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American Journal of  Physical Education 
and Health Science (AJPEHS)

An Overview of  the Knowledge and the Practice of  Female Genital Mutilation Among 
Adult Women in Ondo State, South Western Nigeria

Taiwo Monisola Olufunke1*

Volume 1 Issue 1, Year 2023
https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajpehs

Article Information ABSTRACT

Received: April 02, 2023

Accepted: April 27, 2023

Published: May 04, 2023

The practice of  female genital mutilation (FGM) is one of  the very significant health and 
human right issues in the world according to UNICEF. A qualitative research methodological 
and in-depth interview of  one hundred and twenty informants were used to investigate 
FGM’s knowledge and practice in Ondo state, southwestern Nigeria. A multi-stage sampling 
technique was used to select the participants from the study population. The findings of  
the study revealed that the majority of  the residents are aware of  FGM as it is being widely 
practiced by traditional birth attendants, an health officials. The study also confirmed that 
the majority of  the respondents are of  the opinions that FGM reduces promiscuity, initiates 
young girls into womanhood; ensures spiritual cleansing; enhances fertility and prevents 
instant mortality while the majority have inadequate knowledge about the untoward health 
consequences of  the practice. The study concluded that there is high rate of  prevalence 
and poor understanding of  the harmful effects of  FGM. It is therefore recommended 
that certain collaborative measures which include aggressive enlightenment programmes. 
Among the communities, enactment of  laws as punitive measures for the practitioners of  
government policy re-engineering and early education of  girl’s children on FGM among 
others have to be implemented to eliminate the scourge in society.

Keywords

Advocacy, Knowledge, 
Mutilation, Prevalence, 
Study Population

INTRODUCTION
Female genital mutilation (FGM), also known as female 
genital cutting, is defined by World Health Organisation 
(2007) as all procedures that involve partial or total 
removal of  the external female genital and or another 
injury of  the external female genital organs for non 
medical reasons. Female genital mutilation (FGM) origin 
is shrouded in controversy, the exact origin cannot be 
ascertained but evidence suggests that that it originated 
from Egypt (WHO, 1996)
In Africa, FGM is widely practiced in Nigeria, Egypt, 
Mali, Togo, Ethiopia, Sudan, Kenya, Somalia and so many 
other countries where it has been an old traditional and 
cultural practice among various ethnic groups. (UNICEF, 
2001). FGM is widely practised in Nigeria being a 
country with a large population Nigeria has the highest 
absolute number of  FGM cases in the world, accounting 
for about one quarter (1/4 ) of  the estimated 115-130 
million circumcised women worldwide (UNICEF, 2007). 
In Nigeria, among adult women, FGM has the highest 
prevalence in the south- south (77%), followed by the 
south east (68%) and south west (65%). The practise is 
on a smaller scale in the north (Adegoke, 2005) Nigeria 
comprises six large ethnic groups, Yoruba, Hausa, Ibo, 
Fulani, ijaw and Kanuri. Only the Fulani do not practice 
any form of  FGM according to the report on FGM in 
2005 by Senior Coordinator for International women’s 
issues. Okeke, Anyachie and Ezenyeaku (2012) said that 
procedure has no health benefit for girls and women but 
influenced by socio cultural and religious determinants. 
FGM is promoted behind closed doors by hospital 
nurses, churches, senior matrons in rural government 

hospitals, traditional birth, attendants and community 
elders (Olutosin 2021) because of  lack of  government 
intervention to control the practice as there is no state 
or federal laws that prohibit the practice of  FGM in 
Nigeria unlike in some countries like Scotland where the 
probation of  FGM (Scotland) Act 2005 made it a criminal 
to have female genital mutilation carried out in Scotland 
or abroad, and increased penalty from five to fourteen 
years imprisonment (UNICEF 2007) .
Similarly, the Director of  Centre for women studies and 
intervention (CWSI), Abuja in 2010 stated that although 
the age of  which procedure takes place varies from one 
ethnic group to another, FGM most commonly takes 
place between 0-7 days after a baby was born or when the 
woman is pregnant.
In Ondo state, mothers subject then daughters to the 
FGM to protect them from being ostracised, beaten, 
shunned or disgraced (Volder and Khan, 2007).
Globally treatment of  the health complication of  FGM 
is estimated to cost health systems and individuals USS1. 
4 billion per year, this amount is expected to rise unless 
urgent action is taken towards its prohibition (UNICEF, 
2023)

Statement of  the Problem
Female genital mutilation (FGM) has no health benefits. It 
is known to be injurious to girls and women in many ways 
with short and long term health consequences (UNICEF 
2017). It is also a violation of  human rights of  girls and 
women. Various data presented by health organizations, 
government records and NGO’s are instructive to 
appreciate the magnitude of  the situation of  this barbaric 

1 Department of  Public Health City University, Cambodia
* Corresponding author’s e-mail: taiwoolufunke2018@gmail.com

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practice. An estimated 100 million to 140 million girls are 
at risk of  cutting each year in the African continent alone 
(WHO, 2008). In Nigeria, the national prevalence rate of  
FGM is 4% among adult women.
Despite the campaigns, the practice continues unabated 
among the residents and is being carried out in a barbaric 
manners by traditional both attendants and mid-wives 
with no medical trainings.

General Objectives of  the study
The study’s general objective is to investigate the 
knowledge and practice of  female genital mutilation 
among adult women in Ondo state.

Specific Objectives of  The Study
i. To investigate the prevalence rate of  female genital 

mutilation practice among adult women in Ondo state.
ii. To determine the knowledge of  the adult women 

about FGM in Ondo state.
iii. To assess the influence of  social-cultural and 

religious factor on FGM in Ondo state
iv. To evaluate the effects of  the existing government 

efforts on the practice of  FGM in Ondo state

Research Questions
1. What is the rate of  prevalence of  FGM practice 

among adult women in Ondo state?
2. What is the level of  knowledge about FGM practice 

among women in Ondo state?
3. What are the influence of  socio-cultural and religious 

factors on FGM in Ondo state?
4. What are the effects of  the existing government 

efforts on the practice of  FGM among adult women in 
Ondo state?

Significance of  The Study
The paper offers insight into terminology origin, 
proposed purposes, prevalence of  the FGM, the 
practice and recommendations. The study will assist the 
government and other stake holders to engage in more 
aggressive and efficient crusades against the practice 
of  FGM and to formulate policies and laws that will 
discourage this crude, dangerous, and unhealthy practice. 
The study will also add to the body of  knowledge about 
the phenomenon under investigation.

LITERATURE REVIEW 
Conceptual Review of  FGM
Family genital mutilation (FGM) is also known as 
female cutting (FGC). ((UNICEF 2007). This practice 
is common in many countries, especially in Africa, the 
middle East and Southeast Asia. (Llamas 2017). Amnesty 
International in 2017 stated that the FGM involves the 
removal of  all or part of  the labia minora or cutting of  
the major to create raw surface when are then held firmly 
by a collar over the vagina when the wound heals.
FGM is widely practiced in Nigeria with his large 
population. Nigeria has the absolute number of  FGM 

worldwide, accounting for about one quarter of  the 
estimated 115-130 million circumcised women worldwide 
(UNICEF, 2001). The national prevalence of  FGM is 
41% among adult women (UNICEF, 2023). The origin of  
FGM is controversial and remains unclear. Some scholars 
have proposed Ancient Egypt (present- day Sudan and 
Egypt) as its site of  origin because of  the discovery of  
circumcised mummies from the first century BC. Other 
scholars theorized that the practice spread across the 
route of  slave trade, extending from the western shore of  
the red sea to the southern, western African regions, or 
spread from the Middle East to African via Arab traders. 
With its widespread prevalence, a multi- source origin” 
has also been proposed, claiming that FGM spread from 
“original cores” by merging with pre-existing initiation 
rituals for men and women.
Despite the complexity and controversies surrounding 
its origin, the practice of  FGM spreads across the globe, 
serving several socio-religion-cultural purposes for the 
communities that propagate it. (Llamas,2017).

Classification of  FGM
There are four types of  FGM practiced in Nigeria (WHO 
1997). These are:

Type 1
This is the least severe form of  the FGM. This involves 
the removal of  the prepuce or the head of  the clitoris and 
all par5t or part of  the clitoris. In Nigeria this only involves 
part excision of  only part of  the clitoris of  only a part of  
the clitoris. This is also called CLITORIDECTOMY.

Type 2 
This is also known as sunna: it is more severe practice and 
involves the removal of  the removal of  the clitoris along 
with partial or total excision of  the labia minora.

Type 3
This is the most severe form of  FGM. It involves the 
removal of  the clitoris, the labia minora and adjacent 
medial part of  the labia majora and the stitching of  the 
vaginal orifice, leaving an opening of  the size of  a pin 
head to allow for menstrual flow or urine. It is also known 
as INFIBULATION.

Type 4
This involves introcision, pricking, piercing or incision of  
the clitoris and or labia, cauterization, the introduction of  
corrosive substances and herbs in the vagina and other 
types.
 
Superstitions about FGM
Religion-sociocultural reasons are being used to propagate 
the practice of  FGM in South western Nigeria.
FGM is regarded as a tribal tradition or ritual practiced 
for to preserve chastity and purification (Kolawole 2010) 
and family honour and hygiene, it is also done to protect 
virginity and prevent promiscuity enhance fertility and 

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inheritance of  the family property. It is also believed that 
mutilation of  female genitals will prevent itching and 
bedwetting and prevent mother and child from dying 
during child birth ( Monegan, 2010).

Health Complications of  FGM
Apart for being a violation of  women’s and girls’ human 
rights (Babatunde1998), and possible outbreak of  
matrimonial disharmony, some of  the adverse health 
consequences are pain and haemorrhage (Versin, 1975), 
infection, acute urinary refection damage to the urethra 
or anus, chronic pelvic infection, acquired gycnatresia. 
Resulting in hematocolpos, vulva adhesions, dysmenorhea, 
retention cysts and sexual difficulties with anorgasmic, 
dermoid cysts, keloids and sexual dysfunction (Okeke, 
anyachie and Ezenyeaku, 2012).

Prevalence of  FGM in Ondo State
A non-Governmental organisation, movement for the 
survival of  the Underprivileged (MOSUP) has decried the 
increasing rates of  female genital mutilation and cutting 
(FGM/C) in Ondo state, urging the state government 
and humanitarian groups to reduce the scourge.
Ondo state has recorded spates of  FGM/C in recent 
times and this is common in the Akoko area of  the 
state, exposing the girl-child to service of  mental and 
psychological problems, Ondo state has a 45% prevalence 
rate of  circumcised women. According to the abiye safe 
motherhood repost by Ondo state ministry of  health in 
2015, despite the implementation of  safe motherhood 
programme of  Ondo state government between 2009-
2017 and series of  activities of  the Inter-Africa committee 
on Traditional practices (IAC) particularly with regards 
to FGM which focused on the reproductive health of  
women and health issues of  children, the FGM practice 
is still rampant in the state.

Efforts Of  the Government the Ngos and Other 
Stakeholders to  Control FGM in Nigeria
As the female genital mutilation thrives in Africa, there 
is a law that has criminalised female genital mutilation 
(FGM) IN Africa. Article 5 of  the protocol to the African 
charter, which Nigeria is a party to, on the human and 
people’s rights on the rights of  women in Africa titled 
Elimination of  harmful practices states: “Parties shall take 
all necessary legislative and other measures to eliminate 
such practices, including : (b) prohibition, through 
legislative measures backed by sanctions of  all forms of  
female genital mutilation, scarification, medicalisation 
and paramedicalisation of  female genital mutilation, and 
all other practices in order to eradicate them:.” In Nigeria, 
there is no federal law banning female genital mutilation 
or cutting but section 34(1)(a) of  the 1999 consistence of  
the federal republic of  Nigeria that states:
No person shall be subjected to torture or inhuman or 
degrading treatment as the basis for banning the practice 
in Nigeria. In 1994, Nigeria joined other numbers of  the 
47th world health assembly to resolve to elimination FGM. 

Steps taken so far to achieve the include establishment 
of  a multi-sectorial technical working group on harmful 
traditional practices surveys on HTPS, launching of  a 
regional plan of  action and formulation of  a national 
policy and plan action, which was approved by the federal 
executive council for the elimination of  FGM in Nigeria.
In Nigeria, FGM is being tackled by WHO, United 
Nations International Children Emergency Fund 
(UNICEF). Federation of  International Obstetrics 
and Gynaecology (FIOG), African Union (AU), The 
Economic Commission For Africa (ECA) and many 
women organisations.
Intensification of  education of  the general public at 
all levels has been done with emphasis on the dangers 
and undesirability of  FGM. Despite the increased 
international and little national attention the prevalence 
of  FGM has declined a bit (Okunade, Okunowo and 
Omosakin, 2016) from how it was years ago but the 
prevalence is still influenced by level of  education and the 
geographical location.

Theoretical Framework of  the Study
The wealth belief  model in health psychology is used 
to explain health behaviour. The health belief  model 
provides the most appropriate theoretical Framework to 
predict a variety of  health behaviour.
The basic components of  the health belief  model are 
derived from a well – established body of  psychological 
and behavioural theory whose models hypothesise that 
behaviour depends mainly upon two variables (I) the 
value placed by an individual on a particular goat; and 
2. The individual estimate of  the likely hood that a given 
action will achieve that goal. In the context of  health-
related behaviour, these correspondences are (1) the 
desire to avoid illness (or if  ill, to get well). And (2) the 
belief  that a specific health action will prevent illness.
This health belief  model (HBM) is a social-cognitive 
model developed in the 1950s by the US public health 
services (Mullen, Heresy And Inversion, 1987), which is 
often used to explain and predict health related behaviour 
(Stretcher And Rose Stock, 1997).
The relevance of  this theory to the study lies in the fact 
that female folk will only accept any intervention with 
respect to female genital mutilation eradication based on 
their belief  of  the potential benefits of  such intervention 
and the perceived negative impact of  the practice.

METHODOLOGY
The qualitative research employed for this study elicited 
secondary from previous researches, medical journals, 
from NGOs and internet materials that are relevant to 
this investigation. 120 love hundred and twenty data from 
in- depth interviews of  informants selected randomly 
across the three senatorial districts of  Ondo statelocal 
government areas were also gathered. Ondo State is one 
of  the 36 States in Nigeria.
The three senatorial district are: 

(i) Northern senatorial districts consist of  the following 

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6(six) local government areas: Akoko North West, Akoko 
North East, Akoko South west, Akoko South East, Ose 
and Owo.

(ii) Central senatorial district consists of  the following 
(six) local government areas. Akure north, Akure south, 
Ondo west, Idanre and Ifedore.

(iii) Southern senatorial district consists of  the 
following local government areas: ile-oluji/ oke- Igbo, 
odigbo, okitipupa, Irele, ilaje and ese-odo.
One local government was selected from each senatorial 
district through a multistage sampling technique and the 
sample size of  120 respondents selected randomly with 
the communities in the three local government areas by 
balloting. The three selected local government’s areas an 
Akoko North West, Akoko South And Okitipupa. The 
data generated from both primary and secondary sources 
were analysed and presented in this research paper.
 
Socio-Demographic Characteristics of  the 
Respondents Consist:

• 120 adult women between the age brackets of  35-65 
years.

• Majority of  the respondents are educated up to 
secondary school level.

• They are female selected from the communities in 
AkokoNorth West, Akure south and Okitipupa local 
government areas.

• There are 80 Christians, 30 Muslims and 10 
traditionalists.

Research Question 1
What is the prevalence rate of  FGM practice among adult 
women in Ondo sate?
From the analysis of  the opinions of  the 120 respondents:

• 88(73%) agreed that FGM is good while 32 (27%) 
disagreed.

• 90 (75%) agreed that the rate of  the FGM practice 
among adult women is still rampant, 10 (8%) disagreed, 
while 20 (17%) are undecided.

• 83 (69%) of  the respondents will encourage FGM 
on their female children, 18 (15%) will not encourage 
the practice on their female children, while (16%) were 
undecided.

• 85(71%) of  the respondent were circumcised while 
35 (29%) were not circumcised.

• 87(73%) had performed FGM their female children 
while 33(27%) had not performed the practice on their 
female children.

• The results show that the level of  prevalence is high 
and the practice will continue if  not prohibited.

Research Question 2
What is the level of  knowledge of  the residents about 
FGM practice in Ondo state?
From the analysis of  the opinions of  120 respondents:

• 16 (13%) had adequate knowledge of  different types 
of  FGM while 104 (87%) did not.

• 29 (24%) of  the respondents had adequate knowledge 

about the possible health complications of  FGM while 
91(76%) did not.

• 93(78%) believed the superstitions about FGM 
while 27(21%) did not. From the results, if  shows the 
respondents had poor knowledge about FGM .

Research Question 3
Do social, cultural and religions factors have influence on 
the FGM practice among adult women in Ondo state.

Variables
Education
From the opinions of  120 respondents,

• 81(68%) agreed that FGM is barbaric as the practice 
is more pronounced among the residents with little or no 
education while 39(33%) did not agree.

Religion
There is higher acceptance of  FGM among the 
traditionalists, then followed by Christians while Muslim 
population recorded lowest incidents.
Majority of  the respondents believed that the practice of  
FGM has religious backing.

Culture
• 75(63%) the respondents opined that that culture has 

significant influence on the practice FGM while 20(17%) 
disagreed, 25(21%) were undecided. From the analysis 
of  the opinions of  120 respondents, majority supported 
that social-economic and religious factors had significant 
influence on FGM practice among adult women in Ondo 
state.
 
Research Question 4
Do the existing awareness campaigns have effects on 
FGM practice in Ondo state?
From the opinions of  120 respondents,

• 87(68%) of  the respondents opined that the 
awareness campaigns and sensitisation programmes did 
not affect the high prevalence, 28(23%) disagreed and 
5(4%) were undecided. From the result, it shows that the 
existing crusades against FGM practice in Ondo state has 
not yielded desired results.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The purpose of  this study is to investigate the knowledge 
and the practice of  female genital mutilation among adult 
women in Ondo state, South Western Nigeria. FGM 
originated from controversial sources and adult women 
as these is no laws to regulate the practice.
It was revealed that most women had poor knowledge 
about the harmful effects of  FGM on the women folk. 
The findings of  the study revealed that the existing 
awareness campaigns and sensitization programs 
by the governments, Health organisations and non-
governmental organisations did not produce the 
expected results as the FGM practice continues without 
checks mostly in rural areas. Social-cultural and religious 

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variables are promoting it. However the findings of  the 
study provided better understanding about female genital 
mutilation. The findings of  this study are similar to 
previous researches of:

1. Okeke, Anyaechu and Ezenyeaku (2012) on an 
overview of  female genital mutilation in Nigeria.

2. Monegan (2010) on “Patriarchy: perpetuating the 
practice of  female genital mutilation.

3. World health organisations and the facts sheets in 
2007, 2010 and on female Genital mutilation.

4. Llamas (2017) on’. Female circumcision: the history, 
the current prevalence and the approach to a patient.
The future research should provide more hind sight 
into the prevalence of  FGM practice among the various 
ethnic/sub-ethnic groupings within the geographical 
entity of  Ondo state.

CONCLUSION
The study concluded that FGM practice in Ondo State 
is deeply entrenched in cultural and religious roots; 
hence its wide practicability by the residents in Ondo 
State. To sincerely win the war against this obnoxious 
practice, a multi-dimensional approach is needed by the 
government at all levels and by the NGOs. The following 
recommendations are hereby proffered after juxtaposing 
this study with the positions of  previous scholars.

RECOMMENDATIONS
The findings of  the study have revealed that all the 
factors investigated are important. Hence, the following 
were recommended to control or eradicate the practice 
of  FGM.

• More aggressive public campaigns and enlightenment 
programmes on the harmful effects of  FGM and 
demystification of  myths that surround FGM.

• Early girl-child education is very important so as to 
enhance their decisions regarding their health and that of  
their children, including their female children when they 
eventually grew into adulthood.

• Enactment of  laws that will prohibit the practice of  
FCM and punish the practitioners by the government at 
all levels.

• Governments should partner with NGO’s to 
strengthen the strategies of  abolishing the practice of  
FGM.

• The government should provide alternative vocations 
for the traditional birth attendants
 
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