Universal Social Culture: An Empirico-Revelational Paradigm of Shiih Wali Alliih Muhammad a1 Ghazali Sh& Wali Alliih's (1703-63) ideas and profound intellectual legacy continue to atrract scholastic interest. Despite many works on his legacy, significant facets remain unknown. As his futuristic ideas hold great pro- mise for modem and future Islamic thought, his works should be ana- lyzed. We will focus on one such idea: his synthesis of reason, revelation, and empiricism. Building on evidence from an inductive survey of social phenomena to support the claims of revelation and staying within the doctrinal framework of revealed guidance, he constructs a universal social cultute paradigm and says that all Qur'anic injunctions and instructions of the Prophet are compatible with the demands of human nature. His view of the individual and human society is an integral facet of his philosophy of life and is one of the most original parts of his legacy. He sees life as a display of the grand divine scheme in natural order and Social organization. Although his exposition of humanity's social develop- ment seems to be in the nature of a humanist and sometimes assumes the form of an empirical survey, his final conclusions confirm the funda- mental postulates of religion. Some modem exponents of his social doc- trines suggest that his ideas are not original and say that he might have taken them from Ibn Sin$ or Ibn Khaldiin. However, a totalist view of his framework of thought shows that this is an unwamted assertion.' Muhammad alGhazali is an assistant professor at the Islamic Research Institute, Islamabad, Pakistan, and the editor of af Dir&& af Ishzj~ah. 'See Baljon, Religion, 1986, who says that the rinciple of mutual aid as a central ele- ment in a social order is not an original idea of S h Wali All&, for it was recognized as such by Ibn Ti' in his Kircib al Naj& and fin Khal& in his Mugaddimah . We submit that any social or political doctrine of Shih Wali All& should be viewed with ref- erence to, and as an integral part of, his overall philosophy of life and in the given frame- 14 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 11: 1 Sh5h Wali Alliih’s somewhat positivist survey of social phenomena seems to have been intended mainly for substantiating the standpoint of religion through empirical evidence. He looks at creation and humanity which, installed at its center, is the creation’s trustee and the potential executor of the divine plan. This is a supplement to the revelational gui- dance from God. His basic premise is that all knowledge attainable by humanity, either by intellect or observation, is congruent with divine revelation, for whatever has been discovered (i.e., laws of nature or norms of human behavior) by positivistic inquiry is part of the supreme divine law. The prophets have enunciated another part: the revealed law. From this premise, he concludes that an individual’s relation to other indi- viduals is just another aspect of one’s spirituality and that there is an organic relationship between the two (Shdhi 1964). Taking a holistic view of life, Shiih Wali All& tries to identify the essential unity pervading human life. His philosophy represents an at- tempt to establish a close link between the social, cultural, economic, and political aspects of the human existential enterprise (Siddiqi 1963). With a basically theacentric view of the individual, who is the primary actor in social organization, it is natural that a transcendental moral law should provide the organization’s mainstay. This law ought to be comprehensive and immutable and should serve as the iinal touchstone for determining good and evil, virtue and vice, love and hate (Sh& Wali All& n.d.). The most outstanding and distinctive virtue of human society, in Shzih Wali Alla’s view, is justice (‘udduh), which is both an individual and a collective trait. He contends that being guided by the principle of justice is an essential moral distinction of human beings. This individual moral coflsciousness is further augmented on the collective plane, where its pre- servation is even more necessary. For him, justice inicludes all human en- deavor: in dress, mannem, and modes, it is etiquette; in income and ex- penditure, it is economy; and in state affairs, it is politics (Siddiqi 1963). He regards economic justice as a basic requirement for realizing the supreme objective of justice in every human sphere, for it is indispensable for the healthy and balanced development of human society. Every social group needs an economic system that can guarantee those material neces- sities of life required by its membem for, in their absence, individuals would be discontented and, as a result, would be unable to find sufficient work of his sociopolitical thoup. If we compare his ideas with thox of earlier socio- political Muslim and non-Mush thinkers, similarities will surely be found. The value of Shiih Wali W s sociopolitical ideas, as an original contribution to Islamic thought, lies in his development of a total view of human life, in the context of which he explains the phenomena of human social organhation. It is this totality of approach to the complex multidimensional enterprise of life and his relating to it individual, familial, social, eco- nomic, political, international, and religious and spiritual undertakings, that makes his contribution original and unparalleled. In all fairness, it should be acknowledged as such. al Ghazali: Universal Social Culture 15 leisure for the pursuit of the higher purposes of life: striving for the eter- nal bliss of the hereafter (Shah Wali Allah n.d.; Sindhi 1965). Like many other social philosophers and theorists from Plato to Comte, ShZh Wali Allah's ultimate aim was the establishment of an ideal moral, altruistic, and perfectly civilized society. This cannot be achieved, however, without attaining a high level of God-consciousness and spiritual purification (Shah Wali Allah n.d.). In contrast, Comte thought that a "perfect society would come about by the proper application of a new moral science: the study of society." He envisioned a "scientifically designed commonwealth, wherein social control would be entrusted to the 'Religion of Humanity'-with sociologists as its priests" (Biesanz and Biesanz 1978; Backer and Barnes 1952). Comte insisted that a strictly rational, as opposed to religious, course should be followed to alleviate the ills of postindustrial European society. He posited that one application of this "rational strategy" could be the incorporation of physical and na- tural sciences methodology in the service of social relationships. Herbert Spencer, another notable social philosopher, developed his social thought on similar lines. He believed that "there can be no com- plete acceptance of sociology as a science, as long as the belief in a social order [that is] not conforming to natural law survives" (Ba-Yunus 1988). As modem sociology, which is still dominated by the ideas of Comte and Spencer, gives no significant role to religion, there is little point in comparing the social thought of Shah Wali Allah and western sociological insights, for they have hardly anything in common. Modem sociology, like other social sciences that have mushroomed in the West during the last two centuries, gradually desacralized knowl- edge and almost totally blinded it to transcendental realities. The inevi- table consequence of this process, as well as curbs and restrictions placed on individual perception, was that he/she was gradually reduced to a promethium anthropos, one who was not expected to attain the status of a promising spiritual personality whose ultimate fulfillment will be actual- ized in the hereafter. Furthermore, "today's sociology is most concerned with low level empirical generalizations rather than constructing grand theories and fails to come to grips with the great problems of the modem society at large" (Biesanz and Biesanz 1978; Gouldner 1970). Despite western sociology's narrow outlook, some sociologists take a broad view when examining societies, worldwide trends, historical phe- nomena, or the relationship between personality types and cultural differ- ences: Weber (1948) related capitalism's rise to the Protestant Reforma- tion, Riesman (1965) linked character types with social trends, and Williams (1970) analyzed American society from secular perspectives. In current sociological parlance, "studies of such large scale macro- scopic phenomena as we cited above are designated as macrosociology" (Riesman 1965). In a sense, ShZh Wali Allah can be considered a great 16 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 11:l macmociologist who made a lasting contribution to the progress of hu- man thought, for he was "a grand theorist concerned with historical ttends and human destiny, who worked out a social philosophy that explained a broad range of phenomena and CollStNcted a model of a future good society." Exponents of modem sociology do not generally acknowledge anyone other than Comte and Man as "social philosophers." As S M Wali AllWs original and innovative social thought Wfills Riesman's (1965) criteria, he should be tecognized as a social philosopher. The difference between the approaches of western social philosophers and that of Shih Wali Alliih can be better appreciated by noticing that the former take specific westem experience for granted. The West's his- torical experience, as regads its social, economic, religious, and political variables, has provided western sociologists with rich and varied material with which they could construct a constellation of social ideas. ShGh Wali All&, however, p d from a totally different view: the con- struction of an entire system of thought, including the social aspects, on the foundations of the historical concretization of Islam under the Prophet and his four immediate political s u c c ~ r s . The Four Stages of Social Development Shih Wali All& explains the evolution of a social framework by identifying four stages for the development of a cultured society. To de- note these stages in humanity's attempt to meet its social and economic needs, he coined the term irhriidt (Shiih Wali All& n.d.). In common with most medieval and some modem social philosophers, the first stage feat- traits that distinguish human beings from "fellow animals": a. A1 Ra'y a1 Kulli(The Universality of putpoSe). All animals share the instinctive drive to pursue their immediate physical needs of eating, drinking, sex, and seeking shelter from the vicissitudes of weather. The methods used to satisfy these needs are intuitive and fit the peculiar requitementS of each species. For instance, God taught a bee to partake of varied fruits, to make a dwelling, where other bees may join it, to sub- mit to the drone, and to produce honey. The natural law ordained by God has provided a Shari'ah (i.e., a prescribed course of conduct) for each species,' which is transfused in the nature of each member of that particular species. Likewise, in his Hujat Alhih a1 h-lighah (n.d) and a1 q t is impOaant that he uses "Shari'ah" in the context of biology, fop this indicates that he sees the operation of the divine law in two parallel but harmonious spheres: bio and social. As we probe into his social ideas, we can see tbat his theas develop!%g the same line, namely, identifying a necessary coherence between the Shari'ah s soclal laws and nature's biological laws. For him, each sphere fully complements the other. al Gbazali: U d v d Social Culture 17 B d - r a1 Bcrzighah (Baljon n.d.), Shiih Wall All& states that aod has inspired human beings to purme instinctively the beneficial ends (irt@Zqdt) of these necessities. In addition to these immediate and instinctive drives, which he terms a1 ra'y ul juz 'i (individuality of purpose), an individual is driven by a1 ru 'y d kulti (universality of purpose), which inspires him/her to pursue a purely rational cause that may not be mted in his/hcr instinctive dispo- sition (i.e., the creation of a good social order, the perfection of morals, the achievement of cultural accomplishments, or the struggle for salvation in the hemfter) (Shiih Wali All& n.d.; Baljon n.d.). This m o d aspect, he states, is the fundamental distinction between a human being and an animal, for it is the former who tries to establish a good Social system after satisfying his/her biological needs. Individuals also seek the ascen- dancy of moral ideals in the individual and collective spheres of human life. They devote a g m t deal of time to attaining accomplishments in cul- ture and civilization. Moreover, a sizeable portion of available matsrial resources is often dedicated to attaining salvation in the hereafter (ibid.). It should be noted that, unlike many earlier Muslim social philoso- phers, Shih Wali All& did not stress the faculty of intellect (virtus ra- tionalis) as the essential difference between humans arid animals, al- though he does discuss some external physical and inner mental features of the archetypal individual Q.e., uprightness, power of speech, relatively hairless body, and perceptive faculty of mind, [idrdk]) as distinctively human traits (ibid.). However, the most fundamental distinction stressed in his social philosophy is the moral concerns of the individual. The most prominent pmpounder of sociology before Sh5h Wali All& was Ibn Khaldiin, who also regards quwwuh ndtiqah, virtus rationalis, fib, cogitutivu (all of which are related to human intellect) or rawzjwh (deliberation) to be the essential differentia of humanity (Mahdi 1964). l h i s view was held by many early Muslim and non-Muslim thinkem. Shiih Wali Alliih's approach, in our opinion, is an improvement, for his main emphasis is on identif9ng underlying "motives" as opposed to the "potencies" with which human beings or animals have been invested. The rational faculties have been given to humanity by God, but it is ultimately the conscious and voluntary p d t of higher goals that distinguishes human beings from animals. The value of these higher goals, which are far beyond the frontiers of biological fulfillment, lies in the fact that they transcend all immediate selfish and essentially animalistic interests. This tmendence requins the subjection of one's animalistic disposition (buhfmzjxzh) and the elevation of the angelic disposition (malakzjwh). The distinction is therefore contingent upon one's conscious and selfless struggle to achieve certain goals that are commendable for their moral value and universal good. 18 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 1 1: 1 His original concept of aZ ra ’y aZ kuZZi ends the apparent confusion engended by the seemingly overlapping instinctive pursuits of human beings and animals. The resulting confusion among thcjse who have tried to undetstand the intemlation of various species of the animal world has led some to conclude that human beings and animals share a common ancestry (Darwin 1859; Bakar 1988). b. Driifah (The Aesthetic Urge). The second distinctive trait is that the satisfaction of instinctive needs is supplemented by an aesthetic urge. An animal seeks only to ward off heat and cold, end hunger and thirst, and relieve sexual tension, while human beings aspire to obtaining endless pleasute and joy from these: a beautiful mate, delicious food, elegant dress, and a comfortable house (Shah Wali Allah, n.d.). Though pursuit of these instinctive desires is tooted in one’s animalistic disposition, he/she uses his/her intelligence to satisfy them in an accomplished and refined manner. Therefore, a great deal of human ~esoutces and potential are spent on achieving progtessive refmement and various modes of ac- complishment as well as enjoying the pleasures of food, sex, and housing. c. l%e Capacity for Knowledge. The third distinctive trait is the existence of degrees of intelligence and understanding. Those who are smarter seek to discover the beneficial stages of social development (irtifciqat). Those who are unable to do this, although they feel an urge to do so, are forced to seek the help of those who are smarter. In this way, they learn and adopt the methods of those who are smarter, which conform to their own general understanding (ibid.). This lays the basis for a coopemtive effort to achieve humanity’s common good. Such mutual cooperation is the pri- mary condition for the growth of any social fmnework. Shsih Wali All& is aware of these degrees of intelligence, for he assigns the role of discovering methods of human social development on behalf of the rest to a gifted group of people. He explains this by imagining an individual living at the most primitive level. This individual feels hunger and thirst but, fmding nothing to eat or drink, suffers great hardship until this problem is solved. After that, he/she strives to develop a sound method to satisfy these vital needs on a regular basis but fails to do so. Maybe such information can be gleaned from one who is smarter: one who, through pers~nal experience, discovered how to plant seeds, reap the produce, and store and preserve the harvest. This individual might also know something of irrigating land, through wells or streams, and how to carty and pmerve water (i.e., water pots or skin bags). Now that the less intelligent individual can satisfy his/her immediate needs in an organized and intelligent manner, he/she can attain a degree of irrijZq. This procedure can be applied to cooking, frying, grinding, and baking grains and other food-stuffs, thereby satisfying other needs (ibid.). 19 Shiih Wali All& uses this illustration as an analogy of how primitive human beings gfadually attain the primary level of social development. These attainments, he says, are the d t of two elements: an individual’s natutal and intuitional guidance, which God gave to h d t y , and one’s undetstanding acquiml through experience. Combining these results in knowledge, by which an individual discovers how to satisfy his/her ma- terial needs in an organized and regular manner. Over time, these prac- tices become so common and familiar that they form part of the collective habits of a human group that lives together (ibid.). The chamcteristics of a human being, according to Sh5h Wali All&, are beyond number. But, after further analysis, they can be grouped into three categories: a) the urge for social welfate and the common good of humanity (ul tu’y d kulh]; the urge for cultural accomplishment (zu- rcrfah) (ibid.); and the capacity for knowledge. Although all human beings aspire to perfection through the attainment of knowledge, not all of them can do so. This indicates that Gad created individuals with varying capa- cities and predilections for diffemt kinds of knowledge (Baljon n.d). In addition, just as animal species can be classified into higher, middle, and lower orders according to their relative harmony, vigor, and purity, hu- man beings can be distinguished from each other according to the level of these qualities they have attained? The most perfect individual is the one who has attained the highest level of these three qualities. Their ef- fects can be seen in three faculties: conation and will (qalb), the psycho- biological factor (fabz-uh), and the rational sod (ul nuj5 al Mtiqah).“ Obviously, these three human traits are not found in all individuals to the same degree. This disparity in aptitude and competence, which is attributable to several causes and factors, is beyond the scope of this paper. However, it is significant for our purpose: Shih WalT All& claims that social development (irfifq) exists at two levels due to the varying intellectual and cultural levels of different social groups. The first or primary level is an essential characteristic of such small social groups as nomads and those who live in isolated locales that ane geographically distant from the centers of civilization and culture. He terms these ul q d i m d sdibuh (the virtuous realms) (J3aljon n.d.). ’One factor that makes an animal’s d tion different from a human being’s is that, in the foma, there is a dominent physie3Zogical factor (n& or t u ~ d ) to which its intelligence (‘uql) and voliticmal faculty (qalb) are in absolute subservience. See !Wih Wall A&&, Hujah, n.d. and Shiih Wil ShahRi, ‘Abaqcit, nd In a human being’s dis- ence (‘uql) cs intellect is the predominant fadot. See tion, the Muence of inte i? ale- Philosophy of Shdh 9 aIiALkih, n.d. ‘See Bdp B e (English), n.d. For details cm this subject and the psychological dmension o the human persoaality, see Halepota, Philosophy of Shcih WdiAlkih, n.d. 20 Ths Americen Yo& of Islamic social SdmCeS 11:l The second stage is attained by pbople living in udmn aptas andcivi- lized cities within the v i m realms Thtsedms are "virtuous" be- cause thdr social mvi- acts as a constant incentive €or the developmmt of humen beings with excellent morals and wisdom. As h u m e n d d organization expands and eagcdas hcmsing needs and rtquirement, people have diverse experiences that, in turn, give rise to vatying social practices. Over time, these practices become permanent social customs and form of their collective social behavior (ibid.). Its culmiaatioll is teflcctcd in the ptactices of kings and rulers, who acquire and possess higher standards in the amenities of life. Inaddition, they are visited by gifted individuals from all over the world. This allows them to acquire swuut ailibtzh (virtuorrs practices), which am then seen m the living pattern of their subjects. These d e t i e s may then be classified as vittuous d m s (ibid.)? The third stage, which is a natural c v e of attaining the scc- ond stage, is the need for a govemment. The immediate causes are the g d , jealousy, procrastination, and denial of rights that now begin to ap- pear in d a l and interpemnal tranrach 'om. To solve these disputes and to deal with the threat posed to society's moral integrity and general well- bdng by those individuals who are ded by "low" passions, a particular agency is needed. Another cau~sc is the need to ensue that all membezs of society ajoy the btnefits and work for their achievement. The end resuLt of this realization is that a ruler or a governmental agency must be fouMi and installed to enfotce the social rules and moral norms. This gives rise to a need for taxes from the m r e affluent, which Sh& Wali Alliih (n.d.) stts as the mison d'€m of a government. This stage is followed by a foutth: when a ruler becomes independent in his/hcr own domain, controls the collection of w d t h by way of taxes, and secures the SeNiCts of warcioxs. As elements of niggardliness, greui, and hatred prompt m a y rulers to quarrel and fight each other, h people fed Comptllcd b establish an &ce of superior authority (W@zh) or to join thcjudsdiction of of a supreme authority (khikjfii al k u h i . Shiih Wali All& defines the &hul@zh as one who enjoys so much prestige and popular ttspect that it is almost impossible for anyone to deprive hi- of his/her podtion (itid.). Each individual khd@zh should be different, for the collective character and psychology of his/her subjkts differ. He al Ghazali: U n i v e d Social Culture 21 sserts that those communities with stronger and sharper tempements are always in gmter need of rulers and khulrjuhs than those that are less greedy and grudging (ibid). It is clear that evolution and relativity are prominent features of Sh5h Wali Allih’s social philosophy. He conceives the evolution of Society as an organic whole6 and does not regard it as an aggregate of Units, held together by any extemal force, or arti- ficial means of social contracts, but as a veritable living organ- ism It obeys the laws of its own evolution. It has an end and a purpose. It works on lines almost analogous to those of the indi- vidual, who is subjected to states of health and ailment, progress and regression, life and death. (Halepota n.d.) A Universal Model of Society and State A striking feature of ShZh Wali Allih’s social philosophy is his re- construction of a more or less empirical theory of a universal model of social and political organhation. He cites examples from the inductive observation of social phenomena to substantiate his basic contention: all cultured societies that have emerged since the genesis of humanity have adhered to the basic principles of social development (irti&) (ibid.). These principles, he maintains, have been common in all human societies, for they stem from urges rooted in the same human nature and urges that are directed, ultimately, to the actualization of humanity’s common goals. It is these objectives that constitute the immutable univetsal basis of all culture and civilization. Despite any variations that might appear between various societies (i.e., forms, fads, fashions, and custom), humanity has always unanimously upheld these basic principles (ibid.). ShGh Wali Allrih derives this conclusion from his analysis of human nature and his subsequent identification of the components of the aes- thetic urge (zardfuah) and the universality of purpose (ul ru’y ul hllz], which are inherent in human nature and distinguish human beings from animals. These two urges, supplemented by the intellect (virtu rutionulis) and in collaboration with rational and intuitional faculties, generate moral consciousness and provide the mainstay for social and cultural develop- ment. All human enterprises are a response to these inherent urges that % Sh& Wali AEh, HuJ& n.d., there are indications of similarity between socio- political thinkers of various hs and traditions BS regards their understanding of city growth the evolution of socX&re, and the development of political organization. ~ e e Plato’s Compendium h g u m Piatonk in al FMbi’s TalkhQ Nawlimis A m . 22 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 11:l give rise to society, as well as culture, civilization, moral discipline, eco- nomic order, and political organization, in varying degrees (ibid.).' Any appreciation of Shih Wali A l l a s views on society should be made by relating them to his overall perspectives on humanity and human nature. Each step in the development of his social and political philo- sophy is integrated with his views on human beings and their relationship with their environment, The culmination of his thought is the Islamic state. However, he does not approach this through traditional arguments derived from the Qur'an and the Sunnah, but rather constructs a full- fledged social theory based mainly on empirical and rational grounds. This allows him to reach a meeting point between inductive Teason, em- pirical observation, and religious sanctions. Thus the Islamic velsion of sociopolitical organization, the khikifah in Sh& Wali A l l a s (n.d) view, is a natural outcome of humanity's free and healthy p d t of its socio- cultural aims as dictated by its natural disposition, provided that it is unhamped by moral pervelsion or deviation from the natural course. In this respect, the approach of Shih Wali All& seems comparable to that of Ibn Tufayl, as presented in the latter's Huyy ibn Yuq-. While Ibn Tufayl visualized the ~ t ~ f a l evolution of an individual who, in total isolation from society, putsues an imaginative, intuitional, and rational quest to discover God, Shih Wali All& conceives of human society as passing through stages until it finally reaches the God-conscious state (khihjfh).' 'Ihe similarity between the ideas of these two scholars is ac- centuated by a brief remark made by Shih Wali All& in his al Budzir al Baighah ( M a s h 1970). While stressing that the irtif@Crt were a natural attainment achieved through intuition, just like the instinctive knowledge imparted by nature to birds and animals to obtain their means of sus- tenance and survival, we come across the following remark I have heard from some of those who are not gifted with sound imaginative perception that this system (of irt ifeit) is acquited from ancestors. And had there not been any legacy from the ancestors, people would have been ignorant of this system. If, by this statement, they mean that the second irt ife was based on the first irtifdq, then this statement is correct and stands to reason. Otherwise, it is an obvious un-truth. An evident sign of this un- truth is that, even if we presume the existence of a man, growing For an explauation of the roots of human m o d traits in a human beiig's ychic &tim m r d i i g to Shiih Wali A W s ethical philosophy, see Halepota, PhiEsophy of Shcih W a K A W , n.d. 'See Ahmad, yuyy ih Vuq@~, 1958. For biographical details about Ibn Tufayl, his umtributim to Muslim philosophicat thought, and an English summary of his work, see Siddiqi, "Ibn Tufail," 1%3. al Ghazali: Unived Social Cultme 23 all alone in wilderness, and who never sees another human being, he still must acquire a degree of the morals which we have made mention of. While the conclusions drawn by Ibn Tufayl might appear to contain ele- ments of fantasy and imagination, in the case of Shzih Wali All&, his thesis is founded on actual observation of the substantive function of human society. In juxtaposition to irtiJiidt, ShGh Wali All& also developed the con- cept of iqtircihit, which is integrated fully with his ideas on the individual and human n a b , in which an individual's pyschological, mod, and re- ligious personalities are embedded. As noted previously, Shih Wali All& (n.d.) regards religion as essentially a response to a natural human urge. He points to the concern for salvation in the hereafter as stemming from the universality of purpose (ul ru 'y ul kullo. Zqtirdb (seeking proximity, pl. iqtirdkt) is the equivalent of i r t v i in the domain of religious experi- ence. Any human endeavor to seek spiritual fulfillment through attaining divine proximity is termed iqtirtib by Shih Wali All& (Masumi 1970). ShGh Wali A l l a s comprehensive undemding of unthropos pre- sents a concept of a balanced human personality consisting of a biological animal, a moral being, a spiritual soul, and a rational creatwe at the same time. He then traces the evolution of this comprehensive personality as an active member of a dynamic social organism. In this p m x s of evolu- tion, he identifies apparently different p d t s as integrated phenomena catering to the urges that have been instilled by nab-m. His unique contribution lies in the fact that he begins with an analysis of the macrolevel of an average cultured and civilized society and then spells out the features of a univelsal paradigm of society and state. He tries to make the point that the healthy evolution of culture, both in the individual and the collective sphetes, is, of necessity, conducive to the attainment of iqtirtikt. When this attainment assumes a vigorous col- lective form at an organized level and is reinforced by an army, a judi- ciary, and the other necessary tools of public order, the natural result is the emergence of an Islamic state (khififuh) (ibid.). This event, on the universal plane, represents the culmination in the cultural evolution of human society. With its emergence, the divine mercy and favor to hu- manity is consummated to the degree of perfection, for its attainment allows humanity to achieve the highest levels of peace and tranquility through organized unity between the various social groups and under a just order. This e m s their felicity in this world and brings a promise for etemal bliss in the hemfter (Ludhianwi 1969). 24 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 1l:I References A4mad, Amin, ed. Hayy ibn Y q a n li Ibn Sind' wa Ibn lbfayl wa a1 Suhrawardi: Baghdad: 1958. Ba-Yunus, Ilyas. 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