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American Journal of  Medical 
Science and Innovation (AJMSI) 

Therapeutic Effect of  N-Hexane Extract of  Zingiber Officinale (Ginger Oil) on
Loperamide Induced Constipation in Wistar Rats

Aver M. Yongu1, Sunday A. Ogli1*, George T. Ugbudu1, Moses T. Ashiekaa1

Volume 3 Issue 1, Year 2024
ISSN: 2836-8509 (Online)

DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajmsi.v3i1.2452
https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajmsi

Article Information ABSTRACT

Received: February 27, 2024
Accepted: March 29, 2024
Published: April 03, 2024

Constipation is a common gastrointestinal disorder that affects people of  different ages, but 
is more common in elderly females. The disease has negative impact on the quality of  life and 
can cause many complications including faecal incontinence, anal fissures, bowel perforation 
and bloating if  not treated. This research was carried out to investigate the effect of  
n-hexane extract of  Zingiber officinale (ginger oil [GO]) on loperamide-induced constipation 
in Wistar rats. Twenty four (24) Wistar rats of  both sexes were randomly separated into 6 
groups (n=4). Group 1 (control) received normal saline (NS) only, while groups 2 to 6 were 
treated with 4 mg/Kg/day loperamide. After 1 hour of  loperamide treatment, Groups 2, 
3, 4, 5 and 6 received 1 mL/kg/day NS, 100 mg/Kg/day GO (LDGO), 200 mg/Kg/day 
GO (MDGO), 400 mg/Kg/day GO (HDGO), and the standard drug bisacodyl (5 mg/Kg/
day). All drugs were administered orally. Daily faecal pellet counts, weight and water content 
were measured. Intestinal transit of  charcoal meal was determined while colon samples were 
harvested at sacrifice, homogenized and centrifuged. The supernatant was used to assay for 
SOD and MDA. Colonic tissue was also analyzed for histological changes. The result showed 
that, compared to control, loperamide significantly decreased the number, weight and water 
content of  faeces while GO significantly increased all these parameters in a dose dependent 
manner. Ginger oil also significantly increased intestinal transit ratio and the activity of  SOD 
but reduced MDA relative to loperamide + NS. Furthermore, histomorphology revealed 
that GO treatment increased the number of  mucus secreting goblet cells and the thickness 
of  the colon mucosa relative to Loperamide + NS treated rats. In conclusion, ginger oil 
ameliorated loperamide-induced constipation by increasing the faecal count, faecal water 
content and intestinal motility. Furthermore, GO showed protective effect on the colon 
through antioxidant activity while reducing lipid peroxidation and by also increasing the 
number of  goblet cells and the mucosa thickness of  the colon.

Keywords
Constipation, Intestinal Transit, 
Antioxidant, Zingiber Officinale

1 Department of  Physiology, Faculty of  Basic Medical Sciences, College of  Health Sciences, PMB 102119, Benue State University, 
  Makurdi, Nigeria
* Corresponding author’s e-mail: sogli41@gmail.com

INTRODUCTION 
The symptom or condition known as constipation is 
characterized by difficult and sporadic bowel motions, 
usually occurring three or less times each week. It is 
one of  the most prevalent gastrointestinal issues in the 
western nations and frequently results in a patient being 
referred to gastroenterologists and colorectal surgeons. 
Constipation is a common ailment that is sometimes 
overlooked until the patient experiences after effects, 
such as anorectal problems (Peery et al., 2019; Bharucha 
et al., 2020). Various laxatives stool softeners as well 
as secretagogue and prokinetic drugs are used in the 
treatment of  constipation (Sharma & Rao, 2017).
Unfortunately, these drugs/therapies may produce 
adverse reactions such as diarrhoea, abdominal pain, 
nausea, abdominal discomfort, flatulence and headache 
etc. Treatment with traditional elements like extra-
virgin olive oil, coconut oil, sweet almond oil and ginger 
aqueous extract have been shown to alleviate symptoms 
of  constipation (Faghihi et al., 2021; Abidi et al., 2022; 
Faghihi et al., 2022). This necessitated this study on 
the therapeutic effect of  n-hexane extract of  zingiber 
officinale (ginger oil) on loperamide induced constipation 
in Wistar rats. 

LITERATURE REVIEW
Constipation has a negative impact on the quality of  
life and can cause many complications including faecal 
incontinence, anal fissures, bowel perforation and 
bloating if  not treated (Tvistholm et al., 2017). Low fibre 
intake, inactivity, decreased thirst sensation, low fluid 
intake, electrolyte disturbances, endocrine and metabolic 
disorders, neurological disorders, psychological disorders 
and medications (such as calcium channel blockers, opiate 
analgesic etc.) are implicated in constipation. Other causes 
of  constipation include the use of  organic compounds 
such as morphine, stress, nutritional disorders, secretory 
dysfunction, gastrointestinal motility dysfunction and 
alterations in gastrointestinal innervation (Park et al., 
2016; Adeniyi et al., 2020; Diaz et al., 2023). 
Various laxatives stool softeners as well as secretagogue 
and prokinetic drugs are used in the treatment of  
constipation (Sharma & Rao, 2017). There are issues 
of  strong drug dependence, high recurrence rate, and 
high cost with the orthodox treatments which limit their 
application in individuals suffering from constipation. 
In addition, these drugs/therapies may produce adverse 
reactions such as diarrhoea, abdominal pain, nausea, 
abdominal discomfort, flatulence and headache etc. 



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studies have shown that treatment with traditional 
elements like extra-virgin olive oil, coconut oil, sweet 
almond oil and ginger aqueous extract have been shown 
to alleviate symptoms of  constipation (Faghihi et al., 
2021; Abidi et al., 2022; Faghihi et al., 2022).
Zingiber officinale belongs to the Zinberaceae family is a 
medicinal plant that has been widely used all over the 
world for various purposes. The plant is indigenous 
to warm tropical climates, particularly south eastern 
Asia. As a result of  its pungency, aroma, nutrients and 
pharmacological activities and neglible side effects, it 
is now widely cultivated in many countries like India, 
Nigeria, Jamaica, Mexico, Greece, and Hawaii (Kiyama, 
2020; Mohammed et al., 2022). The plant is widely used 
for variety of  purposes. A review of  the medicinal uses of  
ginger in health include blood pressure reduction (Hasani 
et al., 2019), as a potent antioxidant (Zhang et al., 2022), 
hepatoprotective effect (Chuljerm et al., 2018), prevention 
and treatment of  nausea and vomiting in pregnancy and 
after chemotherapy (Palatty et al., 2013; Chrichton et al., 
2019), prevention of  neurodegenerative diseases (Arcusa 
et al., 2022), management of  inflammatory diseases such 
as Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis, rheumatoid arthritis 
and Lupus erythematosus (Ballester et al., 2022), reduction 
in blood sugar levels (Hajimoosayi et al., 2020), as well as 
pain reducing effect (Rondanelli et al., 2020).
One of  the forms of  ginger preparation is ginger oil. 
The health benefits of  ginger essential oil are identical 
to the medicinal health benefits of  fresh ginger; in 
fact, the essential oil is stated as the most potent form 
of  ginger (Ugbabe et al., 2019). Ginger oil was found 
to improve appetite and symptoms of  anxiety, fatigue, 
nausea in cancer patients (Williams et al., 2022). Ginger 
oil is also used to relieve stomach ache (Liju et al., 2015) 
and also found to be effective against rheumatic disease 
(Barão Paixão & Freire de Carvalho, 2021). Ginger oil 
is an excellent dietary source of  fibre, vitamin E (alpha 
tocopherol), vitamin B6, iron, manganese, potassium and 
selenium (IMARC, 2023). Ginger rhizomes are a good 
source of  fatty oils (3-6%), proteins (9%), carbohydrates 
(60-70%), crude fiber (3-8%), ash (8%), water (9-12%), 
and volatile oil (2-3%) (Mbaveng & Kuete, 2017). 
In this study, a rat model of  constipation was established 
by oral administration of  loperamide. The therapeutic 
effects of  n- hexane extract of  ginger on constipation 
were investigated. 

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Animal Procurement and Care
Twenty four (24) Wistar rats of  190g mean weight were 
purchased from the Animal House College of  Health 
Sciences, Benue State University, Makurdi. They were 
housed in the same facility, under an environmental 
temperature of  23 ± 2oC; humidity, 55 ± 15% and 12 h 
light/dark cycle. The rats were kept in wire-meshed cages 
for two weeks to allow for acclimatization before onset 
of  the research, during which period they were fed with 
a standard rat chow (Vital feeds, Grand Cereals LTD, Jos, 

Plateau State, Nigeria) and water ad libitum and handled 
according to international guidelines for animal care 
(Simmonds, 2018).
Fresh Zingiber officinale rhizome (ginger root) was obtained 
from Wurukum Market, Makurdi, Benue State and 
certified by the botanist at Botany Department of  Benue 
State University Makurdi. 

Treatment Preparation and Administration
Ginger oil was prepared from mature ginger rhizomes 
by maceration method using n-hexane as solvent for the 
extraction according the method described by Srivastava 
et al. (2021). Constipation was induced with loperamide 
(LP) at a dosage of  4mg/kg/day (Adeniyi et al., 2020).
Three groups from the constipated animal models were 
given n-hexane extract of  ginger (ginger oil) at various 
doses after one 1 hour of  pre-treatment with loperamide 
(Lim et al., 2019). The protocol for treatment was as 
follows:

• Group 1(control): oral administration of  1ml 
physiological saline

• Group 2: oral intake of  1ml physiological saline with 
loperamide at 4mg/kgbw daily

• Group 3: oral 100mg/kgBw ginger oil (GO) and 
4mg/kgBw loperamide daily

Group 4: oral GO at 200mg/kgBw and 4mg/kgBw 
loperamide daily

• Group 5: oral GO at 400mg/kgBw and 4mg/kgBw 
loperamide daily

• Group 6: oral bisacodyl at 5mg/kgBw and 4mg/
kgBw loperamide daily
Animals were weighed daily before treatment throughout 
the study. Faecal pellets were collected from each animal 
daily, weighed to obtain the wet weight, then air dryed for 
7 days and re-weighed to obtain the dry weight. The water 
content of  the faecal pellets was thereafter estimated 
according to Lim et al (2019) as follows;
Faecal Water Content  (%)=[(wet weight of  feces -dry 
weight of  feces)g]/Wet weight x100

Specimen and Analysis/Examination
The animals were fasted overnight after the treatment 
and each animal given their treatment accordingly. 
Thereafter, they were fed with charcoal meal at 1ml orally 
and sacrificed by cervical dislocation 30minuts later. The 
intestines were harvested for determination of  intestinal 
transit of  the charcoal meal (Choi et al., 2014) using the 
calculation; 
Charcoal transit ratio (%) = [total distance traveled by 
charcoal meal/total small intestine length] × 100.
Colonic samples were collected into various sterile bottles 
containing physiological saline and 10% formaldehyde. 
The tissue samples in the phosphate buffer were stored 
at less than 4°C.

Superoxide Dismutase (SOD)
Level in the colon homogenates was determined by 
spectrophotometry method based on the inhibition 



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of  the reduction of  nitroblue tetrazolium (NBT). 
Tissue supernatant was mixed with 0.1 mol/L of  
ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), 0.15 mg/mL 
of  sodium cyanide, 1.5 mmol/L of  NBT, 0.12 mmol/L 
of  riboflavin, and 0.067 mol/L of  phosphate buffer 
in a 300 μL volume. The sample absorbance was read 
at 560 nm, and the percentage of  SOD inhibition was 
compared with that of  the blank. The concentration of  
the sample was calculated using the amount of  protein 
required to achieve 50% inhibition and expressed as U/
mg of  protein (Tan et al., 2015) 

Malondiadehyde (MDA) 
Is a major secondary product of  lipid peroxidation was 
determined spectrophotometrically by measuring the 
thiobarbituric acid (TBA) reaction (Tang et al., 2019). 
Each 500 μl of  colon homogenate supernatant had 
1 ml of  15% trichloroacetic acid added thoroughly 
mixed and centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 10 minutes. One 
milliliter of  the supernatant was added to 0.5 ml of  
0.7% TBA then the mixture was heated for 60 min at 90 
°C. The pink color was obtained, which was measured 
spectrophotometrically at 532 nm. The results were 
expressed as micromoles per gram of  protein.

Histological Analysis
Colonic tissue slides were prepared at the Anatomical 
Department of  Benue State University Teaching Hospital 
by the pathologist and analysed for changes in mucous 
secretions and colonic mucosa thickness using Alcian 
blue and H&E stains. The goblet cells in 0.2 mm2 of  the 
mucosa tunic of  all slides were quantified and mucosal 
wall thickness determined through direct measurement 
from microscopic visualization. All measurements were 
carried out using a Motic B5 optical microscope and 

digital camera (Moticam 2000, 2.0 M Pixel) as previously 
reported (Wu et al., 2019).

Statistical Analysis
Results of  this work were presented as mean ± SEM (n=4). 
Differences between the group means were determined 
using One-Way analysis of  variance (ANOVA) with 
Turkey post hoc test. Data analysis was done using IBM 
SPSS version 22.0 software (Inc, Armonk, NY, USA). 
Differences were considered statistically significant when 
P < 0.05.

Ethical Clearance
Institutional Ethical clearance and certification (no 
CREC/RES/003) was obtained from the Research and 
Ethics committee of  college of  health sciences, Benue 
state university, Makurdi.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Results
Result of  the effect of  ginger oil treatment on faecal 
pellet output is presented in table 1 below. It was 
observed in this study that ginger oil (GO) at various 
dosages increased faecal pellet output in loperamide 
induced constipation on a dose dependent basis. This 
action of  GO is comparable to the effect of  bisacodyl, 
the standard drug. This implies that GO improves faecal 
outlet in constipations.
Effect of  GO on faecal water content is presented in table 
2. It was observed faecal weights (wet and dry) and water 
content were increased in groups treated with GO in a dose 
dependent. In the HDGO group, the faecal water content 
is not significantly different from that of  the Control and 
LP + Bisacodyl groups implying that HDGO potentially 
restores faecal water content in constipation.

Table 1: Effect of  ginger oil on faecal pellet output 
GROUP DAY 1 DAY2 DAY3 DAY4
CONROL 24.35±2.33 33.67±0.88 40.00±1.15 45.35±1.30
LP +PS 18.00±0.58 11.35±0.67a 10.33±0.33a 8.35±0.67a

LP+ LDGO 19.00±1.53 15.00±0.58a 17.33±0.67a 19.67±0.33ab

LP+MDGO 21.67±0.88 23.67±0.88ab 22.68±1.76a 29.66±3.00ab

LP+HDGO 23.00±1.5 27.32±1.45ab 35.32±6.49b 41.00±1.53b

LP+BISACODYL 20.94±0.70 27.33±1.44ab 33.33±2.84b 37.67±3.71b

Data presented as Mean ± SEM (n=24). Values in same column with alphabets are significantly different (P < 0.05). LP= loperamide, 
PS = physiological saline LDGO = low dose ginger oil, MDGO = medium dose of  ginger oil, HDGO = high dose ginger oil 

Table 2: Effect of  ginger oil on faecal water content (%)
GROUPS DAY 1 DAY 2 DAY 3 DAY 4 
CONTROL 31.20±1.16 23.63±1.34 32.22±1.11 37.30±1.79
LP + PS 19.76±0.85a 14.63±1.85 13.11±4.11 15.42±1.22a

LP + LDGO 19.20±2.01a 19.88±1.21 22.60±1.81b 23.74±1.26b

LP + MDGO 19.08±0.53a 21.30±0.13 32.33±1.6b 33.13±1.43b

LP + HDGO 21.76±0.76 22.59±9.16 33.99±6.17b 31.31±1.01b



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Table 3 shows the effect of  treatments on intestinal 
transit ratio. The intestinal charcoal transit ratio (ITR) 
was increased in a dose dependent manner in the groups 
treated with GO at 61.79±1.00%, which though not 
statistically different from those of  Control and LP + 
Bisacodyl groups, was numerically higher than all the 
groups. This implies that GO potentially improve gut 
emptying in state of  constipation.
On colonic oxidative stress, the effect of  treatments is 
presented in table 4. It was observed that SOD activity 
significantly increased on dose dependent basis with 
GO treatment (29.65±0.45µ/mg protein) compared to 

Control and LP + Bisacodyl groups at 25.5±0.46 and 
24.84±0.84 µ/mg protein respectively. Lipid peroxidation 
on the other hand decreased under the same treatment 
conditions. This implies that GO reduces gut oxidative 
stress and lipid peroxidation in constipated gut.
Effect of  GO treatments on colon histology are shown in 
table 5 and plate 1. The result showed that GO treatment 
statistically, but marginally, increase the thickness of  the 
colonic wall as well and its mucosa in constipated rats. 
Thus, GO could potentially heal constipation associated 
colonic tissue injuries.

LP + BISACODYL 30.71±1.56a 31.54±1.96ab 33.59±1.71b 35.25±0.59ab

Data presented as Mean ± SEM (n=24). Values in same column with alphabets are significantly different (P < 0.05). LP= loperamide, 
PS = physiological saline LDGO = low dose ginger oil, MDGO = medium dose of  ginger oil, HDGO = high dose ginger oil.

Table 3: Effect of  ginger oil on intestinal transit ratio (%)
Groups Total length of  intestine Distance travelled by 

charcoal
Intestinal charcoal 
Transit Ratio (%)

CONTROL 105.17±25.58 47.17±1.93 57.25±3.15
LOPERAMIDE + PS 96.23±7.75 60.93±4.95a 27.10±1.19a

LP + LDGO 105.33±2.62 53.00±1.59 49.61±1.81b

LP + MDGO 100.32±10.08 41.50±6.05b 59.05±2.04b

LP + HDGO 104.07±8.56 39.93±4.23b 61.79±1.00b

LP + BISACODYL 100.47±2.82 47.10±3.14b 53.05±3.06b

Data presented as Mean ± SEM (n=24). Values in same column with alphabets are significantly different (P < 0.05). LP= loperamide, 
PS = physiological saline LDGO = low dose ginger oil, MDGO = medium dose of  ginger oil, HDGO = high dose ginger oil

Table 4: Effect of  ginger oil on colonic oxidative stress
GROUP SOD (u/mg protein) MDA (nmol/g protein)
CONTROL 25.5±0.46 2.33±0.63
LPOPERAMIDE+PS 19.85±0.38a 4.05±0.22a

LP+LDGO 26.03±1.43b 2.1 ±0.15b

LP+MDGO 29.00±0.52ab 1.92±10.75b

LP+HDGO 29.65±0.45ab 1.63 ±0.22b

LP+BISACODYL 24.84±0.84a 1.93±0.14a

Data presented as Mean ± SEM (n=24). Values in same column with alphabets are significantly different (P < 0.05).  LP= loperamide, 
PS = physiological saline, LDGO = low dose ginger oil, MDGO = medium dose of  ginger oil, HDGO = high dose ginger oil.

Table 5: Effect of  ginger oil on colon histology
Group Number of  goblet 

cells (H&E)
Number of  goblet 
cells (AB)

Total wall 
thickness(µm)

Mucosa tunic (µm)

CONTROL 3.05 ±2.89 3.93± 2.03 9.73 ±2.03 1.55 ±2.91
LP+PS 2.36 ±3.48a 3.06 ±1.76a 9.11 ±2.33a 1.25 ±2.91a

LP+LDGO 2.95 ±2.91b 3.23 ±1.76b 10.12 ±1.67ab 1.27 ±1.76a

LP+MDGO 3.09 ±2.81b 3.52 ±2.33b 9.85 ±2.91ab 1.98 ±3.76ab

LP+HDGO 3.24 ±2.31ab 3.34 ±2.60b 10.21 ±2.08ab 1.39 ±1.76b

LP+BISACODYL 3.52 ±1.15ab 4 36 ±2.96b 10.44 ±2.96ab 2.01 ±2.31ab

Data presented as Mean ± SEM (n=24). Values in same column with alphabets are significantly different (P < 0.05). Values in same 
column with alphabets are significantly different (P < 0.05).  LP= loperamide, PS = physiological saline, LDGO = low dose ginger 
oil, MDGO = medium dose of  ginger oil, HDGO = high dose ginger oil.



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DISCUSSION
Constipation is common gastrointestinal condition that 
has a global interest due to its long-term complications as 
well as its impact on the quality of  life (Turan & Atabek, 
2016). The aetiology of  constipation is multifactorial 
ranging from dietary factors, medications to organic 
diseases, necessitating the use of  laxatives, which often 
have unpleasant side effects. Therapeutic focus has 
naturally shifted to traditional medicine in bid for safer, 
cheaper but effective alternatives and thus the need for 
this research.
In order to evaluate the potential laxative effects of  
n-hexane extract of  Zingiber officinale (ginger oil), the 
changes in faecal parameters (i.e. pellet count, wet/dry 
weight and water content), gastrointestinal transit ratio 
(motility), and colonic mucosa histology (i.e., mean 
colonic mucosa thickness and number of  colonic mucous-
producing cells) were examined in loperamide- induced 
rats, a suitable animal model of  spastic constipation (Choi 
et al., 2014a, b). The laxative effects of  ginger oil were 
compared with a standard drug bisacodyl. The protective 
effects of  ginger oil were also determined by analysis of  
its effect on colonic oxidative stress.  
The faecal pellet output was significantly lower in the 
loperamide group compared to vehicle control indicating 
that rats were constipated. Faecal pellet output in the 
different dosages of  ginger oil (100mg/kg, 200mg/kg 
and 400mg/kg) treated rats was significantly increased 
compared to loperamide control, with the faecal pellet 
output being significantly higher at 400mg/kg similar to 
bisacodyl treated group showing that ginger oil was able 
to relieve the effect of  constipation caused by loperamide. 
This result is similar to that of  previous studies and 
is thought to be as a result of  the GI prokinetic and 
relaxing actions of  ginger which are mediated by calcium 
antagonism and cholinergic agonist, respectively. (Abidi et 
al., 2022; Foshati et al., 2023).

Result showed that treatment with loperamide 
significantly decreased the weight of  wet and dry fecal 
pellets relative to the control. However, the wet and dry 
weights were increased in rats co-administered 400mg/
kg ginger oil compared to loperamide group, similar 
to the effect observed in bisacodyl. The faecal water 
content was significantly decreased in loperamide group 
compared to vehicle control. However, there was a 
dose- dependent significant increase in the faecal water 
content with a progressive effect noted as the duration 
of  treatment increased. The ginger oil was more effective 
at the highest dose (400mg/kg). Bisacodyl also showed 
significant (P < 0.05) increase in faecal water content 
relative to loperamide group. The increase in faecal water 
content caused by ginger oil may be as a result of  its high 
fibre content which promotes faecal water retention and 
increase in water secretion thereby promoting peristalsis 
suggesting that ginger oil has promising laxative properties 
as observed in previous studies (McRorie & Mckeown, 
2017; Zhang et al., 2020).  
The intestinal transit ratio (ITR), a marker of  intestinal 
motility, of  the loperamide constipated model was 
significantly decreased compared to the control group, 
consistent with signs of  spastic constipation (Choi et al., 
2014a, b). Ginger oil at varying doses showed significantly 
increased ITR compared to loperamide model in a dose 
dependent manner with 400mg/kg having greater effect 
provide indirect evidence that ginger oil has promising 
laxative effects against loperamide-induced spastic 
constipation. This is consistent with previous studies 
(Abidi et al., 2022). Bisacodyl showed similar effects on 
ITR as ginger oil with no significant difference between 
the treatment groups. 
The effect of  ginger oil on colonic oxidative stress 
was assessed and the results showed that Superoxide 
dismutase (SOD) activity in loperamide group was 
significantly decreased compared to control. SOD activity 

Figure 1: Plate 1. Histological view of  colon section (4x) stained by Haematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) and Aacian 
blue showing mucous producing (goblet) cells and colonic mucosa thickness. A=Group 1, B=Group 2, C=Group 3, 
D=Group 4, E=Group 5, F=Group 6



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was significantly increased in the ginger oil treated groups 
in a dose dependent manner. However, bisacodyl was not 
significantly different compared to loperamide.
Furthermore, Lipid peroxidation was increased in 
loperamide group compared to control but decreased 
significantly in the ginger oil co-treated groups compared 
to loperamide in a dose dependent manner. As previously 
stated by Zhanl et al. (2021), the inhibition of  GI-
motility and intestinal secretion induced by loperamide 
is accompanied by the increase in plasma and colonic 
lipid peroxidation and decrease of  enzymatic antioxidant 
activity. Also, the antioxidant effect of  ginger oil seen in 
SOD and lipid peroxidation is comparable to previous 
studies (Zhang et al., 2017; Joshi et al., 2017) and its lipid 
peroxidation reduction is considered due to polyphenolic 
components such as flavonoids (quercetin, kaempferol, 
apigenin, and luteolin) which are capable of  reducing 
free radical chains through electron and proton transfer 
and chelating transition metal ions capable of  catalysing 
lipid peroxidation. The antioxidant properties may also 
be traced to the polysaccharides in ginger which cause 
a reduction in DPPH radical, hydroxyl and superoxide 
radicals (Hefnawy, 2016).
Colonic mucosa analysis showed significant decrease in 
mucous producing cells and mean mucosa thickness in 
the loperamide constipated group compared with vehicle 
control. However, significant increases in the number 
mucous producing cells and mean colonic mucosa 
thickness was observed with ginger oil treated groups 
compared with loperamide treated animals. In comparison 
to the vehicle control, ginger oil showed the maintenance 
of  mucosa thickness integrity and also increased mucous 
secretions thus been protective against the effects of  
constipation. This is similar to previous studies and may 
be as a result of  a reduction in inflammatory factors and 
antioxidant activity of  the phenolic compounds in ginger 
(Zhang et al., 2018; Abidi et al (2022).

CONCLUSION
This research has shown that n-hexane extract of  Zingiber 
officinale (ginger oil) has a potential laxative effect in a dose 
dependent manner with 400mg/kg being most effective 
which is comparable to that obtained in bisacodyl.  The 
laxative properties were demonstrated by increasing 
faecal pellet output and intestinal transit time as well 
as increasing the faecal water content in loperamide 
constipated rat models. Ginger oil has also shown to have 
antioxidant by increasing SOD activity and reducing lipid 
peroxidation.

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