









































Pa
ge

 
1



Pa
ge

 
25

American Journal of  
Life Science and Innovation (AJLSI)

Preparation and Characterization of  Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles by Co-Precipitation 
Method and Evaluation of  Theirs Antifungal Activity in Spore Germination of

Dermatophytes
Hussein A. R. Abbood1, Salah S. Zainalabden1

Volume 3 Issue 2, Year 2024
ISSN: 2833-1397 (Online)

DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajlsi.v3i2.3183
https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajlsi

Article Information ABSTRACT

Received: June 20, 2024

Accepted: July 24, 2024

Published: July 27, 2024

This research study synthesized Prepared zinc oxide nanoparticles using the co-precipitation 
method. The antifungal activities of  these nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) and their mode of  
action against Trichophyton rubrum and Microsporum canis were investigated using samples 
obtained from patients referred to consulting clinics in Kirkuk city. These nano oxides were 
identified through XRD diffraction analysis, FTIR measurement, and Scanning Electron 
Microscopy (SEM). The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Fungicidal 
Concentration (MFC) values were recorded as 1.330 and 4.530 µg/mL for Trichophyton 
rubrum, and 0.333 and 10.67 μg/ml for Microsporum canis, respectively. The antifungal effect 
of  (ZnO NPs) was similar to that of  Griseofulvin, while it exhibited a higher effect than 
ketoconazole. Furthermore, (ZnO NPs) demonstrated a significant (P < 0.05) inhibition 
effect on spore germination for all tested dermatophytes, although the extent of  this effect 
varied depending on the fungal isolates.

Keywords

Dermatophyte, Spore, 
Nanoparticle, ZnO, Antifungal

INTRODUCTION 
Dermatophytes, a large group of  fungi responsible 
for causing dermatophytosis or ringworm(Bouchara 
&Mignon, 2017). This group includes three main genera: 
Trichophyton, Microsporum, and Epidermophyton spp (Al-
Janabi, 2014). Griseofulvin is considered one of  the 
most widely used treatments for dermatophytosis(Gupta 
et al., 2009) (Barros et al., 2007), and therefore it was 
very important to increase its effectiveness through the 
development of  nanoparticles(Zili Z et al., 2005). Solid 
nanoparticles loaded with griseofulvin in the form of  a gel 
showed very, very effective pharmacological capabilities 
against the pathogenic fungus(Aggarwal &Goind, 2013). 
Microsporum canis Zinc oxide nanoparticles (Zno-NPs) 
showed an effective effect against dermatophytes and show 
stronger inhibition compared to antifungals(Ahmadpour 
et al.,2021) (El-Diasty et al., 2013) Many antifungals have 
shown resistance against skin fungi, which is considered 
a major challenge(Elad et al., 1992) Therefore, it was 
important to prepare drugs for pathogenic fungi that 
replace current medications. Therefore, researchers have 
paid great attention to nanoparticles due to their high 
effectiveness due to their unique physical and chemical 
properties(Vatsha B et al., 2013). Many researches have 
indicated There are many different types of  nanomaterials, 
including silver nanoparticles(Abbood & A. H. S, 2020) 
and zinc nanoparticles(Liu et al., 2009), which have shown 
antifungal and antibacterial activity.
Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) are known for 
their ability to create large surface areas and unique 
crystalline structures. These metal oxides are highly 
ionic(Khaleel et al.,1999), unlike organic materials, possess 

exceptional durability, selectivity, and thermal resistance. 
Incorporating zinc oxide into daily zinc supplements 
is common due to its vital role in maintaining human 
health. Additionally, ZnO NPs have shown compatibility 
with human cells (Padmavathy &Vijayaraghavan, 2008).
The antimicrobial properties of  ZnO bulk powder have 
been extensively studied, demonstrating its effectiveness 
against bacteria and fungi. In the agricultural industry, 
zinc compounds are primarily used as fungicides (Bloom 
& Markson., 2001) .

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Isolation and Diagnosis of  Fungi
Samples were obtained from patients who were referred to 
consulting clinics in the city of  Kirkuk. The samples were 
collected either by scraping from the affected area or by 
cutting the affected part of  the hair and nails. Afterward, 
the samples were treated with 10% KOH to analyze the 
keratinous material present. This analysis aimed to identify 
any highlights and spores. The isolated samples were then 
transferred to sterile Petri dishes containing Sabouraud’s 
Dextrose Agar (SDA) medium, supplemented with 
50 mg of  the antibiotic Chloramphenicol. This was 
done to facilitate the growth of  fungi without any 
interference from bacteria and yeasts. Subsequently, the 
isolated samples were sent to the Mycology Laboratory 
at the Alqalam of  the university. They were placed in an 
incubator set at a temperature of  27-30°C for a duration 
of  two weeks. Following the incubation period, the 
colonies were carefully tested (Figure 1), and additional 
tests were conducted to confirm the diagnosis (Table 1)
(Khan et al., 2021).

1 Department of  Biology, College of  Education for Pure Sciences, Kirkuk University, Kirkuk, Iraq
* Corresponding author’s e-mail: hussenabdulrazzaq@uokirkuk.edu.iq



Pa
ge

 
26

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajlsi

Am. J. Life Sci. Innov. 3(2) 25-32, 2024

Inoculum Preparation
In light of  the need to obtain reproducible and 
comparable results in antifungal susceptibility testing, 
it is important to standardize the inoculum. Based 
on the CLSI guidelines, the tested dermatophyte 
inoculum suspensions were made (Wang et al., 2018). 
To induce sporulation, colonies grown on PDA for 
7-15 days were flooded with 10 ml of  distilled water. 
The use of  a sterile loop to mechanically break up the 
colonies yielded a suspension that contained some tiny 
fragments of  hyphae and conidia. This mixture was 
then aliquoted into sterile tubes and allowed to settle 
at room temperature which facilitated sedimenting of  
larger particles. The suspension was then diluted to a 
final conidia concentration of  1-3 × 103 cells/ml using a 
haemocytometer according to CLSI M38-A2.

The Dilution and Preparation of  Stock Solution of  
the Antifungal Agents
In performing the comparison with (ZnO NPs), 
commercially available antifungal reference powders of  
Griseofulvin and ketoconazole were used to prepare 
stock solutions. Another accurate way of  measuring the 
antifungal powders was by using an analytical balance that 
measures up to 0. 0001g, according to the authors of  the 
paper by (Wang et al., 2018). Deionized distilled water was 

employed for dissolving Griseofulvin, ketoconazole, and 
(ZnO NPs) to prepare stock solutions. To reach the final 
strength as required, further dilutions were made on the 
broth medium, to attain twice the strength. Subsequently, 
a twofold serial dilution was performed to obtain the 
final concentration range of  the drugs: It was found to be 
0.04-19 µg/ml for ketoconazole and 0. 136-59 µg/ml for 
Griseofulvin and 0.171-75 µg/ml for (ZnO NPs).

Preparation of  Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles  by Co-
Precipitation Method
A solution of  0.4 molar aqueous zinc acetate 
(Zn(CH3COO)2 2H2O) was created by dissolving 9.2 g of  
the compound in 100 milliliters of  non-ionic water and 
allowing it to dissolve completely on a magnetic stirrer for 
30 minutes. Sodium hydroxide with a concentration of  1 
molar was then added drop by drop until reaching a pH 
of  9. The solution was stirred at 70°C for 2 hours until a 
precipitate formed. The precipitate was filtered, washed 
with nonionic water and ethanol, and then dried at 80°C 
for 30 minutes. Then, the precipitate was burned at 
500°C for 5 hours and the process was further continued 
for desiccation of  the precipitate at room temperature for 
overnight (Khan et al., 2015) .
Zn(CH3COO)2·2H2O+ 2NaOH →ZnO + 2CH3COONa 
+ 3H2O

Table 1: Shows species and fungal species isolated from spices
Mold type Hair 

penetration 
test

Growth at a 
temperature 
of  37°C

Diagnosis of  
large conidia

Diagnosis of  
small conidia

Rice test Characteristics of  
fungal culture

M.canis + - Fusiform, thick, 
rough-walled, 
with a curved or 
hooked end

It is not found 
in abundance, 
and if  it is 
found, it has a 
club shape

Yellow 
colony

tapering at both ends; 
spindle-shaped

T.rubrum + - It takes the form 
of  a cigar or a 
pen

Club-shaped to 
barrel-shaped, 
growing along 
the spindle 
filaments

- The colony gives off  
a red dye. Below the 
plate, the conidia are 
club-shaped and the 
hyphae are tree-shaped

Figure 1: Colony morphology of  the  A. T.rubrum  and  B. M.canis   isolate



Pa
ge

 
27

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajlsi

Am. J. Life Sci. Innov. 3(2) 25-32, 2024

Nanoparticle Characterization Techniques Based  
on   Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles  are Being Prepared
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
Spectroscopy of  infrared radiation was used to analyze 
FTIR samples and the presence of  functional groups 
and various features of  the nanocomposite was studied 
(Fadlelmoula et al., 2022).

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Analysis
It is applied for the average particle size analysis of  the 
nanocomposite and the structure shape analysis. XRD 
was also employed to determine what elements are 
present in the sample. The results were taken and put 
down in pictures (Xiong et al., 2020)

X-Ray Diffraction Analysis (XRD)
Analysis based on X-ray diffraction method is very 
popular technique for testing and determining the crystal 
structure of  nanomaterials by using an XRD tool and 
it is a non-destructive way to characterize the physical 
properties, chemical composition and crystal structure, 
In addition atomic arrangement and thickness could be 
determine ( Zhang et al., 2023).

Determination of  MIC Values for Dermatophytes
The MIC (ZnO-NPs) and other antifungal drugs 
considered were assessed against the fungal strain by 
employing broth microdilution method. The method 
followed Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) 
guidelines wherever possible, as described in Filamentous 
Fungi Document M38-A2 (Badiee  et al., 2013).

The Minimum Fungicidal Concentration (MFC)  
When testing MIC, the minimum fungicidal concentration 
(MFC) of  ZnO NPs against the dermatophytes studied 
was determined. For comparison, the bactericidal efficacy 
of  griseofulvin and ketoconazole was also examined. 
Samples from wells with no visible growth were then 
transferred to SDA plates. Additionally, positive controls 
(from growth control wells) and negative controls (from 
sterile control wells) were included in the experiment.

The Impact of  Biosynthesized Zinc Oxide 
Nanoparticles (Zno Nps) on the Germination 
of  Dermatophyte Spores Was Assessed Using as 
Microscopic Method
To generate the conidia, the isolates were cultured on 
potato dextrose agar (PDA) for 10-14 days, following the 
specific requirements of  each dermatophyte genus. The 
resulting suspension contained both conidial and mycelial 
fragments. The spore count for each dermatophyte 
isolate was maintained at 40-60 spores per microscopic 
field. In order to interact with the ZnO NPs, the spore 
suspension for each isolate was prepared, resulting in a 
concentration of  20-30 spores per microscopic field. The 
tubes containing the culture mixture were then placed in a 
shaking incubator at 35ºC for Trichophyton spp. or at 30ºC 
for Microsporum spp. to ensure even distribution of  the 
ZnO NPs.
The germination of  spores was studied through the daily 
microscope examination of  the sample. The spore was 
deemed germinated once the length of  the germ tube 
reached 1.5 times the diameter of  the spore  (Plascencia‐
Jatomea et al. ,2003).
The antifungal drugs and sterile broth were used as 
substitutes also to the (ZnO NPs) in the positive and 
negative controls. All the treatments were performed in 
three replications. The percentage of  spore germination 
inhibition was determined with the help of  the formula:
% spore germination inhibition = SC - CT/ SC ×  100
*SC: average of  spores germinated in control. 
*CT: average of  spores germinated in treatment. 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Diagnosis of  Nano-Zinc Oxide by XRD
The X-ray diffraction analysis was conducted to 
characterize the crystal structure and phase purity of  the 
synthesized ZnO nanoparticles. Figure (2) illustrates that 
the X-ray diffraction spectrum of  the zinc oxide sample 
aligns with the standard spectrum of  Zinc oxide as per 
the database (ZnO JCPDS 36-1451) (Wirunchit et al., 
2021).

Figure 2: X-ray diffraction (XRD) of  silver nanoparticles ( ZnO NPs )



Pa
ge

 
28

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajlsi

Am. J. Life Sci. Innov. 3(2) 25-32, 2024

FTIR Measurement Results for the Prepared Oxides
The infrared spectra of  Zn(CH3COO)2.2H2O, which 
is the aqueous zinc acetate salt, are utilized in the 
preparation of  nano-zinc oxide prior to conducting 
the reaction. This information is depicted in Figure (3). 
The results obtained from the experiment lead us to 
the conclusion that the protein present in the reaction 
medium serves as a reducing agent and forms a protective 
layer around the biosynthesized ZnO NPs, known as 
capping proteins. This capping protein plays a crucial 
role in preventing the undesirable agglomeration of  
particles in the medium, thereby ensuring the formation 

of  highly stable ZnO NPs(Hadi&Kadhim, 2019). One 
significant advantage of  using capping protein over 
polymer and surfactant, which are commonly used as 
capping agents in the preparation of  ZnO NPs, is that it 
is cost-effective, safe, eco-friendly, and does not require 
any special conditions. Additionally, capping protein acts 
as an anchoring layer for the transportation of  drugs 
or genetic materials into human cells (Hu et al., 2011), 
surpassing the capabilities of  surfactant and polymer. 
Moreover, the presence of  a non-toxic protein cap 
enhances the uptake and retention of  these materials 
inside human cells (Rodríguez et al., 2013).

Figure 3: FTIR spectrum of  ZnO NPs

Figure 4: Scanning electron microscope (SEM) of  ZnO NPs

Diagnosis of  Nano-Zinc Oxide by SEM
The scanning electron microscope (SEM) was utilized 
to observe the morphological and structural properties 
of  nanozinc oxide (ZnO). The nanometer range 
preparation of  nanoparticles is evident in Figure (4). The 
SEM images revealed that certain nanoparticles were 
adequately dispersed, while the majority were found in 

agglomerated form. The agglomeration is attributed 
to both electrostatic effects and the presence of  the 
aqueous suspension, which demonstrates the behavior 
of  nanoparticle agglomeration. This finding aligns with 
previous studies on nanoparticle agglomeration (S Zain-
Al-Abddeen et al., 2017) (Gaikwad et al., 2015).

Determination of  MIC and MFC Value Against 
Dermatophytes
The antifungal efficacy of  ZnO NPs was studied against 
Trichophyton rubrum and Microsporum canis. Griseofulvin and 
ketoconazole, commonly used antifungal medications, 
were employed as positive controls for comparison. The 
growth inhibition effect of  ZnO NPs on the mentioned 

fungi was determined through the broth microdilution 
method to establish the MIC. The MIC values for the 
tested substances are detailed in Table 2. The findings 
indicated that ZnO NPs exhibited antifungal properties 
against all tested dermatophytes within the range of  
0.171-75 µg/ml, with varying susceptibility levels based 
on the fungal species. Griseofulvin, with an MIC range 



Pa
ge

 
29

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajlsi

Am. J. Life Sci. Innov. 3(2) 25-32, 2024

of  0.136-59 µg/ml, only demonstrated antifungal activity 
against M. canis and T. rubrum, with MIC values of  
approximately 10 µg/ml and 32 µg/ml, respectively.
Ketoconazole, having an MIC ranging from 0.04 -19 µg/
ml, exhibited a comparable antifungal effect to that of  
zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs). Statistical analysis 
indicated no significant variance between the two. The 
most effective MIC of  ketoconazole, at 0.6 µg/ml, was 
observed against M. canis. The biological activity of  
zinc oxide is attributed to the disruption of  membrane 

lipids, which led to leakage of  cell contents and ultimately 
cell death (Xie et al.,2011)  Zinc oxide can also generate 
hydrogen peroxide and Zn+2 ions, which cause cell death 
through a change in cellular metabolism. Preliminary 
studies indicate that the antimicrobial properties of  ZnO 
NPs are due to the formation of  free radicals on the 
nanoparticle surface. These free radicals are thought to 
damage lipids in the bacterial cell membrane, causing the 
membrane to leak and rupture (He et al., 2017) (Reddy et 
al., 2007).

Table 2: Comparative MIC value of  biosynthesized ZnO NPs, Griseofulvin and Ketoconazole against T.rubrum and 
M.canis
Tested fungal
strains

MIC/Mean(µg/ml)
ZnO NPs  
0.171-75  

Griseofulvin 
(0.136-59)

pvalue (ZnO NPs) 
0.171-75  

Ketoconazole 
(0.04-19)

pvalue

T.rubrum 1.330 10 0.0439 1.330 1 >0.05
M.canis 0.333 32 <0.001 0.333 0.6 >0.05

The antifungal properties of  ZnO NPs and standard 
antifungal medications were evaluated concurrently 
with their minimum inhibitory concentration against the 
dermatophytes being studied. Figures (5) and (6) show 
that the MFCs obtained are significantly higher than the 
MICs.

T.rubrum was found to be most susceptible to ZnO 
NPs, with a minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) 
of  4.530 µg/ml, compared to an MFC of  35 µg/ml for 
Griseofulvin and 4 µg/ml for Ketoconazole. For M.canis, 
the MFC of  ZnO NPs was 10.67 µg/ml, while the MFC 
of  Ketoconazole was 3 µg/ml.

Figure 5: Sensitivity profile of  T.rubrum  to the antifungal agents

Figure 6: Sensitivity profile of   M.canis to the antifungal agents



Pa
ge

 
30

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajlsi

Am. J. Life Sci. Innov. 3(2) 25-32, 2024

Effect of   ZnO NPs  on Spore Germination of  
Dermatophytes
The impact of  ZnO NPs on the germination of  spores 
from various dermatophytes is outlined in Table (4)
The study demonstrated that ZnO NPs exhibited 
a notable and significant inhibitory effect on spore 
germination (P < 0.05) in all the dermatophytes tested. 
The impact of  ZnO NPs on fungal strains differed in 

magnitude, as indicated in Table 4. Additionally, the 
majority of  germinated spores exhibited morphological 
transformations, including spore enlargement. These 
alterations align closely with the fungistatic properties 
of  ZnO NPs. Consequently, it is postulated that the 
mechanism behind the fungistatic effect involves 
modifications in the osmotic balance and permeability of  
the spores (Khalil et al., 2013).

Table 3: Comparative MFC value of   ZnO NPs, Griseofulvin and  Ketoconazole against  T.rubrum and M.canis
Tested fungal
strains

MIC/Mean(µg/ml)
ZnO NPs  
0.171-75  

Griseofulvin 
(0.136-59)

pvalue (ZnO NPs) 
0.171-75  

Ketoconazole 
(0.04-19)

pvalue

T.rubrum 4.530 35 <0.001 4.530 4 >0.05
M.canis 10.67 >64 <0.001 10.67 3 >0.05

Table 4: Effects of  ZnO NPs on spore germination in the tested dermatophytes, alongside the reference antifungal 
drugs Griseofulvin and Ketoconazole
Tested fungal
strains

Mean percentage of  spore germination inhibition
ZnO NPs Griseofulvin pvalue (ZnO NPs) Ketoconazole pvalue

T.rubrum 98 0 <0.0001 98 0 <0.0001
M.canis 88 0 <0.0001 88 0 <0.0001

CONCLUSION
In the results obtained in this study and through the 
effectiveness of  ZnO NPs on two types of  fungi and 
comparing them with antifungals, we can conclude that 
ZnO NPs have a biological effectiveness more or similar 
to antifungals.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Department of  
Biology, College of  Education for Pure Sciences, Kirkuk 
University, Kirkuk- Iraq. and alqalam university for the 
facilities they provided and for helping to enhance the 
quality of  this work

REFERENCES 
Abbood, A. H. S. H. A. (2020). The Role of  Silver (Ag) 

Nanoparticles synthesis by Penicillium spp against 
the Toxicity of  Echinococcus Granulosus in Adult 
Albino Male Rats. University of  Kirkuk. Medico-legal 
Update, 20(1), 533. https://doi.org/10.37506/mlu.
v20i1.414.

Abod, H. A. (2017). The effect of  silver nanoparticles 
prepared using Aspergillus niger in some pathogenic 
bacteria. University of  Kirkuk, Kirkuk Journal of  Science, 
12(1). https://doi.org/10.1166/jbmb.2008.401.

Aggarwal, N., & Goindi, S. (2013). Preparation and in vivo 
evaluation of  solid lipid nanoparticles of  griseofulvin 
for dermal use. Journal of  biomedical nanotechnology, 9(4), 
564-576. https://doi.org/10.1166/jbn.2013.1569.

Ahmadpour Kermani, S., Salari, S., & Ghasemi Nejad 
Almani, P. (2021). Comparison of  antifungal and 
cytotoxicity activities of  titanium dioxide and zinc 

oxide nanoparticles with amphotericin B against 
different Candida species: In vitro evaluation. Journal 
of  clinical laboratory analysis, 35(1), e23577. https://doi.
org/10.1002/jcla.23577.

Al-Janabi, A. A. (2014). Dermatophytosis: Causes, 
clinical features, signs and treatment. J Symptoms Signs, 
3(3), 200-203. file:///C:/Users/h/Downloads/
Dermatophytosiscausesclinical%20(1).

Badiee, P., Alborzi, A., Moeini, M., Haddadi, P., Farshad, 
S., Japoni, A., & Ziyaeyan, M. (2012). Antifungal 
susceptibility of  the Aspergillus species by Etest 
and CLSI reference methods. Archives of  Iranian 
medicine, 15(7), 0-0. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/22724880/.

Barros, M. E. D. S., Santos, D. D. A., & Hamdan, J. S. 
(2007). Evaluation of  susceptibility of  Trichophyton 
mentagrophytes and Trichophyton rubrum clinical 
isolates to antifungal drugs using a modified CLSI 
microdilution method (M38-A). Journal of  medical 
microbiology, 56(4), 514-518. https://doi.org/10.1099/
jmm.0.46542-0.

Bloom, P., & Markson, L. (2001). Are there principles that 
apply only to the acquisition of  words? A reply to 
Waxman and Booth. Cognition, 78(1), 89-90. https://
doi.org/10.1016/S0010-0277(00)00111-6.

Bouchara, J. P., Mignon, B., & Chaturvedi, V. (2017). 
Dermatophytes and dermatophytoses: a thematic 
overview of  state of  the art, and the directions for 
future research and developments. Mycopathologia, 182, 
1-4. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s11046-017-0114-z.

Elad, Y., Yunis, H., & Katan, T. (1992). Multiple fungicide 
resistance to benzimidazoles, dicarboximides and 



Pa
ge

 
31

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajlsi

Am. J. Life Sci. Innov. 3(2) 25-32, 2024

diethofencarb in field isolates of  Botrytis cinerea 
in Israel. Plant Pathology, 41(1), 41-46. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1365-3059.1992.tb02314.x.

El-Diasty, E. M., Ahmed, M. A., Okasha, N. A. G. W. A., 
Mansour, S. F., El-Dek, S. I., El-Khalek, H. M. A., 
& Youssif, M. H. (2013). Antifungal activity of  zinc 
oxide nanoparticles against dermatophytic lesions of  
cattle. Rom J Biophys, 23(3), 191-202. https://www.rjb.
ro/articles/378/Ahmed-f.

Fadlelmoula, A., Pinho, D., Carvalho, V. H., Catarino, S. 
O., & Minas, G. (2022). Fourier transform infrared 
(FTIR) spectroscopy to analyse human blood over the 
last 20 years: a review towards lab-on-a-chip devices. 
Micromachines, 13(2), 187. https://doi.org/10.3390/
mi13020187.

Gaikwad, S. S., Gandhi, A. C., Pandit, S. D., Pant, J., Chan, 
T. S., Cheng, C. L., ... & Wu, S. Y. (2014). Oxygen 
induced strained ZnO nanoparticles: an investigation 
of  Raman scattering and visible photoluminescence. 
Journal of  Materials Chemistry C, 2(35), 7264-7274. 
https://doi.org/10.1039/C4TC00566J.

Gupta, A. K., Williams, J. V., Zaman, M., & Singh, J. 
(2009). In vitro pharmacodynamic characteristics 
of  griseofulvin against dermatophyte isolates of  
Trichophyton tonsurans from tinea capitis patients. 
Medical mycology, 47(8), 796-801. https://doi.
org/10.3109/13693780802712523.

Hadi, F. A., & Kadhim, R. G. (2019, July). A study of  the 
effect of  nano zinc oxide on cure characteristics and 
mechanical properties of  rubber composites. Journal 
of  Physics: Conference Series, 1234(1), 012043. https://
doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1234/1/012043

He, Q., Yuan, Z., Zhang, J., Zhang, S., Zhang, W., Zou, 
Z., & Wang, H. (2017). Insight into the impact of  
ZnO nanoparticles on aerobic granular sludge under 
shock loading. Chemosphere, 173, 411-416. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.01.085.

Hu, L., Pan, H., Zhou, Y., & Zhang, M. (2011). Methods 
to improve lignin’s reactivity as a phenol substitute 
and as replacement for other phenolic compounds: 
A brief  review. BioResources, 6(3), 3515-3525. https://
doi.org/10.15376/BIORES.6.3.3515-3525.

Khaleel, A., Kapoor, P. N., & Klabunde, K. J. (1999). 
Nanocrystalline metal oxides as new adsorbents for 
air purification. Nanostructured Materials, 11(4), 459-
468. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0965-9773(99)00329-
3.

Khalil, K. A., Fouad, H., Elsarnagawy, T., & Almajhdi, 
F. N. (2013). Preparation and characterization of  
electrospun PLGA/silver composite nanofibers 
for biomedical applications. International journal of  
electrochemical science, 8(3), 3483-3493. https://doi.
org/10.1016/S1452-3981(23)14406-3.

Khan, M. I., Akhtar, S., Zafar, S., Shaheen, A., Khan, M. 
A., Luque, R., & ur Rehman, A. (2015). Removal of  
Congo red from aqueous solution by anion exchange 
membrane (EBTAC): adsorption kinetics and 
themodynamics. Materials, 8(7), 4147-4161. https://

doi.org/10.3390/ma8074147.
Khan, S. A., Shamsuzzaman, S. M., Rahman, A. K. M. 

S., Ashekin, N. A. K., Mahmud, R., Sharmin, R., ... 
& Haque, F. (2021). Isolation and Identification 
of  Dermatophytes Causing Dermatophytosis at a 
Tertiary Care Hospital in Bangladesh. Archives of  
Clinical and Biomedical Research, 5(3), 437-451. https://
doi.org/10.26502/acbr.50170178.

Liu, M., Sun, J., Sun, Y., Bock, C., & Chen, Q. (2009). 
Thickness-dependent mechanical properties 
of  polydimethylsiloxane membranes. Journal of  
micromechanics and microengineering, 19(3), 035028. 
https://doi.org/10.1088/0960-1317/19/3/035028.

Padmavathy, N., & Vijayaraghavan, R. (2008). Enhanced 
bioactivity of  ZnO nanoparticles—an antimicrobial 
study. Science and Technology of  Advanced Materials. 
https://doi.org/10.1088/1468-6996/9/3/035004

Plascencia‐Jatomea, M., Viniegra, G., Olayo, R., Castillo‐
Ortega, M. M., & Shirai, K. (2003). Effect of  chitosan 
and temperature on spore germination of  Aspergillus 
niger. Macromolecular Bioscience, 3(10), 582-586. https://
doi.org/10.1002/mabi.200350024.

Reddy, T. A., Maor, I., & Panjapornpon, C. (2007). 
Calibrating detailed building energy simulation 
programs with measured data—Part I: General 
methodology (RP-1051). Hvac&R Research, 13(2), 
221-241. https://doi.org/10.1080/10789669.2007.1
0390952.

Rodríguez, R. L., Rebar, D., & Fowler-Finn, K. D. (2013). 
The evolution and evolutionary consequences of  
social plasticity in mate preferences. Animal Behaviour, 
85(5), 1041-1047. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
anbehav.2013.01.006.

Vatsha, B., Tetyana, P., Shumbula, P. M., Ngila, J. C., 
Sikhwivhilu, L. M., & Moutloali, R. M. (2013). 
Effects of  precipitation temperature on nanoparticle 
surface area and antibacterial behaviour of  Mg (OH) 
2 and MgO nanoparticles. Journal of  Biomaterials and 
Nanobiotechnology, 4(04), 365. http://dx.doi.org/ 
10.4236/jbnb.2013.44046.

Wang, H. C., Hsieh, M. I., Choi, P. C., & Wu, C. J. (2018). 
Comparison of  the Sensititre YeastOne and CLSI 
M38-A2 microdilution methods in determining the 
activity of  amphotericin B, itraconazole, voriconazole, 
and posaconazole against Aspergillus species. Journal 
of  Clinical Microbiology, 56(10), 10-1128. https://doi.
org/10.1128/jcm.00780-18.

Wirunchit, S., Gansa, P., & Koetniyom, W. (2021). 
Synthesis of  ZnO nanoparticles by Ball-milling 
process for biological applications. Materials Today: 
Proceedings, 47, 3554-3559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matpr.2021.03.559.

Xie, Y., He, Y., Irwin, P. L., Jin, T., & Shi, X. (2011). 
Antibacterial activity and mechanism of  action of  
zinc oxide nanoparticles against Campylobacter jejuni. 
Applied and environmental microbiology, 77(7), 2325-2331. 
https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.02149-10.

Xiong, J., Lipsitz, O., Nasri, F., Lui, L. M., Gill, H., Phan, 



Pa
ge

 
32

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajlsi

Am. J. Life Sci. Innov. 3(2) 25-32, 2024

L., ... & McIntyre, R. S. (2020). Impact of  COVID-19 
pandemic on mental health in the general population: 
A systematic review. Journal of  affective disorders, 277, 
55-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.08.001.

Zhang, Y., Li, H. N., Li, C., Huang, C., Ali, H. M., Xu, 
X., ... & Said, Z. (2022). Nano-enhanced biolubricant 
in sustainable manufacturing: from processability to 

mechanisms. Friction, 10(6), 803-841. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s40544-022-0674-x.

Zili, Z., Sfar, S., & Fessi, H. (2005). Preparation 
and characterization of  poly-ɛ-caprolactone 
nanoparticles containing griseofulvin. International 
journal of  pharmaceutics, 294(1-2), 261-267. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2005.01.020.


