥāt al-fiqhiyyah. Edirne Bādi Ahmed Efendi Library, No: 002196. Ergūney, Hilmi. İzahlı ve Mukayeseli Mecelle Külli Kāideleri. Is- tanbul, Turkey: Yenilik Basimevi, 1965.81 Mālikī Al-Khushanī, Muḥammad b. Ḥāris b. Asad (d. 361/972). Uṣūl al-futyā fī ’l-fiqh ‘alā madhhab al-Imām Mālik. Al-Dār al-‘Arabīyah li al- Kitāb: al-Mu’assasah al-Waṭanīyah li al-Kitāb, 1985. Al-Qarāfī, Shihāb al-Dīn (d. 684/1285). Anwār al-burūq fī anwā‘ al-furūq. Beirut, Lebanon: Muassasat al-Ma‘ārif, 2003 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 28:192 Al-Maqqarī, Abū ‘Abd Allāh (d. 758/1357). Kitāb al-qawā‘id. Mecca: Jāmi‘at Umm al-Qurā, n.d. It is known as the first qawā‘id book classified according to fiqh subjects 82 Al-‘Azzūm, Abū ‘Abd Allāh Muḥammad b. Aḥmad (d. 889/1484). Al- Musnad al-mudhhab fī qawā‘id al-madhhab. Some authors men- tion its title as Al-Mudhhab fī ḍabṭ qawā‘id al-madhhab.83 Al-Zaqqāq, Abū ’l-Ḥasan ‘Alī b. Qāsim (d. 912/1506). Al-Manhaj al- muntakhab ‘alā qawā‘id al-madhhab. It is a poetical (manẓūmat) qawā‘id book that attracted several commentaries. Here are some of them: Al-Zaqqāq, Abū ’l-‘Abbās Aḥmad b. ‘Alī (d. 931/1525). Sharḥ al-Manhaj al-muntakhab.84 Al-Manjūr, Aḥmad b. ‘Alī (d. 995/1587). al-Manjūr ‘alā ’l-Manhaj al-muntakhab. Beirut, Lebanon: ‘Ālam al-Kutub, 2003. It is famous among Mālikī scholars, and a number of com- mentaries and abridgments have been written on it. Al-Shinqītī, Muḥammad al-Amīn b. Aḥmad (d. 1325/1907). al- Manhaj ilā ’l-Manhaj Ilā uṣūl al-madhhab. Beirut, Leba- non: Dār al-Kitāb al-Lubnānī, 1985. Al-Wansharīsī, Abū ’l-‘Abbās Aḥmad b. Yaḥyā (d. 914/1508). Īdāḥ al- masālik ilā qawā‘id al-Imām Mālik. Rabāṭ, Morroco: Sundūq Iḥyā’ al-Turāth al-Islāmī, 1980. Many qawā‘id of Īdāḥ al-masālik are predominantly valid and expressed in question forms to indi- cate that they are debatable within a school or schools. Al-Wansharīsī, ‘Abd al-Wāḥid b. Aḥmad (d. 955/1548). Al-Nūr al-muq- tabas fī qawā‘id Mālik b. Anas. He has versified his father’s Īḍāh al-masālik in this book.85 Al-Anṣārī, Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī b. ‘Abd al-Wāḥid b. Muḥammad (d. 1050/1647). Al-Yawāqīt al-thamīna fī naẓāir ‘ālim al-Madīna. He also has ‘Iqd al-jawāhir fī naẓm al-naẓāir.86 Al-Fāsī, Abū Zayd ‘Abd al-Raḥmān b. ‘Abd al-Qādir (d. 1096/1685). Al- Bāhir fī ikhtiṣār al-ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir.87 Al-Walātī, Muḥammad Yaḥyā b. Muḥammad (d. 1330/1912). Al-Majāz al-wādiḥ fī qawā‘id al-madhhab al-rājiḥ. Riyāḍ: Dār ʻĀlam al- Kutub li al-Ṭibā‘ah wa-al-Nashr wa-al-Tawzī‘, 1993. He has writ- 93An Outline of the Historical Evolution ten a commentary that is titled Al-Dalīl al-māhir al-nāsiḥ sharḥ al-Majāz al-wādiḥ fī qawā‘id al-madhhab al-rājiḥ on his book. Shāfi‘ī Al-Jājarmī, Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad b. Ibrahīm (d. 613/1216). Al-Qawā‘id fī furū‘ al-Shāfi‘iyah.88 ‘Izz al-Dīn b. ‘Abd al-Salām (d. 660/1262). Qawā‘id al-aḥkām fī iṣlāḥ al-anām. Damascus, Syria: Dār al-Qalam, 2000. He examines the principle of benefit (jalb al-maṣāliḥ wa dar’ al-mafāsid), and his book represents a very early stage of dealing with only a qā‘idah. Ibn ‘Abd al-Salām reduces the whole of law to the principle of benefit. Al-Nawāwī, Abū Zakariyyā’ Yaḥyā b. Sharaf (d. 676/1278). Al-Uṣūl wa ’l-ḍawābiṭ. Beirut, Lebanon: Dār al-Bashā’ir al-Islāmīyah, 1986. Ibn al-Wakīl, Abū ‘Abd Allāh Ṣadr al-Dīn Muḥammad b. Omar (d. 716/1316). Al-Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir. It is the first book in Islamic law titled Al-Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir. Riyāḍ, Saudi Arabia: Makta- bat al-Rushd, 1993.89 Al-‘Alā’ī, Ṣalaḥ al-Dīn Khalīl b. Kaykaldī (d. 761/1360). Al-Majmu‘ al- mudhhab fī qawā‘id al-madhab. Mecca, Saudi Arabia: al-Makta- bah al-Makkīyah, 2004. Al-Subkī, Tāj al-Dīn ‘Abd al-Wahhāb b. ‘Alī (d. 771/1370). Al-Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir. Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-‘Ilmīyah, 1991. His Al-Ashbāh is one of the most significant works in the field and some regard that al-Suyūṭī (d. 911/1505) and Ibn al-Nujaym (d. 970/1562) have mostly benefited from it.90 Al-Isnawī, Jamal al-Dīn ‘Abd al-Raḥīm b. Ḥasan (d. 772/1371). Al-Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir. Hājjī Khalīfah (1067/1657) mentions that its title is Nuzhat al-nawāẓir f ī Riyāḍ al-naẓāir.91 Al-Ṣarḥadī, Muḥammad b. Sulaymān (d. 792/1390). Mukhtaṣar al-Ma- jmu‘ al-mudhhab. He compiled al-‘Alā’ī’s (d. 761/1360) Al-Ma- jmu‘ and al-Isnawī’s (d. 772/1371) Al-Tamhīd fī takhrīj al-furū‘ ‘alā ’l-uṣūl in this book.92 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 28:194 Al-Zarkashī, Badr al-Dīn Muḥammad b. Bahādir (d. 794/1392). Al- Manthūr fī ’l-qawā‘id. Beirut, Lebanon Dār al-Kutub al-‘Ilmīyah, 2000. It is the first alphabetic qawā‘id work. There are a number of commentaries and abridgments on Al-Manthūr. Al-‘Abbādī, Sirāj al-Dīn Omar b. ‘Abd Allāh (d. 947/1540). Sharḥ Qawā‘id al-Zarkashī.93 Al-Sha‘rānī, Abū ’l-Mawāhib ‘Abd al-Wahhāb (d. 973/1565). Al- Maqāṣid al-saniyah fī bayān al-qawā‘id al-shar‘iyah.94 Sharaf al-Dīn al-Ghazzī, Abū ’l-Rūḥ ‘Isā b. ‘Uthmān (d. 799/1397). Al- Qawā‘id fī ’l-furū‘.95 Some scholars consider him as a Ḥanafī jurist.96 Ibn Mulaqqin, Sirāj al-Dīn Omar b. ‘Alī (d. 804/1402). Al-Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir. Karātashī, Idārat al-Qur’ān wa al-‘Ulūm al-Islāmīyah, 1417. Al-Asadī, Muḥammad b. Muḥammad al-Zubayrī (d. 808/1406). Asnā al- maqaṣid fī taḥrīr al-qawā‘id.97 Ibn al-Hā’im, Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad b. Muḥammad b. ‘Imad al-Dīn al- Maqdisī (d. 815/1412). Taḥrīr al-qawā‘id al-‘Alā’iyah wa tamhīd al-masālik al-fiqhiyyah. He also has Al-Qawā‘id al-manẓūmah.98 Al-Ḥiṣnī, Taqiy al-Dīn Abū Bakr b. Muḥammad (d. 829/1425). Kitāb al-Qawā‘id. Riyāḍ: Maktabat al-Rushd, 1997. In addition to al- qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah, he also gave a broad place to al-qawā‘id al-uṣūliyyah. The book mostly based on al-‘Alā’ī’s (d. 761/1360) Al-Majmū‘. Ibn Khaṭīb al-Dahsha, Nūr al-Dīn Maḥmūd b. Aḥmad (d. 834/1431). Mukhtaṣar min Qawā‘id al-‘Alā’ī wa kalām al-Isnawī. Beirut. Lebanon: Dār al-Kutub al-‘Ilmīyah, 2003. Al-Khalīlī, Sharaf al-Dīn ‘Abd al-Raḥman b. ‘Alī b. Isḥāq (d. 876/1471). Naẓm al-zakhāir fī ’l-ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir.99 Al-Suyūṭī, Jalāl al-Dīn ‘Abd al-Raḥmān b. Abī Bakr (d. 911/1505). Al- Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir. Cairo, Egypt: Dār al-Salām, 1998. There are some works on al-Suyūṭī’s Al-Ashbāh: Ibn al-Ahdal, Abū Bakr b. Abī ’l-Qāsim Aḥmad (d. 1035/1626). Al-Farā’id al-bahiyah fī ’l-qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah.100 It is 95An Outline of the Historical Evolution a manẓūmah (didactic poem) on Al-Ashbāh. There are a number of works on Ibn al-Ahdal’s manẓūmah.101 Al-Ḥaydarī, Fasīḥ al-Dīn Ibrahīm b. Al-Sayyīd Sibghat Allāh (d. 1299/1882). Ḥāshiyah ‘alā ’l-Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir.102 Al-Damlījī, ‘Abd Allāh b. ‘Alī (d. 1238/1819). Sharḥ al-qawā‘id al- khams.103 Al-Saqqāf, ‘Ulwī b. Aḥmad (d. 1335/1917). Al-Fawā’id al-makkīyah fīmā yaḥtājuhu ṭalabat al-Shāfi‘iyah min al-masā’il wa ’l-ḍawābiṭ wa ’l-qawā‘id al-kullīyah. It was published under the title of Sab‘at kutub mufīdah, Maṭba‘at Muṣṭafā al-Bābī al-Ḥalabī, The author himself did a mukhtaṣar on his Al-Fawā’id. Ḥanbalī Al-Ṭūfī, Najm al-Dīn Sulaymān b. ‘Abd al-Qawīyy (d. 716/1316). Al- Qawā‘id al-kubrā and Al-Qawā‘id al-ṣughrā.104 Some mention that he also has a book titled Al-Riyāḍ al-nawādir fī ’l-ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir.105 Al-Qāḍi Ibn Jabal, Abū ’l-‘Abbās Sharaf al-Dīn Aḥmad b. al-Ḥasan al- Maqdisī (d. 779/1369). Al-Qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah.106 Ibn Rajab, Abū ’l-Faraj ‘Abd al-Raḥmān (d. 795/1393). Taqrīr al-qawā‘id wa taḥrīr al-fawā’id. al-Khubar: Dār Ibn ‘Affān li al-Nashr wa al-Tawzī‘, 1998. Most of qawā‘id mentioned in Taqrīr al-qawā‘id are examples of ḍawābiṭ. Muḥīb al-Dīn, Aḥmad b. Naṣr Allāh b. Aḥmad (d. 844/1441). Ḥawāshī al- qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah.107 He also has a mukhtaṣar on Ibn Rajab’s Taqrīr al-qawā‘id. Ibn al-Mibrad, Yūsuf b. al-Ḥasan b. Aḥmad b. ‘Abd al-Hādī (d. 909/1503). Al-Qawā‘id kullīyah wa ’l-ḍawābiṭ fiqhiyyah. Beirut, Lebanon: Dār al-Bashā’ir al-Islāmīyah, 1994. Contemporary Works Al-Bāḥusayn, Ya‘qūb b. ‘Abd al-Wahhāb. Al-Qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah: al- Mabādi’, al-muqawwimāt, al-maṣādir, al-dalīliyah, al-tatawwur. Dirāsah naẓarīyah taḥlīlīyah ta’sīlīyah tārīkhīyah. Riyāḍ, Saudi Arabia: Maktabat al-Rushd, 1999. The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 28:196 _____. Qā‘idat al-yaqīn lā yazūlu bi ’l-shakk, dirāsah naẓarīyah ta’sīlīyah wa tatbīqīyah. Riyāḍ, Saudi Arabia: Maktabat al-Rushd, 1996. _____. Qā‘idat al-‘ādat muḥakkamatun: dirāsah naẓarīyah ta’sīlīyah tatbīqīyah. Riyāḍ, Saudi Arabia: Maktabat al-Rushd, 2002. Burhānī, Muḥammad Hāshīm. Sadd al-dharāi‘ fī al-sharī‘at al-Islāmīyah. Beirut, Lebanon: Maṭba‘at al-Rayḥānī, 1985. Al-Būrnū, Muḥammad Ṣidqī b. Aḥmad. Al-Wajīz fī īḍāḥ qawā‘id al-fiqhi- yyah al-kullīyah. Beirut, Lebanon: Mu’assasat al-Risāla, 1996. _____. Mawsū‘at al-qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah. Riyāḍ, 1995. al-Ḥarīrī, Ibrāhīm Muḥammad. Al-Madkhal ilā ’l-qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah al- kullīyah. ‘Amman, Jordan: Dār ‘Ammār, 1998. _____. Al-Qawā‘id wa al-ḍawābiṭ al-fiqhiyyah li niẓām al-qadā’ fī ’l-Islām. ‘Ammān, Jordan: Dār ‘Ammār, 1999. Al-Ḥaṣirī, Aḥmad Muḥammad. Al-Qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah li ‘l-fiqh al- Islāmī: nash’atuhā, rijāluhā, āsāruhā. Cairo, Egypt: Matba‘at al- Fujālah al-Jadīdah, 1993. Heinrichs, Wolfhart. “Qawā‘id as a Genre of Legal Literature.” In Stud- ies in Islamic Legal Theory, edited by Bernard G. Weiss, 365–84. Leiden: Brill, 2002. _____. “Ḳawā‘id Fiḳhiyya”, Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd edition. Edited by P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, and W. P. Heinrichs, vol 12, 517–18. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010. Idrīs, ‘Abd al-Waḥīd. Al-Qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah min khilāl kitāb al-Mughnī li ‘bni Qudāma. Cairo, Egypt: Dār Ibn ‘Affān, 2004. Kamali, Mohammad Hashim.“Legal Maxims of Fiqh, (Al-Qawā‘id al-Kulliyyah al-Fiqhiyyah).” In Mohammad Hashim Kamali, Shari‘ah Law: An Introduction, 141–61. Oxford: Oneworld Pub- lication, 2008. Kızılkaya, Necmettin. “Kāsānī’nin Bedāyi‘ İsimli Eserinde Kavāid’in Yeri.” M.A thesis, Marmara University, 2005. _____. “Hanefi Furû-ı Fıkıh Eserlerinde Fıkhî Kâidelerin Uygulama Alanına Bir Örnek Olarak Bedâiu’s-Sanâi‘,” İslam Hukuku Araştırmaları Dergisi 8 (2006): 79–99. 97An Outline of the Historical Evolution Al-Nadwī, ‘Alī Aḥmad. Al-Qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah, mafhūmuhā, nash’atuhā, taṭawwuruhā, dirāsat mu’allafātihā, adillatuhā, mahammatuhā, taṭbīqātuhā. Damascus, Syria: Dār al-Qalam, 1986. It is one of the first books investigating the historical development of qawā‘id as a genre. _____. Al-Qawā‘id wa ’l-ḍawābiṭ al-mustakhlaṣah min al-Taḥrīr li ’l-imām Jamāl al-Dīn al-Ḥaṣīrī, sharḥ al-Jāmi‘ al-kabīr li ’l-Imām Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan al-Shaybānī. Saudi Arabia: s.n., 1991. This book is an extraction of qawā‘id from a legal book. _____. Mawsū‘at al-qawā‘id wa ’l-ḍawābiṭ al-fiqhiyyah al-ḥākimah li ’mu‘āmalāt al-māliyah fī ’sharī‘at al-Islāmīyah. Jeddah, Saudi Arabia: ‘Ālam al-Ma‘rifah, 1999. Rabb, Intisar A.. “Doubt’s Benefit: Legal Maxims in Islamic Law, 7th–16th Centuries.” PhD diss., Princeton University, 2009. _____. “Islamic Legal Maxims as Substantive Canons of Construction: Ḥudūd-Avoidance in Cases of Doubt,” Islamic Law and Society 17 (2010): 63–125. Al-Rūkī, Muḥammad. Naẓariyat al-taq‘īd al-fiqhī wa atharihā fī ’khtilāf al-fuqahā’. Rabaṭ, Morocco: Jāmi‘at Muḥammad al-Khāmis, Kullīyat al-Ādāb wa al-‘Ulūm al-Insānīyah bi al-Rabāṭ, 1994. _____. Qawā‘id al-fiqh al-Islāmī min khilāl kitāb al-Ishrāf ‘alā masāil al-khilāf. The author derived al-qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah from the prominent Mālikī al-Qādī ‘Abd al-Wahhāb’s (d. 422/1031) Al- Ishrāf. (Dubai, United Arab Emirates: Dār al-Buḥūth li al-Dirāsāt al-Islāmīyah wa-Iḥyā’ al-Turāth, 2003). Al-Sa‘dī, ‘Abd al-Raḥmān Abū Naṣīr (d. 1956). Risālah fī al-qawāʻid al- fiqhīyah; wa-maʻahā Risālah laṭīfah jāmiʻah fī uṣūl al-fiqh al- muhimmah. Riyaḍ, Saudi Arabia: Aḍwā’ al-Salaf, 1998. _____. Al-Qawā‘id wa al-uṣūl al-jāmi‘ah wa al-furūq wa al-taqāsīm al- badī‘ah al-nāfi‘ah. Dammam, Saudi Arabia: Dār Ibn al-Jawzī, 2000. Al-Sadlān, Ṣāliḥ b. Ghānim. Al-Qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah al-kubrā wa mā tafarra‘a ‘anhā. Riyāḍ, Saudi Arabia: Dār Balansīyah li al-Nashr wa-al-Tawzī‘, 1996. The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 28:198 _____. Al-Niyyah wa atharuhā fī ’l-aḥkām al-sharī‘ah. Riyaḍ, Saudi Ara- bia: Maktabat al-Khurayjī, 1984. Al-Sarhān, Muhyī Hilāl. Al-Qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah wa dawruhā fī isrā’ al- tashrī‘āt al-ḥadīthah. Baghdad, Iraq: Jāmi‘at Baghdād, 1987. Shāl, Ibrāhīm ‘Alī Aḥmad Muḥammad. Al-Qawāʻid wa-al-ḍawābiṭ al- fiqhīyah ̒ inda Ibn Taymīyah fī al-muʻāmalāt al-mālīyah. Amman, Jordan: Dār al-Nafā’is li al-Nashr wa al-Tawzī‘, 2002. Al-Sulaymān, Muḥammad b. Ṣāliḥ. Al-Şakk wa atharuhū fī najāsat al- mā’ wa ṭahārat al-badan wa aḥkām al-sha‘āir al-ta‘abbudīyah (dirāsah fiqhiyyah muqāranah) ma‘a naẓrah ‘āmmah fī ’l-qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah. Riyaḍ, Saudi Arabia: Dār Ṭuwayq, 2000. Shubayr, ‘Uthmān. Al-Qawā‘id al-kullīyah wa ’l-ḍawābiṭ al-fiqhiyyah fī ’l-sharī‘at al-Islāmīyah. Amman, Jordan: Dār al-Nafā’is, 2006. ‘Ubādah, Muḥammad Anīs. Qawā‘id al-fiqh al-kullīyyah. Cairo, Egypt: n.d. ‘Ulwān, Ismā‘il b. Ḥasan b. Muḥammad. Al-Qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah al- khamsah al-kubrā wa ’l-qawā‘id al-mundarajah taḥtahā, jam‘ wa dirāsah min majmū‘ Fatāwā shaykh al-Islām ibn Taymiyah. Dam- mam, Saudi Arabia: Dār Ibn al-Jawzī, 2000. Yıldırım, Mustafa. Mecellenin Külli Kāideleri. İzmir, Turkey: İzmir İlahiyat Fakültesi Vakfı, 2001. Al-Yūsuf, Ṣāliḥ b. Sulaymān b. Muḥammad. Al-Mashaqqat tajlibu al- taysīr, dirāsah naẓarīyah wa tatbiqīyah. Riyaḍ, Saudi Arabia: al- Maṭābi‘ al-Ahlīyah li al-Ūfsit, 1988. Zaqqūr, Aḥsan. Al-Qawāʻid al-fiqhīyah al-mustanbaṭah min al-Mudaw- wanah al-kubrā li al-Imām Mālik ibn Anas al-Aṣbaḥī: bi-riwāyat al-Imām Saḥnūn ibn Saʻīd ʻan al-Imām ‘Abd al-Raḥmān ibn al- Qāsim. Beirut, Lebanon: Dār Ibn Ḥazm, 2005. Al-Zaybārī, ‘Āmir Sa‘īd. al-Taḥrīr fī qā‘idat al-mashaqqat tajlibu al- taysīr. Beirut, Lebanon: Dār Ibn Ḥazm li al-Ṭibā‘ah wa al-Nashr wa al-Tawzī‘, 1994. Zaydān, ‘Abd al-Karīm. Al-Wajīz fī sharḥ al-qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah fī l-sharī‘at al-Islāmīyah. Beirut, Lebanon: Muassasat al-Risāla, 2001. 99An Outline of the Historical Evolution Al-Zuḥaylī, Muḥammad Muṣṭafā’. Al-Qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah ‘alā ’l-mad- hab al-Ḥanafī wa al-Shāfi‘ī. Shuwaikh, Kuwait: Majlis al-Nashr al-‘Ilmī, Lajnat al-Ta’līf wa al-Ta‘rīb wa al-Nashr, 1999. _____. Al-Qawā‘id al-fiqhīyah wa taṭbīqātuhā fī al-madhāhib al-arba‘ah. Damascus, Syria: Dār al-Fikr, 2006. Endnotes 1. Mecelle-i Aḥkāmı ‘Adliyye. Istanbul, Turkey: Ālem Matbaası, 1314/1896. The Official Report of the Majallah Commission (Esbāb-ı Mūcibe Mazbatası). 2. See, e.g., Joseph Schacht, The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence (Lon- don: Oxford University Press, 1950), 180–89; Mohammad Hashim Kamali, “Legal Maxims of Fiqh (Al-Qawā‘id al-Kulliyyah al-Fiqhiyyah),” in An In- troduction to Sharī‘ah (Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Ilmiah Publishers, 2006), 133–54; Intisar A. Rabb, “Doubt’s Benefit: Legal Maxims in Islamic Law, 7th–16th Centuries” (Ph.D diss,, Princeton University, 2009). 3. Henry Campbell Black, “Maxim,” in Black’s Law Dictionary, 7th ed (Eagan, MN: West Group, 1999), 993. 4. Abū al-Faḍl Jamāl al-Dīn Muḥammad Ibn Mukarram Ibn al-Manẓūr, Lisān al-‘Arab (Beirut, Lebanon: Dār Ṣādir, 1968), vol. 3, 361; Abū Naṣr Ismā‘īl ibn Ḥammād al-Jawharī, Tāj al-lughah wa-ṣiḥāḥ al-‘Arabīyah, ed. Shihab al-Din Abū ‘Amr (Beirut, Lebanon: Dār al-Fikr, 1998), vol. 1, 443. 5. Khalīl Ibn Aḥmad al-Farāhīdī, Kitāb al-‘ayn, ed. Mahdī al-Maḥzūmī, Ibrāhīm el-Sāmirāī (Qom, Iran: Intishārāt-i Uswa, 1414), vol. 3, 1502. 6. Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān, vol. 3: 361; Muḥibb al-Dīn Abū Fayḍ al-Sayyid Muḥammad al-Zabīdī, Tāj al-‘arūs min jawāhir al-qāmūs, ed. Ibrahim Tarzi (Beirut, Lebanon: Dār Iḥyā’ al-Turāth al-‘Arabī, 1975), vol. 9, 60. 7. Al-Zabīdī, Tāj, vol 9, 60. 8. Qur’an (2:127); Qur’an (16:26). 9. Abū al-Ḥusayn Aḥmad Ibn Fāris, M‘ujam maqāyīs al-lughah, ed. ‘Abd al- Salām Muḥammad Hārun (Beirut, Lebanon: s.n. 1991), vol. 5, 108; Abū al-Baqā’ Ayyūb b. Mūsā al-Kafawī, Al-Kulliyyāt, ed. ‘Adnān Darwīsh and Muḥammad al-Miṣrī), (Beirut: Lebanon, 1993), 728. 10. For definitions of qā‘idah and their analyses see Necmettin Kızılkaya, “Kāsānī’nin Bedāyi‘ İsimli Eserinde Kavāid’in Yeri” (M.A thesis, Marmara University, 2005), 16–27. 11. ‘Alā’ al-Dīn Abū Bakr b. Mas‘ūd al-Kāsānī, Badāi‘ Al-sānāi‘ fī tartīb al- sharā’i‘, ed. Alī Muḥammad Mu‘awwaz and ‘Ādil Aḥmad ‘Abd al-Mawjūd (Beirut, Lebanon: Dār al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyah, 1997), vol. 7, 362. 12. Ibid., vol. 9, 33. 13. Al-Dabūsī, Abū Zayd ‘Ubayd Allāh b. ‘Umar, Ta’sīs al-naẓār, ed. Muṣtafā Muḥammad al-Kabbānī (Beirut, Lebanon: Dār Ibn Zaydūn, n.d.), 107. The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 28:1100 14. Abū ’l-‘Abbās Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad b. Muḥammad al-Ḥamawī, Ghamz ‘uyūn al-baṣā’ir sharḥ kitāb al-Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir (Beirut, Lebanon: Dār al-Kutub al-‘Ilmīyah, 1985), vol. 1, 51. For a comment on the definition, see Ya‘qūb b. ‘Abd al-Wahhāb al-Bāhusayn, Al-Qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah (Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Maktabat al-Rushd, 1998), 44–48; Muḥammad ‘Uthman Shu- bayr, Al-Qawā‘id al-kulliyyah (Amman, Jordan: Dār al-Furqān, 2000), 16; and Wolfhart Heinrichs, “Qawā‘id as a Genre Of Legal Literature,” in Stud- ies in Islamic Legal Theory, ed. Bernard G. Weiss (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2002), 367. 15. Al-Ḥamawī, Ghamz, 1:51. Many scholars have followed his definition of qawā‘id and his approach to the subject. See Güzelhisārī, Manāfi‘ al-daqāiq fī sharḥ Majāmi‘ al-haqāiq (Istanbul, Turkey: s.n., 1273), 305; Ömer Nasuhi Bilmen, Hukukı İslāmiyye ve Istılahatı Fıkhiyye Kamusu (İstanbul, Turkey: Bilmen Yayınevi, 1985), vol. 1, 254; Muḥammad Anīs ‘Ubādah, Qawā‘id al-fiqh al-kulliyyah (Cairo, Egypt: n.d.), 1; Abdullah al-Dar‘ān, Al-Madkhal li al-fiqh al-Islāmī tārīkhuhu, qawā‘iduhu, mebādi’uhu al-‘āmmah (Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Maktabat al-Tawba, 1993), 223. 16. Muṣṭafā Aḥmad al-Zarqā’, Al-Madkhal al-fiqhiyy al-‘āmm, (Damacus, Syria: Dār al-Fikr, 1968), vol. 2, 947. His definition of qā‘idah has a significant impact on contemporary qawā‘id scholarship. 17. Joseph Schacht, An Introduction to Islamic Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964), 300. 18. Shihāb al-Dīn Abū al-‘Abbās Aḥmad Ibn Idrīs al-Qarāfī, Anwār al-burūq fī anwā’i‘ al-furūq (Beirut, Lebanon: Muassasat al-Ma‘ārif, 2003), vol. 1, 2–3. 19. Abū ‘Abd Allāh Badr al-Dīn Muḥammad al-Zarkashī, Al-Manthūr fī al- qawā‘id, ed. Taysīr Fāiq Aḥmad Maḥmūd (Kuwait City, Kuwait: Wizārat al-Awqāf wa al-Shu’ūn al-Islāmiyah, 1982), vol. 1, 69–71. 20. Zayn al-Dīn Ibn Ibrāhīm Ibn al-Nujaym, Al-Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir, ed. Muḥammad Mutī‘ el-Hāfiz (Damascus, Syria: Dār al-Fikr, 1983), 10. 21. Al-Ḥamawī, Ghamz, vol.1, 34. 22. Muḥammad Zāhid al-Kawtharī, Maqālāt al-Kawtharī, ed. Rātib Ḥākimī (Ḥummus: s.n., 1388), 118. 23. Musa Jār Allāh, Qawā‘id-i fiqhiyye (Kazan: Örnek Matbaası, 1328/1910), 5; Muḥyī Hilāl al-Sarhān, “al-Qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah wa dawruhā fī isrā’ al- tashrī‘āt al-ḥadīthah,” Al-Risālah al-Islāmiyyah, vol. 164-165, (Baghdād 1404), 138. 24. Wolfhart Heinrichs, “Ḳawā‘id Fiḳhiyya”, Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, ed. P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel; and W. P. Heinrichs (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010), 12:517. 25. Musa Jār Allāh, Qawā‘id, 6. 26. al-Kāsānī, Badāi‘ al-sānāi‘ fī tartīb al-sharā’i‘, 1:263. 27. For another examples see Kamali, “Legal Maxims of Fiqh”, An Introduction to Sharī‘ah, 137. 101An Outline of the Historical Evolution 28. Ibid., 148. 29. Heinrichs, “Qawā‘id as a Genre of Legal Literature,” 365. 30. For furūq literature see Wolfhart Heinrichs, “Structuring the Law: Remarks on the Furūq Literature”, in Studies in Honour of Clifford Edmund Bosworth, Hunter of the East: Arabic and Semitic Studies, ed. I. Richard Netton), vol. 1 (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2000), 332–44. 31. Al-Zarqā’, Al-Madkhal, vol. 2, 952; İbrahim Kafi Dönmez, “Hz. Peygamber’in Tebliğine Hākim Olan Başlıca Hukuk Prensipleri,” Ebedī Risalet Sempozyu- mu (İzmir, Turkey: Işık Yayınları, 1993), 167; Mustafa Baktır, “Kāide,” Tür- kiye Diyanet Vakfı İslam Ansiklopedisi (Ankara, Turkey: Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı, 2001), vol. 24, 206. 32. Abd Allāh Ibn Mukammad b. Ṣāliḥ al-Sulaymān, Al-Shakk wa atharuhū fī najāsat al-mā’ wa ṭahārat al-badan wa aḥkām al-sha‘āir al-ta‘abbudīyah (dirāsah fiqhiyyah muqāranah) ma‘a naẓrah ‘āmmah fī ’l-qawā‘id al-fiqhi- yyah (Riyaḍh, Saudi Arabia: Dār Ṭuwayq, 2000), 1:57; Baktır, “Kāide,” vol. 24, 206. 33. ‘Alī Aḥmad al-Nadwī, Al-Qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah, mafhūmuhā, nash’atuhā, taṭawwuruhā, dirāsat mu’allafātihā, adillatuhā, mahammatuhā, taṭbīqātuhā (Damascus, Syria: Dār al-Qalam, 1986), 72; Şükrü Özen, “Furūk,” Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslam Ansiklopedisi (Ankara, Turkey: Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı, 1996), vol. 13, 224–25. 34. For a similar approach see al-Nadwī, Al-Qawā‘id, 115. 35. Al-Zarqā’, Al-Madkhal, vol. 2, 951; Abū ’l-‘Abbās Aḥmad b. Yaḥyā al- Wansharīsī, Īdāḥ al-masālik ilā qawā‘id al-Imām Mālik, ed. Ahmed Bū Tāhir al-Khattābī (Rabat, Morocco: Ṣundūq Iḥyā’ al-Turāth al-Islāmī, 1980), 118; Muḥammad Muṣṭafā’al-Zuḥaylī, Al-Qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah ‘alā ’l-madhab al- Ḥanafī wa al-Shāfi‘ī (Al Shuwaykh, Kuwait: Majlis al-Nashr al-‘Ilmī, Lajnat al-Ta’līf wa al-Ta‘rīb wa al-Nashr, 1999), 29; ‘Ubādah, Qawā‘id al-fiqh, 8; ‘Abd al-Raḥmān al-Sābūnī, Al-Madkhal li dirāsat al-tashrī‘i al-Islāmī (Da- mascus, Syria: Jāmi‘at Dimashq, 1981–1982), vol. 1, 263; Ṣāliḥ b. Ghānim al-Sadlān, Al-Qawā‘id al-fiqhiyyah al-kubrā wa mā tafarra‘a ‘anhā, (Ri- yadh, Saudia, Arabia: Dār Balansīyah li al-Nashr wa-al-Tawzī‘, 1996), 23. 36. Abū Sa‘īd Khalīl b. Kaykaldī al-‘Alāī, Al-Majmū‘ al-mudhhab fī qawā‘id al- madhhab, ed. Muḥammad b. Abd Alghaffār b. Abd al-Raḥmān (Kuwait City, Kuwait: Wizārat al-Awqāf wa al-Shu’ūn al-diniyyah, 1994), vol. 1:47; Baktır, “Kāide,” vol. 24: 206, Mehmet Emin Özafşar, Hadīsi Yeniden Düşünmek: Fıkhī Hadīsler Bağlamında Bir İnceleme (Ankara, Turkey: Ankara Okulu, 2000), 118. 37. The term axiomatization denotes the formulation process of qawā‘id prin- ciples in such a way that several rules, which had a common ground and goal behind them, have been expressed in long statements in the early furū‘ works. The later generation of jurists revealed the common points and idea of these rules and expressed them in concise expressions in the course of time, until this process completed with regard to the structure and expression. The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 28:1102 38. Al-Bāḥusayn, Al-Qawā‘id, 288. This approach is very common in contempo- rary qawā‘id works. 39. For some examples of the Companions see Al-Kāsānī, Badāi‘ al-sānāi‘, vol. 6, 266; vol. 7, 83. 40. For details see Muḥammad Rawwās Qal‘ajī, Mawsū‘at fiqh Ibrāhīm al- Nakha‘ī (Beirut, Lebanon: Dār al-Nafāis, 1986), 198; Al-Shalabī has a similar opinion about Abū Ḥanīfah. See Muḥammad Muṣṭafā al-Shalabī, Al-Madkhal fī al-fiqh al-Islāmī ta‘rīfuhu wa tārīkhuhu wa madhāhibuhu naẓariyyat al-mulkiyyah wa al-‘akd (Beirut, Lebanon: al-Dār al-Jāmi‘iyyah, 1985), 323. 41. Shāh Waliyy Allāh al-Dahlawī, Al-Musawwā sharḥ al-Muwaṭṭā’ (Beirut, Lebanon: Dār al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyah, 1983), vol. 1, 19. 42. Abū Abd Allāh Muḥammad b. Muḥammad b. Aḥmad al-Maqqarī, Al- Qawā‘id, ed. Aḥmad b. Abd Allāh b. Ḥamīd (Mecca, Saudi Arabi: Jāmi‘at Umm al-Qurā, n.d.), vol. 1, 122; Muḥammad al-Rūkī, Qawā‘id al-fiqh al- Islāmī min khilāl kitāb al-Ishrāf ‘alā masā’il al-khilāf (Damascus, Syria: Dār al-Qalam, 1998), 134-135; al-Bāḥusayn, Al-Qawāid, 310. 43. Al-Nadwī, Al-Qawā‘id, 95; Muḥammad Ṣidqī b. Ahmad b. Muḥammad al-Būrnū, Al-Wajīz fī iḍāh qawā‘id al-fiqhi al-kulliyyah (Beirut, Lebanon: Muassasat al-Risālah, 2002), 58. 44. Al-Zarqā’, al-Madkhal, 1:175. 45. Al-Shalabī, Al-Madkhal, 325; Al-Nadwī, Al-Qawā‘id, 97; Al-Zuḥaylī, Al- Qawā’id, 32; Al-Rūkī, Qawā‘id, 136. 46. Al-Sābūnī, Al-Madkhal, vol. 1, 254–55; Al-Nadwī, Al-Qawā‘id, 98; Al-Rūkī, Qawā‘id, 135; Muḥammad Hashim al-Burhānī, Sadd al-zarāi‘ fī al-sharīah al-Islāmiyyah (Beirut, Lebanon: Maṭba‘at al-Rayḥānī, 1985), 159–60. 47. Al-Shalabī, Al-Madkhal, 325; Al-Nadwī, Al-Qawā‘id, 99; Al-Rūkī, Qawā‘id, 140; Al-Dar‘ān, Al-Madkhal, 223; Al-Būrnū, Al-Wajīz, 59; Al-Sulaymān, Al- Shakk, vol. 1, 58. 48. Abū Bakr b. Muḥammad b. ‘Abd al-Mu’mīn al-Ḥisnī, Kitāb al-qawā‘id, ed. ‘Abd al-Raḥmān b. Abd Allāh al-Sha‘lān (Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Maktabat al-Rushd, 1997), vol. 1, 41. 49. There are no specific details on the time of his death in the sources. However, it is noted that he was born in third/ninth century and died in fourth/tenth century. See al-Zarqā’, Al-Madkhal, vol. 2, 953; Al-Nadwī, Al-Qawā‘id, 100; Al-Bāḥusayn, Al-Qawā‘id, 311. On the other hand, some sources give his exact death time. See Shubayr, Al-Qawā‘id, 49. 50. Al-‘Alāī, Al-Majmū‘, vol. 1, 252–53; Jalāl al-Dīn ‘Abd al-Raḥmān b. Abī Bakr al-Suyūṭī, Al-Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir fī qawā‘id wa furū‘ fiqh al-Shāfi‘iyyah, ed. Muḥammad Mu‘tasim bi Allah el-Baghdādī (Beirut, Lebanon: Dār al- Kitāb al-‘Arabī, 1987), 35–36; Ibn al-Nujaym, Al-Ashbāh, 10–11. 51. Al-‘Alāī, Al-Majmū‘, vol. 1, 253–54; Al-Suyūṭī, Al-Ashbāh, 36–37. The last qā‘idah is “Al-‘ādatu muhakkamah” in Al-Suyūṭī’s Al-Ashbāh and “tahkīm 103An Outline of the Historical Evolution al-‘ādat” in al-‘Alāī’s Al-Majmū‘. See Al-Suyūṭī, Al-Ashbāh, 37 and Al- ‘Alāī, Al-Majmū‘, vol. 1, 254. 52. For critics of this story, see al-Ḥamawī, Ghamz, vol. 1, 36; Al-Bāḥusayn, Al- Qawā‘id, 312–13; Kızılkaya, Kāsānī’nin Bedāyi‘ İsimli Eserinde Kavāid’in Yeri, 269th footnote; Heinrichs, “Qawā‘id”, 371. 53. Al-Shalabī, Al-Madkhal, 326; Al-Maqqarī, Al-Qawā‘id, vol. 1, 123; Al- Bāḥusayn, Al-Qawā‘id, 316; Al-Nadwī, Al-Qawā‘id, 100; Al-‘Alāī, Al- Majmū‘,vol. 1, 49. Al-Bāḥusayn, however, affirms the existence of a book named Al-Talkhīs which belongs to Ibn al-Qās (d. 335/947) and is full of qawā‘id, dawabit, and principles. See Al-Bāḥusayn, Al-Qawā‘id, 307–310. 54. Abū ’l-Ḥasan ‘Ubayd Allāh b. al-Ḥasan Karkhī (d. 340/952), Al-Risalah fi ’l-usūl. With Al-Dabūsī’s Ta’sīs al-naẓar, ed. Zakarīyā ‘Alī Yūsuf (Cairo, Egypt: Maṭba‘at al-Imām, 1972), 110. 55. Kamali, “Legal Maxims of Fiqh,” An Introduction to Sharī‘ah, 145. 56. On the discussion of ascription of this book to Abū al-Layth al-Samarqandī and of its relation with Abū Zayd al-Dabūsī’s Ta’sīs, see Baktır, “Kāide”, vol. 24, 207. 57. Al-Zarqā’, al-Madkhal, vol. 2, 955; Al-Bāḥusayn, Al-Qawā‘id, 318–19; İz- mirli, İlm-i Hilāf, 189. 58. Babanzāda (d. 1338/1920) states that ‘Alā al-Dīn al-Samarqandī (d. 540/1146) has a book titled Īdāh al-qawā‘id in the sixth/twelfth century. See Babanzāda Isma‘īl Pasha al-Baghdādī, Hadiyyat al-‘ārifīn asmā’ al-muallifīn wa āthār al-muṣannifīn (Ankara, Turkey: Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Yayınları, 1955), vol. 2, 90. 59. Baktır, “Kāide,” vol. 24, 207. 60. Al-Zarqā’, Al-Madkhal, vol. 2, 958; Al-Bāḥusayn, Al-Qawā‘id, 324; Al- Nadwī, Al-Qawā‘id, 102. 61. See Kızılkaya, Kāsānī’nin Bedāyi‘ İsimli Eserinde Kavāid’in Yeri, 52-53; al-Bāḥusayn, al-Qawā‘id, 335-336. 62. Al-Nadwī, Al-Qawā‘id, 102; Al-Būrnū, Al-Wajīz, 65. 63. Al-Būrnū, Al-Wajīz, 68; Al-Nadwī, Al-Qawā‘id, 104–105; Al-Bāḥusayn, Al- Qawā‘id, 336. 64. In addition to Al-Suyūṭī (d. 911/1505) and Ibn al-Nujaym’s (d. 970/1562) works, Al-Zaqqāq’s (d. 912/1506) Al-Manhaj al-muntakhab had a significant impact on works of that period. 65. Al-Bāḥusayn, Al-Qawā‘id, 350. 66. Mustafa Reşit Belgesay, “Mecellenin Külli Kaideleri ve Yeni Hukuk,” İstanbul Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Mecmuası, 12, nos. 2 and 3 (1946): 562–64. 67. Also some specific works of qawā‘id such as Muṣṭafā Aḥmad al-Zarqā’s Al- Madkhal al-fiqhiyy al-‘āmm and Subḥī Maḥmasānī’s Falsafat al-tashrī‘ al- Islāmī investigate qawā‘id as well. The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 28:1104 68. For further information on contemporary works, see Al-Bāḥusayn, Al- Qawā‘id, 402–428; Kızılkaya, Kāsānī’nin Bedāyi‘ İsimli Eserinde Kavāid’in Yeri, 55–56. 69. Al-Baghdādī, Hadiyyat al-‘ārifīn, vol, 1, 750. 70. Muṣṭafā Ibn ‘Abd Allāh Hājjī Khalīfah, Kitāb Kashf al-ẓunūn ‘an asāmī al- kutub wa-al-funūn (Tehran, Iran: al-Maṭba‘at al-Islāmiyyah, 1961), vol, 1, 99. 71. Hājjī Khalīfah, Kashf al-ẓunūn, vol. 1, 99. 72. Al-Baghdādī, Hadiyyat al-‘ārifīn, vol. 5, 202. 73. Hājjī Khalīfah, Kashf al-ẓunūn, vol. 1, 100. 74. Al-Baghdādī, Hadiyyat al-‘ārifīn, 1:758. 75. Ibid., vol. 1, 43. 76. Ibid., vol. 2, 303. 77. Al-Nadwī, Al-Qawā‘id, 439. 78. Ibid., 438. 79. Al-Baghdādī, Hadiyyat al-‘ārifīn, 1:41. 80. For a long list of commentaries on Ibn Nujaym’s Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir; Kızılkaya, Kāsānī’nin Bedāyi‘ İsimli Eserinde Kavāid’in Yeri, 72–74; Al- Nadwī, Al-Qawā‘id, 434–39. 81. See Kızılkaya, Kāsānī’nin Bedāyi‘ İsimli Eserinde Kavāid’in Yeri, 74–75; al-Bāḥusayn, Al-Qawā‘id, 378–84. 82. Ahmet Yaman, “Bir Kavram Olarak ‘Fıkıh Kāideleri’ Ya da İslam Hukuku- nun Genel İlkeleri,” Marife 1, no. 1, (Spring 2001): 72. 83. Al-Bāḥusayn, Al-Qawā‘id, 341. 84. Heinrichs, “Qawā‘id,” 377. 85. Ibid. 86. Babanzāda Isma‘īl Pasha al-Baghdādī, Īḍāḥ al-maknūn fī al-dhayl ‘alā Kashf al-ẓunūn ‘an asāmī al-kutub wa-al-funūn (Tehran, Iran: al-Maktaba al-Islāmiyya, 1378), vol. 2, 732. 87. Al-Baghdādī, Hadiyyat al-‘ārifīn, vol, 5, 550. 88. Abū al-‘Abbās Aḥmad Ibn Muḥammad Ibn Khallikān, Wafāyāt al-a‘yān wa-anbā’ abnā’ al-zamān (Cairo, Egypt: Maṭba‘at al-Sa‘ādah, 1948), vol. 3, 388. 89. Ibn al-Wakīl, Abū ‘Abd Allāh Sadr al-Dīn, Al-Ashbāh wa ’l-naẓā’ir, ed. Aḥmad b. Muḥammad al-‘Anqarī, ‘Ādil b. ‘Ābd Allāh al-Shuwaykh (Riyāḍ, Saudi Arabia: Maktabat al-Rushd, 1413/1993), vol. 1, 57. 90. Maḥmasānī, Subḥī, Falsafat al-tashri‘ fī ’l-Islām (Beirut, Lebanon: Dār al- Kashshāf, 1952), 201. 91. Hājjī Khalīfah, Kashf al-ẓunūn, vol. 2, 1950. 92. Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad Ibn Hajar al-‘Asqalānī, Al-Durar al-kāminah fī a‘yān al-mi’ah al-thāminah (Ḥaydarābād: Maṭba‘at Majlis Dā’irat al-Ma‘ārif al- ‘Uthmānīyah, 1972), vol. 5, 92. 93. Al-Baghdādī, Hadiyyat al-‘ārifīn, 1, vol, 795. 94. Hājjī Khalīfah, Kashf al-ẓunūn, vol. 2, 1359. 105An Outline of the Historical Evolution 95. Al-‘Asqalānī, Al-Durar al-kāminah, vol. 4, 241. 96. Al-Nadwī, Al-Qawā‘id, 103 and 434; Al-Būrnū, Al-Wajīz, 100. 97. Al-Baghdādī, Hadiyyat al-‘ārifīn, vol. 2, 178. 98. Ibid., vol. 1, 23–24. 99. Al-Baghdādī, Īḍāḥ al-maknūn, vol. 2, 659. 100. ‘Umar Riḍā Kaḥḥālah, Mu‘jam al-mu’allifīn: tarājim muṣannifī al-kutub al- ‘Arabīyah (Damascus, Syria: Maṭba‘at al-Taraqqī, 1957), vol. 3, 69. 101. See Heinrichs, “Qawā‘id,” 380–81; Kızılkaya, Kāsānī’nin Bedāyi‘ İsimli Es- erinde Kavāid’in Yeri, 78. 102. Al-Baghdādī, Hadiyyat al-‘ārifīn, vol. 1, 42. 103. Ibid., vol. 1, 489. 104. Hājjī Khalīfah, Kashf al-ẓunūn, vol. 2, 359. 105. Ferhat Koca, İslam Hukuk Tarihinde Selefī Söylem, Hanbelī Mezhebi (An- kara, Turkey: Ankara Okulu, 2002), 247. 106. According to al-Bāḥusayn, though it is a furū‘ work, the author mentions some qawā‘id at the beginning of each chapter. See al-Bāḥusayn, Al-Qawā‘id, 330. 107. Al-Baghdādī, Hadiyyat al-‘ārifīn, vol. 1, 126.