




































    

 American Journal of Medical and Physical Education 
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EXPLORING THE DIFFERENCES IN THE PERCEPTIONS AND UNDERTAKING 

OF CORE RESPONSIBILITIES OF NATIONAL COACHING STANDARDS BY 

BEGINNER, INTERMEDIATE AND ELITE SPORT COACHES 
 

Michael J. Smith and Jennifer A. Jones 
University of Illinois at Chicago 

 
Abstract: Sport coaches play a vital role in the development of athletes, both on and off the field. However, the 

coaching profession is complex and evolving, and there is a lack of consistency in coaching requirements across 

sports. This can create confusion for coaches and athletes, and may lead to suboptimal coaching performance. 

Governing bodies should do everything possible to ensure that sport coaches receive high-quality education and 

training, so that they can be effective in their roles. 

Keywords: sport coaches, coaching education, coaching effectiveness, consistency, standards  

 

 

Introduction 
Sport coaches are important figures impactingathletes‟on- and off-field success, health, well-being and personal 
development (Eichner, 2018; Lauer & Dieffenbach, 2013; Roxas&Ridinger, 2016). Additionally, coaches often 
play critical roles such as mentor, parental figure, tactician and academic tutor (Davis, 2005).More recently, the 
coaching profession has evolved and developed into a more complex profession, in which their roles include more 
than the traditional responsibilities of directing practices, overseeing training and managing game personnel (e.g., 
Bush & Silk, 2010; Duffy et al., 2011; Gilbert &Trudel, 2004). Given the diverse nature of coaches‟ roles, their 
knowledge, skills and experiences have garnered considerable attention from sport organizations such as the 
Society of Health and Physical Educators (SHAPE America), the United States Olympic Committee (USOC), 
and the International Council for Coaching Excellence (ICCE). These organizations, among others, have been 
instrumental in the development of appropriate sport coaching standards. 
Despite the continued growth of the coaching profession and the on-going development and revisions to the 
National Standards for Sport Coaches (NSSC) in the United States, there are still important issues that remain 
unresolved in the areas of formal education, training opportunities and core responsibilities for sport coaches 
(Cushion et al., 2010; Duffy et al., 2011).   
One of the more prominent issues in this regard is the consistency of coaching requirements (e.g., education and 
qualification) across sports (Hedland, Fletcher, & Dahlin, 2018).While there are a multitude of coaching-related 
education and training resources (e.g., coaching certification, clinics, seminars, books, videos), the lack of 
consistent and formal coach education and training requirements may create confusion on what coaches need to 
know to become an effective coach. This is especially concerning, because previous research suggests that formal 
education and training programs have a more positive impact on both coaches and athletes compared to informal 
training (Fraser-Thomas &Côté, 2009). While coaches need to fulfill dynamic and evolving roles, it is also 
important to provide consistency in coaching performance as it pertains to goal setting, ethics, safety and 
inclusion. Furthermore, sport organizations may also havean additional burden ofdeveloping their own set of 
specialized standards and requirements in the absence of formal coach education or in the case there are, unique 
aspects of a sport not covered by traditional sport coaching education (Dawson & Phillips, 2013).Governing 
bodies should do everything possible to ensure sport coaches receive high quality education, and as a result, they 

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are effectivein the various roles and challenges they face. In sport coaching and education research, this is often 
described as coaching effectiveness. 
Côté and Gilbert (2009) define coaching effectiveness as “the consistent application of integrated professional, 
interpersonal, and intrapersonal knowledge to improve athletes‟ competence, confidence, connection, and 
character in specific coaching context” (p. 316). Coaching standards of practice can be utilized as aresource that 
can provide consistency to sport coaching education offerings and subsequently increase the knowledge and skills 
associated with coaching effectiveness. Many governing bodies in sports have created standards in which the 
knowledge and skills needed to be an effective coach are listed. 
Due to recent updates to the National Standards for Sport Coaches (NSSC) in the United States (SHAPE America, 
2019), the purpose of this research is two-fold. First, in order to understand whether or not the updated NSSC 
reflect core responsibilities sport coaches undertake, an examination of how frequently sport coaches use the 42 
national standards is reported. Second, sport coaches‟ perceptions of the 42 national standards and their 
relationship to being an effective coach is also displayed. Finally, prior research (Gilbert &Côté, 2013; Gilbert 
&Trudel, 2005) has consistently shown there are often differences between diverse levels of coaches (e.g., 
beginner, intermediate, elite). Because the NSSC are developed to guide the education and training of coaches at 
all levels, the results are all segmented and analyzed based on coaches self-perceived coaching level.  

National Standards for Sport Coaches    
From a brief, historical perspective as it relates to coaching standards in the United States, there have been 
substantial changes since the mid-1980s. The implementation of these changes was due in part to accommodate 
the ever-changing context in which coaches operate as it relates to education, practice and science (Bodey, 
Brylinsky, & Kuhlman, 2008). In 1984, a set of youth sport coaching standards were presented in a position paper 
published by the National Association of Sport and Physical Educators (NASPE). That version subsequently 
underwent a series of revisions, which were supported by over 150 sport governing bodies,and the result was the 
1995 National Standards for Athletic Coaches(NSAC). This versión consisted of eight domains and 37 coaching 
standardsspread across those domains. With the various sport stakeholders in mind (i.e., administrators, athletes, 
the public), another revision was undertaken and released in 2006 which led to the renaming of the standards to 
the National Standards for Sport Coaches (NSSC). The2006 version also contained eight domains but an 
additional three standards were added, bringing the total to 40 (NASPE, 2006). The NSSC are used to inform 
various stakeholders (i.e., coach educators, sport administrators, athletes) about the core responsibilities that 
coaches should possess in providing a quality experience for their athletes. Utilizing the notion of core 
responsibilities, the most recent revision, completed in 2019 and outlined inGano-Overway, Van Mullem, Long, 
Thompson, Benham, Bolger, Driska, Moreno, and Schuster (2020), consistsof a robust set of seven areas of core 
responsibilities for sport coachesand42 coaching standards (see Appendix). Whilethe NSSC were originally 
created to provide guidanceto coaches and related stakeholders, the latest revision creates a greater specification 
of those stakeholders (e.g., sport administrators, athletes and their families) and updated information about the 
knowledge and skills sport coaches should possess. Additionally, in the most recent NSSC,coaches can evaluate 
their own learning process in an effort to benchmark or improve their overall coaching effectiveness 
(GanoOverway et al., 2020).   
The updated NSSC are partly a response to the emergence of new issues inthe sport coaching profession (e.g., 
players‟health and wellness, concussion protocol, wearable technology, training methodologies, education, 
virtual coaching) and the development ofcompeting international coaching frameworks (e.g., European Coaching 
Framework, seeLara-Bercial et al., 2017).  
The seven core responsibilitiesof coaching and the respective number of standardsunder each of the those are: set 
vision, goals and standards for sport programs(Standards 1-5); engage in and support ethical practices (Standards 

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6-8); build relationships (Standards 9-11);  develop a safe sport environment(Standards 12-20); create a positive 
and inclusive sport environment (Standards 21-23); conduct practices and prepare for competition (Standards 24-
37); and strive for continuous improvements (Standards 38-42). Each of the 42 standards fit within a particular 
core responsibility, and each area of core responsibilities contains between three to 14 standards. The subsequent 
sections providesfurther details concerning the seven core responsibilities.  

Set vision, goals and standards for sport programs  
The managerial aspects of the coaching profession are on full display within the core responsibilities included in 
this area. Standards within this core responsibility include everything from developing a coaching philosophy to 
managing resources. These standards and responsibilities are in-line with Vallée and Bloom‟s (2005) notion of 
the program-building coach. Most importantly, program-building coaches possess strong organizational skills and 
have a vision for the program that unites the various groups of stakeholders, especially program administrators. 
Westfall (2020) found that even the most undesirable conditions within the coaching profession can beovercome 
by setting a clear vision.    

Engage in and support ethical practices 
There has been a tremendous amount of scholarly work (e.g., Agnew, Henderson, & Woods, 2017; Hardman, 
Jones, & Jones, 2010) regarding the establishment of a code of conduct; modeling, teaching and reinforcing 
ethical behavior; and helping others to develop ethical decision-making. For example, the ethical practices of 
coaches have garnered considerable attention with in the popular press and media. Constandt, De Waegeneer, and 
Willem (2018) found that coaches have considerable influence on ethical player behavior and this is further 
supported by a wealth of literature in this area (e.g., Burton, Welty Peachey, & Wells, 2017; DeSensi, & 
Rosenberg, 2010; Sagas & Wigley, 2014). In other words, it is incumbent upon sport coaches to both model and 
teach athletes how to be ethical in one‟s decision-making and choices.   

Build relationships 
Coaches are required to manage a number of relationships in their day-to-day work responsibilities. Beyond the 
relationship that must be developed with players, there are critical relationships that cannot be overlooked. For 
example, relationships with sport administrators, other coaches and staff, referees, parents and supporters, and the 
media all may be important to build. Moreover, Norris, Didymus, andKaiseler (2020) found that coaches should 
look to build connections which provide emotional and social support as these will come in handy during difficult 
times and serve to help alleviate burnout and increase psychological well-being.    

Develop a safe sport environment   
The safety and welfare of athletes of all ages is instrumental to the success of any sport organization. This set of 
responsibilities entails some of the most critical aspects within the coaching profession and includes standards 
related to injury prevention, nutrition, monitoring for signs of abuse or violent behavior, and adverse playing 
conditions. Diamond, Callahan, Chain, and Solomon (2016) found high rates of hazing from middle school to 
collegiate athletics with an overwhelming majority (80%) reporting it as an organized team function. Coaches 
have a responsibility of preventing such abuses and for being active participants in the development of policies 
and procedures. In the case of sexual abuse, Johnson, Hanna, and Novak (2020) emphasized the need to 
developmultiple policies, as only one policy is insufficient, and to put in place additional safety measures (e.g., 
education, awareness, monitoring) to help protect athletes. Whatman, Walters, and Schluter (2018) cited coaches 
„attitude to injury‟ as having a dramatic impact on the implementation of injury prevention strategies and the 
subsequent involvement of key stakeholders.From a mental health perspective, coaches are viewed as a facilitator 
of early symptom detection and a resource for directing athletes to seek out the proper care (Kroshus, Chrisman, 
Coppel, & Herring, 2019). 
 

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Create a positive and inclusive sport environment 
Coaches, administrators and all stakeholders within a sporting context maintain a duty to uphold an inclusive 
environment void of prejudice and other biases. Cunningham (2015) described sport as possessing a “change-
averse nature” (p. 44) and that certain areas within sport (e.g., intercollegiate athletics) suffer from a high degree 
of institutionalization. Cunningham also found, however, that individual agents and outside stakeholder groups 
are the most likely to undertake change.   
The coach, in this regard, has the ability to wield a tremendous amount of power to become a change agent to 
advocate for inclusivity in all aspects of a sport program. Magnanini (2017) noted that inclusive coaches are in a 
position to design programs that recognize and build upon the strengths of all athletes, regardless of ability and 
other demographic and socioeconomic characteristics.    

Conduct practices and prepare for competition  
The technical aspect of coaching entails a tremendous amount of preparation, education and training. Coaching 
education and development have long been some of the more highly assessed and scrutinized areas within the 
profession (e.g., Newman, Santos, Cardoso, & Pereira, 2020; Paquette, &Trudel, 2018). Stodter and Cushion 
(2019) found that there are various gaps in the theory and practice of coach educators which has led to confusion 
and inconsistencies in the profession. The facets of planning, teaching, assessing and adapting can involve 
tremendous challenges that coaches need to overcome. Involving all stakeholders in this process through the“it 
takes a village” mentality, is somewhat of a necessity to achieve success. The combination of the various technical 
aspects of coaching are evident in the standards outlined within this core responsibility and coaches must 
demonstrate the ability to plan, teach, assess and adapt (SHAPE America, 2019).  Westfall (2020) suggested that 
success in these technical aspects must be achieved even under the harshest conditions. As such, coaches must be 
wary of becoming overly tactical (e.g., Kinnerk, Harvey, MacDonncha, & Lyons, 2018) with regards to their 
responsibilities and incorporate positive coaching attributes such transformational leadership and fostering 
relationships with athletes.    

Strive for continuous improvement 
As coaches gain knowledge and experience, it isconceivable they desire to improve their skills and abilities, not 
just for the benefit of the various stakeholders assessing their performance but for themselves.Through this 
constant self-reflection, coaches must counter the notion of sport as being “changeaverse” (Cunningham, 
2015).Under stressful circumstances, like change or with other issues, reflection is an effective tool in the coach 
decision making process (Wharton &Roussi, 2015). Some of the various processes used to achieve the highest 
degree of self-reflection include journaling (Gilbert &Trudel, 2013), reflective conversation (Gilbert, 2017), and 
the development of a personal coaching narrative (Gearity, 2014). When examining the pursuit of mastery in 
coaching, Van Mullem and Dahlin (2017) found that progress in the area of reflection occurs away from the game. 
Consistent with Vallée and Bloom (2005), the process of self-reflection has a cyclical effect and also benefits the 
other six core responsibilities.   

Coaching Expertise and Context  
One of the primary questions regarding the NSSC,its seven core responsibilities and 42 standards, is the 
applicability to the various coaching expertise levels and contexts (Gano-Overway et al., 2020). Although the 
NSSC were designed to provide the fundamental guidelines for all coaching-related professionals, the knowledge 
and skills contained in the standards may be applied differently based expertise and context.Beginner coaches 
who are new to coaching or to coaching a particular sport, can benefit fromfoundational knowledge such as proper 
practice plans, effective team organization, administrative strategies, positive motivation techniques and ethical 
coaching behaviors (Murray, Schoenstedt, &Zwald, 2013). Intermediate coaches are characterized as the ones 
who gained some coaching experience but need additional knowledge and skills for a specific age group or sport. 

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For example, appropriate training materials for intermediate coaches may be those concerned with social 
development, complex organization skills, techniques for evaluating athletes, and creating developmentally 
appropriate training plans. Finally, elite coaches are those with significant coaching experience (e.g., 10 or more 
years). These coaches may have a wealth of practical and conceptual knowledge learned over time through 
reflection, engagement and experience (Culver &Trudel, 2008; Schempp, McCullick, & Mason, 2006). While 
elite coaches are more likely to be “innovators” by relying on applied knowledge, they can also benefit from 
newer information derived by evidence-based research and best practices. Specifically, sport organizations and 
governing bodies are recommended to utilize the NSSC by tailoring specific needs of coaches depending on their 
level of expertise.For instance, coaches at different stages of their career may have different approaches and 
philosophies as it relates to their coaching practices. Because most coaches do not spend their time developing 
philosophical beliefs earlier in their careers (Wilcox &Trudel, 1998), it is likely that beginner coaches‟ priorities 
are not centered around, for example, setting a vision, goals, and standards (see NSSC Standard 1). Elite or expert 
coaches, on the other hand, are more likely to have developed their coaching knowledge and philosophies over 
time through experience (Gilbert &Trudel, 2005), and subsequently, may have an increased understanding and 
use of the NSSC standards.  

Purpose of the Study   
The NSSC offers a robust list of core responsibilities and standards all sport coaches should learn about and be 
able to execute. To date, research regarding sport stakeholders‟ perceptions of the core responsibilities and 
standards within the NSSC is limited. While previous research on coaches‟ perceptions of coaching standardsis 
sparse (see Hedlund et al., 2018 as an exception), because the NSSC was updated in 2019, new research is 
warranted (Gano-Overway et al., 2020). In addition, to our knowledge, no prior research has segmented results 
based on the self-perceived level of coaches. Anecdotal evidence aside, at some levels of sport coaching, coaches 
and their organization may have sufficient resources to hire experts to manage and oversee specific aspects of 
their team and athletes (e.g., the hiring of dedicated athletic trainers, physical trainers, nutritionists, etc.). While 
this does not remove the responsibility or oversight, coaches still should understand basic principles and practices 
of specialized experts on their staff, while also recognizing it may be beyond the scope of responsibilities for 
sport coaches to undertake certain tasks. For example, depending on legal jurisdiction, in many states within the 
United States, it would be illegal, or at the very least ethically questionable for a sport coach or parent to have a 
minor continue playing in a competition after suffering head trauma (e.g., a concussion) through contact/collision 
(Kim & Connaughton, 2020). As a result, due to legal liabilities, coaches may not have certain responsibilities, 
however in many cases, they must understand the important issues and responsibilities of the people working 
around them. Based on the newly updated NSSC, it is first necessary to examine the frequency of respondents‟ 
use of the listed 42 core responsibilities. If behaviors under examination do not accurately reflect frequent 
behaviors of sport coaches, then alternative research questions might be warranted. Second, because coaching 
effectiveness is an abstract, complex and often multidimensional construct to measure (e.g., effective at winning 
championships, effective at developing talented players, effective at helping athletes to succeed in life), numerous 
researchers have instead measured the concept of being a successful coach (see Côté&Gilbert, 2009; Gilbert, 
Lichtenwaldt, Gilbert, Zelezny, &Côté, 2009; Horn, 2008; Jowett, 2017). As a result, the question: “In your 
opinion, in order to be a successful sport coach, how important is it to be able to use the knowledge and skills 
described in the standard?” was used to measure the perceived relationship between the standard and coaching 
effectiveness. Finally, because it remains largely unknown whether coaches‟ perceptions of the NSSC are 
associated with their self-perceived level of being a beginner, intermediate or elite coach (Trudel& Gilbert, 2013), 
when the analysis was undertaken, the results were segmented based on the three groups. 

Methodology 

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Participants and Procedures 
After receiving IRB approval to undertake this research, using Amazon‟s Mechanical Turk (MTurk) and offering 
approximately 40 cents per completed response, US-based coaches aged 18 and older from across the US were 
solicited for participation. In total, 1,982 respondents agreed to participate in this research. After filtering out 
ineligible (e.g., non-coaches, international coaches, under 18-year old coaches) participants at the outset of the 
electronic surveyand incomplete responses after all data were collected, 1,235 responses were subjected to 
analysis. In summary, coaches were 35.95% female, had an average age of 33.87 years old, and had an average 
of 6.06 years of coaching experience. In terms of their self-perceived coaching level, 29.2% were beginners, 
53.2% were intermediate, 17.6% were elite coaches. When asked at what level they primarily coach, the top five 
responses were youth/community sports (20.67%), college/university sports (16.75%), middle/junior high school 
sports (12.83%), elementary school sports (10.97%), and senior high school sports (10.09%). In terms of their 
role, 14.30% were full-time, paid head coaches, while 16.26% were full-time, paid assistant coaches, and 13.42% 
were volunteer coaches. When asked about their race, 53.28% indicated white/Caucasian, 13.32% 
black/AfricanAmerican, 11.36% Asian/Pacific Islander, and 6.95% Hispanic/Latinx. Finally, in terms of where 
respondents currently lived, 49 of 50 states, plus the District of Columbia, Guam and American Samoa all were 
represented in the sample, and the top five states represented were California (11.56%), Indiana (10.09%), Texas 
(9.50%), Florida (7.15%) and New York (6.37%).  

Instrumentation   
Due the online and monetary compensation provided to support the survey data collection, first, four filter 
questions were asked to receive respondent‟s agreement to participate, ensure minimal response bias, and check 
basic facts about each respondent. In order to move forward, respondents initially needed to agree to participate 
in the research. Next, because the NSSC is a US-specific document used by numerous governing bodies, 
respondents were asked to confirm they currently lived in the US or its territories.   
Subsequently, respondents were asked to confirm that they had had at any point in their life been a sport coach of 
any type or at any level. Finally, respondents were asked to confirm their age was currently 18 years old or older.  
If respondents responded in the affirmative to all four questions, then they were able to complete the online 
questionnaire. All others were thanked for their time and interest and disallowed to continue with the survey and 
blocked from further attempts at completing it.  
After entering the main portion of the online survey research, randomly selected blocks of questions about each 
of the 42 standards were posed to respondents. After first being shown the exact text of each randomly selected 
standard, respondents were then asked two questions about each standard. First,they were asked “In your role as 
a sport coach, how frequently do use the knowledge and skills described in Standard #?” A 7-point (1-7) scale 
with the ordered answer choices never, rarely, occasionally, sometimes, frequently, usually and all the time used. 
After answering the first question, the second question appeared and asked “In your opinion, in order to be a 
successful sport coach, how important is it to be able to use the knowledge and skills described in Standard #?” 
Again, a 7-point (1-7) scale was used with the ordered answer choices not at all, of little importance, slightly 
important, moderately important, very important, extremely importance and absolutely essential. The 42 
standards and each pair of questions and answer choices were randomly shown to all respondents. Finally, 
questions about respondents coaching experiences and demographics were posed to respondents before the survey 
concluded. On average, respondents took between 10-15 minutes to complete the survey.  

Data Analysis   
For this research, due to the large number of results (i.e., 84 results, each of which shows mean scores forthe three 
types of coaches [i.e., 252 group results in total are calculated]), analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to 
examine the differences between the three groups of coaches (beginner, intermediate and elite) for the results of 

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all 84 questions.  To simplify the reporting of the results, figures for different set of results from the core 
responsibilities are shown below.  In addition, accompanying each figure are the ANOVA results for each 
standard among the three groups.   

Results 
The five most frequently used core responsibilities overall were “Standard 12: Create a respectful and safe 
environment which is free from harassment and abuse” (mean = 5.30, standard deviation = 1.65), “Standard 06: 
Abide by the code of conduct within their coaching context” (mean = 5.23, standard deviation = 1.65), “Standard 
15: Monitor environmental conditions and modify participation as needed to ensure the health and safety of 
participants” (mean = 5.18, standard deviation = 1.58),  “Standard 30: Know the skills, elements of skill 
combinations and techniques, competition strategies and tactics, and the rules associated with the sport being 
coached” (mean = 5.16, standard deviation = 1.52), and “Standard 16: Reduce potential injuries by instituting 
safe and proper training principles and procedures” (mean = 5.12, standard deviation = 1.64).When examining 
the data trends and conducting ANOVA testing, 39 of 42 groups had statistically different results between the 
coaches. The three core responsibilities where statistically significant results were not found were “Standard 12: 
Create a respectful and safe environment which is free from harassment and abuse”(F[2, 1016] = 1.88, p is not 
significant), “Standard 15: Monitor environmental conditions and modify participation as needed to ensure the 
health and safety of participants”(F[2, 1016] = 0.23, p is not significant), and “Standard 16: Reduce potential 
injuries by instituting safe and proper training principles and procedures”(F[2, 1016] = 1.57, p is not significant). 
The five core responsibilities respondents felt were most importantare “Standard 12: Create a respectful and safe 
environment which is free from harassment and abuse” (mean = 5.40, standard deviation = 1.64), “Standard 17: 
Develop awareness of common injuries in sport and provide immediate and appropriate care within scope of 
practice” (mean = 5.30, standard deviation = 1.60), “Standard 16: Reduce potential injuries by instituting safe and 
proper training principles and procedures” (mean = 5.30, standard deviation = 1.59), “Standard 7: Model, teach 
and reinforce ethical behavior with program participants” (mean = 5.25, standard deviation = 1.57), and “Standard 
6: Abide by the code of conduct within their coaching context” (mean = 5.23, standard deviation = 1.59). After 
examining the trends of the data and conducting ANOVA testing, 36 of 42 groups had statistically different results 
between the three groups of coaches. The six core responsibilities where statistically significant results were not 
found included “Standard 6: Abide by the code of conduct within their coaching context” (F[2, 1016] = 1.25, p is 
not significant),“Standard 12: Create a respectful and safe environment which is free from harassment and 
abuse”(F[2, 1016] = 1.94, p is not significant), “Standard 14: Identify and mitigate physical, psychological and 
sociocultural conditions that predispose athletes to injuries” (F[2, 1016] = 1.08, p is not significant), “Standard 
15: Monitor environmental conditions and modify participation as needed to ensure the health and safety of 
participants” (F[2, 1016] = 1.79, p is not significant), “Standard 16:   
Reduce potential injuries by instituting safe and proper training principles and procedures” (F[2, 1016] = 1.92, p 
is not significant), and “Standard 21: Implement a positive and enjoyable sport climate based on best practices 
for psychosocial and motivational principles to maximize athlete and team well-being and performance” (F[2, 
1016] = 2.86, p is not significant).  
Table 1  Results for the Frequency of Use of Core Responsibilities Set Vision, Goals and Standards for Sport 

Program 5.50 

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Note: ANOVA Results:  Standard 01: (F[2, 1016] = 14.54, p<.001), Standard 02:  (F[2, 1016] =18.16, p<.001), 
Standard 03:  (F[2, 1016] = 9.75, p<.001), Standard 04:  (F[2, 1016] = 13.61, p<.001), Standard 05:  (F[2, 1016] 
= 7.34, p<.01)  
    

Table 2  Results for Frequency of Use  

Engage in and Support Ethical Practices 5.50 

 
  

Note:  ANOVA Results:  Standard 06: (F[2, 1016] = 3.42, p<.05), Standard 07:  (F[2, 1016] = 4.17, p<.05), 
Standard 08:(F[2, 1016] = 3.17, p<.05)  
    

Table 3  Results for Frequency of Use  

Build Relationships 5.50

 

Note:  ANOVA Results:  Standard 09:  (F[2, 1016] = 8.81, p<.001), Standard 10:  (F[2, 1016] = 8.02, p<.001), 
Standard 11:  (F[2, 1016] = 6.23, p<.01)  
Table 4  Results for Frequency of Use  

Develop a Safe Sport Environment 5.50 

4.30 

4.50 

4.70 

4.90  

5.10  

5.30  

Beginner Intermediate Elite  

Standard 01  

Standard 02  

Standard 03  

Standard 04  

Standard 05  

4.30  

4.50 

4.70 

4.90  

5.10  

5.30  

Beginner Intermediate Elite  

Standard 06  

Standard 07  

Standard 08  

4.30  
4.50 

4.70 

4.90  
5.10 

5.30  

Beginner Intermediate Elite  

Standard 09  

Standard 10  

Standard 11  

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Note:  ANOVA Results:  Standard 12:  (F[2, 1016] = 1.88, p is not significant), Standard 13:  (F[2, 1016] = 6.70, 
p<.01), Standard 14:  (F[2, 1016] = 3.07, p<.05), Standard 15:  (F[2, 1016] = 0.23, p is not significant), Standard  
16:  (F[2, 1016] = 1.57, p is not significant), Standard 17:  (F[2, 1016] = 4.70, p<.01), Standard 18:  (F[2, 1016] 
=  
4.60, p<.05), Standard 19:  (F[2, 1016] = 12.56, p<.001), Standard 20:(F[2, 1016] = 14.25, p<.001)   
Table 5 Results for Frequency of Use  

Create a Positive and Inclusive Sport Environment 5.50 

 
  

Note:  ANOVA Results:  Standard 21:  (F[2, 1016] = 3.68, p<.05), Standard 22:  (F[2, 1016] = 6.58, p<.01), 
Standard 23:  (F[2, 1016] = 16.82, p<.001)  
    

Table 6  Results for Frequency of Use  

Conduct 

Practices and 

Prepare for 

Competition 

- Planning 

Standard 24 

Standard 25 

Standard 26 

4.30  

4.50 

4.70 

4.90  

5.10 

5.30  

Beginner Intermediate Elite  

Standard 21  

Standard 22  

Standard 23  

4.30  
4.50  
4.70  
4.90  
5.10  
5.30  
5.50  

Beginner Intermediate Elite Standard 28  

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Standard 27 

Note:  ANOVA Results:  Standard 24:  (F[2, 1016] = 18.56, p<.001), Standard 25:  (F[2, 1016] = 11.86, p<.001), 
Standard 26:  (F[2, 1016] = 12.75, p<.001), Standard 27:  (F[2, 1016] = 13.84, p<.001), Standard 28:  (F[2, 1016] 
= 8.19, p<.001), Standard 29:  (F[2, 1016] = 8.28, p<.001)  
    

Table 7  Results for Frequency of Use  

Conduct Practices and Prepare for Competition - Teaching 5.50 

 
  

Note:  ANOVA Results:  Standard 30: (F[2, 1016] = 3.61, p<.05), Standard 31: (F[2, 1016] = 10.03, p<.001), 
Standard 32:  (F[2, 1016] = 7.21, p<.01), Standard 33:  (F[2, 1016] = 9.42, p<.001)     
Table 8 Results for Frequency of Use  

Conduct Practices and Prepare for Competition - Assessing and Adapting 5.50 

 
  

Note:  ANOVA Results:  Standard 34:  (F[2, 1016] = 7.07, p<.01), Standard 35:  (F[2, 1016] = 12.99, p<.001), 
Standard 36: (F[2, 1016] = 14.77, p<.001), Standard 37:  (F[2, 1016] = 10.07, p<.001)    
Table 9 Results for Frequency of Use  

4.30  

4.50 

4.70 

4.90 

5.10 

5.30  

Beginner Intermediate Elite  

Standard 30  

Standard 31  

Standard 32  

Standard 33  

4.30 

4.50  

4.70 

4.90 

5.10 

5.30  

Beginner Intermediate Elite  

Standard 34  

Standard 35  

Standard 36  

Standard 37  

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Strive for Continuous Improvement 5.50

 

  

Note:  ANOVA Results:  Standard 38:  (F[2, 1016] = 14.41, p<.001), Standard 39:  (F[2, 1016] = 14.45, p<.001), 
Standard 40: (F[2, 1016] = 10.63, p<.001), Standard 41:  (F[2, 1016] = 8.47, p<.001), Standard 42:  (F[2, 1016] 
= 5.73, p<.01)  
Table 10 Results for the Importance to Successful Coaching of the Following Standards   

Set Vision, Goals and Standards for Sport Program 5.70 

 
  

Note:  ANOVA Results:  Standard 01:  (F[2, 1016] = 12.72, p<.001), Standard 02:  (F[2, 1016] = 12.65, p<.001), 
Standard 03:  (F[2, 1016] = 12.77, p<.001), Standard 04:  (F[2, 1016] = 5.95, p<.01), Standard 05:  (F[2, 1016] = 
9.03, p<.001)    

Table 11 Results for the Importance to Successful Coaching of the Following Standards  

Engage in and Support Ethical Practices 5.70 

 

4.30 

4.50 

4.70 

4.90  

5.10  

5.30  

Beginner Intermediate Elite  

Standard 38  

Standard 39  

Standard 40  

Standard 41  

Standard 42  

4.50 

4.70 

4.90 

5.10  

5.30  

5.50  

Beginner Intermediate Elite  

Standard 01  

Standard 02  

Standard 03  

Standard 04  

Standard 05  

4.50  

4.70 

4.90 

5.10  

5.30  

5.50  

Beginner Intermediate Elite  

Standard 06  

Standard 07  

Standard 08  

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Note:  ANOVA Results:  Standard 06:  (F[2, 1016] = 1.25, p is not significant), Standard 07:  (F[2, 1016] = 3.20, 
p<.05), Standard 08:  (F[2, 1016] = 5.37, p<.01)     
Table 12 Results for the Importance to Successful Coaching of the Following Standards  

Build Relationships 
5.70 

 
Standard 11:  (F[2, 1016] = 6.50, p<.01)  
Table 13 Results for the Importance to Successful Coaching of the Following Standards  

Develop a Safe Sport Environment 5.70 

 
  

Note:  ANOVA Results:  Standard 12:  (F[2, 1016] = 1.94, p is not significant), Standard 13:  (F[2, 1016] = 3.97, 
p<.05), Standard 14:  (F[2, 1016] = 1.08, p is not significant), Standard 15:  (F[2, 1016] = 1.79, p is not significant), 
Standard 16:  (F[2, 1016] = 1.92, p is not significant), Standard 17:  (F[2, 1016] = 4.02, p<.05), Standard 18:  (F[2, 
1016] = 3.21, p<.05), Standard 19:  (F[2, 1016] = 7.38, p<.01), Standard 20:  (F[2, 1016] = 6.48, p<.01)   
Table 14 Results for the Importance to Successful Coaching of the Following Standards  

Create a Positive and Inclusive Sport Environment 5.70 

  
Note:  ANOVA Results:  Standard 09:  (F[2, 1016] = 7.75, p<.001), Standard 10:  (F[2, 1016] = 6.19, p<.0 1) ,  

4.50  

4.70  

4.90 

5.10 

5.30 

5.50  

Beginner Intermediate Elite 

Standard 09  

Standard 10  

Standard 11  

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Note:  ANOVA Results:  Standard 21:  (F[2, 1016] = 2.86, p is not significant), Standard 22:  (F[2, 1016] = 3.27, 
p<.05), Standard 23:  (F[2, 1016] = 9.37, p<.001)   
Table 15 Results for the Importance to Successful Coaching of the Following Standards  

Conduct 

Practices and 

Prepare for 

Competition 

- Planning 

Standard 24 

Standard 25 

Standard 26 

Standard 27 

Note:  ANOVA Results:  Standard 24:  (F[2, 1016] = 14.58, p<.001), Standard 25:  (F[2, 1016] = 11.93, p<.001), 
Standard 26:  (F[2, 1016] = 9.31, p<.001), Standard 27:  (F[2, 1016] = 3.47, p<.05), Standard 28:  (F[2, 1016] = , 
p<.001), Standard 29:  (F[2, 1016] = 11.09, p<.001)  

Table 16 Results for the Importance to Successful Coaching of the Following Standards  

Conduct Practices and Prepare for Competition - Teaching 5.70 

 
  

Note:  ANOVA Results:  Standard 30:  (F[2, 1016] = 7.68, p<.001), Standard 31:  (F[2, 1016] = 11.70, p<.001), 
Standard 32:  (F[2, 1016] = 10.83, p<.001), Standard 33:  (F[2, 1016] = 9.28, p<.001)    
Table 17 Results for the Importance to Successful Coaching of the Following Standards  

Conduct Practices and Prepare for Competition - Assessing and Adapting 5.70 

4.50  
4.70 

4.90 

5.10  
5.30 

5.50  

Beginner Intermediate Elite  

Standard 21  

Standard 22  

Standard 23  

4.50  

4.70 

4.90 

5.10 

5.30 

5.50  

Beginner Intermediate Elite  

Standard 30  

Standard 31  

Standard 32  

Standard 33  

4.50  
4.70  
4.90  
5.10  
5.30  
5.50  
5.70  

Beginner Intermediate Elite Standard 28  

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Note:  ANOVA Results:  Standard 34:  (F[2, 1016] = 9.01, p<.001), Standard 35:  (F[2, 1016] = 6.63, p<.01), 
Standard 36:  (F[2, 1016] = 4.52, p<.05), Standard 37:  (F[2, 1016] = 4.47, p<.05)   
Table 18 Results for the Importance to Successful Coaching of the Following Standards  

Strive for Continuous Improvement 5.70

 

Note:  ANOVA Results:  Standard 38:  (F[2, 1016] = 8.69, p<.001), Standard 39:  (F[2, 1016] = 12.05, p<.001), 
Standard 40:  (F[2, 1016] = 11.00, p<.001), Standard 41:  (F[2, 1016] = 7.26, p<.01), Standard 42:(F[2, 1016] = 
7.50, p<.01) 

Discussion     
In 2019, the National Standards for Sport Coaches were revised for a third time since their initial creation in 1984. 
In the newly revised standards, “the core responsibilities, underlying knowledge, and professional, interpersonal, 
and intrapersonal skills coaches need to create quality sport experiences for athletes” (GanoOverway, 2019, para. 
3) were created and updated to demonstrate what sport coaches need to know and understand in various areas 
often under their charge. At the same time, there has been a recognition that different types of coaches at different 
levels and within different types of organizations all may have diverse perspectives, roles and responsibilities. As 
a result, the current research attempts to identify some of these areas of similarity and differences, while at the 
same time, providing and opportunity to evaluate and understand the relevance and importance of knowledge and 
information such as a list of national standards and core responsibilities of sport coaches.  
 In this research, for 39 of 42 standards, there were differences found between in the frequency of use of each 
standard among beginner, intermediate and elite coaches. In all of these cases, higher level coaches more 
frequently used most standards when compared to those with less expertise and experience. However, the three 
cases in which there were no statistically significant differences among all three groups of coaches share an 
interesting connection, in that all are part of the section of the standards labelled as “Developing a Safe Sporting 
Environment.” In other words, regardless of any differences, sport coaches‟ frequency of behaviors in terms of 

4.50  

4.70 

4.90 

5.10 

5.30 

5.50  

Beginner Intermediate Elite  

Standard 34  

Standard 35  

Standard 36  

Standard 37  

4.50 

4.70 

4.90 

5.10  

5.30  

5.50  

Beginner Intermediate Elite  

Standard 38  

Standard 39  

Standard 40  

Standard 41  

Standard 42  

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“Standard 12: Create a respectful and safe environment which is free from harassment and abuse,”“Standard 15: 
Monitor environmental conditions and modify participation as needed to ensure the health and safety of 
participants, and “Standard 16: Reduce potential injuries by instituting safe and proper training principles and 
procedures” indicate there is a similarity ofunderstanding among all types of coaches aboutthe ideas engendered 
in these standards. While the media often portrays sport coaches, especially elite professional ones as focused and 
caring more about winning than and their players‟ health and safety, these results suggest that coaches across the 
board are indeed aware of and engage in behaviors focused on ensuring respect and safety within the sporting 
environment in similar ways.    
In terms of success, effective coaching and their relationship to the national standards, while again, there are 
differences found between beginner, intermediate and elite sport coaches, in six areas, those perceptions are found 
to be similar. In these results, one area where perceptions are similar is in “Engaging in and Supporting Ethical 
Practices,” four stem from “Developing a Safe Sport Environment,” and one is based in “Creating a Positive and 
Inclusive Sport Environment.” Each of these three areas focus not about the skills one is coaching, but instead 
how coaches create a positive and ethical environment in which their players can practice, compete and develop 
the skills necessary to be a better player and person. Specifically, the six areas where differences between the 
three groups of coaches were not found included “Standard 6: Abide by the code of conduct within their coaching 
context,” “Standard 12: Create a respectful and safe environment which is free from harassment and abuse,” 
“Standard 14: Identify and mitigate physical, psychological and sociocultural conditions that predispose athletes 
to injuries,” “Standard 15: Monitor environmental conditions and modify participation as needed to ensure the 
health and safety of participants,” “Standard 16: Reduce potential injuries by instituting safe and proper training 
principles and procedures,” and “Standard 21: Implement a positive and enjoyable sport climate based on best 
practices for psychosocial and motivational principles to maximize athlete and team wellbeing and performance.” 
While a similar phenomenon can be seen in these results compared to the earlier ones, in that the health and safety 
of athletes are important, in these cases, a second group of standards related to creating an ethical, respectful, 
positive and enjoyable environment is perceived as something that all types of coaches similarly note are 
important when it comes to being successful and effective.  

Conclusion, Implications and Future Research  
In this research, the frequency of the use and the importance, relative to being a successful coach, of 42 core sport 
coaching core responsibilities were examined.  Both sets of results were segmented based on respondents‟ self-
perceived beginner, intermediate or elite level of coaching. The results indicated that while there are statistically 
significant differences in many areas and levels of coaching, there are several areas where similarities are about, 
notably in areas focused the safety, health and wellness of athletes as well as fostering environments in which 
ethics, respect, and having positive and enjoyable experiences are important.  One of the largest resulting 
takeaways, therefore, is that one of the main ways in which all types of coaches both behave and think similarly 
is through focusing energies on how they coach, the environment they create and an athlete‟s wellness first focus.    
Standards established for coaches have long served the profession and have guided the path of many beginner, 
intermediate and elite coaches alike. Based on the results of this particular study, it is important to continually 
reassess and amend the standards underpinning how coaches perform their job responsibilities. The dynamic 
nature of the coaching profession and the significant role of a coach has served as a reminder of the necessity to 
adapt to the needs of athletes and the myriad stakeholders involved in the administration of sport. While the main 
purpose of this study was to discern the frequency of use and importance of the 42 core responsibilities listed in 
the NSSC for various levels of coaches, the implications are far reaching.   
While there are numerous implications of this research, in brief, the findings from this study can be used to assist 
sport coaches, sport coaching educators, future task forces overseeing future revisions, and other stakeholders. 

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More importantly, sport coaches themselves may now have an enhanced level of confidence that if they maintain 
a good understanding of the principles and practices underlying the 42 core responsibilities, then the results 
support and reinforce the continued use of the NSSC standards in their present form and to maintain one‟s sport 
coaching readiness and facilitate life-long learning activities.   
Sport coaching educators can use these results to identify areas where sport coaching education may be lacking 
and additional activities are required to prepare coaches for these roles and responsibilities. In addition, the 
coaching standards taskforce (Gano-Overway et al., 2020) and other practitioner-based sport organizations can 
also use these results to examine how coaches self-report their use of the standards and apply them to their 
coaching responsibilities. 
In the future, sport coaches, sport coaching educators and the coaching standards task force will again undertake 
and attempt to improve the NSSC. The results of this research suggest some ways in which this process could be 
undertaken to examine the behaviors and perceptions sport coaches have of many of the core responsibilities they 
have. At the same time, future iterations of the NSSC might be wise to note that there are some areas of core 
responsibilities which are always important and should be ever-present in a coaches‟ mind, including the health, 
safety and wellness of athletes. At the same time, different types of coaches at different levels of coaching and 
those with different sets of coaching experiences may perceive different areas as important.  As a result, some 
areas of coaching education may have be more important than others, and coaches would then be well-advised to 
always take those areas into consideration and to attempt to improve and enhance their knowledge, skills and 
ability to be effective in those areas.     

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Appendix     National Standards for Sport Coaches (SHAPE America, 2019)  
Set Vision, Goals and Standards for Sport Program  
1. Develop and enact an athlete-centered coaching philosophy.  
2. Use long-term athlete development with the intent to develop athletic potential, enhance physical literacy, 
and encourage lifelong physical activity.  
3. Create a unified vision using strategic planning and goal-setting principles.  
4. Align program with all rules and regulations and needs of the community and individual athletes.  
5. Manage program resources in a responsible manner.  
Engage in and Support Ethical Practices  
6. Abide by the code of conduct within their coaching context.  
7. Model, teach and reinforce ethical behavior with program participants.  
8. Develop an ethical decision-making process based on ethical standards. 
Build Relationships  
9. Acquire and utilize interpersonal and communication skills.  
10. Develop competencies to work with a diverse group of individuals.  
11. Demonstrate professionalism and leadership with all stakeholders. 
Develop a Safe Sport Environment  
12. Create a respectful and safe environment which is free from harassment and abuse.  
13. Collaborate with program directors to fulfill all legal responsibilities and risk management procedures 
associated with coaching.  
14. Identify and mitigate physical, psychological and sociocultural conditions that predispose athletes to 
injuries.  
15. Monitor environmental conditions and modify participation as needed to ensure the health and safety of 
participants.  
16. Reduce potential injuries by instituting safe and proper training principles and procedures.  
17. Develop awareness of common injuries in sport and provide immediate and appropriate care within scope 
of practice.  
18. Support the decisions of sports medicine professionals to help athletes have a healthy return to 
participation following an injury.  
19. Model and encourage nutritional practices that ensure the health and safety of athletes.  
20. Provide accurate information about drugs and supplements to athletes and advocate for drug-free sport 
participation.  
Create a Positive and Inclusive Sport Environment  
21. Implement a positive and enjoyable sport climate based on best practices for psychosocial and 
motivational principles to maximize athlete and team well-being and performance.  
22. Build inclusive practices into the program for all groups (e.g., race/ethnicity, gender/gender 
identity/gender expression, religion, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation, nationality, etc.) which are aligned 
with current legal and ethical guidelines.  

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23. Understand the importance of including athletes with disabilities in meaningful participation in established 
sport programs and consider options for athletes who cannot participate in traditional sport opportunities. 
Conduct Practices and Prepare for Competition Plan  
24. Create seasonal and/or annual plans that incorporate developmentally appropriate progressions for 
instructing sport-specific skills based on best practices in motor development, biomechanics, and motor learning.  
25. Design appropriate progressions for improving sport-specific physiological systems throughout all phases 
of the sport season using essential principles of exercise physiology and nutritional knowledge.  
26. Plan practices to incorporate appropriate competition strategies, tactics and scouting information.  
27. Incorporate mental skills into practice and competition to enhance performance and athlete well-being.  
28. Create intentional strategies to develop life skills and promote their transfer to other life domains.  
29. Understand components of effective contest management. 
Teach  
30. Know the skills, elements of skill combinations and techniques, competition strategies and tactics, and the 
rules associated with the sport being coached.  
31. Develop and utilize pedagogical strategies in daily practices.  
32. Craft daily practice plans based on sound teaching and learning principles to promote athlete development 
and optimize competitive performance.  
33. Use appropriate motivational techniques to enhance performance and athlete engagement during practices 
and competitions.  
Assess  
34. Implement appropriate strategies for evaluating athlete training, development and performance.  
35. Engage athletes in a process of continuous self-assessment and reflection to foster responsibility for their 
own learning and development. 
Adapt  
36. Adjust training and competition plans based on athlete needs and assessment practices.  
37. Use strategic decision-making skills to make adjustments or improvements or change course throughout 
a competition. 
Strive for Continuous Improvement  
38. Regularly engage in self-reflection or peer-reflection to deeply examine situations, generate potential 
solutions, and think through those solutions.  
39. Develop an evaluation strategy to monitor and improve staff and team performance.  
40. Improve coaching effectiveness by seeking to learn the latest information on coaching through various 
avenues of coach development.  
41. Engage in mentoring and communities of practice to promote a learning culture and continual 
improvement.  
42. Maintain work-life harmony and practice self-care to manage stress and burnout. 

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