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American Journal Of Philological Sciences   
(ISSN – 2771-2273) 
VOLUME 02 ISSUE 11 PAGES: 73-81 

SJIF IMPACT FACTOR  (2022: 5. 445)  
OCLC – 1121105677    METADATA IF – 5.963 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
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ABSTRACT 

The article examines Joyce’s development as an author and his changing use of the epistolary form. Joyce is interested 

in representing character subjectivity and uses free indirect thought and focalization to do so. Joyce often focalizes 

through and reports on the thoughts of a single character, replicating some of the traditional functions of the letter 

in fiction. 

 

KEYWORDS 

Letters and letter writing, epistolary form, epistolary tradition, consciousness, character, interior monologue. 

INTRODUCTION

James Joyce’s Ulysses reflects the changes taking 

place in the way people communicated at the turn of 

the century in a busy city like Dublin. Stephen sends his 

roommate Mulligan a telegram to cancel a meeting, 

and Leopold Bloom makes a telephone call to the 

office of the Evening Telegraph, which illustrates the 

other 

  Research Article 

 

JOYCE’S DEVELOPMENT AS AN AUTHOR AND HIS EXPERIMENTS WITH 

THE EPISTOLARY FORM 
 

Submission Date: November 05, 2022, Accepted Date:  November 15, 2022,  

Published Date: November 29, 2022  

Crossref doi: https://doi.org/10.37547/ajps/Volume02Issue11-10 

 

 

Manzila Nuriddinovna Khabibova 
Bsmi, Teacher Of English Language Department, Uzbekistan 

  

 

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Copyright: Original 

content from this work 

may be used under the 

terms of the creative 

commons attributes 

4.0 licence. 

 

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Volume 02 Issue 11-2022 74 

                 

 
 

   
  
 

American Journal Of Philological Sciences   
(ISSN – 2771-2273) 
VOLUME 02 ISSUE 11 PAGES: 73-81 

SJIF IMPACT FACTOR  (2022: 5. 445)  
OCLC – 1121105677    METADATA IF – 5.963 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
Publisher: Oscar Publishing Services 

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characters’ attitudes towards him. But letters and 

letter writing are what play a central role in the life of 

the characters in the novel, because throughout the 

day, Bloom and others read letters, write letters, and 

receive letters: Bloom corresponds with Martha 

Clifford; Mr. Deasy wants to publish his letter on hoof 

and mouth disease in the paper; the Citizen and his 

cohorts at Barney Kiernan’s read letters of application 

written by barely literate hangmen; and, perhaps most 

importantly, Molly Bloom receives a letter from Blazes 

Boylan, confirming their rendezvous at four o’clock in 

the afternoon. The epistolary form continues to be an 

important thematic and structural element in 

Finnegans Wake; few letters appear in Joyce’s early 

works, such as Dubliners and A Portrait of the Artist as 

a Young Man. Part of Joyce’s progress as a writer, then, 

is his decision to use the epistolary form extensively in 

his later fiction. 

In Ulysses, Joyce begins to use interior monologue in 

his writing, allowing character thoughts to be directly 

recorded in the text, making the epistolary form seem 

superfluous. Instead of abandoning the letter, 

however, Joyce uses it to explore the way language 

fails to represent subjectivity, rejecting the character 

element of the epistolary tradition and disrupting the 

relationship between letters and external readers. In 

Finnegans Wake, Joyce moves away from questions of 

subjectivity and focuses on questions of language and 

experience; he experiments with the narrative and 

object elements of the epistolary tradition and 

ultimately uses the letter to question the impact 

language has on reality. Letters in Joyce’s fiction can 

also be seen as a mise en abyme, but he exceeds other 

modernist writers’ use of the epistolary form by 

directly equating the letter with his own art in 

Finnegans Wake. 

Dubliners. The epistolary form was traditionally viewed 

as a literary technique for using writing to represent 

the human consciousness, and in his early fiction, 

Dubliners and A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, 

Joyce attempts to represent a single character’s 

consciousness as directly as possible to his readers 

without making unnecessary changes to the text. His 

first attempt is in his collection of short stories, 

Dubliners, which he worked on from 1904-1907, but 

which was not published collectively until 1914 because 

of objections from several publishers. In the first story, 

“The Sisters,” the anonymous narrator meditates on 

the word “paralysis,” which is the one of the recurrent 

themes of the collection. As Joyce wrote to his friend 

C.P. Curran, “I call the series Dubliners to betray the 

soul of that hemiplegia or paralysis which many 

consider a city”. Joyce uses focalization and free 

indirect discourse to represent the consciousness of 

his characters in Dubliners, and each story is a brief 

psychological portrait of a character during a critical 

moment in his or her life, when he or she struggles 

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against, and ultimately succumbs to, the paralyzing 

forces of family, religion, and politics. 

Many of the stories in Dubliners are told by a 

heterodiegetic narrator, and those 

that are are usually focalized through a single main 

character, which limits the external readers’ view of 

the storyworld to what the main character sees.2 Joyce 

also uses free indirect thought to paint psychological 

portraits of his characters in specific moments in their 

lives, but without superfluous punctuation and 

language, such as quotation marks and phrases like 

“he thought,” without introducing other forms in the 

text, such as a letter or a diary, and without an 

unnecessary narratee. The modernist authors use 

focalization and free indirect thought not only to 

present the subjectivity of a main character, called a 

center of consciousness, but to present the subjectivity 

of other characters, producing a narrative told from 

multiple perspectives. Joyce, on the other hand, often 

confines the perspective and thought reporting in 

Dubliners to just one character, a decision that creates 

strong parallels between Joyce’s short stories and the 

character element of the epistolary tradition. 

Examining the story “Eveline” demonstrates how both 

focalization and free indirect thought allow Joyce to 

represent the subjective experiences of a single 

character. The opening of the story shows how an 

omniscient heterodiegetic narrator, a heterodiegetic 

narrator focalizing through a character, and free 

indirect thought work side by side to represent a 

character’s consciousness: 

She sat at the window watching the evening invade the 

avenue. Her head was leaned against the window 

curtains, and in her nostrils was the odour of dusty 

cretonne. She was tired. Few people passed. The man 

out of the last house passed on his way home; she 

heard his footsteps clacking along the concrete 

pavement and afterwards crunching on the cinder path 

before the new red houses. One time there used to be 

a field there in which they used to play every evening 

with other people's children. Then a man from Belfast 

bought the field and built houses in it — not like their 

little brown houses, but bright brick houses with 

shining roofs. 

The first two sentences are a distant view of Eveline, 

describing her looking out 

the window. The language of these sentences, with 

their metaphorical description of 

twilight and the acute attention given to what Eveline 

smells, indicates that the voice 

speaking is probably not Eveline’s voice, because in the 

text she is depicted as a lower class woman who works 

in a shop. The next sentence, which describes how 

Eveline feels, is more simplistic and sounds more like 

the language she might use: “She was tired.” The 

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sentences, “Few people passed. The man out of the 

last house passed on his way home” are examples of 

the narrator focalizing through Eveline; he describes 

what she sees out the window. But again, when the 

narrator begins to discuss Eveline’s memories, “One 

time there used to be a field there in which they used 

to play every evening with other people's children,” 

the words in the description sound like ones Eveline 

would choose if she were talking. The narrator’s 

distinctive voice introduces the story, but readers are 

slowly drawn into Eveline’s character as their vision of 

the storyworld is soon limited by her sight and as they 

are exposed to a voice that sounds like her own when 

the narrator talks about her feelings or her memories. 

The use of free indirect thought in this story allows 

Eveline’s own voice to come out in the text, even 

though nothing that she says is directly quoted. The 

“free” quality of free indirect thought also allows 

Joyce to move seamlessly between the different 

narrative techniques he employs without punctuation 

marks, phrases, a change of form, or a narratee. 

Joyce’s decision to focalize through Eveline and to only 

report on her thoughts demonstrates how language 

can represent a character’s subjectivity, which was the 

function of the letter in eighteenth-century fiction, 

laying the foundation for the character element of the 

epistolary tradition. 

In Dubliners, Joyce works on refining his ability to 

represent human consciousness to his external readers 

and does not really experiment with the epistolary 

form. There are only three stories where letters appear 

in Dubliners: “Eveline,” “Counterparts,” and “The 

Dead.” In “The Dead” there is a sentence quoted from 

a letter that Gabriel wrote when he was first in love 

with his wife Gretta that is used to reveal Gabriel’s past 

internal state to readers of the story.3 As Gretta and 

Gabriel Conroy return this is why he could remember 

something specific he had said to Gretta—because it 

was written down in a letter. The sentence following 

the letter also calls attention to the physical words on 

the page: “Like distant music these words that he had 

written years before were borne towards him from the 

past”. In a moment of synesthesia, the words on the 

page are transformed into an audible sound, moving 

through time, connecting him to the past and forming 

a bridge to future thoughts as he imagines himself and 

Gretta alone in their hotel room about to make love. 

This one-sentenced quotation from a letter specifically 

references Joyce’s own correspondence. In his 

biography of Joyce, Richard Ellmann points out the 

similarities between this quotation from Gabriel’s 

letter to Gretta and a couple of sentences Joyce wrote 

to his wife Nora in one of his letters to her when they 

were first dating. Joyce wrote to Nora: “And yet why 

should I be ashamed of words? Why should I not call 

you what in my heart I continually call you? What is it 

that prevents me unless it be that no word is tender 

enough to be your name”. This sentence suggests that 

as a writer Joyce has a preference for the epistolary 

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VOLUME 02 ISSUE 11 PAGES: 73-81 

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form. An avid letter writer, Joyce with this one 

sentence draws a connection between his own 

personal writing and his art, a move that will be 

repeated in Ulysses and in Finnegans Wake. 

A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. In his first 

novel, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, Joyce 

continued his experiments in representing a single 

character’s consciousness using internal focalization 

and free indirect thought. However, instead of just 

focusing on the psychological state of a character in a 

single moment of time, Joyce is striving to show a 

person’s development over time and the events that 

led to the formation of his personality. All the events in 

A Portrait are shown through the main character 

Stephen Dedalus’ eyes, and the majority of the 

language used in the text matches the language 

Stephen would use at certain stages of development in 

his life.4 An incident between Stephen and one of his 

schoolfellows illustrates how Joyce continued to use 

both focalization and free indirect thought in A 

Portrait: 

They all laughed again. Stephen tried to laugh with 

them. He felt his whole body hot and confused in a 

moment. What was the right answer to the question? 

He had given two and still Wells laughed. But Wells 

must know the right answer for he was in third of 

grammar. He tried to think of Wells's mother but he did 

not dare to raise his eyes to Wells's face. He did not like 

Wells's face. It was Wells who had shouldered him into 

the square ditch the day before because he would not 

swop his little snuff box for Wells's seasoned hacking 

chestnut, the conqueror of forty. It was a mean thing 

to do; all the fellows said it was. And how cold and 

slimy the water had been! And a fellow had once seen 

a big rat jump plop into the scum. In Book 1, Stephen is 

about seven to nine years old, and his language, 

though descriptive, is the language of a younger child. 

His inability to completely understand Wells’ joke 

demonstrates that this incident is told from his 

perspective. Joyce continues to use these techniques 

of representing consciousness throughout the novel, 

until Stephen decides to leave Ireland and go to 

Europe. At this point the discourse of the narrative 

changes to a journal, and the novel ends with 

Stephen’s attempt to represent his own subjective 

experience in writing.  

In his biography of James Joyce, Richard Ellmann 

writes that, “Joyce’s first interior monologue was 

inserted at the end of A Portrait,” but his description of 

the language of the journal is not completely accurate. 

H. Porter Abbott defines interior monologue as “The 

thinking and feeling of a character conveyed without 

the usual grammatical signs of narration medication 

(e.g. quotation marks or the phrases ‘he said, she 

said’),” so the diary entry format which frames the 

language at the end of A Portrait prevents it from being 

true interior monologue. The journal did allow Joyce to 

directly present character thoughts to the reader, 

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VOLUME 02 ISSUE 11 PAGES: 73-81 

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unlike free indirect thought, which, as its names 

implies, only allows for an indirect presentation of 

thought through the heterodiegetic narrator. Ellmann 

comments on some of the positive benefits of the 

form: “[The journal] had a dramatic justification there 

in that Stephen could no longer communicate with 

anyone in Ireland but himself. But it had a way of 

relaxing by sentence fragments and seeming casual 

connections among thoughts the more formal style of 

most of the narratives”. On the other hand, the journal 

format required an awkward switch to a new genre 

that hadn’t been present in the novel previously; 

nothing else in the text indicates that Stephen has 

been recording his thoughts in a journal or a diary. 

Inspired by other writers such as Edouard Dujardin, 

George Moore, Tolstoy, and Freud, in his next work, 

Joyce would begin to use interior monologue to 

directly present character thoughts to the reader 

without any accoutrements or forced forms. “Having 

gone so far, Joyce in Ulysses boldly eliminated the 

journal, and let thoughts hop, step, jump, and glide 

without the selfconsciousness of a journal to account 

for their agitation”. There is one letter in A Portrait of 

the Artist as Young Man, which is in Book I. It is a letter 

that Stephen imagines himself writing to his mother to 

tell her that he is sick. 

Dear Mother, 

I am sick. I want to go home. Please come and take me 

home. I am in the infirmary. 

Your fond son, Stephen.  

The language of his letter clearly represents Stephen’s 

thoughts. With its short sentences, repetitive style, and 

simple words, this letter contains the language of a 

young child, and because it mirrors the language in the 

text, continues to add to the portrayal of Stephen’s 

character in this section of the novel as a very young 

and innocent boy. What is interesting about the letter, 

however, is that it is completely invented. Stephen 

does not write it down; it is his idea of the type of 

message he would send to his parents to let them 

know he is sick. So although use of the letter in fiction 

was rooted in its mimetic form and its ability to 

represent reality, in A Portrait, the letter becomes a 

fantasy and a product of the imagination. This short 

note shows that despite his focus using different 

narrative techniques for representing human 

consciousness, Joyce still sees the letter as a necessary 

part of his fiction. In this example, he is still using the 

letter to show that language can reveal a subjective 

experience, but the imaginary nature of the letter 

shows that he is also starting to see the potential of the 

letter as a form he can experiment with. 

Ulysses. Ulysses, published in 1922, retells the story of 

Homer’s Odyssey in an early twentieth-century setting. 

One of the reasons Ulysses is an important 

development in the history of the novel is that it was 

the first consistent integration of new literary 

techniques, specifically interior monologue, and a 

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American Journal Of Philological Sciences   
(ISSN – 2771-2273) 
VOLUME 02 ISSUE 11 PAGES: 73-81 

SJIF IMPACT FACTOR  (2022: 5. 445)  
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Publisher: Oscar Publishing Services 

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related technique, stream of consciousness, into 

traditional fictional forms. Joyce did not make his mark 

on literary history by inventing either technique; he 

maintained that he discovered stream of 

consciousness in the French novel Les lauriers sont 

coupés written by Edouard Dujardin in 1888. What 

Joyce did do in Ulysses is effectively combine interior 

monologue with other forms of narration in the novel 

and refine the use of stream of consciousness 

technique in particular. As David Hayman notes of 

Joyce’s use of stream of consciousness in Ulysses: The 

Mechanics of Meaning, “He used the technique as he 

did many others to do specific jobs, and principally, to 

bring into unusually sharp focus the alert conscious 

minds of individuals whose character he wished to 

define quickly, completely, and unmistakably before 

dissolving individuality and disclosing the basis of 

character in hidden impulses”. The use of both interior 

monologue and stream of consciousness “. . . allows us 

a glimpse of the nature and the workings of the human 

mind in general”. 

With the word “Chrysostomos,” which Stephen thinks 

as he looks at Buck Mulligan’s golden toothed mouth 

in “Telemachus,” Joyce had completed his aesthetic 

project of attempting to present a single character’s 

consciousness to the reader without any auxiliary 

forms or switches in genre. Interior monologue and 

stream of consciousness allowed him to present one 

character’s thoughts directly to the reader. With the 

use of these new techniques, the included letter 

became an outdated form for representing the 

psychological states of characters. But Joyce decided 

not to abandon the letter and, like other modernist 

writers, used the epistolary form in literature in new 

ways. He saw the letter as a place where he could 

continue his experiments with representing 

subjectivity through written language; thus Joyce built 

on the character element of the epistolary tradition, 

but took it in a new direction. Instead of showing that 

written language could clearly represent experience, 

he uses the letter to experiment with the ways 

language cannot clearly represent experience—the 

ways in which language fails to capture human 

thought. 

One of the facets of letters that Joyce explored was 

how to represent the mental 

processes involved in everyday activities like reading 

and writing. An example of this is in the “Nestor” 

chapter. Stephen finishes teaching his class and then 

has a discussion with his employer Mr. Deasy, who is 

attempting to be his mentor. Mr. Deasy asks Stephen 

to read a letter he has written about foot and mouth 

disease before he submits it to the newspaper. The 

text of Mr. Deasy’s letter is not directly reproduced 

within Ulysses; external readers of the text only have 

access to it through Stephen’s thoughts. Here is an 

excerpt of what the reader sees: 

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May I trespass on your valuable space. That doctrine of 

laissez faire which so ften in our history. Our cattle 

trade. The way of all our old industries. Liverpool ring 

which jockeyed the Galway harbour scheme. European 

conflagration. Grain supplies through the narrow 

waters of the channel. The pluterperfect 

imperturbability of the department of agriculture. 

Pardoned a classical allusion. Cassandra. By a woman 

who was no better than she should be. To come to the 

point at issue. 

Mr. Deasy’s letter is not a complete included letter, 

because the full text is not presented, and readers only 

see the letter through the lens of Stephen’s mind. As 

his eyes glance over the page, Stephen does not think 

every word that is written; he shortens sentences, pays 

attention to keywords, and picks up on errors. Stephen 

“skims” or only quickly reads his employer’s missive. 

Since there are so many obvious gaps in what was 

written, the emphasis here is not on the letter itself, 

but on trying to show how Stephen’s mind works when 

he reads. 

REFERENCES 

1. Joyce, James. Dubliners. The Portable James 

Joyce. Ed. Harry Levin. New York: Penguin 

Books, 1976. 

2. Joyce, James. Finnegans Wake. New York: 

Penguin Books, 1999. 

3. Joyce, James. A Portrait of the Artist as a 

Young Man. The Portable James Joyce. Ed. 

Harry Levin. New York: Penguin Books, 1976. 

4. Joyce, James. Selected Letters of James Joyce. 

Ed. Richard Ellmann. New York: Viking Press, 

1966. 

5. Joyce, James. Ulysses. Ed. Hans Walter Gabler. 

New York: Vintage Books, 1986. 

6. Habibova, M. N. (2021). Jorjina Houellning 

“Queen of the desert” biografik asarida 

gertruda Bell timsoli tasviri. Academic research 

in educational sciences, 2(2), 770-778. 

7. Habibova, M. N. (2021). The theme feminism in 

the epistolary novels in modern times. ISJ 

Theoretical & Applied Science, 11(103), 1101-

1105. 

8. Habibova, M. N. (2022). THE HISTORY OF THE 

RUSSIAN EPISTOLARY NOVEL IN EIGHTEENTH 

CENTURY. Eurasian Journal of Social Sciences, 

Philosophy and Culture, 2(3), 135-139. 

9. Habibova, M. N. (2022). EVALUATIVE 

OBSERVATION ON DH LAWRENCE'S 

EPISTOLARY ACHIEVEMENT. EURASIAN 

JOURNAL OF ACADEMIC RESEARCH, 2 (4), 

489–494. 

10. Habibova, M. (2022). THEORIES OF 

INTERTEXTUALITY AND THE BASIC 

FRAMEWORK OF KRISTEVA’S FORMULATION 

OF HER THEORY OF INTERTEXTUALITY. 

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Eurasian Journal of Social Sciences, Philosophy 

and Culture, 2(5), 301-307. 

11. Habibova, M. N. (2022). A BIOGRAPHY IS A 

SPECIALIZED FORM OF HISTORY AND BASIC 

TYPES OF BIOGRAPHIES. Oriental renaissance: 

Innovative, educational, natural and social 

sciences, 2(5), 495-503. 

12. Habibova, M. N. (2022). Epistolary Novel as a 

Scientific Problem. American Journal of Social 

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