Intra-Muslim Conflicts: A Linguistic Representation Ahmad Shehu Abdussalam Abstract The global Muslim community is multi-racial, multi-lingual, and multi-cultural. Over the centuries, religious groups emerged due to historical circumstances, political allegiances, interpretation of texts, cultural influences, and varied theological denominations. In some cases, the resulting intra-group rivalry has led to intra- Muslim conflicts characterized by various levels of violence, conflict, rhetoric, and verbal abuse. This article investigates the linguistic trends related to represent- ing intra-Muslim conflicts, the factors and strategies of utilizing linguistic representation, and the classification of common terms within the context of such conflicts. It also analyzes the implica- tions of certain vocabularies, structures, and discourse styles that represent the positions of opposing groups, perceptions of self and others, and how linguistic representation can help resolve intra-Muslim conflict. I use a pragmatic analysis to search for cultural and religious connotations in samples of common terms employed in the conflicts in question. Although the global Muslim community is multi-lingual, Arabic terms are commonly used in intra-Muslim conflicts. Given this reality, I focus on Arabic terms and present only a few non-Arabic loan words that have been adopted. Ahmad Shehu Abdussalam is a professor in the Department of Arabic Language and Literature, Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences, International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk Introduction The global Muslim community (ummah) consists of people who have dif- ferent cultural, linguistic, and religious backgrounds. This phenomenon may result in minor or major intra-Muslim conflicts characterized by linguistic expressions designed to present, either overtly or covertly, opposing posi- tions that may have a considerable impact on certain conflicts. Hence, there is a need for extensive research that analyzes the implications of such lin- guistic representations within the context of how language can influence the initiation, spread, management, or resolution of intra-Muslim conflicts. Its influence is also recognized in reconciling social affairs and rectifying bro- ken relations. Any investigation of this social phenomenon has to embrace the assumption that the use of specific words and structures within the context of a certain discourse reflects each group’s support of its own political inter- ests, cultural norms, or theological beliefs and attempt to discredit those of the other group. It also presupposes that a linguistic investigation will pro- vide an in-depth understanding of these conflicts and that a careful selection of linguistic expressions will contribute to the conflict’s management, reso- lution, and even avoidance. The significance of this investigation lies in the fact that terms and expressions are strong weapons in any conflict and that opposing groups may misuse some expressions by endowing them with negative meanings or connotations in reference to others. Such a practice may be dangerous to social relations in a large religious community, such as the global Muslim community. Thus, studying how some intra-Muslim conflicts are portrayed linguistically will contribute to mutual understanding and foster peaceful intra-Muslim relations. In this paper, I cover strategies of language usage in intra-Muslim con- flict; the social, psychological, and religious factors that lie beyond it; the implications of linguistic representation as regards an opposing group’s position within this type of conflict, and how linguistic representation may help resolve such conflicts. I do not assume that the words’ religious origin guides the participants’ socio-religious thought in their conflicts, since it is practically impossible to make any generalized observation of this nature. One must remember that words, whether belonging to the language or loaned from another one, denote many things in different languages. In addi- tion, varied social factors influence the use of words and expressions in any language, regardless of the existence of social similarities. 2 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 25:1 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk I have chosen a pragmatic textual approach to analyze samples of com- mon expressions used in intra-Muslim conflicts. However, I give due atten- tion to possible intended or unintended connotations in intra-Muslim con- flicts by analyzing influential factors that surround language symbols used to communicate ideas, such as the context of the situation and the inter-rela- tion of individuals and groups. Such an approach is considered appropriate for this type of study. For example, Allen Grimshaw uses it to analyze the expressions of interpersonal conflicts,1 and Bernard Lewis used a similar approach to study the terms and expressions of political Islam.2 Neither of them focused on intra-Muslim conflicts. My analysis concentrates on the facts expressed about beliefs, persons, group identity, and cultural practices. Therefore, it is not based on structural features and meanings. In order to minimize long quotations, the expressions and terms are taken as the focus of analysis, while their textual contexts are used as a background to guide the analysis. This technique covers both the pragmatic use as well as the theological and political connotations and implications of the context. I seek to indicate group affiliation and the expressions adopted by a par- ticular group’s members or leaders to express their positions on certain con- flicts. Members of the group frequently use or quote these expressions to convey their views and convictions concerning their opponents’ cause and the nature of their actions. The selection of such expressions is not inten- tional; rather, it is done purely for the sake of proving my assumption: like any other group, the Muslims’ use of language can initiate, prolong, or even end a given conflict. The Linguistic Representation of Conflicts Intra-Muslim conflict is expressed though physical combat, demonstrations, war, and other ways. Language makes its own contribution either through direct involvement (as an indicator of wider cultural and political conflict) or by serving as a means of conflict representation. As a vehicle for interaction, inter-communication, and symbolic values, language represents a factor in social and national conflicts, which gener- ally include linguistic conflicts. Such conflicts arise out of the language diversity that prevails in many societies and nations. However, according to Itmar Even-Zohar, the possibility of diversity leading to a conflict between speakers of different languages or remaining a recognized social fact depends upon the level of cultural, historical, and political interaction in a Abdussalam: Intra-Muslim Conflicts: A Linguistic Representation 3 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk bilingual or multilingual society.3 For instance, Iraq’s Kurdish population struggles with that country’s Arab population in order to preserve its unique (non-Arab) identity and accord an official status to the Kurdish language, while their counterparts in Turkey view their existence as incomplete with- out Ankara’s official recognition of their right to use their native language in all socio-cultural and academic functions.4 Linguistic representation, in its capacity as a semantic symbol that con- veys concepts, positions, and values, becomes a factor in both intra- and inter-Muslim conflicts among social groups. Its functions cover initiating enmity and turning a foe into an ally (and vice versa), thereby causing anar- chy or war; stirring up social relations; and suspending, stopping, or avoid- ing anarchy. Ambiguous terms and slang may lead to conflict through a pragmatic interpretation or how the various linguistic groups or subcultural groups understand their connotations. Thus, a language of conflict emerges to represent action and reaction to the conflict in question. The effects of linguistic representation upon intra-Muslim conflicts become clear when we analyze the role played by linguistic expressions in conflict situations. How the language of conflict is used, however, depends upon the situation and the positions of each group’s members. In addition, some aspects of linguistic expression may symbolize certain aspects of intra- Muslim conflicts. Representing a conflict through language is not restricted to those who speak the same language, for it also exists among speakers of differ- ent languages. Such conflicts may be caused by clashes over regional cul- tural norms, conflicting religious beliefs, and conflicting political inter- ests. Linguistic expressions of intra-communal conflicts among groups are fueled by intolerance, failure to reach a compromise, a conflict of interest, heightened tension in relations, or a state of war. The influence of linguistic expressions among rival groups extends to relations between individuals and nations, due to socio-cultural and religious factors. As a result, the ensuing reactions to expressions used to denote some groups, tribes, races, or members of certain religious sects reflects one group’s inner feelings and perceptions of other groups. Nasr bin Sayyar perfectly described the implications of linguistic expressions in pre-Islamic Arab intra-tribal conflicts in a beautiful simile5: “The fire is caused to blaze by two pieces of wood, as the speech, coming out within two jaws, precedes the war.”6 4 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 25:1 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk Classifying Expressions of Intra-Muslim Conflicts The various linguistic expressions can be classified as follows: INITIATING THE CONFLICT. This group includes expressions designed to insult or make religious or political allegations against opposing groups. For example, one can mention the Shi`ah’s curses or, according to the Sunnis, abusive remarks (viz., the sabb al-Sahabah) concerning certain Companions of the Prophet. Yusuf al-Qaradawi cites this as one of the obstacles to Sunni- Shi`ah reconciliation.7 Classifying others as infidels (takfir or tafsiq), which appears mostly in literature related to various Sunni-Shi`ah conflicts and those between the Salafis and other groups, are also major sources of intra- Muslim conflict. FUELING THE CONFLICT. This is reflected in expressions that discredit opposing groups, attribute abominations to them, qualify them with prejudi- cial adjectives, or are designed to provoke them. Some of these actions are described by opposing groups as al-isa’ah (disrespect or abuse), tas`id al- mawqif (escalating the situation), and khiyanah `uzma (highest treason), as in wa asharu ila anna al-husula `ala hadha al-da`mi al-ajnabi innama yarqa ila al-khiyanah al-`uzma li al-watan (They noted that obtaining this foreign support amounts to the highest treason to the country).8 In this phrase, `Arafah is commenting on the eligibility to contest for presidential election in Egypt and guidelines for political sponsorship for individuals and political parties, as viewed by members of the Egyptian Par- liament, in a warning to opposition parties. Another example is al-bara’ah minhum (disowning them) or yutabarra’ (to disown), as when `Ali al-Khudayr is reported to have renounced the extremists’ position and condemned the terrorist actions of some Islamist groups in Saudi Arabia, in the phrase: muntaqidan fi al-waqti nafsihi alla- dhina yahmiluna al-silaha wa i`tabarahum imma khawarija aw muta’aw- wilina yutabarra’u minhum wa min ijtihadihim. (At the same time, he criti- cized those who resort to violent clashes and considered them to be either Khawarij [those who revolt against legal rulers] or those who misinterpret texts. They should be disowned, and their efforts to derive rules from the texts should also be disowned).9 MANAGING THE CONFLICT. This is observed in expressions used when deal- ing with situations of intra-Muslim conflict in an effort to reduce tension, bring about closer relations, instill a culture of tolerance, and encourage Abdussalam: Intra-Muslim Conflicts: A Linguistic Representation 5 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk inter-group cooperation in order to meet the challenges posed by non- Muslims. This comes in expressions like tajannub al-`istifzaz (to avoid provocation), as used by al-Qaradawi in his writing on forging closer rela- tions between Muslim sects, and advocating for avoiding provocation and for adopting frankness with wisdom: wa min al-mabadi’ al-muhimmah fi al- hiwar al-islami al-islami wa al-taqribi bayna al-madhahibi al-islamiyah tajannubu al-istifzaz min ahdi al-tarafayni li al-akhar (Among the impor- tant principles in Muslim-Muslim dialogue and in bringing different Muslim schools of thought and belief closer is to eschew provocation by one side of the other).10 Other expressions include `inqadh al-mawqif (to save the situation), al- tasamuh bayna al-mukhtalifina (tolerance among disputing groups), and al- ihtiram al-mutabadal (mutual respect). It is important here to quote a popu- lar wise saying attributed to Muhammad Rashid Rida on managing intra- Muslim conflicts: “We cooperate on what we agree upon, and every one of us will tolerate others on what we disagree upon.” This was adopted by Hasan al-Banna and his al-Ikhwan al-Muslimun as well as al-Nadawi and his students.11 RESOLVING THE CONFLICT. This can be observed in the efforts to settle dis- agreements, end violence, foster cooperation, and maintain peaceful coexis- tence among Muslim groups. Some expressions employed to achieve recon- ciliation are al-mufawadat (negotiations), al-hiwar al-sunni al-shi`i (the Sunni-Shi`i dialogue), and al-musarahah bi al-hikmah (stating the fact in a wise way). Others are qadaya al-wahdah wa al-taqrib (issues of unity and closer relation) and darurah al-talahum (necessity of close relation). In addi- tion, there is an assumption that disagreement among people is connected to names (words), but that agreement will prevail when they move to mean- ings. Al-Qaradawi uses husnu al-zanni bayna al-tarafayni (both groups’ good mutual perception of each other) to qualify one of the needed measures to resolve intra-Muslim conflicts.12 Factors in Utilizing Linguistic Representation Issues related to politics, culture, ethnicity, and theological belief have a great impact on the use of linguistic representation in intra-Muslim conflicts. For example, in the case of political conflicts, rival groups, regardless of their religious affiliation, depend heavily upon appeals made to their follow- ers, with linguistic expressions being the easiest means to convince them. In 6 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 25:1 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk order to achieve their objectives, groups intentionally use terms that repre- sent their position clearly and discredit their opponents. In a Muslim setting, the term `amil (agent) and its plural `umala’ are used to denote those oppo- sition groups assumed to be agents of non-Muslims, such as `umala’ al- imbriyaliyah (agents of imperialism) or `umala’ Isra’il (agents of Israel). As such, they are by default khawanah (traitors) who pursue hidden agendas that are unfavorable to Muslims. Apparently, the aim is to discredit oppo- nents and warn people against dealing with them or entrusting their affairs to them. Likewise, al-khiyanah al-kubra (the highest treason), which liter- ally means “the greatest dishonesty,” is also adopted in Arabic discourse to denote actions that are against the state’s interests. Deteriorating relations between two Muslim states may be described metaphorically as tasaddu`un fi al-`alaqat bayna al-baladayni: al- Qahirah wa ÿihran (a deterioration in relations between the two countries: Cairo [as the capital of Egypt] and Tehran [as the capital of Iran]), where tasaddu` means “cracking,” to indicate worsening diplomatic relations. When a political opponent who does not believe in religious people involving themselves in politics is referred to, modern Islamists describe him or her as an ilhadi (apostate). Any of the tactics used by the group’s political opponents to override its own efforts may be described as khuyut al-ta’amuri al-siyasi (threads of political conspiracy) to refer metaphori- cally to political maneuvers considered by some to be weaving the strands of a political conspiracy. This can be used to denote strategies of a partic- ular country’s ruling class by passing measures that are not favorable to its political opponents. Historical factors may be the driving force behind the use of linguistic expressions that refer to Islam’s roots, religious-political responsibility, and historical relations. In Algeria, for example, the term al-khawarij is used to refer to Muslim separatists who rebel against the government, while in Saudi Arabia it refers to Muslim extremists who carry out violent attacks against foreigners and government establishments. In reality, however, this term has a specific meaning: those Muslim groups that rejected the caliphate of Ali ibn Abi Talib (ra). Al-Zahiriyuna al-judud designates mod- ern Muslim phenomenalists who uphold the direct (i.e., surface) meaning of the texts, something that indicates the repletion of a historical trend that started in Andalusia with Dawud al-Zahiri, Ibn Hazm, and others. This term does not refer to a particular group, but rather indicates every individual and group that chooses to implement the direct meanings of the Qur’anic and prophetic texts. Abdussalam: Intra-Muslim Conflicts: A Linguistic Representation 7 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk Whenever conflicts involve historical and ethnic factors, such expres- sions as al-`asabiyah al-jahiliyah appear to refer to a feeling of racial dis- crimination and to compare a specific contemporary action with the pre- Islamic pagan practice of advocating and preferring one’s tribal affiliation, as it is also represented in al-tafriqah al-`unsuriyah (apartheid discrimina- tion). The term al-shu`ubiyah (ethnicity, apartheid, racism) is also employed to denote positions related to promoting national instead of religious iden- tity and to compare this with non-Arab racist movements (mainly of Persian origin) in response to the `Umayyad preference for Arabs in government appointments. Modern Islamists have adopted this term to discredit modern Arab Muslim nationalist movements. As the historical and social contextual origins of such words and phrases can be disregarded when used within the context of intra-Muslim conflict, parties to such conflicts take advantage of the contemporary emotive quality of such words and phrases, all the while ignoring their proper historically based meaning. This results in the misuse or abuse of language. The influence of religion and culture cannot be ignored in matters of alleged mixings of religion with traditional practices or of alleged misunder- standings or misinterpretations of texts and incorrect applications of reli- gious codes. The term munharifun (misled people) refers metaphorically to those who are assumed to have strayed from the straight path of Islam, either through misinterpreting or misapplying Islamic injunctions. The Salafis use al-dall (one who has gone astray) to describe the Sufis, due to their assump- tion that the latter have mixed Islamic codes with cultural practices that the Salafis consider to be bid`ah (heresy, innovation). The two terms are uncon- nected to the following prophetic hadith: “You are warned of innovative issues in religion, because every innovation is heresy, and every heresy – in religion – is an act of going astray.13 Meanwhile, linguistic expressions are also found in situations of overt and covert conflicts connected with political and theological issues. During the Iran-Iraq war of the 1980s, the Arab Gulf media outlets referred to Iran as al-`aduwu al-Irani, which means that Iran is an enemy and, as such, ought to be fought, despite the fact that it is a neighboring Muslim country. However, it is a non-Arab state that promotes Shi`i beliefs and practices that the Arab Gulf’s Sunni-majority states view as dangerous. During the second Gulf war, Saddam Hussein was referred to as al-Diktaturu al-`Iraqi to reflect a certain perception of the Iraqi president and his oppressive rule. This may may have encouraged him to invade Kuwait. Linguistic representation also plays a significant role in intra-Muslim conflict through its expressions of enmity and frustration. This may be rep- 8 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 25:1 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk resented in connotative nicknames and terms designed to provoke opponents who are aware of the intended meanings. For example, the Sunnis describe some Shi`i practices and claims as nawk al-Shi`ah (stupidity of the Shi`ah) and shatat al-Shi`ah (excess or deviation of the Shi`ah). In the same way, the Salafis refer to Sufi practices as shatat al-Sufiyah (deviation of the Sufis). Certain Shi`i groups are also called ghulat al-Shi`ah (extremist Shi`is) due to their “strange” beliefs and claims. On the other hand, some Shi`i groups are alleged to have adopted al-ghuluw or al-tashaddud (extremism), while other groups describe their position as al-wasatiyah (moderation), thereby indicating the adoption of a moderate perspective that rejects extremism and negligence. These groups adopt expressions like al-wasatiyah manhaju hayah (the moderate approach is a way of life) and al-wasafiyah laysat mah- surah fi juz’iyah min al-juz’iyat (The moderate approach is not restricted to a specific part).14 Sabri used the latter expression to project a modern Islamic moderate approach as an alternative to an Islamic extremist approach, most especially in Arab countries. Strategies of Linguistic Representation Investigations into the linguistic representation of intra-Muslim conflicts in Arabic reveal some strategies in how certain words and structures are used to deliver conventional and metaphorical meanings, most of which are orig- inal Arabic terms. The phrase sinariyu al-muhakamah (scenario of trial) and al-mahkamah al-suriyah (camouflaged court proceeding) are meta- phorically used to discredit the trials conducted by the ruling group to deal with its opponents. Intra-Muslim conflicts may be represented grammatically in the use of definite and indefinite particles, as reflected in an argument on adopting the Shari`ah as the source or a source of legislation in the interim Iraqi constitu- tion: al-Shari`ah masdar al-tashri` or al-Shari`ah masdar(un) li al-tashri`. The phrase masdar(un) li al-tashri` implies that the Shari`ah is not the sole source of this constitution, but rather only one of the sources, and that some sections of Iraq’s legislation may be adopted from other sources. Due to the variety and complexity of strategies, presenting examples based on intended facts will simplify the classification. These facts include descriptions of groups, actions, practices and perspectives, and praising or discrediting various groups. Some expressions describe a speaker’s own group or the opposing groups, as in the Salafis’ use of `aqidah al-salaf al- salih (the belief of the righteous predecessors [in the early century of Islam]) to describe their beliefs, although they use al-firaq al-dallah (the Abdussalam: Intra-Muslim Conflicts: A Linguistic Representation 9 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk groups that have gone astray) for those Muslim groups they regard as fol- lowing their own whims. On the other hand, the term ghulat al-Shi`ah (extremist Shi`is) describes certain Shi`ah groups. Isa bin Fatik, a Khariji poet, refuted an allegation leveled against his group and stated categorically: “You lie, that is not as you claim, but verily the Khawarij are believers in Allah. They are, as you know, ‘the small group’ that is empowered over ‘the large group’.”15 However, this strategy may indicate comparing one group with another, either directly or indirectly. Abd al-Qahir al-Baghdadi condemned the al- Rafidah Shi`ah for their rejection of basic Islamic faith and natural facts: “The members of al-rafd (the rejectionist) group, i.e., al-Rafidah, are people like the Christians. They are at a loss without a solution to their confusion.”16 The actions, practices, and perspectives of a group may also be described in such expressions as al-taqlid al-salafi (Salafi imitation), da`if al-`aqidah (weak faith), or al-inhiraf (deviation). Strategies of utilizing linguistic expressions in intra-Muslim conflicts can be based on factual, allusive, or metaphorical expressions. Factual expression is recognized in presenting various accounts of events, actions, or places, despite the fact that these accounts may be biased against oppos- ing groups. For example, Adnan uses the following expression to describe the kind of strategies adopted in the literature of some Muslim groups in order to achieve their aims: inna ba`da masadiri al-harakah al-Islamiyah qad istakhdamat al-quwah wa al-`unfa al-siyasi li tahqiq ma’ariba siyasiyah mukhtalifah (Some sources of Muslim movements have used force and political violence to obtain certain political demands).17 Factual expressions also may include descriptions of a certain group’s Islamic per- spectives and practices by relating them to those factors that have influenced them, such as al-Islam al-hadithi (modernist Islam), al-Islam al-librali (lib- eral Islam), al-Islam al-`almani (secular Islam) and al-Islam al-mutasallit (authoritarian Islam). This is due to the influence of modern liberal perspec- tives or modern Islamist trends that seek to dominate others. Allusive expressions about people, beliefs, or practices can serve both as a weapon to support one group and to abuse others. Examples of this are al-isa’ah ila al-Sahabah, which consists of some Shi`ahs’ abusive state- ments directed toward Abu Bakr, `Umar, `A’ishah, and other Companions. The expression jama`ah al-takfir (the [alleged] group of unbelief) denotes the extremists among Egypt’s Muslim activists, while al-fitnah (sedition, impiety, disgrace) refers to any actions assumed to be causing violent distur- bances or stirring up relations among Muslims. The term mutanatti` (unman- nerly behaved, overly stringent) indicates rude behavior and attempts to 10 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 25:1 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk impose one group’s perspective upon others, while al-sahwah al-islamiyah (Islamic awareness) and al-ihya’ al-islami (Islamic revival) denote modern activities and trends that create awareness among Muslims and renew their belief in God. Metaphorical expressions describe people and practices indirectly, such as adhnab al-gharb (tails of the West), al-tashwih al-siyasi (political distor- tion), wahhabiyah (the followers of Muhammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab), mun- harif (leaned), and mutatarrif (one who stays on the edge, [i.e., extremist]). Other metaphorical expressions, such as tasaddu`un fi al-`alaqat and khuyut al-ta`amur, were referred to in earlier sections of the paper. These strategies, however, are employed to serve varied purposes. The Sunnis and Shi`ah, due to their theological differences, also make use of provocative expressions and allegations of infidelity or impurity, something that usually hampers efforts of reconciliation and peaceful coexistence. Such intra-Muslim conflicts are described as al-idtirabat al-ta’ifiyah (sectarian disturbances), while efforts at reconciliation are tagged as al-taqrib bayna al-Sunnah wa al-Shi`ah (forging closer relations between the Sunnis and the Shi`ah). In the same context, the Sufis, Salafis, and Muslim modernists con- demn each other in their literature on the grounds of theological differences and allegations of infidelity to and ignorance of Islam. Muslim modernists may refer to Salafi points of view in al-ru’yah al-taqlidiyah (the traditional perspective) or al-taqlid al-Salafi, which implies an imitation of the group’s doctrines. However, the Salafis describe Sufi practices as shatat (deviation). Egypt’s Jama`ah al-Takfir wa al-Hijrah became popular, in part, due to its accusation that the entire global Muslim community has reverted to jahiliyah (a state of pre-Islamic Arab paganism and ignorance) due to, according to its own perspectives, its failure to enforce God’s laws. On their side, members of al-Ikhwan al-Muslimun (the Muslim Brotherhood) are known for their perspective of total submission to God’s governance and rejecting the prevailing common laws promulgated by men (ru’yah al- hakimiyah). Al-Qaeda does not separate Muslim conflicts with non- Muslims from conflicts between Muslims in utilizing linguistic representa- tion. As a result, it frequently adopts terms used by the Salafis, the Ikhwan, and the Jama`ah al-Takfir. For example, it uses islah for reform of faith, thought, and society; however, others tag it as promoting al-Islam al- mutatarrif (extremist Islam). In terms of politics, allegations directed toward non-Islamists of being a shuyu`i (communist), ishtiraki (socialist), or ilhadi and `almani (atheist) is not strange, as it is common to accuse one’s opponents of being allies of one’s enemies or occupiers, al-`amil (the agent) of others. But when oppo- Abdussalam: Intra-Muslim Conflicts: A Linguistic Representation 11 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk nents intend to discredit others, they raise doubt about their morality and use such phrases as faqadu al-misdaqiyah (they lost credibility). In terms of intellectualism, it is common to accuse others of following the West. One such expression is adhnab al-gharb (tails of the West), which metaphorically means following from behind and obeying instructions. Muslim modernists may refer to Salafi or Sufi perspectives as traditional- ist, but the group refers to its own perspective as al-tajdid (revival), a term that is viewed by others with skepticism because it is also used by the secu- larists. This feeling leads some modern Islamists to use al-ta’sil al-islami (returning to Islam’s roots [when dealing with modern knowledge], a trend that is sometimes coded as al-aslamah [Islamization] and al-islamiyah [Islamification]). Racial affiliations may be attached to one’s knowledge of religion, such as the term `arabi for one whom others may assume (wrongly) to be more knowledgeable of information presented in Arabic than non- Arabic, in contrast to the term `ajami, a person who might be assumed (wrongly) to have less knowledge of such information due to a language bar- rier. The term also implies being alien to a particular field of knowledge. There are cases in which religious affiliation is mixed with ethnicity. In some Muslim countries, a person’s ethnicity is considered synonymous with his or her religion. This can be a problem, especially for converts in that country who belong to other ethnic groups. For instance in Malaysia, where the Islamic credentials of a Malay person are undisputable, Chinese citizens are mainly Buddhist. If a Chinese man embraces Islam, he is referred to as saudara baru (new brother), probably because the Malays consider him a new brother in Islam. However, some of these Chinese Muslims might have been Muslim for decades and other Malaysian Chinese were born Muslim. Implications of Linguistic Representation Islam recognizes the implications of a linguistic representation of conflict, urges polite speech when dealing with others, and encourages disputants to choose their words and styles of speech carefully. Abu Zayd produced a voluminous work on which terms are forbidden,18 and other Muslim schol- ars have studied manners of speech.19 Qur’an 17:53 directs Muslims to select the best linguistic expressions when communicating with others so that good relations among members of the Muslim community can be maintained: “Say to My servants that they should (only) say those things that are best, for Satan sows dissention among them. Satan is an avowed enemy to humanity.” Qur’an 49:11 discourages 12 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 25:1 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk insulting terms and offensive nicknames in an attempt to prevent individual and group conflicts. For example, the Qur’an condemns the word ra`ina, which degrades the addressee but was nevertheless adopted by the Jews (Qur’an 4:46) to get the Prophet’s attention; Muslims were told not to use it when addressing him (Qur’an 2:104). Similar advice can be found in the prophetic traditions, such as the directive to control one’s speech (hold your tongue) and discourage verbal abuse. One poet was quoted as having warned of the danger of common humor: “The [real] wound is the one caused by the tongue, as you already know. And many sayings have caused bloodshed.”20 Arabic poetry fuels intra-Muslim conflicts by satirizing (hija’) opposing groups or individuals, complaining of their actions, warning of revenge, and over-praising one’s own group. Al- Hadi Hammu gives a few accounts of how some Shi`i poets defended Shi`i perspectives and practices.21 Abu al-Aswad al-Du’ali, the pioneer scholar of Arabic grammar, protested a case of mistreatment by replying to an allega- tion of joining the Shi`ah made by his Sunni wife’s family members: “Banu Qushayr, the most useless of all people will say (in mockery) that you will never forget to desist to support (Imam) `Ali. I love Muhammad with a great love, and I love `Abbas, Hamzah, the one whom the caliphate was willed for (`Ali), the descendants of the uncle of the Prophet and his close family mem- bers, the most beloved people to me.”22 In modern intra-Muslim conflicts, linguistic expressions carry intended and unintended social, psychological, theological, intellectual, and political implications that have profound effects upon intra-Muslim relations. How- ever, it may be difficult to present a distinctive classification of them accord- ing to a particular implication, due to the interconnection of influencing fac- tors. Adopted expressions may have connotations for either affiliated or opposing groups. For example, using mutamarridun (rebels) when referring to some political groups engaged in armed struggle gives a connotation that such a group is acting against a legitimate ruler. Linguistic expressions may be chosen to degrade opposing groups and lower their esteem in the eyes of others, as in the following case: using al-khawanah (the traitors) for those who are assumed to be working against a government. This implication also applies to `umala’ al-imbriyaliyah (agents of imperialism), which states in no uncertain terms that the opposing group is working in the interests of imperialism, which is contrary to the interests of the people. Some of these expressions reflect the perception of self or others, as is the case with muhafizun (conservatives), taqlidiyun (traditionalists), and muqallidun (imitators), as opposed to islahiyun (reformers) for those Abdussalam: Intra-Muslim Conflicts: A Linguistic Representation 13 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk Muslims who attempt to adjust to the modern prevailing political and cul- tural situations in order to serve their community. An example of this is the Saudi government’s use of al-khawarij for those supposed “militants” who seek its overthrow through violent means, since this particular term is used to create and then maintain a group perception that the people it considers to be militants are acting against a legitimate ruler. Such a reflection of how others are perceived also applies to irhabi (ter- rorist) in intra-Muslim conflicts in Algeria, Jordan, and the Arab Gulf coun- tries. This term seeks to convey the perception that such a person acts to instill terror in others through violent means in order to attain one’s per- sonal objectives. This meaning is given to the term despite the fact that it has been borrowed from the linguistic representation of Muslim conflicts with non-Muslims. In the current conflict in Iraq, for instance, the term irhabiyun enjoys a confused representation: officials of the interim government and the occupying forces use it to denote the indigenous or foreign-born organizers of any bombing or attack against the occupying and Iraqi government forces, whereas the Sunni opposition refers to such efforts as muqawamah (resistance to the occupation). Thus, the term itself has become a point of contention among various Iraqi political groups. Among Thailand’s Muslim population, Islam wahabi is employed to identify a particular Salafi trend among Muslims as opposed to Islam mod- ern, which is used for modern Muslim trends. Both terms have some socio- religious implications: the country’s Salafis, who are mainly from the South, are seen by other Muslims in the country as wahabis. This term implies that they are agents of the religious trends established by Imam Muhammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab during the sixteenth century that call for extremist Islam and seek to eradicate conventional practices that they consider to be non- Islamic. On the other hand, Islam modern indicates modern trends of abid- ing by the teachings of Islam that are neither extremist nor in agreement with other traditional practices considered to be non-Islamic. There are many other expressions with varied implications, among them al-ta’sil al-Islami (returning to the root of Islamic thought), ahl al- ahwa’ (followers of whims) and ta`til al-nass (suspending or neglecting the text’s content). These also are used to connote various theological implica- tions. Socio-cultural and moral implications are present in al-ghadr (betrayal), islah (reform), and similar terms. The usage of such terms as al- tasamuh (tolerance), al-tanattu` (over-stringent) and al-`uzlah al-siyasiyah (political boycott) has psychological connotations, while irhabiyun (terror- ists), irgham al-jumhur (coercion of the public), and al-tanwir al-islami 14 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 25:1 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk (Islamic awareness) carry socio-psychological and political implications. Intellectual implications can be derived from taqlid (adoption of the tradi- tional approach), tajdid (revival), tahjim al-sahwah al-islamiyah (curtail- ment of Islamic awareness), and similar terms. Meanwhile, the implications of representing intra-Muslim conflicts in linguistic terms may become global by involving politics, religious beliefs and practices, as well as the total way of life. For example, the Islamic Party of Malaysia has criticized the term Islam hadhari, which the Malaysian gov- ernment adopted to represent its approach to an indigenous Islamic revival that was to lead Muslims to progress in the social, political, economic, intellectual, and spiritual aspects of life.23 The critics questioned the use of hadhari to qualify Islam on the grounds that this implies that other indige- nous Islamic approaches or practices, including those of the Islamic party, are somehow not hadhari. This loan word (it originally comes from Arabic) is translated into English as “progressive”; however, in Arabic it means “civ- ilized.” The Arabic-educated supporters of the Islamic party may believe that Islam has always been a civilized religion. Therefore, any approach to it cannot be described as hadhari. This argument appears to combine the meanings and connotations of two languages. However, experts from the Organization of Islamic Conference have accepted it as representing a pro- gram for Islamic reform rather than a new ideology. However, phrases like ma yusamma bi (what is called) or ma wasafahu bi (what he described as) may be employed either to reflect a lack of con- viction with a particular term’s meanings or connotations or to cast doubt upon its implications. Speakers might use them as common references to some groups or actions but may not necessarily agree with their meanings. Such expressions are also employed to reduce the tensions arising from intra-Muslim conflicts. Contribution to Conflict Resolution Linguistic representation enables better conflict management and resolu- tion, as it may help both parties avoid making their interpersonal and intra- group relations even worse. Qur’an 17:53 directs Muslims to communicate by using the best expressions possible in order to avoid dissention. Other verses contain guidance on the proper use of language, such as: “O believ- ers, fear (and respect) Allah and make your words straightforward” and “Allah loves not the shouting of evil words in public speech, except by one who has been wronged” (Qur’an 4:148). Abdussalam: Intra-Muslim Conflicts: A Linguistic Representation 15 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk In order to maintain the community’s unity, parties involved in intra- Muslim conflicts are advised to adhere to Islamic guidance on language usage and abide by the Islamic etiquette of disagreement when choosing the expressions that best describe their views and beliefs, as well as those of their opponents, who are actually their fellow Muslims. Allegations of tak- fir (infidelity to Islam’s teachings), which some Muslim groups commonly adopt to classify their ideological opponents, not only convey negative implications of their opponents, but also have serious consequences for the users themselves. Ibn `Umar reported that the Prophet said: “If any person says to his fellow Muslim ‘O you kafir (infidel),’ one of them has certainly become one. The statement will either be true of his brother, or else it will be a true description of himself.”24 Al-Qaradawi recommends that in order to forge closer relations among Muslim groups, all provocative expressions that can lead to hatred and enmity should be avoided, especially in cases of Shi`ah-Sunni conflict reso- lution.25 The former should stop using expressions that are considered insult- ing to various Companions and such terms as al-nasibah (i.e., a Muslim sect that is said to be biased against `Ali ibn Abi Talib, the Prophet’s family, and whoever supports them) to refer to the Sunnis; the latter should stop using such abusive expressions as al-rafidah (rejection), nawk (stupidity), or shatat (deviation) when referring to Shi`i beliefs. It is not practicable in social interaction to enforce a set of guidelines for linguistic expression in cases of interpersonal or intra-group conflicts. In fact, such guidelines may not even be acceptable to the parties involved, for many expressions that help initiate and fuel intra-Muslim conflicts are used as nicknames or adjectives to abuse, degrade, or provoke one side or another. Therefore, it is advisable that each group in an intra-Muslim con- flict avoid using expressions that are not acceptable to the other side; instead, they should concentrate on the issue that is causing the conflict in question. It is essential that Muslims, all of whom are brothers and sisters to each other, call those with whom they are in conflict by the name that they pre- fer: “Do not defame or be sarcastic with each other; do not call each other by (offensive) nicknames. Ill-seeming is a name connoting wickedness (to be used of one) after he has believed” (Qur’an 49:11). On the other hand, being tolerant will contribute to choosing the most appropriate and accurate terms and expressions to represent the issue at stake, an undertaking that will help reduce the perceived negative implica- tions of linguistic representation. The general advice on language usage may also guide individual choices of expression. 16 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 25:1 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk In order to minimize the negative implications of sensitive expressions in intra-Muslim conflicts and avoid provocation, alternative expressions should be adopted. The Shi`ah should add the phrase radi Allahu `anhu/ `anha (may Allah be pleased with him/her) when referring to the Compan- ions, without discrimination, and should stop using expressions that the Sunnis view as abusive. The Salafis may prefer using ahl al-sunnah wa al- jama`ah (the group that follow the traditions of the Prophet and consensus of the Muslims) to refer to themselves; however, they should realize that such terms as al-firaq al-dallah (the groups that have gone astray) for Sufis, as well as their allegations of takfir against all Muslim groups that do not defer to their chosen theological principles, only insult other Muslims and divide the global Muslim community. Conclusion The paper investigated the linguistic representation of intra-Muslim con- flicts by analyzing the features, factors, strategies, and implications of utiliz- ing linguistic expressions. The discussion and analysis reveal the impact of how linguistic representation is designed and then used to initiate, manage, reduce, or resolve intra-Muslim conflicts. The study confirms the role of linguistic representation in fostering good relations and mending worsening relations among Muslims, as well as in avoiding intra-Muslim conflicts and attaining a greater understanding of others. It also reveals the significance of studying the spoken and written discourses used in specific cases in order to examine the role of linguistic representation in certain stages of such conflicts. Constraints in preparing an extensive project on this subject lie not only in data collection, due to the many language communities involved, but also in isolating expressions of interpersonal conflict and prejudice from actual linguistic representations of conflicts among different Muslim groups. Other constraints lie in the classification of terms according to their utilization and implications, as well as in the likely cultural impact of language upon the project. I recommend that an extensive study of the linguistic representation of intra-Muslim conflicts be carried out in Arabic and other major Islamic lan- guages via a textual pragmatic analysis that quotes and analyzes samples of common discourses representing major international and regional intra- Muslim conflicts. In addition, I recommend that a similar project be under- taken to study the linguistic representation of conflicts between Muslims and Abdussalam: Intra-Muslim Conflicts: A Linguistic Representation 17 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk non-Muslim religious groups. Such an analysis of facts could be enhanced by paying adequate attention to each group’s beliefs, cultural practices, and ethnic and linguistic identities, while paying the necessary attention to how a specific expression’s form and structure may support a more focused atten- tion on pragmatic meaning. Endnotes 1. Allen D. Grimshaw, “Research on Conflict Talk: Antecedents, Resources, Find- ings, Directions,” in Conflict Talk: Sociolinguistic Investigations of Arguments in Conversations, ed. Allen D. Grimshaw (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 280-324. 2. Bernard Lewis, The Political Language of Islam (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1988). 3. Itmar Even-Zohar, “Language Conflict and National Identity: A Semiotic Approach,” in Nationalism and Modernity: A Mediterranean Perspective, Joseph Alpher, ed. (New York: Praeger, 1986), 126-35. 4. Middle East Watch, Human Rights in Iraq (New Haven: Human Rights Watch Books, 1990), 70-75. 5. Abu al-Faraj al-Asfahani, Al-Aghani, 2d ed. (Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, n.d.), 7:67. 6. Note: This is my own translation of Nasr bin Sayyar’s poetic line. Translations of other quotations, terms, and expressions throughout this article are also my own. 7. Yusuf al-Qaradawi, “Mabadi’ li al-Taqrib bayna al-Madhahib al-Islamiyah,” 2003. Online at www.islamonline.net/Arabic/contemporary/2003/10/article- 01.shtml. 8. Muhammad Jamal `Arafah, “Misr: Jadalun hawla ‘Jinsiyah’ Murshshah al- Ri’ash,” 2005. Online at www.islamonline.net/Arabic/news/2005-06/15/arti- cle11.shtml. 9. “Waúdah al-Istima` wa al-Mutaba`ah,” 2003. Al-Sa`ud¥yah: Za`imun Takfiri Yataraja`u `an FatawŒhu. Online at: http://www.islamonline.net/Arabic/news/ 2003-11/18/article04.shtml. 10. Al-Qaradawi, “Al-Mabadi’.” 11. “Al-Raka’iz al-`Ishruna li Fiqh al-Da`wah `inda al-`Allama Abi al-Hasan al- Nadawi.” Online at www.islamonline.net/iol-arabic/qadaya/alnadawi/nad1. asp. 12. Al-Qaradawi, “Al-Mabadi’.” 13. Abu Dawud, Sunan Abi Dawud (Beirut: al-Maktabah al-Asriyyah: n.d.), hadith no. 3991. 14. Mas`ud Sabri, “`UlamŒ’: Al-Wasatiyah ‘Adah Fa``alah li `Ilaji al-Tatarruf,” 2005. Online at www.islamonline.net/Arabic/news/2005-05/21/article09. shtml. 18 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 25:1 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.islamonline.net/Arabic/contemporary/2003/10/article http://www.islamonline.net/Arabic/news/2005-06/15/arti http://www.islamonline.net/Arabic/news/ http://www.islamonline.net/iol-arabic/qadaya/alnadawi/nad1 http://www.islamonline.net/Arabic/news/2005-05/21/article09 http://www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk 15. Abu Hilal al-`Askari, Diwan al-Ma`ani (Damascus: Wazarat al-Thaqafah, 1984), 1521. 16. `Abd al-Qahir al-Baghdadi, Al-Farq bayna al-Firaq wa bayna al-Firqah al- Najiyah (Beirut: Dar al-Afaq al-Jadidah,1977) 1:9. 17. Muhammad Firas Adna, “Al-Tajdid al-Islami: Harakah Tarikhiyah wa Nazar- iyah lam Taktamil,” 2004. Online at www.islamonline.net/Arabic/contempo- rary/2004/12/article01.shtml. 18. Bakr Abdullah Abi Zayd, Mu`jam al-Manahij al-Lafziyah (Dammam, Saudi Arabia: Dar Ibn al-Jawzi, 1989). 19. Ahmad Shehu Abdussalam, “Islamic Ethics of Language Use,” Hamdard Islamicus 22, no. 1 (1999): 43-54. 20. Abu `Uthman al-Jahiz, Al-Bayan wa al-Tabyin, ed. al-Mahi `Atawi (Beirut: Dar Sa`b, 1968) 1:101 21. Al-Hadi Hammu, `Adwa’ `ala al-Shi`ah (Tunisia: Dar al-Turki, 1989). 22. Al-Asfahani, Al-Aghani, 12:372. 23. Mohamed Sharif Bashir, “Islam Hadhari: Concept and Prospect,” 2005. Online at: www.islamonline.org/english/Contemporary/2005/03/Article01. shtml. 24. Muslim, Sahih Muslim (Beirut: Dar Ihya’ al-Kutub al-`Arabiyyah, 1985), hadith no. 92. 25. Al-Qaradawi, “Al-Mabadi’.” Abdussalam: Intra-Muslim Conflicts: A Linguistic Representation 19 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.islamonline.net/Arabic/contempo http://www.islamonline.org/english/Contemporary/2005/03/Article01 http://www.software-partners.co.uk http://www.software-partners.co.uk