Pa
ge

 
1



Pa
ge

 
9

American Journal of  Multidisciplinary 
Research and Innovation (AJMRI)

Use of  ICT to Promote Literacy in Sub-Saharan Africa
Souad Abdelwahed Selmi1*

Volume 2 Issue 1, Year 2023
ISSN: 2158-8155 (Online), 2832-4854 (Print)

DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajmri.v2i1.1182
https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajmri

Article Information ABSTRACT

Received: January 07, 2023

Accepted: January 10, 2023

Published: January 24, 2023

Literacy, accessibility, technology and digital education are central concerns of  this article. 
The iconic theme is the use of  ICT to promote literacy in the region of  Sub-Saharan Africa. 
In fact, today more than ever, literacy remains a major challenge for such region. In view of  
the social environment and economic crisis, the future of  the strategies of  literacy dependent, 
among other things, on Sub-Saharan of  significant investments in innovation and ICT, in 
order to consolidate the integration of  programs literacy in the recent approaches based 
on ICT. Indeed, the development of  mobile technology, the convergence of  all media to 
digital media and the rapid development of  the Internet have changed the portrait of  the 
sector of  literacy on Africa. An important point to remember is that this region faces an 
illiteracy to double facet, digital illiteracy at the same time classic illiteracy. However, the 
efficiency of  the integration of  ICT in literacy does not depend so much on technological 
advances but rather on the effective implementation of  these programs to improve the 
Sub-Saharan populations’ daily lives. In fact, this study highlights good practices and also 
a set of  constraints and challenges that continue to hamper the creation, implementation 
of  literacy programs and activities, notably through the use of  ICT in the Sub-Saharan 
African countries. At the same time, this study allows to locate a number of  challenges and 
opportunities for the ICT and literacy in the region.

Keywords

Ict, Literacy, Learning, Education

INTRODUCTION
Technological evolution is faster than ever (World 
Economic Forum, 2015). Whether we are in favor or 
not, ICT have indeed become one of  the pillars of  our 
societies. This reality is summarized in this phrase become 
today ritual: everyone must know computing because 
computers are everywhere! It is also the generalization of  
a slogan of  type Information Technology is a tool for all 
within the reach of  all (Ginestié, 1999). 
They are increasingly powerful, increasingly intelligent 
and their use becomes more and more simple. Our daily 
life, our hobbies, our profession, our relationships are 
influenced by these technologies. Is this a technological 
fate written for humanity? Exclude these ICT, is to be, 
according to some, illiterate and not to integrate into 
the current world (Arcouet, 1996, p.26).  Going hand in 
hand with such fashionable discourse, ICT are presented, 
under the guise of  educational innovation, as a useful 
language facilitating access to information and as the 
privileged medium of  knowledge for future citizens. In 
the same vein, the literacy sub-sector didn’t stay away 
from this technological reality. The crucial point here is 
that these tools arouse enthusiasm, but also generate fear 
and anxiety (Leclerc, 2003; Peraya at al, 2002; Tardif  and 
Mukamurera, 1999). That is, our reality today, focused on 
information and communication, generates at the same 
time new means of  literacy, new modes of  access to 
knowledge and at the same time new educational needs 
and challenges (Rocheleau and Basque, 1998). Such 
reality deserves careful study and requires operational and 
contextual reflection.
The alliance of  ICT with literacy, especially in Africa 

context, is not new, but the development of  mobile 
technology, the convergence of  all media to digital 
media and the rapid development of  the Internet have 
significantly altered the profile of  the literacy sector. It is 
in this context that the initiative is being taken to study 
the question of  the use of  ICT to promote literacy in 
the region of  the Sub-Saharan Africa. Really, the rapid 
development of  the Internet has changed the portrait 
of  the sub-sector of  literacy. Indeed, in agreement with 
Tschoumy (1994), it is not ICT that are introduced in 
this area, but it is the sector of  literacy that bathes in a 
communication environment, technology and digital. 
In fact, this study is a way to learn more about this new 
face of  literacy anchored in the Sub-Saharan African 
environment and to share with the reader the lessons to 
be learned. This work will meet the following objectives: 
a) identify trends in the use of  ICT to promote literacy in 
the Sub-Saharan Africa and ICT policies and policies for 
literacy; b) determine main constraints and challenges of  
implementing literacy programs using ICT; and c) Finally, 
this research will end with a summary main highlights, 
recommendations and suggestion of  ideas for future 
research projects. These points are tied together and 
constitute a lever and support points to understand the 
dynamics of  the integration of  ICT in the field of  literacy. 
The emblematic reflection of  this research work is to 
observe the uses of  ICT. Using Wallet’s expression 
(2001), the observation of  uses stands out in my eyes 
as the most effective entry (p.42). The objective is to 
highlight a number of  practices in the use of  ICT in the 
field of  literacy which have proved their worth in the Sub-
Saharan Africa. This is a way to learn more about this new 

1 University of  Tunis El Manar, Tunisia
* Corresponding author’s e-mail: s.abdelwahed1@gmail.com



Pa
ge

 
10

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajmri

Am. J. Multidis. Res. Innov. 2(1) 9-21, 2023

face of  literacy and to share the lessons with the reader. 
This being the case, ICT, as a technical object, is part of  
this research as something inscribed in a use, developed 
to be inscribed in finalized activities (Rabardel, 1995 
cited in Bélisle et al., 2002, p. .60). This reflection is part 
of  a larger and more complex issue of  the socialization 
of  technical objects. Proulx (1994) confirms this choice 
by pointing out that observing the uses of  what people 
actually do with these objects and these technical devices 
can constitute an interesting methodological entry for 
understanding the action of  technology in society. 
Belisle et al. (2002) adds that studies of  the use of  ICT 
in education and training have especially developed in 
recent years, without exhausting the questions that give 
rise to them. There is now a significant demand for such 
studies on the uses of  ICT. To this end, Perriault (1989) 
underlines that in the years to come, it will be necessary 
to deepen the studies on the uses of  communication 
machines (p.232).
Indeed, what deserves reflection is the implementation 
or use of  ICT by literacy programs. In agreement with 
Bélisle et al. (2002), what arouses interest are the complex 
visible and invisible relationships that actors have with 
these technical, social and cultural devices that are ICT. 
In this vein, this study fits into this emerging field of  
research. Thus, specific attention has been paid here to 
the pragmatic dimension of  uses by reinscribing them 
in the contexts of  literacy in the Sub-Saharan Africa. 
Emphasis has been placed on the activity of  the ICT user 
to consider what makes sense to them, why they develop 
these uses modes. 

Concept Note: literacy, lifelong learning
Terms such as literacies, literacy practices, basic literacy, 
initial literacy or Advanced, adult education and post-
literacy are various and sometimes confused meanings 
depending on the social, cultural and political context; the 
literate environment and literate society. It is a plural and 
non-unique concept that reflects the multidimensional, 
complex and dynamic literacy and emphasizes the urgent 
need to work beyond the traditional dichotomy between 
literate and illiterate (Helly at Al, 2015; UNESCO, 2006; 
UNESCO, 2015). In fact, different approaches have 
emerged, essentially:

a. literacy as skills, specifically the ability to read, write 
and count, sometimes called cognitive skills or range of  
cognitive processes;

b.  literacy as it is applied, practical, and put in a situation, 
in other words as a set of  tasks that require writes, as in 
the case of  functional, family literacy or in the workplace;

c. literacy as a set of  social and cultural practices 
inseparable contexts school, socio-economic, political, 
community and language;

d. literacy as a capability, reflected in the ability of  
a person to use the skills to achieve its goals and its 
communication objectives; and,

e. literacy as a tool for critical thinking and action for 
social change, also called critical literacy or processing 

(Helly and al., 2015, p.22).
In a same order of  this ideas, the Institute of  UNESCO 
for lifelong learning (UIL) has published, in August 
2013, its second global report on learning and education 
(GRALE II) adults with literacy as a process continuous, 
accomplished in situations most various pave the way for 
an informal, non-formal or formal apprenticeship, which 
allow learners to achieve different (and differentiable) levels 
of  skills in reading, writing and arithmetic. The report also 
pointed out that learning throughout life and in all aspects 
of  life is the most promising way to meet the challenge of  
literacy (Bonnecase and Brachet, 2013). Such a proposal 
to conclude that learning and the use of  literacy skills is 
a contextualized, and continuous process which takes 
place both within the educational frameworks and outside 
them, throughout life. This goes in the direction of  right to 
education, as it is enshrined in the Universal Declaration of  
the human rights, which includes the acquisition of  skills 
in reading / writing, math and other areas of  base that 
will serve as a base to lifelong learning, a central principle 
of  the international agenda for the post-2015 education 
(UNESCO, 2014c, p.7).
It’s a passage from the notion of  literacy as a simple 
process of  acquisition of  reading, writing, language 
and computation, to a broader conception of  basic 
skills, including the ability to use ICT. It is, according 
to Chitra Lekha Yadav, a powerful vehicle that gives 
power to the people and allows them to acquire life and 
entrepreneurship skills to meet the daily challenges and 
maximize opportunities for sustainable development 
(UNESCO, 2015 b, p.136). Vision, which takes into 
account changes economic, political and social progress 
of  information and communication technologies, and 
recent, admits the existence of  many practices’ literacy, 
registered in different cultural processes, personal 
circumstances and collective structures (UNESCO, 
2004, p.6). Is to say, we’re now interested in using these 
skills for socio-economic development as well as civic 
awareness and critical thinking, personal and social 
development (UNESCO, 2006b data bases, p.155). This 
happening, Mauch (2014), by a growing recognition of  
the interaction between the modes of  formal, formal, and 
informal learning. In addition, the creation of  contexts 
and processes that are attractive and responsive to the 
needs of  adults as active citizens (quoted in UNESCO, 
2014d, p.10).
This orientation reflects a crucial dimension to the context 
and quality of  literate environments that influence the 
implementation of  literacy that understanding of  literacy 
(UNESCO, 2006b. This point, leads us to Sub-Saharan 
Africa, object of  the present study, where literacy is, 
also, an area so diverse and multisectoral. The key point 
to remember in this regard is that this region faces an 
illiteracy to double facet, namely digital illiteracy at the 
same time classic illiteracy. This is a new challenge of  
illiteracy in the Sub-Saharan Africa. In addition, the 
fluidity, the speed of  developments in ICT and their 
very innovative character challenge on the scale of  the 



Pa
ge

 
11

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajmri

Am. J. Multidis. Res. Innov. 2(1) 9-21, 2023

challenge of  digital literacy.
In fact, literacy in Sub-Saharan Africa programs cover, 
commonly, five basic tracks, namely: 

a. Basic literacy for adults, particularly those who 
have not had access to formal education, to be able 
to understand the problems of  their environment 
immediate. They sensitize them to their rights and their 
duties as citizens and individuals. Kleis (1974) note that 
the participants in these types of  training are able to 
contribute more effectively to the social and economic 
progress of  their community. Basic literacy provides 
a platform that allows adult learners to acquire the 
minimum required knowledge and skills to have a decent 
standard of  living.

b. Functional literacy focused on the socio-professional 
occupations of  learners with purpose sought, the 
transformation of  the lives of  those to whom training 
is addressed. So, a good orientation of  functional 
literacy programs is important to the development of  
communities. This orientation is the result of  a design 
of  the training in terms of  solving the problems 
of  communities (Cisse, 2001). Functional literacy 
training combines theoretical knowledge and practical 
applications. Indeed, the literate adult will have a skill of  
reading, writing, simple arithmetic as well as the basic 
job skills directly related to their professional needs. As a 
result, the teaching content are varied. They range from 
farm management commercial management. People learn 
a bricklaying, carpentry and joinery, but also gardening 
(In’utu Sumbwa and Weluzani Chakanika, 2013).

c. The post-literacy is defined as any form of  uses of  
literacy achievements. It is an integral part of  the phase 
of  initial literacy (MEP/A/PLN/EC, 2015). This in the 
sense that literacy can be truly effective if  it is part of  
broader information and training process continues. This 
requires the implementation of  activities of  post-literacy 
as a set of  measures to allow the neoalphabete to exercise 
capacity and to increase knowledge and to engage with 
new acquisitions, but especially learning to learn and make 
decisions in a continuous process of  development and 
greater control over his environment (UNESCO, 1977, 
p.4 cited in Cisse, 2001). Together with the literacy phase, 
it forms an inseparable whole. It was during the post-
literacy that materialize the results of  functional literacy 
and knowledge are consolidating and enriching. For the 
implementation of  appropriate strategies for post-literacy, 
it is necessary to: a) plan the content of  the training 
based on the concerns of  the neoalphabetes; b) select 
the appropriate communication systems (traditional and 
modern); and c) resorting to different types of  structures 
of  learning adapted (libraries, mobile exhibitions, 
collective listening groups, etc.) for disseminating the 
knowledge and the skills required (Cisse, 2001).

d. Literacy, a means to development.  However, many 
literacy programs implemented in the Sub-Saharan Africa 
region are supported as poverty reduction mechanisms. 
Indeed, some interventions recorded in this work are 
generally part of  Strategy Documents for the Poverty 

Reduction (PRSP), strategic direction and planning tools 
adopted by most of  the countries of  the Sub-Saharan 
Africa targeted by the study. The goal of  these programs 
is to develop individual empowerment and ownership 
among poor populations. In this context, empowerment 
is defined as the increase in assets and the capacity of  
people living in poverty, in order to allow them to better 
participate, negotiate, influence, control and empower the 
institutions that have an impact on their lives (Narayan, 
2004, p.18 cited in Baba-Moussa, and al., 2014).

e. Technology and digital literacy. In addition to read 
and write, it is essential today to have a minimum of  basic 
skills on the computer tool, prior knowledge of  ICT. 
However, technological illiteracy concerns the process 
of  initiation to the knowledge of  basic office automation 
and ICT, including the Internet, to enable illiterate adults 
or poorly literate to use the tool computer science, to 
understand ICT and control electronic communications, 
by fostering their relationship to the digital media 
environment. Programs and practices brought about by 
this approach are intended to improve the skills of  basic 
through the technology literacy and add the development 
of  ICT skills to democratize access to information.

METHODOLOGY 
Supported by a descriptive, analytical and critical 
approach, this research has addressed the issue of  the 
use of  ICT to promote literacy. Based on a number of  
examples of  literacy practices and initiatives, this work 
concerned the Sub-Saharan Africa region. To carry out 
this study, the data collection was structured around three 
main stages, namely:

a. Documentary research: the documentary research 
first led to an analysis of  the quality of  the existing 
documents with a view to selecting the most relevant 
and reliable for the study. Generally, the documentary 
review covers: previous studies, economic and social 
development plans in relation to policies, action strategies, 
initiatives and programs for literacy in general and the use 
of  ICT for education. literacy in particular;

b. Presentation of  statistical data; and,
c. Remote interviews: the documentary research was 

reinforced by a series of  interviews in the form of  a 
dialogue via online systems (email or Skype). These 
e-interviews were conducted with a wide range of  
stakeholders nationally, regionally and internationally 
- ministries responsible for Education, Training, 
Literacy and Technology and Innovation, as well as 
resource persons belonging to other governmental 
or non-governmental organizations, civil society and 
development partners involved in initiatives around ICT 
and literacy. The objective here is to:

a. interact with significant people and those with 
initiatives;

b. obtain additional working papers and the review of  
literacy programs using ICT;

c. better understand the political documents of  the 
countries;



Pa
ge

 
12

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajmri

Am. J. Multidis. Res. Innov. 2(1) 9-21, 2023

d. identify the needs and difficulties in the areas 
concerned by the study; and,

e. verify, validate and update the data collected during 
the documentary research.
The review of  experiences and literacy initiatives 
included in this study resulted in at least three criteria: 
the availability of  sufficient documentation, the novelty 
and relevance of  the program to the emblematic question 
of  this study. These programs were interpreted by the 
researcher according to the specific contexts in which 
they fit. They cover three main thematic areas, namely: 
ICT skills, illiteracy and the development issue. In 
addition, the identification of  literacy programs using 
ICT constitutes the guideline of  the fourth chapter 
relating to the presentation of  different technical and 
financial partners.

Trends in the use of  ICT to promote literacy in Sub-
Saharan African countries
The policy background for literacy, digitization and 
education in the 21st century may change from one Sub-
Saharan African country to another, but the extent and the 
environment of  general orientations seem to converge on 
much points. This is the subject of  the following sections, 
structured around the major trends characterizing the use 
of  ICT to promote literacy in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Modes of  integration and appropriation of  ICT
Internet connection forms
Despite the many challenges ahead, Africa is today the 
continent with record Internet performance worldwide. In 
fact, between 2000 and 2010, the penetration rate of  the 
African continent increased by more than 20, going from 
0.5% to 10.8% (Sy, 2012). There are two types of  Internet 
connection in the region, namely:

a. The wired connection which combines on the one 
hand the wired switched Internet connection including the 
analog connection and the connection with the Integrated 
Services Digital Network (ISDN). The latter is offered 
in all Sub-Saharan African countries. Dial-up Internet 
connection is billed as a local or long-distance telephone 
call. This billing method penalizes users from provincial 
towns. As the Internet node is often installed in the 
capital, all users who call the Internet server outside the 
local communication area of  the capital are billed for long 
distance calls. This Internet connection is therefore more 
expensive for users in this situation. On the other hand, 
there is the unswitched Internet connection with the leased 
line (leased line in some countries) and ADSL (Asymetric 
digital subscriber line). ADSL is provided in the majority 
of  Sub-Saharan African countries. However, its expansion 
is hampered by the weakness of  the subscriber base in the 
various countries. In addition, the absence of  regulations 
on the unbundling of  the local loop or the absence of  its 
effective implementation also constitutes a brake on the 
rapid development of  ADSL in the region.

b. Wireless or radio connections, made from four 
technologies:

a.1 Local radio loop (BLR) used to serve localities or 
areas without wired telephone lines;

Special mobile group (GSM), mainly with GSM 3G;
b.1 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) adopted 

by many incumbent operators to make up for the delay in 
building the wired network; and

c.1 Worldwide interoperability for microwave access 
(WiMax) appeared in the sub-Saharan region in the mid-
2000s.
In general, the Internet connection in the African context 
necessarily evolves towards radio because of  the weakness 
of  telephone teledensity.

Digital divide looks different
The digital divide in the Sub-Saharan Africa region has 
multiple dimensions that go beyond physical access 
to technological tools. This is the mobile divide due to 
problems with access to electricity, network coverage and 
income inequality. Let us take the case of  certain areas 
of  the Sub-Saharan Africa. One of  the dimensions of  
the digital divide most often overlooked is the way the 
internet works (or doesn’t) in the region. For example, for 
people in developed countries, blackouts are rather rare 
and total Internet disruption an even rarer occurrence. 
But in some Sub-Saharan African countries like Niger 
for example, blackouts, inadequate and unreliable 
connections, as well as the total lack of  energy, especially 
in rural areas, are part of  everyday life. It is this situation 
that most often puts people under the obligation to 
innovate and invent modes of  appropriation (use of  solar 
installations in rural clinics, batteries of  motorcycles or 
cars, pedaling of  bicycles for produce energy) that are not 
found elsewhere.
Here, it is less the exogenous standards of  the technical 
object that are in question than an inadequate material 
and technological environment due to the absence of  
minimum conditions to operate the devices, thus placing 
the users in the obligation to manage. In addition, while 
mobiles are a tool for stimulating the development 
of  grassroots communities, they are also a marker of  
inequality of  opportunity. We learned from the analysis of  
the practices that technology alone does not solve social 
problems and illiteracy. ICT are often applied to improve 
the quality of  development relationships and processes 
and thereby creates competitive advantages that could 
marginalize those who do not have access to it. It is the 
orientation and quality of  the underlying development 
process that should condition the implementation of  
mobile technologies. The isolation and marginalization of  
populations are social problems and it is not technology 
alone that can solve them. Mobile phones are only tools 
and they can only be a complement in social organization, 
not a central element (Chéneau-Loquay, 2010).

Africa, continent of  innovation: mobile telephony, 
m-Bank, m-Health 
Internet connection in sub-Saharan Africa is undoubtedly 
moving towards mobile (Akue-Kpakpo, 2013; Ouédraogo, 



Pa
ge

 
13

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajmri

Am. J. Multidis. Res. Innov. 2(1) 9-21, 2023

2009; Ifri, 2012; Rennard, 2012). Indeed, the growth 
of  mobile telephony has exceeded the most optimistic 
forecasts of  operators. According to the ITU, this is 
proof  of  the validity of  a competitive economy that still 
needs to be reinforced (Chéneau-Loquay, 2010). The 
number of  subscribers to mobile telephony and other 
wireless broadband networks has increased significantly. 
The share of  Internet browsing on mobile is the highest 
in the world (Valdés-Valdivieso and Penteriani, 2012). 
The use of  the mobile phone is particular insofar as 
access has become democratized and now concerns 
all categories of  the population, a majority of  whom 
are low-income. According to figures from the World 
Association of  Mobile Phone Operators (GSMA), the 
number of  mobile broadband subscribers reached 30.3 
million in 2011, representing a penetration rate of  around 
3.8% of  the population, compared to barely 0.35% in 
2007 (GSMA, 2011).
As a result, mobile telecommunications contribute to 
equity by allowing disadvantaged populations to access 
information which would be very difficult or impossible 
for them to obtain by relying on landlines which in 
most regions are not ready to be installed. Very low-
income populations prioritize mobile phones, being fully 
convinced of  its usefulness for their well-being. These 
populations, who are the targets of  development projects 
and literacy programs, get involved themselves not only 
to access the telephone, but also to innovate by creating 
new functions and applications that are useful to them 
(Chéneau-Loquay, 2010 ). Indeed, the worlds of  mobile 
telephony in Sub-Saharan Africa allow applications and 
services adapted and / or adaptable to meet the needs of  
users. These are innovative modes of  appropriation that 
are proving their worth today. The following examples 
are mainly cited:

a. m-learning, the use of  mobile technology in the 
service of  education. This is a recent practice in the 
region, opening up new possibilities in the educational 
field. Given the shortage of  books in many African 
schools, the digital tablet was quickly seen as a substitute 
for missing textbooks, spurred on by governments and 
international organizations. Indeed, this shortage affects 
almost all African countries (AFD, 2015).

b. m-payment, which is a benchmark on a global scale. 
This is the continent of  the world where m-Payment 
works best (Ifri, 2012; Sy, 2012);

c. m-Health aimed at improving people’s access to 
relevant information in the areas of  health and living 
conditions. Thus, telecoms represent 2% of  the health 
budget in Africa (Ifri, 2012). Issues such as HIV / AIDS 
treatment and prevention, improved maternal health 
care, appropriate immunizations for children, education 
and awareness are being stimulated by access to wireless 
technology, which in turn is tower, allows connectivity to 
healthcare systems and remote experts (Chéneau-Loquay, 
2010); and,

d.  m-Agriculture and m-Fishing allowing a rationalization 
of  the sector at all levels. For example, in Senegal, the use 

of  the mobile telephone in the artisanal fishing sector 
represents an improvement in working conditions and 
practices: better management of  traffic at sea with a 
limitation and more efficiency of  movements, saving of  
time with faster transactions and greater security in such a 
dangerous profession (Chéneau-Loquay, 2010).
Thus, from a technical point of  view, mobile applications 
in the region for development generally focus on the 
provision of  services through short message services 
(SMS). From a user perspective, this predominance 
reflects the fact that the most common capabilities of  
the device and all SMS services are accessible from any 
device. From the point of  view of  information providers, 
SMS is the most easily accessible technology for all 
entities that want to transmit information through mobile 
devices. Setting up an SMS platform is quick, economical 
and fairly straightforward. However, certain economic 
and cultural constraints arise from these wide eases of  
design and use. The text also has the disadvantage of  
being an obstacle for completely illiterate users who 
may be unable to use it fully. Solutions with information 
delivered by voice message can be very useful for the 
illiterate population, but they are relatively expensive and 
still underdeveloped (Chéneau-Loquay, 2010).

The informal ICT sector, a dominant mode of  
operation
ICT constitute a major sector of  recent informal growth 
in all cities of  Sub-Saharan Africa. This informal ICT 
sector is a reality in the region. It can no longer be 
considered a sector on the fringes of  the economy. It has 
established itself  not only as the popular economy of  
the poor, but rather as a powerful overvalued economy 
in some African countries (Senegal) (Chéneau-Loquay, 
2012). It is a sector with great potential, creator of  jobs 
and wealth, which needs to be organized, structured, 
regulated and supported. It performs essential functions 
in employment, production, income distribution, meeting 
needs, and training and literacy for young people and 
adults.

Literacy through ICT and the media
The progress in integrating traditional and modern ICT 
into the literacy and management practices of  literacy 
organizations in the Sub-Saharan Africa countries indicates 
that the vast majority of  them have made the switch to 
informatics. The socio-economic and development 
specificities of  these countries encourage them to take 
advantage of  the advantages of  technology and to use the 
various existing channels (Internet, mobile telephony and 
radio) to adapt the solution both to the area concerned 
(city, campaign) and the nature of  the training (awareness 
raising, popularization or teaching). The objective is not 
to perpetuate one of  the factors of  exclusion of  adults 
with low education or illiteracy, namely not learning to 
use ICT. In fact, like issues relating to health, education, 
environment, agriculture, human rights, etc., Sub-Saharan 
African adult learners, as development actors, are 



Pa
ge

 
14

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajmri

Am. J. Multidis. Res. Innov. 2(1) 9-21, 2023

interested in ICT, both in terms of  their use as work 
and information dissemination tools and their impact 
on access and circulation of  knowledge and know-how. 
Thus said, literacy programs make use of  a variety of  
ICT and modes of  communication, namely:

a. technological equipment: computers, Internet, 
software, networks, mobile telephony, tablet, 
smartphone, geographic information system, satellite 
imagery, GPS, etc. ;

b. media such as radio and television; and,
c. traditional means of  information and 

communication such as physical meetings, printed 
documents (newspapers, leaflets, magazines, brochures, 
etc.), notice boards, theater, etc.
This wide choice provides adults with the keys to 
motivation to learn, retention of  learning and an enriched 
educational experience. The adoption of  a particular 
technology involves a process of  selection and decision-
making on the appropriate technology, on the users and 
beneficiaries as well as on the type of  communication 
and content. The main appropriate and sustainable 
modes of  use of  these tools and mechanisms for literacy 
programs in the Sub-Saharan Africa will be presented in 
the following sections.

Rural radio
The radio education system is particularly suited to African 
countries (UNESCO, 2014c, p.16). Literacy programs and 
initiatives show that broadcasting is easily accessible and 
affordable in Sub-Saharan region. It makes it possible to 
overcome geographical obstacles. By facilitating distance 
learning, reading and writing can be taught to people 
who live in remote areas. Indeed, a rural radio station is 
established by a community or on its behalf, equipped 
with an audio communication and information tool 
intended to promote and favor the application of  social, 
economic and cultural values determined collectively and 
deemed useful for this community.
The use of  the local language on the radio constitutes, for 
this one, a kind of  reconciliation with the peasant layers. 
In this context, to motivate people, a literacy program is 
usually functional, to help them solve their daily problems, 
or in other words, to be of  practical use to them. Thus, local 
radios provide services to the community and offer the 
possibility of  extending the function of  media education 
and literacy on subjects related to the development of  
the rural world (agriculture, health, nutrition, livestock, 
hygiene, etc. fishing, etc.). It has become a catalyst for 
social and cultural identity, a forum for expression, a tool 
for social mobilization, dialogue and consultation within 
communities and between development actors. The 
initial value of  a community broadcasting project lies in 
the fact that it offers the public the care to participate in 
the development of  the content, to control it and even 
more to the possibility of  exchange. In sum, the major 
distinctive function of  community radio is that it can help 
create a dynamic conducive to development. It is a pillar 
of  local development.

Rural radio is still an interface for the introduction of  ICT, 
which eventually increases the possible dissemination 
media, widens the audience likely to be reached and can 
therefore increase the influence of  literacy projects or at 
least multiply its destinations and results. In this context, 
local radio has become one of  the avenues to facilitate 
the accelerated penetration of  ICT in rural areas of  Sub-
Saharan Africa and allow better development of  sub-
sectors such as education, health, literacy, etc. Indeed, as 
a means of  communication, rural radio reduces distances 
and removes barriers to illiteracy, while allowing contact 
with the listener. These radios are reference points for 
community communication. As a result, these local 
broadcasting stations tend to gradually transform into 
what UNESCO calls Community Multimedia Centers 
(CMCs).

Television
Some literacy programs in the region use television as 
a tool to meet the education needs of  the Sub-Saharan 
African zone. This medium combines words with images 
and allows movement and animation while diffusing 
sound. The definition of  the content of  audiovisual 
programs aimed at adults is determined according to 
the expectations and needs of  the target populations, 
in particular those living in poorly literate landlocked 
areas and suffering from a lack of  infrastructure and 
technological resources. In this case, the programs 
addressed to illiterate or semi-literate adults, via local 
television, are broadcast on a regular and ad hoc basis 
with regard to daily life. They contribute in particular to 
the promotion of  literacy, practical learning and health 
and social awareness. This is the framework, for example, 
of  the Multichoice Africa initiative supporting a group 
of  educational channels, including National Geographic, 
Discovery Channel, History Channel and Mindset Learn 
by satellite broadcast in a number of  African countries.

Audio cassettes, CD-ROM, DVD, VCD
Compared to broadcasting and television, audio 
cassettes, CD-ROMs, DVDs and VCDs generally have 
the advantage of  being able to access literacy classes at 
the time and with the frequency of  the learner’s choice. 
In addition, these forms of  ICT can be employed in the 
home, which helps overcome social, cultural, financial 
and logistical constraints that learners, especially women, 
may face in attending literacy classes in the areas rural and 
remote CD-ROMs offer in particular:

a. a cost-effective medium making it possible to 
distribute content easily and at low cost;

b. an interesting and entertaining resource for reading 
and writing lessons; and,

c. a concentration of  large volumes of  information on 
a light and small medium.

Community telecentres
With the development of  ICT, a large number of  
community telecentres have emerged as a common 



Pa
ge

 
15

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajmri

Am. J. Multidis. Res. Innov. 2(1) 9-21, 2023

practice in Sub-Saharan Africa countries, especially in 
rural areas. They are part of  the service points for the 
implementation of  literacy programs in rural areas. In 
addition, they support the strengthening of  farmers’ 
organizations. They are in most cases supported by 
development partners (e.g. UNESCO, ITU, CRDI). The 
integration of  ICT into literacy program services is usually 
accomplished through the establishment of  Technology-
Based Community Learning Centers, Community 
Internet Access Centers and Multipurpose Community 
Telecentres. But other places are also involved: libraries, 
village schools, youth centers. Indeed, the fabric of  
telecentres is a social, economic and cultural asset. 
Through its role as a pole of  attraction and community 
resource center, community telecentres allow, among 
other things:

a. a possibility of  regular two-way communication (call 
/ reception) in rural communities (phone call, email);

b. a training and learning framework for the use and 
mastery of  ICT thanks to proximity and prices;

c. the development and strengthening of  community 
life by restoring a minimum of  credibility to isolated 
disadvantaged neighborhoods and rural areas through 
ICT services such as the Internet which make the 
neighborhood a place of  attraction;

d. the appropriation and use of  ICT by peasant 
populations as a means of  social and economic promotion 
in line with the needs of  the community;

e. the generalization of  public access of  grassroots 
communities to real-time and low-cost services and 
business information through ICT; and,

f. the contribution to the dissemination of  the use 
of  ICT through office automation training, Internet 
initiation, telephone use, etc.

Mobile technology
Referring to Kone Tago (2013), mobile technology is 
technology that can be moved around without stopping 
functioning. It is able to serve us everywhere and 
generally it is small in size, therefore easy to carry around 
and bring wherever we go. Mobile technology can play 
a very important role in the literacy process because it 
will help promote and popularize access to information 
and resources (p.4). Mobile learning is independent of  the 
constraints of  place, time, gender and, to some extent, 
money (Tual, 2013). In the same vein, the effectiveness 
of  the use of  mobile phones and cellular networks 
to promote literacy is recently endorsed, also, by the 
UNESCO study (2014b) Reading in the Age of  mobile. 
The report shows that in countries with high rates of  
illiteracy and limited access to print, mobile technology 
is becoming more prevalent. People read books and 
stories through small screen devices. This increases the 
potential for mobile learning even in the most remote 
and extremely poor regions alongside other ICT such as 
broadcasting or television.
This reality applies fully to Sub-Saharan Africa countries, 
especially rural areas. The mobile phone, and in particular 

SMS (short message service) technology, is a reading 
and writing medium available and used in rural areas. It 
has the advantage of  being less demanding in terms of  
infrastructure, so that it is easily accessible. In addition, 
for new learners, regular use of  dial pads and texting will 
reinforce their newly acquired knowledge of  letters and 
numbers. In Niger, for example, it has been found that 
adult education programs are much more successful in 
strengthening participants’ skills in literacy and numeracy 
when supplemented by pedagogical exercises using 
mobile phones (Aker et al., 2012 cited in UNESCO, 
2015, p.150). The utilitarian nature of  the cell phone for 
rural Africa has made it a popular innovation. Indeed, 
the introduction and development of  these tools has 
introduced a new culture to the Sub-Saharan Africa 
region: the culture of  Mobile Technology.

Internet
The Internet is another tool that can be harnessed to 
improve literacy programs. In comparison to old ICT 
such as television and broadcasting, the Internet is an 
interactive and dynamic space that offers digital content, 
accessible to active learners who can use it at their 
convenience. Internet access is facilitated by tablets and 
by the possibility of  connecting via mobile networks 
(AFD, 2015). Online learning is one way to use the 
Internet to fight illiteracy. With discussion forums, email 
and social networking sites, the Internet strengthens the 
skills of  adults who are illiterate in reading and writing.

Audiobooks
Due to a lack of  resources, the publishing of  books in the 
Sub-Saharan Africa region is reduced and existing works 
are not accessible to the majority. Added to this is the low 
literacy rate in the region, which explains in particular the 
trend towards popularization of  the oral transmission of  
knowledge in the field of  the implementation of  literacy 
programs. Thus, it is observed the promotion of  the audio 
book in the region taking into account the social realities, 
the experiences and the aspirations of  the populations. 
This involves developing and recording audio books, 
translated into as many languages as possible, including 
local languages, on media such as audio cassettes, CDs or 
recordings on mobile phones or MP3s. They are talking 
books with electronic texts converted into spoken words. 
They are one of  the tools for promoting literacy in the 
Sub-Saharan Africa region.

Open Educational Resources (OER)
Electronic books are electronic texts that are available 
on the Internet and on CD-ROMs. The development of  
the telecommunications sector in the Sub-Saharan Africa 
zone has allowed quick and easy access to digital books, 
sometimes despite the beneficiaries’ lack of  knowledge 
of  the use of  computers, thanks to the use of  mobile 
phones for reading of  digital books. Let us quote here 
the literacy initiative of  the NGO Worldreader through 
the popularization of  eBooks intended for young people in 



Pa
ge

 
16

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajmri

Am. J. Multidis. Res. Innov. 2(1) 9-21, 2023

rural areas. This will involve the free distribution of  more 
than 390 eBooks, ensuring that they are easily accessible 
from a mobile phone, thanks to a dedicated application 
(Tual, 2013). It is within this framework that the UNESCO 
Paris Declaration (2012) on Open Educational Resources 
(OER) is also inscribed as a set of  principles and guidelines 
for the development and use of  educational resources 
free in education. Also, one of  UNESCO’s main lines of  
action, for the period 2014-2017, aims to support the OER 
movement and create conducive policy environments in 
this area (UNESCO, 2014a).

Literacy Approaches
Participatory approach
It emerges from this study that participatory approaches 
constitute an essential element of  the education-training 
process of  illiterate adults in the Sub-Saharan Africa region. 
These approaches favor the involvement of  learners 
in the action. They are oriented towards participation, 
discussion, initiative and equality among participants. 
Such a participatory orientation, which characterizes 
literacy practices in Sub-Saharan Africa countries, can be 
explained, among others, by the following points:

a. habits of  community life of  adult learners favor the 
practice of  certain participatory approaches which are 
part of  their culture;

b. participatory approaches promote the appropriation 
of  content and the sustainability of  knowledge. This 
is important for education-training actions that lead to 
behavior changes (hygiene, preventive health measures, 
etc.);

c. agreement of  beneficiaries on the choices concerning 
them is fundamental and it is necessary to ensure that it 
is acquired. Indeed, the active participation of  learners is 
one of  the visible forms of  this requirement; and,

d. current philosophy in terms of  economic management 
is based on valuing demand. In adult education and 
training, the offers are sometimes numerous and are 
made by many entities outside the learning public (for 
example, it is above all literate people who are primarily 
concerned with the problem of  illiteracy). Participatory 
approaches are then conceived as methods to generate 
awareness and consequent demands.
Participatory literacy practices in Sub-Saharan Africa 
countries are observed in several ways, namely in 
particular:

a. passive mode: the participants contribute to the 
realization of  the action either financially (participation in 
cash or in kind) or physically (participation in household 
tasks, such as preparing the rooms, running alongside the 
training or other during the realization);

b. consultative mode: the participants are asked before 
the action is carried out to give their opinion on its various 
aspects (content, methods, implementation framework, 
etc.);

c. concerted mode: the contents and the methods of  
carrying out the training action are negotiated with the 
participants who then understand all the objectives of  the 

various stages;
d. empowering mode: the participants, considered as 

a group of  partners involved in carrying out the action, 
have clearly defined and predefined responsibilities. This 
responsibility is not limited to the material domain, but, 
from an interactionist perspective, also concerns other 
aspects (pedagogical, administrative, etc.); and,

e. appropriation mode: participants are fully considered 
and recognized as owners of  the training action. At this 
level, it is the autonomous participants who manage and 
control the action. They are involved in setting up the 
process of  defining training content and developing 
teaching materials (Baba-Moussa, et al., 2014).

Literacy Practices Based on Transformational 
Learning
A number of  literacy practices using ICT observed in 
the Sub-Saharan Africa zone are more or less part of  a 
transformational learning process. Mezirow (2001 cited 
in Baba-Moussa, et al., 2014) outlines the stages of  these 
learning practices as follows:

a. an unsatisfactory situation, a disturbing dilemma, 
corresponding for example to a disorientation in the face 
of  contradictory information, paradoxical injunctions;

b. negative feelings: guilt, shame at not being able to get 
out of  these situations or even understand them;

c. a critical (reflexive) assessment of  one’s beliefs, of  
what one took for granted (epistemological, sociocultural), 
certain attitudes;

d. the recognition that dissatisfaction and the changes 
initiated are shared by others;

e. exploring the possibilities of  new attitudes, new 
relationships and ways of  acting;

f. the development of  a course of  action: projects, 
decision to act;

g. the acquisition of  the knowledge and know-how 
necessary to implement the decided projects;

h. experimenting with new roles and new attitudes;
i. skill development and self-confidence building 

needed for new roles, attitudes, etc. ; and,
j. the reappropriation of  one’s own life on the basis 

of  new perspectives and the power to act linked to the 
transformation of  these perspectives: empowerment.

Holistic approach
The literacy programs observed reflect the intention to 
put into practice an integrated and diversified holistic 
vision in the literacy policies of  the Sub-Saharan Africa 
countries. The moderating factor consists of  carrying out 
training projects and acquiring skills based on the four 
pillars of  learning which confer: knowledge, know-how, 
social skills and interpersonal skills. Based on a systemic 
approach, the various programs put in place generally 
focus on:

a. entry by demand, that is to say that the themes 
addressed by the programs are drawn mainly from the 
daily experiences of  the target populations, as part of  a 



Pa
ge

 
17

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajmri

Am. J. Multidis. Res. Innov. 2(1) 9-21, 2023

response to learning needs;
b. an integrated approach combining education, literacy, 

training geared to the needs of  the socio-economic 
context and the fight against poverty;

c. the partnership and the synergy of  the beneficiaries, 
of  the methods of  implementation of  the programs, 
of  the operators and actors of  the development, of  the 
communes and of  the civil society;

d. capacity building of  actors and development of  
their skills in action through training, support, sharing 
of  experiences, dissemination and capitalization of  good 
practices; and,

e. the allocation of  material and financial resources.

Development of  networks for the exchange of  
practices and knowledge
A network of  associations is a framework of  synergy 
aimed at pursuing and achieving common objectives 
with greater efficiency and effectiveness. The 
compartmentalisation, the lack of  information and the 
relative lack of  communication of  African associations 
require networking efforts to exchange and share the 
results of  activities. An exchange network constitutes 
the minimum basis for joint work and can evolve into 
a platform for consultation and joint production, the 
starting point of  which is the capitalization of  exchanges. 
The exchange allows the adult learner to express himself  
and to confront others to enrich and validate his own 
knowledge. The development of  ICT increasingly favors 
the creation and functioning of  these networks. Several 
networks work for and around issues related to literacy in 
sub-Saharan Africa such as the following three:

a. Pan-African Association for Literacy and Adult 
Education (PAALAE), is a platform which aims both to 
promote literacy and adult education in Africa, but above 
all to advocate with governments and peoples, so that they 
better understand the importance of  the development of  
lifelong education for the progress of  mainly sub-Saharan 
African countries.

b. African Community Network for Education for 
All (ANCEFA), is a platform of  African civil society 
organizations. Its objective is to promote, foster and 
strengthen the capacity of  African civil society at the 
regional level and in the respective countries, in order to 
advocate with their governments in favor of  the priority 
to be given to Education for All (EFA) in their national 
policies.

c. Pamoja West Africa which brings together 13 national 
networks in the sub-region, practitioners of  the Reflect 
approach as an effective tool to enable communities to 
influence their future as well as for social change, literacy 
and learning. The network aims to promote and facilitate 
access to quality lifelong learning for young people 
and adults, in order to ensure equitable and sustainable 
development in West Africa. He pleads for making literacy 
a priority in the countries of  the sub-region.

Constraints and challenges of  developing and 

implementing literacy programs using ICT
This section addresses a set of  challenges, constraints 
and difficulties that continue to hamper the creation, 
implementation and operation of  literacy and adult 
education programs and activities, in particular through 
the use of  ICT In the region.

In the field of  ICT
Lack of  human capacities in ICT
The shortage of  human capacities is a major problem 
for the development and use of  ICTs in the region. The 
skills gap is glaring and the need for qualified personnel 
in the ICT sector is enormous (African Development 
Bank Group, 2013; Economic Commission for 
Africa, 2013). The region needs a critical mass of  ICT 
experts capable of  designing, managing and executing 
electronic applications projects, and participating in the 
development of  computerized services globally. In this 
regard, African countries have paid more attention to ICT 
capacity building in recent years, from the management 
of  large-scale public projects to the design, development 
and maintenance of  networks, information systems 
and distributed systems. Indeed, several ICT education, 
training and research centers have been created in recent 
years (African Development Bank Group, 2013). These 
include the African Virtual University (UVA) and the 
Virtual University of  Senegal (UVS). However, computer 
and network training tends to be theoretical and does not 
meet the needs of  public and private institutions which 
are often looking for cutting-edge technological solutions 
(UNCTAD, 2013).

Insufficient African infrastructure and electricity 
sector
The insufficient quantity and quality of  infrastructure 
in the Sahel, in the areas of  transport, energy, water, 
telecommunications and ICTs, is a major obstacle to the 
interconnection of  countries. This lack of  infrastructure 
affects not only inter-country infrastructure, but 
also within a country (UNCTAD, 2013). The same 
observation applies to the energy sector as one of  the 
most loss-making sectors (Niquet and Touati, 2011). In 
sub-Saharan Africa, nearly 600 million inhabitants were 
still without electricity in 2014. Infrastructure problems 
represent a considerable obstacle to the integration 
of  ICT in education and literacy programs, and partly 
explain the results obtained by the first generation of  
projects in this field (AFD, 2015). This reality is of  great 
concern to development partners, especially in the area 
of  ICT, because the challenge may indeed seem difficult 
to overcome. In this regard, there is still a long way to go 
and awareness of  the value of  the private sector takes 
time (Durand, 2013).

ICT strategies and the lack of  coordination
The technological revolution marked by the convergence 
between IT, telecommunications and audiovisual media is 
a determining factor in the growth of  Sub-Saharan African 



Pa
ge

 
18

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajmri

Am. J. Multidis. Res. Innov. 2(1) 9-21, 2023

countries. However, ICT development strategies seem to 
be broadly based on poverty reduction strategies. There is 
really a lesser effort to make ICT a real development sector. 
In addition, the lack of  collaboration, cooperation and 
sharing between actors and partners working in the field 
of  ICT (NGOs, grassroots organizations, institutions, 
etc.) gives the image of  a large number of  systems, of  
programs and platforms competing to solve the same 
problems. The lack of  visibility and knowledge of  what 
others are doing partly explains this state of  affairs. These 
partnerships thus run the risk of  losing their coherence.

Insufficient reliable ICT databases
The adoption of  policies on Information and 
Communication Technologies constitutes an essential 
pillar for the development of  information and knowledge 
societies. On this point, we observe a certain lack of  
exhaustive data on the achievements of  infrastructure and 
equipment, both in formal and non-formal education. 
However, every country needs reliable data and indicators 
on the access and use of  ICTs to measure their impact 
on development. The availability of  these allows a 
government to make decisions on ICT policies as well as 
to compare the evolution of  ICT in the country against 
other countries, in order to adopt effective solutions 
according to the needs realities of  the context.

In the area of  literacy
The growing population of  children and NEET 
Demographic variables (age and gender structure, growth, 
etc.) play, alongside social, economic, political and cultural 
variables, a central role in explaining the dynamics of  
education and literacy systems in the Africa region. These 
countries are both poorly educated and experiencing very 
rapid growth in the school-age population. According to the 
latest statistics compiled by UNICEF, February 2014, the 
population of  children in sub-Saharan Africa will increase 
by 130 million between 2010 and 2025 (UNICEF, 2014). 
At the same time, although the proportion of  illiterate 
adults has been declining in recent years, the number of  
illiterate individuals actually continues to increase due to 
population growth (Mingat, et al., 2013). This is obviously 
incompatible with a perspective of  literacy, human 
development and social, economic and technological 
progress. Such a context presupposes a longitudinal 
educational and literacy approach in intergenerational 
terms. If  we consider education as a means of  breaking 
the vicious circle of  the intergenerational transmission 
of  poverty and consequently of  illiteracy, literacy for 
parents is a real challenge to be met both because of  its 
effects on children and demographic variables by the 
values transmitted (habits, attitudes) as its influence on 
the age of  marriage, the life of  couples, the use or not 
of  contraceptive methods, diet. In fact, parents’ level 
of  education is a factor in demand for education and 
in reducing disparities between boys and girls (Hugon, 
2007).
On the other hand, school expansion in the Sahel most 

often leads to an increase in NEET. This means the large 
number of  children who drop out before the end of  
primary school, while some do not even have the chance 
to be educated. This is to say that a large number of  young 
people do not study, work and are not in training. This new 
sociological category results in intellectual unemployment 
and deskilling (OECD, 2014). Following the demographic 
explosion of  young people in these countries, the high 
number of  NEET has become the most urgent problem 
(Creamer, 2013). Faced with this situation, there are few 
and generally inadequate and underfunded solutions to 
strengthen and improve skills through adult education. 
Formal schooling already absorbs a high proportion 
of  the country’s budgets. Largely designed for illiterate 
adults, the non-formal sector fails to cope with school 
dropouts and its programs often fail to meet the needs of  
this generation of  NEET (Aitchison, 2013).

Underfunding of  literacy programs
While the literacy and adult education plans are integrated 
into the general education and development policies of  
the Sahel countries concerned by this work, the financial 
resources allocated to the implementation of  programs 
in this area are modest. (Aitchison and Alidou, 2009; 
Baba-Moussa, et al., 2014; Archer, 2013; Aitchison, 2013; 
Ndiaye Mbaye, 2011). This underfunding is, so to speak, 
a reflection of  the relatively low focus on literacy by both 
governments and donors. In addition, since non-formal 
education structures are essentially the responsibility of  
the communities, their development is limited given the 
limited financial resources, which explains the importance 
of  networking operators allowing access to funding, in 
place of  management tools or the execution of  common 
literacy programs.
The illiterate Sub-Saharan Africans as potential 
beneficiaries are active economic actors and key social 
actors who must facilitate the processes of  attitude 
and behavior change necessary for the achievement 
of  sustainable development on the continent (Baba-
Moussa, et al., 2014). For this reason, further integrating 
the sustainable development agenda and promoting the 
coherence of  educational policies and programs involve, 
among other things, allocating more financial resources to 
literacy, in order to develop this sub-sector as a strategic 
axis of  development.

Low level of  professional qualification
The teachers responsible for literacy in the most countries 
are the least qualified and the least paid. Such a shortage 
of  qualified teachers hinders the promotion of  successful 
literacy in the region (Aitchison and Alidou, 2009, 
Hackett, 2007). The guideline of  this orientation towards 
the professionalization of  trainers is to focus on meeting 
the literacy needs emerging from the socio-educational 
and technological environment of  Sub-Saharan Africa in 
its diversity, taking into consideration the various groups 
illiterate. The need for adaptation to the Sub-Saharan 
African context supposes:



Pa
ge

 
19

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajmri

Am. J. Multidis. Res. Innov. 2(1) 9-21, 2023

a. modification of  social representations linked to the 
status of  adult trainers;

b. capitalization of  practices and the creation of  
appropriate forms of  capacity building to promote the 
field of  action of  literacy;

c. an incentive to use open and distance learning and 
ICT in training and support for trainers and designers of  
teaching materials;

d. assimilation of  new notions and conceptual re-
reading of  the role of  literacy, especially with the help 
of  ICT; and,

e. implementation of  appropriate university research. 
Such an orientation of  continuing professional 
development will produce quality literacy interventions 
that motivate and inspire adults to become involved and 
to continue with the various literacy programs.
Thus, improving the capacities of  facilitators, trainers and 
volunteers represents a major challenge which requires 
a collective effort from various governmental and non-
governmental stakeholders in the implementation of  
literacy programs. In addition, regional collaboration 
should be further exploited.

Despite undeniable progress, gender inequalities 
remain
While the number of  out-of-school girls has declined 
considerably, more than half  of  out-of-school children 
for example, in Sahelian Africa are still girls. The 
participation of  women in formal education and the social 
benefits they derive from it are maintained at a lower level 
than that of  men. As a result, the subject of  women’s 
literacy is a very complex subject, as it encompasses many 
other issues. Literacy for Sub-Saharan women, as a vital 
issue and catalyst for development (UNESCO, 2006), is 
one of  the main challenges and of  crucial importance in 
addressing the broader issues of  education for all.

Desert in statistical data related to literacy
While the statistical data and information collected in 
the field are relatively consistent for formal education in 
Africa Sub-Saharan, they are still disorganized, unreliable, 
confused or even deficient in terms of  literacy and adult 
education. In these countries with poor statistics (Hugon, 
2007), little capacity (or priority) is generally given to 
the collection, analysis, dissemination and updating of  
data, which results in a lack of  information or obsolete 
information (Aitchison, 2013). This weakens the capacity 
of  countries to monitor the performance of  literacy 
programs, assess progress and revise strategic plans based 
on a body of  accurate, reliable and valid data (ADEA, 
2014, Aitchison and Alidou, 2009).
The challenges to be met include standardizing the data 
and benchmark indicators across the entire scope of  the 
literacy issue, in particular through the integration of  
ICT. This involves, among other things, the creation of  
a systematic regional electronic database on the provision 
of  literacy services and practices. Countries should share 
online best practices, effective initiatives and comparative 

assessment reports on the use of  ICT to promote literacy 
in the region.

Lack of  coordination in literacy programs
This study has provided an overview of  the multiplicity 
of  projects and programs that have been developed in the 
area of  ICT integration for literacy. This has resulted in a 
wide distribution of  responsibilities and the involvement 
of  a variety of  public, non-governmental, private, civil 
society and donor stakeholders. On the other hand, the 
coordination of  efforts between the different stakeholders 
involved in literacy activities is reduced (Aitchison and 
Alidou, 2009; UIL, 2013). This situation, due to the lack 
of  strategy, synergy and coordination of  actions, has 
negative repercussions on the quality of  programs and 
the promotion of  literacy in the region.
It is in this vein that the promotion of  literacy, in particular 
through the use of  ICT requires creating and maintaining 
the mechanisms for strategic action involving various 
stakeholders with better understanding, definition of  
roles and responsibilities. However, effective coordination 
requires strong capacities both among individuals and 
institutions, at the local, regional and international levels.

Monitoring and evaluation issues
Information on the evaluation of  literacy outcomes in 
number of  Sub-Saharan Africa countries is limited. In the 
absence of  studies that can inform practitioners about 
the functioning of  programs, non-formal education and 
literacy for young people and adults are not governed 
by rules, quality assurance mechanisms or national 
evaluations of  the programs put into practice (Aitchison 
and Alidou, 2009). In addition, the lack of  qualification 
in project management hinders the establishment of  
adequate operations and monitoring and evaluation 
mechanisms. Solving these questions requires evaluation 
actions, which are increasingly participatory, in order to 
make them as reliable as possible and to be attentive to 
the difficulties and challenges concerning illiteracy.

CONCLUSION 
This study found that illiteracy is the most formidable 
obstacle to the growth and sustainable development of  
a large number of  Sub-Saharan African countries (Sow, 
2013). At the 21st century, the marked progress in the 
integration of  ICT in literacy practices as well as in the 
management of  literacy organizations indicates that the 
technological shift in the development of  the sector literacy 
in some countries of  region is well underway. While ICT 
does not automatically solve all the problems associated 
with the delivery of  literacy programs, the technology 
envisaged must first and foremost be appropriate to help 
adults learn as quickly, economically and efficiently as 
possible. Such an orientation constitutes a component 
of  development which marks a factor of  organization, 
motivation and support for the implementation of  
literacy programs. Indeed, the practices observed revolve 
around two essential principles:



Pa
ge

 
20

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajmri

Am. J. Multidis. Res. Innov. 2(1) 9-21, 2023

a. principle of  anchoring in the realities of  the country 
which leads to giving literacy programs specific objectives 
rooted in the context; and,

b. principle of  innovation in literacy.
The Sub-Saharan Africa nurtures ambitious programs 
and action plans to promote literacy through the use 
of  ICT. However, the implementation of  this strategic 
orientation poses a serious challenge in terms of  human 
capital development. The challenges arising from the 
analysis of  certain examples of  programs, initiatives and 
practices of  use of  ICT in this area have generally made 
it possible to identify capacity building needs, grouped 
around three areas:

a. leadership, design, planning, budgeting, 
implementation and evaluation of  literacy policies and 
programs;

b. administrative procedures, good governance and 
human resources; and,

c. decentralization and local development in the sense 
of  strengthening the skills of  local communities.
In fact, this work has indeed helped to fuel reflection on 
the contribution of  the use of  ICT to literacy programs 
and practices. In the following sections, we will review the 
main elements retained from this study. Some can be seen 
as lessons and others as avenues for action.

Recommendations
The various initiatives and practices observed have 
highlighted successes and also major challenges to be 
taken up in the region. For this reason, the following 
sections will develop a number of  recommendations 
based on certain weaknesses and bottlenecks. The 
recommendations will follow three main axes, namely: a) 
the field of  ICT, b) the field of  education and literacy, and 
c) the field of  capacity building. Let us quote mainly:

The field of  ICT 
Invest in infrastructure 
Support for infrastructure development, which includes 
transport, water, energy, ICT and the adaptability of  ICT 
to the realities of  underprivileged and rural populations, 
appears essential to ensure growth, reduce poverty, 
promote literacy and realizing the potential of  the Sub-
Saharan Africa in terms of  development, education, 
health and agriculture (Economic Commission for Africa, 
2013; World Bank, 2013; Akue-Kpakpo, 2013). 

Reduce the cost of  supply and the cost of  access to 
the Internet connection 
The literature ranks the Internet connection in sub-Saharan 
Africa in general among the most expensive in the world 
(Akue-Kpakpo, 2013). Thus, for the African user, the 
limitation of  the Internet connection due to the costs is at 
two levels, namely: the cost of  the equipment to connect to 
the Internet and the monthly charges related to the Internet 
connection. In this regard, it is recommended to: 

a. facilitate and generalize access to the Internet through 
the development and implementation of  a master plan 

for Internet access; 
b.  set up an access offer subsidized by the State, so that 

the price of  access for users, especially in rural areas, is 
reduced to a symbolic level; 

c. reduce the prices of  the Internet connection. These 
include, among other things, facilitating the construction 
of  basic broadband infrastructure capable of  supporting 
Internet traffic generated by mass use of  ICT (Akue-
Kpakpo, 2013). 

Networking 
As a space for consultation and exchange between 
different actors and stakeholders at national, regional and 
international level, networking through the establishment 
of  partnership strategies and agreements is essential 
and makes literacy a driving force of  change and social 
development. Strengthening and sharing online effective 
strategies, successful initiatives, innovative approaches 
and practices that have proven effective in integrating 
ICT for literacy are part of  this approach. The challenge 
here lies in building capacity in the areas of  project 
management, advocacy and techniques for organizing, 
operating and maintaining a network. 

Field of  education and literacy
Establish coordination between ministries to 
improve the implementation of  education and 
literacy policies
Literacy systems in the Sub-Saharan Africa must result 
in a systemic approach, with strategies mobilizing the 
best resources within the framework of  multifaceted 
partnerships. In addition, there must be synergy between 
formal and non-formal education. In order to ensure 
proper implementation of  strategic choices in education, 
literacy and ICT, it is essential to ensure effective 
coordination of  the various development programs and 
to be able to translate political choices into development 
plans priority actions, based on clear guidelines and 
coherent and integrated programs. Likewise, policy 
coherence and inter-ministerial cooperation are crucial, 
in order to enable ministries to have a holistic view of  
building local links and to make institutional arrangements 
to facilitate policy implementation and overcome 
problems coordination (Economic Commission for 
Africa, 2013; International Monetary Fund, 2013).

Promote innovation and research in the field of  
literacy
The professionalization of  the literacy and non-formal 
education sector necessarily involves the production of  
scientific knowledge, information and research, applied 
to the field of  literacy. Generally, research falls under 
one of  the following three agendas: capitalization of  
experiences, exchange and enrichment of  practices and 
improvement of  the quality of  actions. In this regard, it is 
advisable to recommend:

a. proceed to a clarification and standardization of  
terminology and concepts relating to literacy, adult basic 



Pa
ge

 
21

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajmri

Am. J. Multidis. Res. Innov. 2(1) 9-21, 2023

education, non-formal education and all-round learning 
throughout life;

b. develop action guidelines and upgrading processes;
c. Standardize the data that Sub-Saharan countries 

should provide on literacy in order to allow relevant 
regional comparisons. On this point, it is crucial to 
encourage countries to develop their own capacities to 
collect this type of  information;

d. re-mobilize and strengthen universities - essential 
partners for research and the development of  practitioners 
in the field of  learning and literacy;

e. increase research, surveys, monitoring and evaluation 
activities and impact studies and increase the efficiency 
of  sharing, dissemination and exploitation of  existing 
research; and,

f. disseminate good practices and successful experiences 
and promote Internet accessibility of  reports, research, 
evaluations and all types of  documents dealing with 
literacy and ICT issues. Today, the development of  
a comprehensive and systematic database on literacy 
provision and practices in Africa is becoming essential 
(Aitchison and Alidou, 2009).

Improve the budget for literacy programs
The resources devoted to the various components of  
literacy programs are insufficient in view of  the multiple 
development challenges of  Sub-Saharan countries. Hence 
the importance of:

a. substantially increase budgets through the 
involvement of  the public, private and civil society;

b. allocate sustainable and predictable flows to literacy 
programs;

c. introduce evaluation criteria alongside strategies for 
fundraising in this area;

d. increase efforts aimed at functional literacy; and,
e. intensify media and ICT use initiatives to develop 

online training (e-learning and m.learning) open to as 
many people as possible.

Area of  leadership capacity building in the education, 
literacy and ICT sectors
To ensure good governance in the field of  literacy, it 
is often necessary to develop the capacities of  those 
responsible. The study of  some previous programs 
for the use of  ICT for literacy inspires the following 
recommendations for concrete actions to be taken by 
leaders:

a.1 Promote visionary strategic leadership with the 
skills needed to drive change. Sedegan (2014) identifies 
four types of  vision: organizational, future, personal 
and strategic. Factors that contribute to this vision are: 
information processing skills, diagnostic tools, conceptual 
knowledge, creative thinking and self-awareness.

b.2 Bridge the gap between literacy policies and 
implementation strategies. Despite significant progress in 
terms of  investment and innovation in the use of  ICT 
to promote literacy, this study has observed the slowness 
with which strategies for the implementation of  Education 

and literacy development plans are moving towards the 
achievement of  the targeted objectives (Sedegan, 2014). 
Indeed, the translation of  visions and initiatives into real 
practices is more or less limited, particularly in the areas 
of  poverty reduction and literacy. It is often admitted 
that some African countries suffer from a qualitative 
deficit of  expertise or of  the necessary capacities to 
analyze, set up, monitor and evaluate strategic policies 
in this area (CAFRAD, 2014). This observation leads to 
the objective of  proposing a capacity building program 
geared towards the emergence and development of  a new 
generation of  qualified and sufficient leaders. It is about 
the capacities to monitor and support, in an effective 
way, the technological innovations and the dynamics of  
strategic development of  the country.

c.3 Build the capacities needed to respond to the 
current and continuing challenges of  Sub-Saharan 
Africans. Strengthening leadership is not an academic 
exercise, but rather a conscious effort taking into account 
the current challenges facing the development process on 
the continent as well as the educational challenges that 
appear to be facing future generations. Without the ability 
to react and be sensitive to the socio-political-economic 
and cultural challenges of  the environment in Sub-
Sahara Africa and its relation to the international context. 
It seems that leadership capacity building programs 
produce leaders who are initiate changes that do not meet 
the real needs of  Africans and do not improve their lives, 
including the need to be educated and literate.

Meeting the challenges related to the promotion of  
literacy involves, among other things, the conduct of  
leadership with the capacity to:

a. planning, organizing, and stimulating different 
approaches to literacy and the power to pursue excellence;

b. initiate and maintain dialogue, mobilize individuals, 
raise awareness and understanding for literacy and the 
place of  ICT in this process; and,

c. ability to define and use performance and quality 
indicators as well as mastery of  data collection and 
interpretation methods.

Build leadership skills in negotiation
 The socio-economic development strategies, in particular 
education, are based on complementarity, partnership 
and competitiveness (Lelo, 2011) by relying on a range 
of  development partners. As a result, it is essential that 
African leaders have the necessary capacities, skills and 
knowledge to enable them to master the negotiation 
process and approaches.

Exploit existing practices, initiatives, achievements 
and expertise in the use of  ICT for literacy, so as not to 
redouble efforts, but rather to create synergies, develop 
complementarities, strengthen filling gaps and meet the 
country’s needs in terms of  capacity building.

Adopt a holistic methodological approach



Pa
ge

 
22

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajmri

Am. J. Multidis. Res. Innov. 2(1) 9-21, 2023

It is inclusive, interdisciplinary and inter-sectoral. A capacity 
building program must take into account the broadest 
spectrum, in terms of  partnerships and complementarities 
between the private, public and civil society sectors. The 
objective is to jointly develop a common vision to promote 
literacy, encourage partnership, collaboration, dialogue and 
networking between actors from different sectors (formal 
and non-formal education, health, ICT, vocational training, 
etc. .) for mutual support and development. The approach 
is also intended to be flexible and adapted to the new needs 
that arise from the action. This ensures the continuous 
development of  target groups, critically reviewing 
implemented practices and making necessary adjustments 
along the way. It is a capacity building program in the form 
of  a long-term process unlike one-off  training. It consists 
of  a series of  steps and actions before, during and after 
literacy action plans.

A leadership capacity building program 
Related to literacy strategies, programs and practices 
cannot start with, or be restricted to, those who already 
hold positions of  responsibility. While short-term 
interventions have their merits, the approach of  creating 
an incubator of  leaders in this area, through a long-
term strategy of  capacity building, allows for logical and 
sustainable preparation.

Building 21st century skills
The challenges associated with the 21st century place 
new demands on Africa. It’s about equipping a generation 
of  leaders with the skills and knowledge necessary to 
function well in an increasingly dynamic world and 
an ever-changing social, economic, educational and 
technological environment.

REFERENCES
ADEA.(2014). Projet de Perspectives de l’Éducation 

en Afrique. Rapport sur l’ Education Continentale. 
http://www.adeanet.org/portalv2/sites/default/
files/au_outlook_continental_french_2014_w.pdf

AFD.(2015). Le numérique au service de l’éducation en 
Afrique. Savoirs communs n°17. Agence Française 
de Développement, Février 2015. http://www.afd.
fr/webdav/site/afd/shared/PUBLICATIONS/
THEMATIQUES/savoirscommuns/17-Savoirs-
communs-VF.pdf

Aitchison, John et Alidou, Hassana.(2009). Apprentissage 
et éducation des adultes en Afrique subsaharienne 
: état des lieux et tendances. Rapport régional de 
synthèse. Hambourg : Institut de l’UNESCO pour 
l’apprentissage tout au long de la vie.

Aitchison, John.(2013). Faire le boulot : que se passe-t-il 
au juste une fois qu’un plan d’action international a été 
approuvé ? Éducation des Adultes et Développement, 
Numéro 80, DVV International.

Aker, Jenny C. (2008). Can You Hear Me Now? How 
Cell Phones are Transforming Markets in Sub-
Saharan Africa. Center for Global  Development 

Notes. http://www.cgdev.org/content/publications/
detail/894409.

Akue-Kpakpo, Abossé.(2013). Étude sur la connectivité 
internationale d’Internet en Afrique subsaharienne. 
Division d’Environnement réglementaire et 
commercial (RME), Bureau de développement 
des télécommunications (BDT) et la Commission 
d’études 3 de l’UIT-T. Mars, 2013.

Arcouet, M. 1996. Deux questions à discuter : risque-t-on 
de devenir analphabète si on ne sait pas utiliser les 
NTIC ?  Vie pédagogique, n° 98, 24-26.

Baba-Moussa,  Abdel Rahamane ;  Moussa, Laouali 
Malam et Rakotozafy, José.(2014). FONDEMENTS 
ET PHILOSOPHIE DE L’ÉDUCATION DES 
ADULTES EN AFRIQUE. Hambourg : Institut de 
l’UNESCO pour l’apprentissage tout au long de la vie 
(UIL) et Cameroun : Presses universitaires d’Afrique.

Banque africaine de développement.(2014). CABO 
VERDE. Document de stratégie pays 2014-2018. 
Département ORWA/SNFO, Banque africaine de 
développement, Mars 2014. 

Banque africaine de Développement.(2015). Guinée-
Bissau. Document de stratégie pays 2015-2019, 
Banque africaine de Développement, ORWA/SNFO, 
Janvier 2015

Banque mondiale.(2013). Pour un monde sans pauvreté 
: Éliminer l’extrême pauvreté et promouvoir une 
prospérité partagée. Banque mondiale-Rapport 
annuel 2013. http://siteresources.worldbank.
org/EXTANNREP2013/Resources/9304887-      
1377201212378/9305896- 1378757593120/
WorldFreeOfPoverty_FR.pdf

Bélisle, Claire ; Berthaud, Christine ; Le Marec, Joëlle ; 
Liautard, Dominique ; Paquelin, Didier; Rosado, 
Eliana; Chaptal, Alain et Laborey, Yves. 2002. 
Méthodes et outils pour l’observation et l’analyse 
des usages Étudier les usages pédagogiques des 
technologies de l’information et de la communication 
: une pratique de recherche ou/et de légitimation ? 
Rapport final v.1. Étude PNER N°3. Document 
électronique accessible par Internet: http://www1.
msh paris.fr:8099/index.asp?choix=3-2

Bonnecase, Vincent et Brachet, Julien.( 2013). Les « crises 
sahéliennes » entre perceptions locales et gestions 
Internationales. Politique africaine, 2013/2 N° 130, 
5-22.

CAFRAD. (2014). Programme de travail du CAFRAD 
Juillet 2014 – Juin 2015. 52ème Session du Conseil 
d’Administration. Centre africain de formation et 
de recherche administratives pour le développement 
(CAFRAD). Marrakech (Maroc), 14 mai 2014.

Chéneau-Loquay, Annie.(2010). Modes d’appropriation 
innovants du téléphone mobile en Afrique. Union 
internationale des télécommunications (UIT). Genève 
: Ministère des Affaires étrangères et européennes 
(MAEE).

Chéneau-Loquay, Annie.(2012). Rôle joué par l’économie 
informelle dans l’appropriation des TIC en Afrique. 



Pa
ge

 
23

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajmri

Am. J. Multidis. Res. Innov. 2(1) 9-21, 2023

Les télécoms en Afrique, enjeux économiques et 
mutations sociales-IFRI, Paris 7 février 2012.

Cisse, Seydou.(2001). La postalphabétisation – Cas du 
Mali. Éducation des Adultes et Développement, 
Numéro 57, DVV International. http://www.iiz-dvv.
de/index.php?article_id=455&clang=2

Commission économique pour l’Afrique.(2013). Tirer 
le plus grand profit des produits de base africains: 
l’industrialisation au service de la croissance, de 
l’emploi et de la transformation économique. Rapport 
économique sur l’Afrique 2013. Publications : 
Commission économique pour l’Afrique. http://
www.uneca.org/sites/default/files/publications/
unera_report_final_french_web.pdf

Creamer, T.(2013). ‘NEETs crisis’ emerging as SA’s most 
urgent challenge.  Polity News, 25 juin 2013. http://
bit.ly/15Ip0e7

Durand, Charlotte .(2013). Les enseignements du 
numéro. Secteur Privé et Développement. La revue 
de proparco. No. 18 / Novembre 2013.

Fonds monétaire international.(2013). SÉNÉGAL. 
Document de stratégie pour la réduction de la 
pauvreté – Note consultative conjointe. Rapport du 
FMI n° 13/195f, 2 juillet 2013 https://www.imf.org/
external/french/pubs/ft/scr/2013/cr13195f.pdf

Ginestié, Jacques, 1999 ; Techniques scolaires et 
enseignement technologiques. In,  Giordan, A.; 
Martinand, J._L. et Raichvarg, D., Technologies/
Technologies. Actes de XXI Journées Internationales 
sur la Communication, l’Éducation et la Culture 
Scientifique et Industrielles. Chamonix, 22-26 Mars 
1999. p.75-82.

GSMA.(2011). Africa Mobile Observatory. http://
www.gsma .com/pub l i cpo l i cy/w p-content/
uploads/2012/04/africamobileobservatory2011-1.
Pdf

Helly, Damien ; Théroux-Bénoni, Lori-Anne ; Galeazzi, 
Greta ; Maïga, Ibrahim et Ouédraogo, Fatimata.(2015). 
Stratégies Sahel : L’impératif  de la coordination. 
Institut d’études de sécurité (ISS). Note d’analyse 
76- MARS 2015. http://ecdpm.org/wp-content/
uploads/Strategies-Sahel-ISS-ECDPM-Mars-2015.
pdf

Hugon, Philippe.(2007). Variables démographiques, 
éducation et santé en Afrique Ou le mirage des 
OMD. L’Afrique face à ses défis démographiques. 
Un avenir incertain (dir Benoit Ferry) Paris, 
AFD,CEPED,Karthala,2007

Ifri.(2012). L’Afrique, laboratoire des nouveaux usages 
? Téléphonie mobile, Mobile Banking et autres 
développements spécifiques liés à la mobilité.  
Institut français des relations internationales (Ifri). 
BearingPoint France SAS, février, 2012.  

In’utu Sumbwa, Phyllis et Weluzani Chakanika, 
Wanga.(2013). Où sont les hommes ? Pourquoi se 
désintéressent-ils de l’alphabétisation ? Éducation des 
Adultes et Développement, Numéro 80/2013, DVV 
International 

Kleis, R. (1974). Programme of  Studies in Non-Formal 
Education: Study Team Reports. Washington D.C. : 
Institute for International Studies in Education.

KoneTago, Haoua.(2013). La mise en œuvre 
du Programme National d’Accélération de 
l’Alphabétisation (PRONAA) au Burkina Faso : 
Quels enjeux et perspectives pour l’amélioration 
des enseignements - apprentissages par l’usage 
des Technologies mobiles (téléphones portables, 
tablettes électroniques,  etc.)? FORUM REGIONAL 
SUR L’INTEGRATION DES TIC DANS LES 
SYSTEMES EDUCATIFS AFRICAINS : FORCES 
/ FAIBLESSES/ PERSPECTIVES. Dakar, 07 – 08 
– 09 mai 2013.

Leclerc, Martine. 2003. Étude du changement découlant 
de l’intégration des technologies de l’information 
et de la communication dans une école secondaire 
de l’Ontario. Canadian Journal of  Learning and 
Technology. Volume 29(1) Winter, 2003. 

Lelo, Simon Mamosi.(2011). Place et rôle de l’Afrique 
dans les processus de négociations internationales. 
Comment réussir les négociations stratégiques et 
complexes pour promouvoir le développement de 
l’Afrique du 21ème siècle : Nouvelles approches et 
nouvelles tendances de négociations diplomatiques, 
économiques et sécuritaires. Forum Panafricain de 
renforcement des capacités de leadership. Centre 
africain de formation et de recherches administratives 
pour le développement (CAFRAD). Rabat (Maroc), 
16 – 18 Mai 2011.

MEP/A/PLN/EC.(2015). Programme d’éradication 
de l’analphabétisme au Niger à l’horizon 2023. 
Première étape 2015-2017: Plan d’actions triennal 
d’accélération de l’Alphabétisation et l’Éducation 
non formelle. Ministère de l’Enseignement Primaire, 
de l’Alphabétisation, de la Promotion des Langues 
Nationales et de l’Éducation Civique, Mars 2015.

Mingat, Alain ; Ndem, Francis et Seurat, Adeline. (2013). 
La mesure de l’analphabétisme en question. Le cas de 
l’Afrique subsaharienne. Cahiers de la recherche sur 
l’éducation et les savoirs, n°12-2013, p.p. 25-47.

Niquet, Valérie et Touati, Sylvain.(2011).  La Chine en 
Afrique : Intérêts et pratiques. Essai d’analyse du 
mode de fonctionnement d’un système. Programme 
Afrique subsaharienne. Institut français des relations 
internationales (Ifri).

Nshimyumuremyi, Adalbert.(2014). Gambie 2014. 
Perspectives économiques en Afrique. BAfD, OCDE, 
PNUD 2014.http://www.africaneconomicoutlook.
org/fileadmin/uploads/aeo/2014/PDF/CN_Long_
FR/Gambie_FR.pdf

Ouédraogo, Sylvestre (2009). Etat des lieux du secteur 
des TIC, rapport général (Burkina Faso, Cameroun, 
Sénégal), DTTIC INFOR 2.

Peraya, Daniel; Viens, Jacques et Karsenti, Thierry. 2002. 
Introduction:Formation des enseignants à l’intégration 
pédagogique des TIC : Esquisse historique des 
fondements, des recherches et des pratiques. Revue 



Pa
ge

 
24

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajmri

Am. J. Multidis. Res. Innov. 2(1) 9-21, 2023

des sciences de l’éducation : Intégration pédagogique 
des TIC : recherches et formation. Numéro : Volume 
28, numéro 2, 2002.

Perriault, Jacques. 1989. La logique de l’usage. Essai sur 
les machines à communiquer. Paris: Flammarion.

Proulx, Serge.1994. Les différentes problématiques de 
l’usage et de l’usager. In, A. Vitalis (dir), Médias et 
nouvelles technologies. Pour une sociopolitique des 
usages, éditions Apogée, Rennes, p. 149-159.

Rennard, Marc.(2012). Le marché des télécoms en 
Afrique : perspectives d’évolution. Institut français 
des relations internationales (Ifri) , février, 2012.  

Rocheleau, Johanne et Basque, Josianne.1998. Une 
demarche d’intégration des TIC dans une école. 
Collection Comment informatiser l’école. Montréal 
: Corporation École informatisée Clés en main du 
Québec.

Sedegan, Emmanuel F.(2014). Faire montre de leadership 
visionnaire stratégique dans la reforme, l’innovation 
et la modernisation du secteur public. Conférence 
interrégionale des ministres de la fonction publique 
et de la modernisation du secteur public d’Afrique, 
d’Amérique latine et des pays Arabes. Centre africain 
de formation et de recherches administratives pour le 
développement (CAFRAD). Marrakech (Maroc), 12 
– 13 mai 2014.

Sow, Gorgui.(2013). L’alphabétisation en Afrique 
repose entre nos mains. Éducation des Adultes et 
Développement, Numéro 80, DVV International.

Sy, Karim.(2012).Cartographie du secteur des 
technologies de l’information et de la communication 
au Sénégal. Dakar, Programme sénégalo-allemand 
d’appui à la compétivité et à la croissance des PME 
et à la performance du secteur de la micro-finance 
(PACC-PME/PMF), Mars, 2012.

Tardif, Maurice et Mukamurera, Joséphine. 1999. La 
pédagogie scolaire et les TIC: l’enseignement comme 
interactions, communication et pouvoirs. Éducation et 
Francophonie : Les technologies de l’information et de 
la communication et leur avenir en éducation, Volume 
XXVII, n° 2, automne-hiver 1999. 

Tschoumy, J. A. 1994. Hermès à l’école. Neuchâtel: 
Institut romand de recherches et de documentation 
pédagogique.

Tual, Morgane.(2013). Afrique : comment le mobile profite 
à l’éducation. Tech Ethique, 17/01/2013. http://
techethique.blog.youphil.com/archive/2013/01/17/
afrique-comment-le-mobile-profite-a-l-education.html

UIL.(2013). RAPPORT MONDIAL SUR 
L’APPRENTISSAGE ET L’ÉDUCATION DES 
ADULTES. Repenser l’alphabétisation. Hambourg : 
Institut de l’UNESCO pour l’apprentissage tout au 
long de la vie.

UNESCO.(2004). Pluralité de l’alphabétisation et ses 
implications en termes de politiques et programmes. 
Document d’orientation. Paris, UNESCO. http://
unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001362/136246f.
pdf

UNESCO.(2006). Alphabétisation et alphabétisme, 
quelques définitions. Chapitre 6. Rapport mondial de 
suivi sur l’EPT 2006. UNESCO : Paris, P.p. 155-169. 
http://www.unesco.org/education/GMR2006/
full/chap6_fr.pdf

UNESCO.(2014a). PROGRAMME ET BUDGET 
APPROUVÉS 2014-2017, 37 C/5. Paris : UNESCO.

UNESCO.(2014b). Reading in the mobile era: A study 
of  mobile reading in developing countries. Paris : 
UNESCO

UNESCO.(2014c). Exploiter le potentiel des TIC dans 
l’enseignement et l’apprentissage des compétences de 
base. Programmes efficaces d’alphabétisation et de 
numératie utilisant la radio, la télévision, le téléphone 
mobile, les tablettes et les ordinateurs. l’Institut de 
l’UNESCO pour l’apprentissage tout au long de la 
vie : Hambourg, Allemagne. http://unesdoc.unesco.
org/images/0023/002317/231726f.pdf

UNESCO.(2014d). Alphabétisation et éducation pour 
le développement durable et l’autonomisation 
des femmes. l’Institut de l’UNESCO pour 
l’apprentissage tout au long de la vie : Hambourg, 
A l l e m a g n e . h t t p : / / u n e s d o c . u n e s c o . o r g /
images/0023/002301/230162F.pdf

UNESCO.(2015). Éducation pour tous 2000-2015 : 
progrès et enjeux. Rapport mondial de suivi sur l’EPT 
2015. UNESCO: Paris.  http://unesdoc.unesco.org/
images/0023/002324/232433f.pdf

UNICEF, 2014. Les enfants en Afrique. Statistiques clés 
sur la survie, la protection et le développement de 
l’enfant. Service des données et des analyses. Division 
politique et stratégie. UNICEF, février 2014. 

Valdés-Valdivieso, Luisa et Penteriani, Gaia.(2012). 
Rapport 2012 de l’Observatoire de la téléphonie 
mobile en Afrique subsaharienne. Résumé. 
GSMA London Office. http://www.gsma.com/
publicpolicy/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/gsma_
ssa_obs_exec_french_web_01_13.pdf

Wallet, Jacques. 2001. AU RISQUE de se passer DES 
NTIC… HABILITATION A DIRIGER LES 
RECHERCHES. UNIVERSITÉ DE ROUEN

World Economic Forum.(2015). Global Risks 2015 
report, 10th Edition, World Economic Forum: 
Geneva. http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_
Global_Risks_2015_Report15.pdf



Pa
ge

 
25

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajmri

Am. J. Multidis. Res. Innov. 2(1) 9-21, 2023



Pa
ge

 
26

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajmri

Am. J. Multidis. Res. Innov. 2(1) 9-21, 2023