




































    

 American Journal of Medical and Physical Education 
Vol.6, Issue 6; November-December 2021; 

1252 Columbia Rd NW, Washington DC, United States 

https://topjournals.org/index.php/AJMPE; mail: topacademicjournals@gmail.com 

  

 

 

9 | A m e r i c a n  J o u r n a l  o f  M e d i c a l  a n d  P h y s i c a l  E d u c a t i o n  

|  https://topjournals.org/index.php/AJMPE 

AWARENESS OF PERFORMANCE-ENHANCING SUBSTANCES AMONG KENYA 

TEACHER TRAINEE ATHLETES 

 

 
1John David Smith and 2Jane Elizabeth Doe 
1University of Nairobi, Kenya. 
2Kenyatta University, Kenya 

 

Abstract: This paper reviews the literature on awareness of doping among athletes. The findings of previous 

studies are inconsistent, with some studies finding that athletes have a good understanding of doping, while others 

find that they have little or no awareness. The paper discusses the factors that may contribute to these different 

findings, such as the type of sport, the level of competition, and the culture of doping in the sport. The paper 

concludes by calling for more research on awareness of doping among athletes, in order to develop effective 

strategies to prevent doping. 

Keywords: Doping, Athletes, Awareness, Knowledge, Prevention, Education 

 

 

Introduction 

Various studies on awareness of doping have reported different findings.  Study by Ama et al., (2003) on African 

amateur footballers in Yaoundé, Cameroon investigated athletes’ use and awareness of lawful and unlawful 

substances. The results revealed that the footballers’ knowledge of doping was vague. They recommended that 

preventive activities and an epidemiological study on doping among the footballers be carried out. The study was 

restricted to only footballers and did not factor in athletes in other games and track and field events participants. 

The study by Koch (2002) presents athletes as knowingly participating in doping regardless of being aware of the 

drugs’ negative effects on health. 

In a self-report study on athletes’ attitude towards doping involving 446 athletes by Alaranta et al., (2006), 9% of 

the respondents believed that banned substances have performance effects while 30% of athletes agreed to have 

personally known an athlete who had doped and 35% of males and 25% of the females reported to personally 

know an athlete who was using banned drugs at the time of the study. Furthermore, 15% of the athletes noted 

they had been offered banned substances. A survey by Anshel and Russell (1997) of Australian athletes’ 

knowledge on PES reports that majority of respondents were of the opinion that use of PES is unethical and 

immoral hence unacceptable as a means of gaining a competitive advantage over opponents. 

A survey of 503 collegiate athletes and 154 body building athletes that aimed at measuring the extent of 

androgenic steroids (AS) abuse by Lubna et al., (2008) revealed that college athletes had no problems acquiring 

performance enhancing drugs as they knew where and how to get them. Both students and athletes noted that 

their friends and coaches were the major sources whereas the main reason for the use of PES was to improve 

mailto:topacademicjournals@gmail.com


    

 American Journal of Medical and Physical Education 
Vol.6, Issue 6; November-December 2021; 

1252 Columbia Rd NW, Washington DC, United States 

https://topjournals.org/index.php/AJMPE; mail: topacademicjournals@gmail.com 

  

 

 

10 | A m e r i c a n  J o u r n a l  o f  M e d i c a l  a n d  P h y s i c a l  E d u c a t i o n  

|  https://topjournals.org/index.php/AJMPE 

performance and physical appearance. The study recommended the need to implement educational programmes 

to create awareness and enlighten students and mentors about the negative side effects of ASS on the health of 

the user as the drugs were increasingly becoming a public health concern.   

Lack of awareness of anti-doping issues by athletes is equally presented in a study by Levent et al. (2005) where 

54 % of respondents acknowledged they were not fully aware of the full doping drug potential and effects.   

The study concluded that young athletes are likely to suffer most from health problems associated with the drugs 

as well as chances of being suspended from sports. 

A survey of 200 Scottish athletes by Dimeo et al., (2013 ) established that majority of athletes were not aware of 

the current WADA legislation where article eleven of the WADC states that sanctions such as loss of points and 

disqualification can be meted on a team if three or more teammates are proven to have violated antidoping 

regulations. To this effect Dimeo et al., (2013) recommended that awareness creation on the said legislation was 

needed because team sport athletes not aware of the consequences might promote anti-doping within their own 

team and since clean athletes would not want to feel cheated if they lose to a team found to have a number of 

doped participants. The study also showed that fear of being caught and shame that may befall the victim was the 

strongest factor preventing team athletes from considering use of PES.   

Effects of PES Use to an Athlete 

The broad objectives of the World Anti-Doping Agency is to protect the health of the athlete, ensure fairness in 

sports competition by ensuring level playing ground and safeguard the image of sport (WADA, 2015). However, 

despite the existing anti- doping regulations, cheating is still prevalent and increased fan violence has to some 

extent been attributed to the sale of alcohol and other recreational drugs at sports events (Insel & Roth, 2002). As 

noted by  Butcher and Weust ( 1999) over- emphasis on winning have detracted the value of sport and drawn 

many competitors to using illegal means of securing a trophy/medal or monetary rewards oblivion of effects of 

banned drugs on the athletes health and likely hood of getting banned from participation in competitions. In 

response to this declining sports ethics, sports governing bodies have sought to rectify the problem by imposing 

strict regulations (WADA, 2015).  

Doping effects are as complex as the methods of doping and no benefits of winning a competition would be worth 

to justify risks associated with the vice (Somerville & Lewis, 2005). Apart from the danger of being suspended 

or getting a life ban from sports competitions, other implications include physiological, psychological, social and 

ethical /moral effects.   

To ensure level playing ground, protect health of athlete and preserve the dignity of the sport, sports organizations 

such as IAAF, IOC, and WADA have listed banned substances and placed the onus of educating competitors on 

the implications of doping to local sports federations. However, despite the good intentions by WADA and sports 

organizations, PES use still persists in sports. Athletes are reported to use PES as they perceived the illicit drugs 

have positive impacts on athletics performance more than non-athletes. Such PES include anabolic androgenic 

steroids, amphetamines, human growth hormone/erythropoietin which they perceive would combat fatigue, 

relieve pain, and enhance injury recovery, increase strength and endurance among other perceived benefits.  As 

mailto:topacademicjournals@gmail.com


    

 American Journal of Medical and Physical Education 
Vol.6, Issue 6; November-December 2021; 

1252 Columbia Rd NW, Washington DC, United States 

https://topjournals.org/index.php/AJMPE; mail: topacademicjournals@gmail.com 

  

 

 

11 | A m e r i c a n  J o u r n a l  o f  M e d i c a l  a n d  P h y s i c a l  E d u c a t i o n  

|  https://topjournals.org/index.php/AJMPE 

reported by David, McDuff & David, (2005) athletes have also confessed to have used substances such as alcohol, 

cocaine, marijuana to ‘fit in’, boost self-confidence, escape problems and to have fun.   

Methods  

This study used the survey method whereby participants comprised of 422 randomly selected male and female 

teacher trainee athletes participating in national track and field athletics and ballgames managed by the Kenya 

Teachers Colleges Sports Association. Participants age ranged between18-21(164) years, 22-26 years (229) and 

those above 26 years (27). A self-administered questionnaire was used for data collection with a return rate of 

70%.  

Results  

Awareness of PES among College Athletes 

The question on whether selected substances could enhance performance in sports, showed mixed reactions from 

respondents. According to a majority, alcohol was deemed as not enhancing performance (81.8%), so was miraa 

(khat) (67.6%), caffeine (51.9%) and cocaine (55.5%). Alcohol has negative effects to sports performance unlike 

the miraa and caffeine that has a positive effect that would give an athlete an advantage over non users. Only 

marijuana (53.0%) and anabolic (56.4%) were deemed to have performance enhancing abilities by more than half 

the respondents.  

Table 1: Teacher trainee athletes’ responses to selected drugs/ substances effects to sports performance  

Substances/drug effects to 

performance  

No 

(%)  

Yes ( %)  

Alcohol   81.8  18.2  

Miraa   67.6  32.4  

Marijuana   47.0  53.0  

Caffeine   51.9  48.1  

Anabolic Steroids   43.6  56.4  

Cocaine   55.5  44.5  

  

The awareness of use of PES among the athletes was also assessed with items revolving around familiarity with 

the WADA anti-doping code, use of PES and the extent of the knowledge on use of PES as well as anti-doping 

code. As indicated in figure 1 combined majority (49.3%) of the college athletes agreed to have knowledge of the 

WADA anti-doping code compared to almost equal the number (43.3%) who disagreed or strongly disagreed to 

having any knowledge of the anti-doping code.   

mailto:topacademicjournals@gmail.com


    

 American Journal of Medical and Physical Education 
Vol.6, Issue 6; November-December 2021; 

1252 Columbia Rd NW, Washington DC, United States 

https://topjournals.org/index.php/AJMPE; mail: topacademicjournals@gmail.com 

  

 

 

12 | A m e r i c a n  J o u r n a l  o f  M e d i c a l  a n d  P h y s i c a l  E d u c a t i o n  

|  https://topjournals.org/index.php/AJMPE 

 
  

Figure 1: Familiarity with WADA code   

Further, the level of knowledge of the regulations outlined in the WADA code was ascertained with almost 

repeated frequencies with reference to the regulations of the code.   

As shown in figure 2, 48.1% agreed in various levels to have known the regulations whereas 42.7% did not have 

knowledge of the regulations of the code.   

 
Figure 2: Familiarity with WADA Regulations   

Figure 3 indicate there was a generally high level of agreement among the combined respondents (82%) that 

athletes should be tested for use of PES and drugs at all levels of competition. A similarly high number of the 

respondents (72.0%) were aware of the effects of use of PES and drugs while 80.0% noted their friends do not 

use enhancing substances and drugs. About 67.0 % of respondents did not know athletes using PES but about 

20.0% knew athletes who dope.  

  

  

  

  

mailto:topacademicjournals@gmail.com


    

 American Journal of Medical and Physical Education 
Vol.6, Issue 6; November-December 2021; 

1252 Columbia Rd NW, Washington DC, United States 

https://topjournals.org/index.php/AJMPE; mail: topacademicjournals@gmail.com 

  

 

 

13 | A m e r i c a n  J o u r n a l  o f  M e d i c a l  a n d  P h y s i c a l  E d u c a t i o n  

|  https://topjournals.org/index.php/AJMPE 

 
  

Figure 3: Athletes awareness of testing, effects and, use of PES   

A combined majority (58.0%) agreed to having learnt about PES and drugs as shown in figure 4.   

However, much as a majority agreed to having learnt about PES and drugs, less than half (36%) the respondents 

considered their knowledge PES use to be adequate. This was further reflected by the more than half (50.0 %) 

who alluded that they did not have regular education on anti-doping regulations.   

 
Figure 4: Athletes awareness/Anti-Doping Education  

Figure 5 indicate the knowledge teacher trainee athletes had about doping and use of PES was sourced by the 

majority from broadcast media such as Television (79.4%), radio (76.0%), newspapers (77.0%) and magazines 

(70.0%). The other important sources as indicated were friends (70.0%) and teachers or tutors (74.0%) at school 

or college (69.0%), seminars 48.0% and parents 50.0%.  As also captured in figure 5 less than half of the athletes 

reported having received information from seminars whereas a sheer half had known about doping and PES from 

parents yet these two sources could be the most credible source of such critical information.  

  

  

mailto:topacademicjournals@gmail.com


    

 American Journal of Medical and Physical Education 
Vol.6, Issue 6; November-December 2021; 

1252 Columbia Rd NW, Washington DC, United States 

https://topjournals.org/index.php/AJMPE; mail: topacademicjournals@gmail.com 

  

 

 

14 | A m e r i c a n  J o u r n a l  o f  M e d i c a l  a n d  P h y s i c a l  E d u c a t i o n  

|  https://topjournals.org/index.php/AJMPE 

 
  

Figure 5: Sources of awareness about use of P  

Table 1: Awareness of PES among College Athletes  

 Statement  Mean  Std.  

Deviation  

I am familiar with the world anti-doping code  3.01  1.393  

I personally know athletes/players who have used 

performanceenhancing substances/drugs  

2.24  1.228  

My friends use performance enhancing-substances/drugs  1.81  1.049  

I am familiar with anti-doping regulations  3.01  1.398  

I am regularly educated on anti-doping regulations regularly  2.84  1.383  

Athletes should be tested for performance 

enhancingsubstances/drugs at all levels of competition  

4.21  1.077  

I am aware of the effects of performance enhancing-

substances  

3.84  1.209  

  

Composite means were computed for the purpose of further statistical analysis and testing for differences between 

various groups. As indicated by ANOVA, there were statistically significant differences of awareness on the use 

of PES and drugs with regard to teacher trainees’ competitive experience, F (389) = 6.928, p= 0.0001. Further, a 

Scheffe post-hoc test established the source of difference between athletes who had participated at national 

competition once and those who had competed four times (p =0.0001); twice and four times (p =0.0001); thrice 

and four times (p =0.015), and four times and more than four times (p =0.006). ANOVA test also revealed 

statistically significant differences in awareness of PES among athletes playing different ballgames at F (314) 

=4.179, p =0.001. The difference was between those playing volleyball and basketball (p =0.023); volleyball and 

hockey (p =0.018).  

In addition, there were statistically significant mean awareness differences between male and female athletes, the 

latter having a higher mean (t (406) =5.718, p =0.005). By virtue of this indication, male athletes were more aware 

of use of PES/ drugs and the anti-doping regulations.  

  

mailto:topacademicjournals@gmail.com


    

 American Journal of Medical and Physical Education 
Vol.6, Issue 6; November-December 2021; 

1252 Columbia Rd NW, Washington DC, United States 

https://topjournals.org/index.php/AJMPE; mail: topacademicjournals@gmail.com 

  

 

 

15 | A m e r i c a n  J o u r n a l  o f  M e d i c a l  a n d  P h y s i c a l  E d u c a t i o n  

|  https://topjournals.org/index.php/AJMPE 

Discussion  

Almost half of the collegiate athletes (43.3%) were not aware of the existence of a WADC against 49.3% who 

knew about the existence of the same. Further, 42.7% were not aware of the regulations stipulated in the WADC 

regarding doping issues against 48.1 % who knew of the regulations.  This raises the question on whether an 

ignorant teacher can be trusted to guide young athletes to participate in ‘clean’ sports competition.   

But, as reported by Morente-Sanchez & Zabala, (2013) it is not unusual for an athlete to be familiar with anti-

doping rules but still display lack of knowledge. As indicated in Table 2, collegiate athletes displayed lack of 

awareness of the positive effects of miraa (khat) (67.6%) cocaine (55.5%), Marijuana (47%) caffeine (51.9%) to 

sports performance. With a majority of athletes observing that khat (miraa) could not enhance performance it is 

an indication that teacher trainee athletes lack awareness of doping and may be at risk of using PES unknowingly. 

The world anti-doping code (WADC) stipulates that an athlete who unknowingly tests positive for banned 

substance shall be guilty of the offense.    

Though majority of athletes (81.8%) knew alcohol is not an enhancer there were still 19.2 % who thought it could 

improve performance yet it can only impair performance. Although alcohol is not listed as banned substance by 

WADA, higher content levels in an athlete’s blood than the 0.10 g/l quantity allowed could lead to a ban. If an 

athlete involved in competition is under the influence of alcohol, safety of other participants is at risk. Kenya 

colleges’ athletes who reported alcohol as an enhancer probably were not aware that WADA has prohibited use 

of alcohol for particular sports including archery, air sports, automobile, karate, motorcycling, and power boating.  

Considering that a Kenyan boxer was banned during 2004 Athens Olympics for testing positive to cathine teacher 

trainees need to be educated so that they become informed PE and sports coaches to student athletes in both 

primary and secondary schools after graduating from college. This level of ignorance should be a wakeup call for 

the Kenya sports federations and National Olympic Committee of Kenya (NOCK) to enhance anti-doping 

campaign to athletes at all levels of competition. Even though more than half the respondents knew marijuana 

and steroids could enhance performance, a large number still were of the view that they had no effects. This is a 

worrying situation considering that Physical Education is a compulsory area of study where curriculum has anti-

doping content outlined for teaching yet some teacher trainees would display ignorance when they ought to have 

learnt of various substances effects.  

Athletes had acquired anti-doping information from various sources including television 79.0%, newspapers 

77.0%, radio 76.0%, magazines 70.0%, friends 70.0%, tutors/teachers 74.0%, and college/school 69.0%, seminars 

48.0% parents 50.0%.   

This indicates that not much has been learnt through seminars where credible anti-doping experts can be source 

of information. Parents were not rated highly yet some athletes are in age bracket whereby the influence of the 

parent could still be valuable and may be termed a more credible source of information. Perhaps the college 

athletes being young adults no longer consider parents as a source of information and prefer seeking information 

from friends.  This may indicate likelihood of peer influence likely at college level since students mix freely and 

are bound to share information regardless of whether it is correct or incorrect.  

mailto:topacademicjournals@gmail.com


    

 American Journal of Medical and Physical Education 
Vol.6, Issue 6; November-December 2021; 

1252 Columbia Rd NW, Washington DC, United States 

https://topjournals.org/index.php/AJMPE; mail: topacademicjournals@gmail.com 

  

 

 

16 | A m e r i c a n  J o u r n a l  o f  M e d i c a l  a n d  P h y s i c a l  E d u c a t i o n  

|  https://topjournals.org/index.php/AJMPE 

Some sources of anti-doping knowledge such as television are questionable as noted by Nowesielki and 

Swiatkowaska, (2007) that media sometimes broadcasts more for- than against doping in sports. Similar 

sentiments are expressed by Morrison, Kalin and Morrison (2004) that print media and television have been used 

to portray ‘ideal’ male body, which in turn may encourage use of PES by young athletes in order to get the ‘ideal’ 

body. Portray by media of high profile athletes who have used PES may equally encourage young athletes into 

the doping behaviour. It is imperative to underline that raising awareness has not always translated to change in 

behaviour. In this study athletes (58.0%) observed they had learnt about PES yet their awareness of effects of 

substance use in sport isn’t reflecting the same. This study also demonstrates that some college athletes had not 

received doping education since 40 % observed they had not learnt about doping hence to entrust such a teacher 

to the primary or secondary school athlete as a PE teacher or coach would not benefit upcoming young athletes 

as far as PES issues are concerned.  

Athletes training/competing under a coach ignorant of anti-doping regulations/substances may unknowingly 

ingest banned substances and as a coach may give young athletes banned substances to ingest. Though majority 

of respondents noted that their awareness of PES was sufficient there was a contradiction in that a large number 

reckoned they lacked adequate knowledge on anti-doping issues despite being consumers of teacher education 

curriculum. Further contradiction is noted in that majority cited they were not regularly educated on anti-doping.  

Similar contradictions are reported by Whitaker (2012) where majority of athletes noted they had been educated 

on banned substances yet they also admitted they would dope given an opportunity.   

Recently a number of upcoming young Kenyan athletes have failed dope test and banned for a period between 2- 

4 years (Ayumba A, 2015).  Probably if these athletes had been educated on anti-doping while in school, they 

would not have been caught up in the vice. However unless the teachers are better informed on anti-doping 

regulations young potential athletes  are likely to engage in doping vice either knowingly or unknowingly because 

they may graduate from school and probably get recruited into sports by local  and foreign coaches and managers 

who may  expose them to banned substances. Education on drugs and substance use in sports should start early 

before the teacher trainee is enrolled in college.  

Although a combined minority (8.0 %) knew friends who were using PES, this may point to the probability of 

peer influence. Similar observation is made by the anti doping report (Republic of Kenya, 2014) where 17.9% of 

357 respondents said they were using PES due to peer pressure. This could also be an indication that doping may 

be going on amongst college athletes. This may also have a bearing on the study report by NACADA, (2012) 

whereby respondents from post secondary institutions were using narcotics such as bhang and cocaine. 

NACADA, (2012) reports 9.3 % respondent in 18- 24 and 24-35 years age categories were using Khat (miraa). 

Kenya teachers colleges athletes fall under these age categories. The NACADA (2012) report further indicates 

that 2.0% of students were consuming khat (miraa). This is an indication that both teacher trainee and students 

may be in danger of using PES in sporting situations.  

Majority of college athletes (82.0%) noted that athletes should be tested for performance enhancing substance. A 

large number of athletes (94.3%) further concurred that testing for banned substances should be done at all levels 

of competition. These positive responses indicate the willingness by athletes to embrace clean sports and desire 

mailto:topacademicjournals@gmail.com


    

 American Journal of Medical and Physical Education 
Vol.6, Issue 6; November-December 2021; 

1252 Columbia Rd NW, Washington DC, United States 

https://topjournals.org/index.php/AJMPE; mail: topacademicjournals@gmail.com 

  

 

 

17 | A m e r i c a n  J o u r n a l  o f  M e d i c a l  a n d  P h y s i c a l  E d u c a t i o n  

|  https://topjournals.org/index.php/AJMPE 

for awareness on doping issues. The need for athletes testing for banned substance is also emphasized in the anti-

doping task force report (Republic of Kenya, 2014) where it is noted that education and awareness on antidoping 

regulations should be cascaded to the grass roots. Findings of this study tend to be in agreement anti doping 

studies in other countries. Lubna et al., (2008) reports Jordanian students and college athletes lacked awareness 

on doping, Feinberg (2009) reports on lack of awareness by polish athletes while Ama et al., (2003) has reported 

doping awareness by Cameroonian soccer players being vague and insufficient.    

This study had hoped that since Physical Education in Kenya Teacher trainee education course is a compulsory 

subject where the content on doping and substance use is outlined in the curriculum; there would be significant 

awareness on doping among the collegiate-athletes. Statistical analysis indicate differences in doping awareness 

between gender (t (406) =5.718, p =0.005). Some possible explanation for male athletes being more aware is that 

as reported by Kenya anti-doping taskforce (Republic of Kenya 2014), more male teams receive some doping 

information occasionally in seminars especially in soccer. Male athletes are probably more open in sharing 

information hence more male reported to be aware of doping issues.  

Female athletes lacked awareness compared to male athletes similar to Corbin et al., (2004) findings of USA 

College where male athletes were better informed than female athletes. Significant differences in doping 

awareness between male and female athletes have also been reported by Green and Uryasz (2001). But Crabbe 

(2001) posits although male athletes had received more education on doping in sports they were still five times 

more likely to drink alcohol than their female counterparts despite its negative effects on sports performance. This 

seems to point that awareness of banned substances may not necessarily translate to good practice. 

This study findings indicate significant differences in awareness among athletes with varying experience in 

national sports competitions F (389) =6.928, p=0, 0001.  The longer the athletes had participated in national 

competitions the higher the awareness. Differences were between athletes who had played for once and athletes 

who had played four times p = 0.0001, twice and four times p= 0.0001, thrice and four years p = 0.015 and tour 

and more than four times in competition p= 0.006. This may be an indication that an athlete who may not have 

been educated on antidoping at primary and secondary school level he/she was likely to gain some level of 

awareness over time as they get exposed to competitions at higher levels. Since coaches and sports federations 

rarely hold seminars to discuss doping with athletes (Republic of Kenya, 2014) it is possible for college athletes 

to have participated for some years without learning about banned substances. After all majority of athletes 

(71.1%) reported to have participated in out-of-school sports competitions before collegiate sports, suggesting 

they may not have received anti-doping information even then. Generally this study findings show that the longer 

an athlete had participated at national competitions the more informed they were regarding PES. However this 

awareness may have been attained from the friend and through the media (fig. 5)  

This notwithstanding,  the large number of athletes not fully informed on performance enhancing substance use 

in sport calls for an urgent need for collaboration by all stakeholders on the need to educate athletes on 

performance enhancing use in sports as most participants may be developing skills in readiness to taking sport as 

a career. The KTCSA would be expected to have instituted some form of forum where all participating athletes 

and sports personnel are inducted on the anti-doping code requirements and regulations well before the national 

mailto:topacademicjournals@gmail.com


    

 American Journal of Medical and Physical Education 
Vol.6, Issue 6; November-December 2021; 

1252 Columbia Rd NW, Washington DC, United States 

https://topjournals.org/index.php/AJMPE; mail: topacademicjournals@gmail.com 

  

 

 

18 | A m e r i c a n  J o u r n a l  o f  M e d i c a l  a n d  P h y s i c a l  E d u c a t i o n  

|  https://topjournals.org/index.php/AJMPE 

competitions. After all WADA expects that sports federations/associations would raise athletes’ awareness on 

anti-doping regulations.  

As reported by Republic of Kenya (2014) there are athletes who are supplied with doping substances by the 

coaches, athlete-team staff and their friends. These sentiments are expressed in other studies by and Lubna et al., 

(2008) Alaranta et al., (2006) where coaches supplied athletes with PES. A member of the USA Olympic team is 

reported to have been doped by the coach with steroids without consent thus destroying his immune system and 

eventually stopping his career (Haley, 2003), and so were the Russian Olympic athletes doped unknowingly 

Corbin et al., (2004). 

There is a call for strict measures to ban doping and to avail doping education to every sports participant regarding 

the need for honesty and hard work that would lead to success in performance without putting an individual at 

risk (Kumar & Joyti, 2013). Findings of this study seem to suggest that without proper information Kenya 

Teachers Colleges athletes on becoming PE and sports coaches may misguide or probably supply athletes in 

schools with doping substances. Teacher trainee athletes are expected/should graduate from college to be coaches 

of integrity and responsible in guiding and protecting young athletes from the negative effects of doping drugs 

and substances.  

There were significant differences in awareness among competitors in various ball games, F (314) = 4.179, p 

=0.001. Differences were specifically between athletes in volleyball and basketball p = 0.023, and between 

volleyball and hockey p= 0.018. According to the anti-doping task force report Republic of Kenya, (2014), hockey 

and volleyball players have reported use of banned substances while none is reported by basketball players. 

Players in the two games used miraa, bhang, alcohol which are mostly purchased from the open market. Players 

noted that no doping education or testing is carried out among players.   

Basketball players noted that there is a clause in their constitution on antidoping but no education structures to 

execute it. However some studies by Corbin et al., (2004), Nowesielski and Swistkowska, (2007) and Feinberg 

(2009), portray team sports players having more awareness of PES.  

Overall, findings of the study indicate Kenya teachers colleges athletes in 2015 KTCSA national sports 

competitions lacked awareness of banned substances in sports and may be at risk of contravening the anti-doping 

regulations in future.   

Recommendations 

This study only investigated the teacher trainee athletes who were participating at the national ballgames and 

athletics competitions which is only a small portion of teachers’ college’s student population whose responses 

may not suffice for all students who consume sports competitively or as a recreation. There is therefore the need 

to;  

• Investigate awareness, perception and attitude to PES use in sport by teacher trainees in general in order 

to establish whether findings of this study apply to them. This may also inform wider and far reaching strategies 

for the whole student population.   

• It is necessary to establish primary and secondary schools athletes’ awareness, and attitude to doping 

because they usually form the junior teams that represent Kenya at regional and international sports competitions. 

mailto:topacademicjournals@gmail.com


    

 American Journal of Medical and Physical Education 
Vol.6, Issue 6; November-December 2021; 

1252 Columbia Rd NW, Washington DC, United States 

https://topjournals.org/index.php/AJMPE; mail: topacademicjournals@gmail.com 

  

 

 

19 | A m e r i c a n  J o u r n a l  o f  M e d i c a l  a n d  P h y s i c a l  E d u c a t i o n  

|  https://topjournals.org/index.php/AJMPE 

Some of them may find their way to teachers colleges as trainees and may be participating in sports competitions 

hence the need for their awareness to be raised early. They may also have opportunities to grow in career as 

teachers and coaches in sports.   

• Coaches, trainers and team managers’ at the teacher-college level should be investigated for their level of 

doping knowledge. They play a crucial role in teaching, and coaching athletes for competitions and future careers 

in sports.   

• Evaluate the effectiveness of doping content taught in teacher training colleges in order to establish the 

college lecturers’ competence in imparting college trainees with knowledge and right attitudes on doping and 

whether the content is sufficiently taught. 

References 

Ama P, F.M., Betnga. B., Moor Ama,V.J., & Kamga,J. P. (2003). Football and doping: Study of African amateur 

footballers. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 37: 307- 310.  

Anshel, M. H., & Russell, K. G. (1997). Examining athletes’ attitudes toward using anabolic steroids and their 

knowledge of the possible effects. Journal of Drug Education, 27(2), 121-145.  

Ayumba, A. (2015) On, “Up and Coming runner Jeruto handed four-year ban for failing Drug Test”, Daily Nation 

Newspaper Publications. Saturday 3rd October 2015, Nairobi (pp.48).  

Corbin, B. C., Corbin, R. C., Welk, J. G., & Lindsey, R. (2004).Concepts of fitness and wellness: A comprehensive 

lifestyle approach. Boston: McGraw Hill.  

Crabbe. T, (2001). A sporting chance? Using sport to tackle drug use and crime.Drugs: Education, Prevention 

and Policy, 7(4): 381-391.doi:10.1080/de.7.4.381.391  

David. R, McDuff, M.D & David M.D.(2005). Substance use by athletes. A Sports Psychiatry  Perspective: Clinic 

Sports Medicine, 24:885-897  

Dimeo.p, Justine. A. Taylor. J.  Dixon. S &Leigh. R. (2013).Team dynamics and doping in sport. A risk or a 

protective factor? World Anti-Doping Agency. Target Research Scheme. University of Sterling School of 

Sport.  

Feinberg, J. M. (2009). College students’ perceptions of athletes who cheat: The role of performance and history. 

Journal of sports behavior.19 (4) 320-322.  

Green, G, & Uryasz, F.D,  (2001). NCAA study of substance use and abuse habits of College student-athletes. 

Clinic Journal of Sport Medicine 11: 51-56.  

Haey ,J. (2003). Performance enhancing drugs: At the issue. GeenHaven Press. New York  

mailto:topacademicjournals@gmail.com


    

 American Journal of Medical and Physical Education 
Vol.6, Issue 6; November-December 2021; 

1252 Columbia Rd NW, Washington DC, United States 

https://topjournals.org/index.php/AJMPE; mail: topacademicjournals@gmail.com 

  

 

 

20 | A m e r i c a n  J o u r n a l  o f  M e d i c a l  a n d  P h y s i c a l  E d u c a t i o n  

|  https://topjournals.org/index.php/AJMPE 

Insel, P.M., & Roth, W.T. (2002). Core concepts in health. Boston: McGraw Hill.   

Koch, J. J. (2002). Performance-enhancing substances and their use among adolescent athletes. American 

Academy of Pediatrics. 23:310-317.  

Kumar,N. & Jyoti, R.(2013). A Study of perception by university students towards doping in Haryana, India. 

Research Journal of Physical Education Sciences. 1 (1) 2-6.   

Levent. O, Naim.N, Ihsan. B, Okay.B, Haldun. S& Gunduz.T (2005). Doping and performance enhancing drug 

use in athletes living in Siva, Mid-Anatolia: A brief Report. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine (2005) 

4, 248-252.  

Morente-Sanchez,J.& Zabala, M. (2013). Doping in Sports: a review of elite athletes, beliefs, and knowledge. 

Journal of sports medicine: 43:6: 395-411.  

Morrison,T.G., Kalin,R., & Morrison, M. A (2004). Body-image evaluation and bodyimage investment among 

adolescents: A test of socio cultural and social comparison theories. Adolescence, 39, 571-592.  

NACADA (2012).Rapid Situational Assessment of the Status of Drug and Substance Abuse in Kenya. Nairobi. 

Kenya.  

Nowosielski K, S.,& Swiatkowska, L. (2007) .The knowledge, of the world antidoping code among Polish 

athletes and their attitude toward doping and antidoping policy. Journal of Human movement. 8 (1): 57-

64.  

Republic of Kenya (2014).Anti-Doping Taskforce Final Report. Ministry of Sports, Culture and Arts Department 

of Sports.  Nairobi.  

Sommerville, S. J., & Lewis, M. (2005). Accidental breaches of the doping regulations in Sport: is there a need 

to improve the education of the sports people? British journal of sports medicine. 39: 512-516.  

WADA. (2015). World Anti doing Code; Play True. World Anti-Doping Agency.  

Whitaker,L. (2012). Performance enhancement in sports: summary of the findings. Carnegie Research Institute. 

Leeds Metropolitan University. 

mailto:topacademicjournals@gmail.com

