Counseling Values and Objectives: A Comparison of Western and Islamic Perspectives Mumtaz F. Jafari Counseling has established itself as a helping profession with an aca- demic base. Its development has been influenced largely by the socio- economic, occupational, and technical changes found in western society as well as the various personal and social problems getmane to its so- cietal organization. Although emerging as a profession only during the twentieth century, its origins can be traced back to the post-Renaissance era. It therefore has a distinct orientation, identity, and focus. The existing body of knowledge and the relevant repettoire of counseling techniques and ptactices address the demands of western society within its socio- m o d value structure. The question then arises as to whether adding the tetm "Islamic" to the available discipline of counseling catties any legiti- macy at this stage. This paper is an attempt to examine critically the evolutionary context of counseling, the value system in which it is immersed, and the objec- tives it endeavors to address. The framework used for this examination is the Islamic outlook on life and the associated objectives and values that Islam regards as detettninants of human behavior. It is assumed that this compatative approach to the underlying perspectives, objectives, and values will explain the congruence or incongruence between the existing model(s) of counseling and any alternative Islamic model(s). It must be realized that Islamizing the prevalent secular-materialistic counseling thanes and practices cannot be accomplished by merely affix- ing the label "Islamic." Thus this paper should not be seen as an attempt Mumtaz F. Jafari is an assistant professor in the Department of Psychology, International Islamic University, Selangor, Malaysia. This paper was presented at the National Seminar on Islamic Counselhg, Selaugor, Malaysia, 17 December 1992. Jafari: Counseling Values and Objectives 327 to present an alternative framework for contemporary counseling based on Islamic teachings, although such a model might be long overdue. It rather aspires to provide a critical examination of western counseling parametes in order to illustrate the contrast with the fundamental PIV- m i s s of Islamic ideology and practice. Counseling objectives, skills, and stmtegies need to be redefined through systematic research and theori- zation based on Islamic perspectives. Antecedents of Counseling The existing body of knowledge in western counseling and psycho- therapy is secular, empirical, and parochial in nature. These three factos need to be evaluated critically before outlining the Islamic petspectives. Secularism. Contemporary counseling may be traced back to the Renais- sance, an era characterized by a sevedy negative reaction to the church, faith, and spiritualism that culminated in the separation of physical and spiritual phenomena and the erection of a solid wall between the church and the state. Anything related to spiritualism was associated with ri- gidity, backwardness, and illogical thinking. A sense of spiritual hollow- ness, psychic confusion, and identity crisis permeated society, leading to the application of parapsychology and occultism The diminished role of the church prompted the search for alternative emotional and psychic sup- port. Counseling was perceived as an alternative emanating from church- related doctrines of pity and help (Barzun 1959) and their manifestations in the therapeutic models of petsuasion and healing (Frank 1973). It is difficult to maintain, as secularism does, that God exists but is not concerned with material existence. Islam, as a way of life, regulates an individual’s spiritual, psychological, and physical needs and those of society as a whole. The p u i t of physical and spiritual knowledge is en- couraged, and God’s purposeful creation of the universe and humanity is recognized. Oblivion is caused when humanity loses touch with this fun- damental ttuth: “And be not like those who forgot God and He caused them to be oblivious of their own selves or souls” (Qur’an 49: 19). Spiritual elevation in Islam is caused by submission to God. As a re- sult, God-consciousness and self-awareness are interdependent. Integmtion of the material and the spiritual life brings about an intemal harmony that is the source of mental health and emotional stability. This comciousness leads to the remembrance of God, which is centml to the Qur’anic con- cept of satisfaction and well-being: ’’Those who believe and whose hearts have test in the remembrance of Allah. Verily in the remembrance of Allah do hearts find rest” (Qur’an 13:28). 328 ‘The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 103 Islamic epistemology is based on the same concept of integration. The search for truth and the use of empirical methods ate consistent with the Qur’anic provisions. Adhetence to the Islamic faith enhances ttust in one- self while engaged in the p d t of physical or spiritual realities. The dif- ference of the Islamic approach is strikingly evident when compared to the western perspective. The former is based on the conviction of the in- tegrity of the spiritual and the physical life emanating from the absolute truth of monotheism (tawhf4, while the latter is based on the duality of faith and material life. Empiricism. Secularism provided the philosophical base for natural real- ism, a school that tegads only the evidence of the senses as relevant to proving or disproving the existence of an extemal reality. This explains the emphasis on empirical methodology for ascertaining the validity of propositions conceming sociocultural and behavioral phenomena. The superimposition of empitical methodology on the study of social and human phenomena has done mote to create numerous fallacies than it has to develop viable and tenable propositions about human intellect, consciousness, behavior, and interpersonal influences. The materialistic apptoach of reducing the complex study of various human behaviors to tangible and measutable entities does not offer much help when it comes to understanding the spiritual, emotional, mental, and behavioral dimen- sions. While the scientific paradigm might be adequate for explaining sci- entific phenomena in physics and chemistty, it is too limiting for the social sciences (Langgulung 1989). Empirical methods treat human beha- vior artificially, for they strip the variables of their real meaning for the sake of operationalization (Moten 1990). In this process, the variables ate unduly distorted and restructured in order to fit the empirical model at hand. This attempt of approximating an otherwise innately human science with physical science is an incommensmte approach. The Islamic study of any phenomena is not limited to physical obser- vation under human-controlled situations. Human limits ate acknowledged before proceeding with any inquiry rooted in the Islamic viewpoint. The inadequacy of human perception and instmentation is offset by the ab- solute source of divine knowledge. This divine knowledge-revelation- is interpteted with adequate judgment and the human ability to ~eason. From this divine source, the concepts of rfih (soul), qulb (heart), nufs (self), and ‘aql (intellect) have emanated. These concepts have been in- terpreted by Muslim scholars (i.e., a1 R k i , al Ghadli, Ibn Sin& Ibn ‘Atabi, and Ibn Miskawayh) as providing a basic undetstanding of the human psyche (Ansari 1992). Jafark couaseliqg values and objectives 329 Human ~ O I I S K S S , inteqemmd and social relatians, and mental health have all been stdied by using the Qur'anic framework, which pro- vides insightful perspectives for the study of human behavior (ibid.; Rizvi 1989). In ordet to develop theories, techniques, and models of Islamic coutlseling, the scholar needs to take divine revelations and their scholarly inteqmtaticms into full cognizance. l'his signals a drastic departure from western counseling, which is solely dependent on empirical methodology. Parochialism. Westem couflseling has evolved from the peculiarities of the American profile in the social, political, and economic domains par- sons 1909; S h e a r and Stone 1980). The industrial revolution, urbaniza- tion, the need for rehabilitative skills to deal with changing occupational technologies, demographic dynamics, social problems engendered by an aging society, women's emancipation and concomitant movements, and the disintegmtion of the family and other social institutions a= among the primary factors that have provided the impetus for counseling theorization and Tesearck The most went psychological and social problems occupying the at- tention of wesfem reseamhers include the high rates of suicide, alienation, cognitive dissonatlce , chronic dep&on, exttamarital relations, broken families, single pamting, unwed mothers, juvenile delinquency, van- dalism, drug addiction, and AIDS. The assumptions and genetalizations adopted by most of the resulting studies are lacalespecific and may not be tenable in other cultural Settings. As societal metaphysics vary from one setting to another (Ajmal 1968), the propacsed counseling tmtment should correspond to the conditicms of a particular situation. Research for the most effective therapeutic treatment is based on an understanding of who is providing the treatment to whom, under what conditions, and for what specific problem. It implies that the results of re- seatch conducted in a patticular e n v i m e n t may not be applicable to another envinmment. Unlike western counseling, Islamic counseling is based upon commonly held ideological belids and value systems and is therefore unived. Contextual variables may, and do, impinge upon indi- vidual problems, and a counselor has to relate them to the overall frame in order to develop a well-integrated and balanced personality. Applying wesfern theories of counseling in an Islamic environment would be like assembling a jigsaw puzzle from the pieces of two different puzzles. Counseling Values The divergent characteristics of counseling outlined above are tied to their respective value systems. Values, as regulators of conduct, are types 330 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 103 of beliefs that are centrally located within one’s total belief system and that inform the individual how he/she ought or ought not to behave (Ro- keach 1968). Values are an inevitable and pervasive part of psycho- therapy, for they determine the direction of the counseling process per- gin 1980). The couflselor influences the value system of the individual being counseled in many explicit and implied ways. Research findings available on the impact of values indicate that clients who improve the most during therapy are those who revise their values in the direction of those of the counselor, while the values of the unimproved clients become less like those of the therapist (Rosenthal 1955; Schrier 1953). Western counseling claims to be value-neutral, and counselors are urged not to impose their values on their clients. The commonality pro- fessed by western theorists is that values must not be imposed by the counselots, though counseling cannot be valueless (Williamson 1950). In practice, this is an impossible and unrealistic expectation (Sprinthall 1971) for values are, either knowingly or unknowingly, an integral prt of the counseling pmces. The western value system has a profound im- pact upon counseling approaches, techniques, and processes, for it re- inforces what is considered good accoding to the prevalent social stan-, values, and norms. Counselors have been urged to acquire a true understanding of the society. The quest for identity on the part of clients is in reality a search for meaning and significance, which is always valueladen (Peterson 1976). The same values are even expressed as the desired behavioral outcomes of the therapeutic pmess. An exami- nation of this value system indicates that western counseling is both value-bound as well as valuedependent. Some basic values of western society have shaped the preseflt body of counseling and therefore need to be critically probed in relation to the Islamic value system. Serf-FuQilling Life-style vs. Righteous Benevolence. Western counseling is perceived to be an individual-based and individual-focused process. An individual is considered to be individualistic, competitive, and motivated by self-intemt to maximize pmfit. As the western mode of living is tar- geted at personal achievement and satisfaction, counseling also addresses these values. It thus becomes instrumental in enhancing an individual’s assertiveness, so that he/she can be more competitive, and striving for personal achievement. Counselors in the West, regardless of work setting or theoretical orientation, are linked by the common belief that a person has both the capacity and the right to choose the most satisfying direction or activity (Ehgelkes and Vandergoot 1982). Islam, in contrast, is not concerned with the welfare of the individual only; it seeks to achieve the wider social well-being. While ensuring the Jafark Counseling Values and Objectives 331 individual's freedom, it places equal stms on the principle of mutual re sponsibility. This principle is two-dimensional: the individual achieves balance between thought and action (intemal) while caring for the collec- tive welfare of society (external). This intemal consonance is best realized through total submission to the will and pleasure of God. As stated in the wan: "My worship and my sacrifice and my living and my dying axe all for Allah, Lord of Worlds" (6:163). The concept of mutual responsibility is depicted clearly in the pto- phetic hadith: "Every one of you is a shepherd and each one of you is responsible for his flock" (a1 BukhiM n.d.). This sense of collective re- sponsibility is linked with the concept of bmtherhood, and the urnmatic bond is an extension of the same at a global level. Achieving social peace is the collective obligation of individuals and the community: "Help each othet in the acts of goodness and piety and do not extend help to each othet in Sinful acts ot transgressing behaviots" (Qut'an 52). The same Islamic principle is the regulating force fot mutual advice and counseling. The Prophet said: "The right way of life (dfn) is sincere advice." This act of advice is free of undue complacence, and the enforce- ment of good is binding on the individual and the society. The Prophet advised: "Help your bmthet whethet he is the oppressot ot the op p&." When asked how to help him if he is the oppresot, he answered: "Hold his hand fmm oppression" (al -ti n.d.). He urged "Whosoever sees evil with his eyes should stop it with his han& if this is not possible, then with his mouth, and if even this is not possible (at least) hate it heattily; this is the weakest state of faith" (Muslim 1972). This cleat contrast indicates that Islamic counseling may not be bound by "ego-strengthening," "assertiveness-pmmoting," and "gmwth- gendeting" western thetapies. Islamic counseling, on the othet hand, should pmmote selflessnm, healthy altruism, petfection of oneself, and happiness for othets. Materialistic vs. Holistic Outlook. In the westem value system, the cri- teria of individual success a~ based on materialistic accomplishments. The p d t of excellence, physical fitness, attainment of high social status, and material rewads are the ultimate life goals for a common western individual. Counseling is a means of achieving the same end. Reward is the primaty focus of Skinnet's behavioral paradigm (Skinnet 1938). Howevet, in their quest fot the maximization of human potential, some othet fundamentaly impottant aspects of human development are ignomi. Convetseiy, Islam encouTages its adhemts to seek holistic gmwth in both the physical and spiritual do&. But spiritualism and matezialistic 332 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 103 activities are not compattmentalized, for Islam urges its followers to base pattern their activity after the concept of ‘ i b a h (worship). The cteation of human beings is conceived as purposeful ( w a n 23:115), which is to submit to God (Qut’an 5156). ‘I&h permeates all sphetes of human activity, material or spiritual, mental or physical, individual or collective. Islam strives for a holistic consonance of a person with God and seeks to develop the total human personality in all manifestations, be they intellectual, emotional, be- havioral, or spiritual. The ultimate objective is to seek the pleasure of God, for human beings experience their fullest actualization (ma‘rifah) once they align their thought and action with God‘s divine will. Mental and spiritual well-being are inseparable, for the psyche’s totality can never be grasped by intellect alone. The concepts related to pleasure, satisfaction, and actualization ate also governed by the two conhasting belief systems. A materialist finds pleasure when worldly tatgets are achieved. Counseling becomes insttu- mental in enhancing goal-oriented ambitions by instilling achievement- oriented behaviors. Islam introduces the concept of salvation, which brings etemal contentment even if the individual is destitute in material tetms, for material gains ~IE only a means of subsistence. A whole- hatted effort for advancement is enmuaged by a matching commitment for spiritual purification. Unlimited vs. Bounded Freedom. The wesfem value of fnxdom has a pro- found impact on personality development. The worldview of counseling theorists has a common factor in that an individual can p m e personal objectives without any religious constmirk As religion and morality ate considered pemnal or private matters, an individual can choose a course of action within the confines of this freedom. Exttamatital relations, abot- tion, and alcoholism ate just some of the symptomatic expressions of this fteedom. Changes of loyalty, lack of commitment, and evasion of respon- sibility are some of the commonly displayed behaviors. Such behaviors naturally have an effect on family and community life. A whole genera- tion is now being raised without any sense of identity or fundamental patenting tights in the name of this self-proclaimed freedom. This unbounded freedom becomes more evident when the lives of role models (i.e., celebrities, leaders in different walks of life, and educa- tionists) ate given protection an the pretext of privacy. These models in- fluence behavior throughout the social strata. Counseling theories and practices also reflect the same western values. Islam, on the conttaty, provides a freedom that is bound within the confiies of the Shari‘ah. Limits are clearly pmribed for both private Jafark Counseling Values and Objectives 333 and public behavior. The consciousness that one is being observed con- stantly and is accountable for every action regulates thought and action in such a way that the distinction between private and public life becomes irrelevant. The concepts of virtue (khayr) and vice (sharr) have been explained explicitly, and the institutions of right (ma’r@) and wrong (munkar) ate effected through a system of accountability (bisbah). The savage urges and animal instincts of individuals are tamed, and only their positive drives and desires are gratified. The Prophet said: “None of you can claim faith unless his/her desires become subservient to what I have brought forth” (a1 BuldGri n.d.). Allah makes it clear that: ”Anyone who transgresses the limits of Allah, does verily wrong with his own d” (Qur’an 651). Guilt Rationalization vs. Repentance. The western value of overcoming wrong-doing provides a rationalization for undesired behavior in order to facilitate rehabilitation. Unconditional positive regard and acceptance are treated as being among the core conditions for psychotherapy (Rogers 1951, 1959, 1987; Carkhuff 1969). Support, nonpossessive warmth, and empathic understanding are recommended as counseling strategies for overcoming feelings of guilt (Boy and pine 1982; Schofield 1967). Islam accords an entirely different treatment to sin and sinful conduct. The therapy of repentance (tuwbuh) is a means of correcting and modify- ing behavior. Repentance is promised to everyone who is committed to fulfilling its conditions: ”He is the one that accepts repentance from His servants and forgives sins and He knows all that ye do” (Qur’an 42:25). Guilt-rationalization seems to be the driving value behind western counseling. Islam does not give the authority to condone sinful conduct to any human being. However, it has a corrective institution that checks the repetition of sinful conduct while providing an opportunity for the of- fender to obtain the feeling of spiritual purification. Counseling Objectives Counseling has been developed in response to specific objectives in the West. It is worth examining to what extent these objectives match the Islamic perspectives, for they are not mutually exclusive. I n d d , one can even see a certain degree of overlap. These have been advanced by some famous psychotherapists who are considered pioneers. These statements of objectives are expressions of definite paradigms developed or used by these pioneers. Brief definitions are given to provide an essence of the primary thrust of each. A short critique is also provided concerning their usefulness and applicability. 334 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 103 To Love and To Work (Freud 1943): This implies treating a patient for realistic recovery by tcstoring his/her ability and capacity for en- joyment and an active life. Freud explained enjoyment and life activity only through sexual behavior, which is interpreted as quite an inhibiting definition. Self-Actualizution (Maslow 197 1; Rogers 1961): Self-actualization is seen as the most healthy, productive, integrated, and self-directing behavior. Though the definition might be well-encompassing, it fails to account for the vital spiritual aspect of behavior. Self-Eflcacy (l3andum 1982): This paradigm is based on intention- ality and stresses growth through the feeling of mastery over one’s destiny. Since this concept is situation-specific, there is no possibility that it can be generalized. Development (Moser and Spnnthalll971): This theory directs one to- wards grappling successfully with the tangible and intangible aspects of real life. If standards are ill-defined, these would render develop- ment out of context. Okayness (Beme 1964; Hams 1967): This pamdigm seeks to rebuild effective ego boundaries in order to inculcate a feeling of okayness. It has been criticized as superficial, trivial, and perfunctory. Clarified Values (Simon, Howe, and Kimhenbaum 1972): Values and their meanings in life alr: injected thrwgh this therapy. If the value system is faulty, ill-founded, or amiss as regards reality, the technique would be superfluous. Eflectiveness (Cadchuff 1969, 1982; Gordon 1970): Self-acceptance, self-understanding, and awareness of self-potential are projected in otder to attain effectiveness in behavior. Determining effectiveness is relative and may be limited to a given wotk setting or situation. Increased Behavioral Repemire (Albett and Emmons 1973; Wolpe 1973): This theory, which is more dons t ien ted than insightful, seeks to end maladaptive behavior and stmgthen adaptive behavior. I and Thou Relationship (F3uba 1970; Sullivan 1953): The 4hmry focuses on r e l a t i d p in a family setting. It is heavily valueladen, as it emphasizies what is right atbd what is w m g . Jafark Counseling Values and Objectives 335 If this profile of objectives is reviewed together, it appears to have one fundamental objective: preparing the individual for effective living with the aim of attaining positive relationships with other individuals. None of these paradigms is considered comprehensive and all-embracing. In addition, they have been developed over the last several decades in an attempt to address the social malaise of western society. One real test of their effectiveness would be to examine the incidence rate of mental dis- turbance and personality disorder problems in the West. The prevalent maladjustment in western society establishes the fact that these, as a whole, have failed to achieve the expected results. As these models fail, it becomes all the more important that an Islamic model is developed with an eclectic outlook. Islamic Principles for Objective Formulation While western counseling aims at achieving individual well-being within the confines of this world, Islam defines well-being from an entirely different viewpoint. A Muslim is directed to seek this well-being as stated in the Qur'an: "Our Lord, give us good in this world and good in the h e ~ f t e r " (2:201). This is the primary difference in the worldview of Muslims and non-Muslims. The concepts of well-being, satisfaction, salvation, self-realization, and achievement are linked with the belief that an individual's performance in this life determines the ultimate outcome in the hereafter: "What is cultivated in this world is to be harvested in the hereafter" (a1 Ehkh5ri n.d.). This basic assumption determines the funda- mental goals of any therapeutic program. These cardinal principles are seen as the cornemtone of any attempt to formulate an Islamic thary: 1. An individual is born with an innate innocence that needs to be pre- served and enhanced. It is society's obligation to provide conducive conditions for such an upbringing. 2. Material and spiritual well-being is achievable through a profound submission to the will of God. Those who fail to submit are in a state of conflict and their personalities begin to disintegrate. Accotding to the w a n , a life without faith is a state of spiritual non-being in which one loses touch with hisher true self (49:19). Religion pro- vides guidance and cultivates mental health. Faith is seen as an essen- tial prerequisite for the treatment of mental, emotional, or behavioral disordem. A consensus on the therapeutic value of faith is evident from the writings of Ibn Sin& a1 Ghadi , Ibn Miskawayh, a1 Rki , SIGh Waliy Allih, and many other Muslim thinkets (Rizvi 1989). 336 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 103 3. An individual has the ability to reason and the freedom of choice. The right path has been shown by revelation (divine books) gtanted to individuals of the highest spiritual standing (prophets). These gifts, according to the Qur'an, are to be used to choose the way of life: "We showed him the way: whether he be gtateful or ungtateful" (76:3); "And we have shown him the two ways" (90:lO); "By the soul and the proportion and otdet given to it, it has been enlightened to opt for the wrong provided therein or the right revealed to it. Truly he succeeds that putifies it and he fails that corrupts it" (91:7-10). While human beings are free to select their own path(s), there is an associated sense of accountability. As humanity has been declared the vicegerent of God (2:30), it is held accountable for its options, ef- forts, and behavior. Every soul is held accountable in pledge for its deeds (74:38), and an individual can only have what he/she strives for (53:39-41). 4. Islam requites a community that has a social function, for it is not confined to the individual-God relationship, but rather seeks to create a strong, healthy, and well-organized social life. The fabric of social life is the doctrine that Muslim communal brotherhood is a vehicle for social welfare, wider peace, and the attainment of hatmony in so- cial bonds. This system of social health must be maintained by estab- lishing the institutions of advice, discipline, and welfare for the bene- fit of all. This ummatic concept is based on a system of social rela- tions that seeks to maximize the enjoinment of good on eatth within the divine plan: "There may spring from you a community (ummah) who invite to goodness and enjoin good conduct and forbid in- decency. Such are they who ate successful" (3:104). This is a trust (umdmh) bestowed upon Muslims that needs to be realized as one of the aims of the Shari'ah. In otdet to integrate the Muslim community, the institution of sincere advice is perceived as a fundamental obli- gation: "You are the best ummah that has been taised up for man- kind. You enjoin right conduct and forbid indecency and you believe in Allah" (3:llO). On the basis of these principles, the ultimate goal of Islamic counsel- ing would be to develop an Islamic personality. This personality needs to be healthy, balanced, and well-integrated and have all of its drives, emo- tions, and cognitive opetations directed towards a p d t for the pleasure of God. This type of personality is successful in overpowering the evil- prone self (ul nafs ul ummdruh). Deviant pathological behavior is cor- J a f d Counseling Values and Objectives 337 rected by an inducement of the reproaching self (ul mfi a1 lawwtimuh). The ultimate target is the attainment of absolute and constant contentment (a1 nafi al muma’innah), which is possible through a consonance of the human psyche with God. This is the stage of the constant contentment of psyche (a1 nu$% a1 mupna’innah). If the ultimate objective of Islamic counseling is this contentment, the needed instruments for its realization include the constant remembrance of God (dhikr), truthfulness (sidq), and sincerity (iw1lci.y). Conclusion At the present time, there is no discipline or field of practice known as Islamic counseling. This paper has pointed out some fundamental in- adequacies in the existing body of counseling knowledge that has been developed in the western social context. It has also highlighted its con- trasts with the belief system, value structure, and objectives of Islam. The need for a critical study of western counseling is quite evident. As there is no short-term or easy panacea for Islamizing the inherently secular field of western counseling, we need to take the initiative in making a start. This process would entail the following stages of development: 1. 2. 3. Western empirical methods per se are inappropriate from an Islamic viewpoint. In line with the methodological efforts for other branches of human sciences, a set of principles and methodological directions need to be derived from the study of behavioral phenomena by com- bining revelation, Teason, and empiricism. All of the currently available behavioral and psychotherapeutic para- digms must be examined critically by an appropriate methodology. The contributions of Muslim pioneets also need to be recast in rela- tion to contemporary life and social conditions. Once developed, the new field of Islamic counseling would be based on a set of core conditions, therapeutic strategies, counselor training programs, and use of models. The Islamic value system will provide guidelines for model development. As the most perfect and effective model for behavior modification is the Prophet’s person and per- sonality, a systematic study of his life and example may reveal the most effective behavioral therapies. Such an effort, which q u i r e s the concerted and long-term effort of a large team of committed psycho- therapists, may result in a field of knowledge than can be called “Is- lamic counseling,” as is the case with Islamic economics at this stage. 338 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 103 4. We have our own peculiar ethical issues in the a m of counseling, and these need to be addressed. The concept of privacy ought to be teexamined in the light of Islamic injunctions. Another problem is pmviding counseling services to women. 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