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American Journal of  
Life Science and Innovation (AJLSI)

Microbiological Analysis of  Household Water Tanks in Egypt
Amal A. Abdulbaqi1*, Amani Alhejely1, Omaymah Radwan2

Volume 3 Issue 2, Year 2024
ISSN: 2833-1397 (Online)

DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajlsi.v3i2.3154
https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajlsi

Article Information ABSTRACT

Received: August 22, 2024

Accepted: September 24, 2024

Published: September 27, 2024

The world faces a significant challenge in meeting freshwater demands due to the limited 
availability of  fresh and pure water. This study investigated the microbial quality of  domestic 
water tanks in Cairo, Egypt, to assess the possible health effects of  stored water. Water 
samples were obtained from the household tanks at Azhar University and analyzed for 
bacterial content using membrane filtration and serial dilution techniques. The differences 
observed in the microbial plate counts showed a variation across seasons and temperatures, 
and the total plate counts were noted in the winter and the summer water samples at 35°C 
and 22°C, respectively. Some samples had low microbial counts, while others had higher 
ones, which could imply contamination. Faecal and total coliform concentrations were 
relatively low and, in some cases, within the range of  the WHO requirements. The study 
emphasizes the importance of  microbial quality sampling in water samples, as some samples 
may pose health hazards. It suggests improved standards in cleaning water tanks to ensure 
safe drinking water. Proper water treatment and risk checks can help eliminate potential 
health risks and provide a secure water supply. Clean water is crucial for human health and 
sustainable development, and ensuring adequate and safe water is essential for consumption.

Keywords

Drinking Water, Cairo, E. 
Coli, Faecal Coliforms, Water 
Storage Tanks

INTRODUCTION
Global freshwater demand cannot be satisfied despite 
75% of  the Earth submerging in water. Surface 
freshwater and subterranean water comprise only 3% 
of  the Earth’s surface, with glaciers storing an additional 
2.5%. Meanwhile, what’s left behind is polluted water that 
is unsuitable for human consumption or domestication 
(Naqvi et al., 2015). Whether animal or plant, water is a 
fundamental component in cell synthesis and an integral 
part of  every industrial and biological activity (Al-garawyi, 
2019). For more than 2000 years, city residents have 
recognized the necessity for a safe and clean water supply 
(Nastić, 2021). The early Romans built an aqueduct 
system to transfer water from the Tiber River upstream 
of  the city, providing a steady water supply through their 
enormous aqueduct system connected with the expansion 
as a centre of  their civilization (Kulperger et al., 2003). 
Nowadays, household water tanks are frequently used to 
store water for domestic purposes in numerous urban 
regions (Salehi, 2022). 
Nevertheless, the susceptibility of  these tanks to 
microbial contamination arises from many factors, 
including insufficient maintenance practices and 
environmental pollutants (Organization, 2004). Water 
contamination has emerged as a significant environmental 
concern since the beginning of  the 21st century due to 
population expansion, urban development, industrial 
progress and pollution arising from industrial wastewater, 
domestication, agriculture and sewerage dumping of  
solid waste in streams (Badr et al., 2013; DG Al-Afify & 
YM Aly, 2019). In contrast, rivers across the globe are 
subjected to substantial quantities of  waste discharged 
by industrial and agricultural sectors (Badr et al., 2013). 

This has caused serious ecological challenges, as it exerts 
adverse effects on the general population’s well-being 
and the aquatic ecosystem’s biodiversity, generating 
waterborne diseases (Hunter et al., 2001; Noureen et al., 
2022). 
Waterborne diseases can be shown as illnesses that are 
affected by the consumption of  water polluted with 
pathogenic microorganisms present in human or animal 
faeces, which may include viruses, bacteria, or protozoa 
(Hunter et al., 2001). According to WHO, there is a 
significant risk of  morbidity and mortality resulting 
from unsafe drinking water, where 200 million cases of  
diarrhoea and 2.1 million deaths attributed to diarrheal 
illness are reported annually (Organization, 2004). 
Approximately 20% of  the global population faces the 
challenge of  insufficient access to potable water, leading 
to more than 5 million deaths each year due to diseases 
linked to the consumption of  unsafe water or inadequate 
sanitation (Hunter et al., 2001). Infants, young children, 
disabled individuals, and the elderly are most likely to 
be affected by waterborne infections, where inadequate 
sanitary facilities considerably raise the risk of  waterborne 
illnesses 25 times higher in industrial regions (de Bruin et 
al., 2018). 
Precise microbiological studies are scarce and provide 
information on residential water tanks in urban areas 
such as Cairo, Egypt (Mohamed et al., 2016; Osman et 
al., 2010). While there is some research on water quality 
concerns and their effects worldwide, information 
regarding microbial content and health risk implications 
tied to water tanks in homes in Cairo is scarce or lacking. 
Consequently, information concerning the quantity and 
kinds of  microbial contaminants is still unknown, let 

1 Department of  Biology, Darb University College, Jazan University, Saudi Arabia
2 Department of  Education, Jazan University, Saudi Arabia
* Corresponding author’s e-mail: AmalA.Abdulbaqi@outlook.com



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alone efficient strategies to manage such threats. 
This study is an effort to fill this gap by evaluating 
the microbial quality of  stored water by conducting 
an extensive microbiological analysis of  water tanks 
in residential buildings in Cairo-Egypt. The aim is to 
provide valuable information to improve water quality 
control and management and ultimately benefit public 
health. The study aims to determine these tanks’ specific 
diseases and microbial concentrations.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
The water samples were collected from a single storage 
tank used by one of  the students from Azhar University 
located in Cairo Governorate City. They were numbered 
A1, A2, A2a, A3, B1, B2, Ba, B2b, and B3. All samples 
were collected separately in sterile tubes and were kept at 
a temperature of  4°c before further testing.

Sample Collection and Preparation
The membrane filtering technique was used to isolate 
bacterial analyses following the methods outlined by 
Clark (1980) and Hoadley (1981) as well as the standard 
procedure as outlined in the American Public Health 
Association protocols (APHA) (APHA, 2017; Clark, 
1980; Hoadley, 1981). The water samples were not stored 
longer than 24 hours after collection to prevent changes 
in microbial growth patterns. The temperature was kept 
at or below 10 °C, preventing freezing during transport. 
The samples were also collected for chemical analysis 
using clean, sterile borosilicate plastic bottles with wide 
openings. 
A 0.1 ml sodium thiosulfate solution (Na2S2O3 ) with a 
concentration of  3% was employed as an extraction and 
purification agent. This solution was added to a 120 ml 
container, effectively neutralizing residual chlorine levels 
of  up to 5 mg/L. The substance effectively counteracts 
any remaining halogen and prevents the ongoing 
bactericidal activity during transportation. The Na2S2O3 
solutions were prepared according to Table 1.

The next step was to run the samples through a sterile, 
gridded membrane filter paper with a pore diameter of  
0.45 mm and a length of  47 mm. The samples were 
shaken vigorously at low speed for 7 to 15 seconds using a 
mechanical shaker to mix the sample dilutions uniformly. 
A 50-9 mm diameter agar petri dish was aseptically put on 
the filter paper using flame-sterilized forceps. Each plate 
was marked with the proper data before the investigation, 
including the sample points, dilution, date, and other 
relevant information. Each sample volume or dilution 
tested for compliance was tested using membrane filtering 
procedures with a minimum of  two duplicate plates. 
Replicas were suggested for non-compliance testing. The 
prepared plates were turned upside down and placed in a 
sealed container or plastic bag at 2° to 8° C for two weeks. 
The agar plates were kept at a consistent humidity level 
during incubation to prevent them from drying out by 
more than 15%.

Optimum Colony Density Count 
The standard protocols of  the APHA (2017) have been 
adhered to get the most suitable colony density count, 
which was obtained to be 20 to 200 per filter (APHA, 
2017). After the membrane filtering, the resulting 
colonies were counted under a stereoscopic microscope 
and adjusted to a 10 to 15-fold magnification power. The 
petri dish containing the colonies was rotated to an angle 
of  45 degrees on the microscope stage, and a light source 
was passed across the colonies’ plane. To determine the 
average count of  such colonies per square, 10 squares 
were counted, and the count of  the colonies varying from 
three to ten was noted. Five squares were assessed in the 
10-20 count per square to identify the number of  squares 
whose counts fell in that count range. The number of  
colonies, the average count per square, was multiplied by 
100 and thus divided by the sample volume to ascertain 
the number of  colonies per millilitre. If  there was more 
than one colony in each square, the resulting figure was 
read as greater than 2000 divided by its volume, which 
was rounded to give the mean colony counts, referred 
to as the Colony Forming Unit, or CFU. Spreaders were 
only estimated in round figures where two or more 
geographically separated colonies were joined together.

Total Bacterial Count 
In compliance with the recommended methods outlined 
by the American Public Health Association, 1 ml of  
each potable water sample was pipetted and cultured on 
R2A agar and spread plate agar to determine the overall 
bacterial loads (APHA, 2017). 

Faecal Coliform Counts 
The faecal coliform counts were ascertained using the 
membrane filter technique on an improved lactose medium 
based on the said protocol (Guillemin et al., 1991).

Total Coliform Counts
The total coliform membrane filter technique was used to 

Table 1: Equivalents of  sodium thiosulfate
Na2S2O3  Concentration Weight of  Compound
3% anhydrous 3 g/ 100 ml
3% pentahydrate 4.6 g/ 100 ml
10% anhydrous 10 g / 100 ml
10% pentahydrate 15.21/ 100 ml

Serial Dilution 
This study used a serial dilution technique, as described by 
(Niemelä, 2002). Each sample was made by carefully adding 
approximately 10cc distilled water into eight glass bottles and 
autoclaving them at a control temperature of  121°C for 30- 
60 min. After each water sample was taken from the tanks, it 
was diluted in the glass bottles (1) with sterile distilled water 
at a ratio of  1:10. The procedure was continued until 10-4 
dilutions were reached; for 1:100 dilutions, 1 cc of  sample 
from a bottle (1) was added to bottle (2).



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obtain the colony-forming units (CFU) from the sampled 
drinking water, following the method described (Gautam 
& Adhikari, 2018). Briefly, 10 ml of  pH-adjusted dilution 
water was pipette into the funnel with 100 ml of  filtered 
sample, then washed in with 25 – 50 ml of  buffer. At 
other times, the probable density of  bacteria, the level 
of  turbidity, and legal provisions were used to show the 
number of  samples for collection. An optimum sample 
volume was estimated to yield 20 to 80 coliform colonies 
and 200 colonies of  all types on a membrane-filter 
surface. One membrane filter was placed in each dish 
incubated for 22 to 24 hours at 35.5°C. The following 
equation calculated the density of  the coliforms: 
(Total) coliforms,No./100 mL=(coliform colonies counted 
×100 )/sample filtered (ml) =No.CFU/100 mL             (1)
Membrane(s) with adequate colonies and 200 colony 
forming units (CFU) or less on each membrane were 
chosen. When no coliform colonies are found in drinking 
water samples, the total coliform colonies should be 
reported as 1 CFU/100 ml or total Escherichia coli (E. coli) 
absent per 100 ml sample.

Statistical Analysis
Every data set underwent statistical analysis in compliance 
with the protocol defined by the (Institute, 1985) 
computer software, and means were contrasted using the 
technique as per (Snedecor & Cochran, 1967).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The results of  this study’s microbiological analysis are 
displayed in Table 2, which represents the total count of  
microbiological plates observed within household water 
tanks during the winter and summer seasons at two different 
temperatures. It can be observed that the plate count for all 
samples in A1 and B1 was less than 1 CFU except sample A1, 
observed at 22°C in summer (2 CFU). For A2, the highest 
count of  5 CFU was observed at 22°C in summer, while 
at 35°C, it was less than 1 CFU. In winter, it was observed 
to be as low as 350×10-3 and 260×10-3 CFU at 35°C and 
22°C respectively. The plate count observed for sample 
A2a was 15×10-3 CFU at 35°C and 18×10-3 CFU at 22°C 
for summer. Whereas 4.20 ×10-2 colonies were observed at 
35°C and 8.9×10-2 colonies were seen at 22°C in winter.

Table 2: Total number of  microbiological plates observed in household water tanks
Sample ID Winter   Summer
Total plate count (CFU/100ml)

35°C 22°C 35°C 22°C
A1 <1 <1 <1 2
A2 350×10-3 260×10-3 <1 5
A2a 15×10-3 18×10-3 4.20 ×10-2 8.9×10-2

A3 48 1.5×10-² <1 11 ×10-1

B1 <1 <1 <1 <1
B2 1 7 350×10-3 310×10-3

B2a 2.30×10-2 2×10-2 4×10-3 13×10-3

B3 <1 <1 3 ×10-1 16 ×10-1

The highest colonies of  48 CFU were observed to be 
found in winter in sample A3 at 35°C, while in summer, 
there were fewer than 1 at the same temperature and 
at 22°C, 1.5×10-2 and 11 ×10-1 CFUs were observed in 
winter and summer respectively. Colonies of  the bacteria 
were 1 and 7 CFU/100mL of  B2 in winter at 22°C 
and 35°C respectively, whereas 350×10-3 and 310×10-3 
CFU/100mL values were reported in winter at 22°C and 
35°C. For B2a, 2.30×10-2 at 22°C and 2×10-2 at 35°C 
were seen in winter, while 4×10-3 at 22°C and 13×10-

3 at 35°C were grown in summer. Both the samples of  
B3 in winter showed <1 CFU/100ml, while in summer, 
the CFU/100mL value of  the water samples observed in 
winter was 3 ×10-1 at 35°C and 16 ×10-1 at 22°C. 
Moreover, Table 3 in this study showed the total E. coli 
or coliform count of  summer and winter samples was 

found to be in the range of  1 CFU/100 mL in almost all 
samples, except for the winter water sample B2a, which 
had 4.5×10-1 CFU/100 ml. If  no coliform colonies 
are found in drinking water samples, the total coliform 
colonies should be reported as 1 CFU/100 ml or total 
coliform bacteria missing per 100 mL sample. Faecal 
coliform densities were estimated in terms of  CFU per 
100 mL, taking into account the density arrived at from 
the sample volumes yielding MFC within the range of  20-
60 thermotolerant coliform colonies, as shown in Table 4. 
This colony density range is more restrictive than the 20 to 
80 total coliform ranges because the total count on MFC 
is normally bigger due to larger colony size. The outcome 
displayed all samples as 1. The WHO has approved these 
results as acceptable (Organization, 2004).

Table 3: Household water tanks' microbiological total coliform content
Sample ID Winter Summer

Total coliform (CFU/100mL)
A1 <1 <1



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DISCUSSION 
The measurable value of  CFU is a crucial statistic in 
microbiology that provides insights into the number 
of  viable microorganisms inside a certain specimen, 
like bacteria, yeast, or mould. It is used in this inquiry 
(Cundell, 2015). This concept is considered to be crucial, 
especially in aspects such as water quality analysis and 
microbiology (Angnunavuri et al., 2022; Yeboah et al., 
2022). Seasonal fluctuations might be attributed to 
differences in water source and treatment used over the 
period. Other differences in sample collection could also 
explain changes in total microbial plate count, as shown in 
Table 2. One of  the main factors of  bacterial formation 
within the home water storage tanks is the temperature 
fluctuations of  22–35°C. The research focuses on the fact 
that bacterial activity increases in relevance with water 
temperature, which may result in the variation of  water 
quality based on global change (Jeon et al., 2019).
From the samples obtained from the research, most 
of  them had a total and faecal coliform of  less than 1, 
implying that the amount of  bacteria in the water was very 
little; hence, the water was clean. According to Adzitey, 
Sumaila, & Saba (2015), clean water containing E. coli 
can lead to undetectable coliform bacteria, supporting 
our findings in the study (Adzitey et al., 2015),. In this 
context, total coliforms are a robust group of  bacteria 
that can be used in the evaluation of  water quality and 
potential faecal contamination (Byappanahalli et al., 2012; 
Mabvouna Biguioh et al., 2020; McLellan & Eren, 2014; 
Noble et al., 2003; Ramteke et al., 1992). This information 
is particularly useful regarding the microbiological 
quality of  water and how it can be utilized. The research 
underscores the importance of  identifying E. coli, a rod-
shaped, gram-negative facultative anaerobe bacterial 
species belonging to the Enterobacteriaceae family that 
can cause lethal diseases (Jang et al., 2017; Torres, 2010). 
Total coliforms do not have any pathogenic potentialities; 

however, they express definite threats regarding 
contaminating risks. Thus, there is a need to perform 
other tests to identify the presence of  certain pathogenic 
bacteria, including E. coli, which may negatively impact 
health  (McLellan & Eren, 2014). To minimize the 
spread of  E. coli, it is necessary to detect and avoid water 
pollution by specializing in wash practices. To prevent 
the outbreak of  waterborne diseases such as hazardous 
E. coli and other diseases that cause bacteria, it is crucial 
to have adequate and safe water supply and inadequate 
water sanitation facilities (Jang et al., 2017). The findings 
show measures to lower the microbial load on water 
and discuss the risk of  using water from taps or tanks, 
which may pose a health risk to families that do not have 
filtering systems. 
Based on this study, it can also be deduced that CFU is 
an effective quantitative parameter in microbiology that 
can be used to determine the contents of  water sources 
in terms of  microbes. These changes are presumed to be 
due to fluctuations in plate number as a function of  the 
passage of  time, seasonal changes and water treatment. 
The study also recommends further research to determine 
the extent of  pathogenic bacteria coverage like E. coli and 
the importance of  monitoring total coliform as a water 
quality index. Studies show that water purification systems 
and sanitary measures are essential to prevent harm from 
contaminated water. Microbial and water quality analyses 
are a lot more helpful in obtaining results.

CONCLUSION 
The study on microbial content in domestic water tanks 
in Cairo, Egypt, has provided valuable insights into the 
presence and dangers of  consumable stored water. The 
results suggest high water quality and low levels of  faecal 
coliform in most samples. However, further research is 
needed to manage potential health risks associated with 
potable water consumption. Protecting the population 

A2 <1 <1
A2a <1 1
A3 <1 <1
B1 <1 <1
B2 <1 <1
B2a 4.5×10-¹ 1
B3 <1 <1

Table 4: Household water tanks’ microbiological Faecal coliform levels
Sample ID Winter Summer

Faecal coliform
A1 <1 <1
A2 <1 <1
A2a <1 <1
A3 <1 <1
B1 <1 <1
B2 <1 <1



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from waterborne diseases requires strong technical 
examination and sound water treatment and supply 
maintenance procedures. Ensuring the public’s right to 
pure, clean water is crucial for individual and community 
health preservation and long-term environmental-friendly 
development, ensuring safe drinking water for all.

LIMITATION
The study’s findings are limited due to the limited 
sampling of  water samples from storage tanks of  only 
one student at Azhar University, making it impossible to 
extend the results to other households or areas in Cairo.

Acknowledgments 
The authors gratefully acknowledge the funding of  the 
Deanship of  Graduate Studies and Scientific Research, 
Jazan University, Saudi Arabia, through Project 
NumberGSSRD-24.

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