



































International Journal of Biological Engineering and Agriculture


American Journal of Science and  

Learning for Development 
 

Volume 1 | No 1 | Nov-2022 

 

 

 
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Technology Education as a Correlate for Sustainable National Security 

in Nigeria 

 
 

Lohodedoo, Jotham Nomor 
 

 
HOD Automotive mechatronics, Intercontinental College of Technology, Makurdi, Benue State 
  
  
 

Abstract: Human being remain in continual hunt for self-actualization, acknowledgment, security 

coming from threats and also complete satisfaction of their demands their needs in order to live in 

peace and tranquility. When all risks to security are actually eliminated, this may just be obtained. 

Technology Education is concerned about the development of human resource which possesses 

substantial influence on the progression of social tranquility and building a culture of peace. This is 

along with the viewpoint to making physical survival of individuals and groups and protection from 

threats or security risks like illness, cravings, lack of employment, political injustice and setting 

deterioration as marks of individual instability. This study analyzes the partnership in between 

Technology Education for sustainable national security. The report additionally reviews the function 

of Technology Education in attaining sustainable national security in Nigeria, including decreasing 

superstitious notion, inculcation of useful and medical skill-sets and expertise to name a few. It 

additionally highlighted some troubles that endanger Science, mathematics and Technology 

Education playing its own jobs successfully in obtaining maintainable national security in Nigeria. 

To place scientific research education and learning for its own task in the sustenance of national 

security, the authors advises that our country must be actually a technology education literate 

society where trainees are acted along with simple understanding, aspects and abilities and skills 

needed to have for development of the country as well as improved maintainable and sustainable 

national security. 
 
Keywords: Education, Sustainable National Security, Science, Mathematics, Technology. 

 
  
Introduction 

Education is actually a real device for lasting national security particularly in a nation like Nigeria 

that lies in an area susceptible to disagreement and also instability. Education is actually focused on 

cultivating the specific and also the culture (Akpan, 2016). Science, mathematics and Technology 

education promote students to function and assume as accountable researchers as well as 

complication solvers through delivering possibilities for all of them to obtain and recognize 

applicable problems (Asalebe, 2013). Technology Education is actually taken into consideration a 

primary path to scientific research and also modern technology progression of any sort of country 

(Akpan, 2016). Issue for the well-being of people has actually continued to be the significant 

objective of every nation. This is actually due to the fact that it is humans that manipulate raw 

materials, construct social, political and also economical companies as well as additionally continue 

national development (Attah and Kyari, 2014). Development requires social tranquility, economical 

development as well as the capability to link individuals within the nation to continue to be socially, 

politically as well as fiscally practical (Bagudo, 2015). The Nigerian country was founded on the 

guidelines of freedom, equity, social fair treatment, independence as well as uniformity (Abubakar, 

Charles and Albert, 2014). Constitutionally the security and well being of the citizens continue to be 



 

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the major reason of government in all levels (Abubakar, Charles and Albert, 2014). In the final 

couple of years, nevertheless, Nigeria has actually dealt with numerous problems and difficulties 

which posed bottleneck to sustainable national security. These include, corruption and fraud, ethnic 

and religious crisis, robbery (armed and unarmed), financial embezzlement, looting of resources 

entrusted to government officials, kidnapping, human trafficking and human right abuses, Militancy, 

herder crisis, insurgencies like Boko Haram, pipeline vandalization (Ishor, Iorkosu & Apavigba, 

2018). These and various other social sicknesses have actually brought about numerous types of 

disparities in condition, wealth and status and power sharing. The outcome is actually that a handful 

individual siphons the nation’s wealth while the much larger population are actually indulging 

hardship, impoverishment, health condition, appetite as well as sudden death (Bettee & Ude, 2011). 

When individuals may certainly not satisfy their general requirements of lifestyle, the resultant result 

is actually prejudice, brutality and also disagreement (Ishor, Iorkosu & Apavigba, 2018, Harvey, 

2014). This signifies a condition of social stress and anxiety. Along with these there are going to be 

actually malfunction of order, devastation of all-natural and individual information. These hazards 

and also problems experiencing the modern Nigerian society demand a matching modification in the 

method as well as method through which people functions. This emphasizes the demand to apply 

ground devices that guarantees financial development and also social renovation. Education works 

for the development of the individual and the society (Gabriel, 2019, Harvey, 2014). It is actually a 

requirement for financial growth and social well beings (Gabriel, 2019). It is actually the methods of 

accelerating tranquil co-existence one of a variety of people due to the fact that it allows Nigerians to 

regard and also market value on their own and also others, cherish the freedom of others, recognize 

their liberties as well as social obligations (Isaac, 2014, Sulaiman, 2010).  

It can be rightly said that young people are actually the possible source of national stability and 

sustainable national security in any society (Obele & Asueni, 2010). This having said that relies on 

just how thoroughly they are actually prepped with the education procedure to take their lawful place 

in the society. Nigerian young people may be inspired via Technology Education. This is because 

technology provides individual along with the option to obtain useful expertise to come to be useful 

and functional member of the society (Obele & Asueni, 2010, Sulaiman, 2010, Nwabueze & Ozioka, 

2015). Considering that functional knowledge promotes manpower development and provides 

competent and skillful people who can apply technology education knowledge to solve societal 

problems (Nwabueze & Ozioka, 2015). Given that in every society, the requirement is actually that 

individuals ought to participate in efficient job to produce earnings along with which to comply with 

private demands and also accomplish social commitments, there is actually the requirement for 

Nigerian young people to get abilities as well as experience in Technology. 

Today's society is actually practically steered through innovation, as a result, we are actually right 

now in the period of high-techno devices including computers, global satellites, mobile 

communication network (GSM) cables, microwave ovens to mention just a few. In reality, the globe 

has actually come to be a global community and Nigeria right inside this community (Muhammed, 

Yusha& Lawal, 2017). It consequently behooves our educational system specifically the technology 

sector to outfit Nigerians to operate correctly as well as properly in the brand-new modern 

technology steered society (Muhammed, Yusha& Lawal, 2017). This suggests that the educational 

possibilities through SMTE sector must necessarily enable individuals explore and interact most 

appropriately with science and technology at all levels of education and learning ( Suleiman, 2010, 

Nwabueke &Ozioka, 2015). Once more, technology should certainly be sustainable through 

sustainable human resources development in science, mathematics and technology ((Muhammed, 

Yusha& Lawal, 2017). 

It is actually certainly not a gainsaying that Science, Mathematics and Technology education offer 

entrepreneurial skills which open up international task market taking into consideration the lessening 

chances for wage job in Nigeria. In Nigeria, the mission for obtaining national security by means of 

creating technology sustainable has actually continued to be a challenging concern. The technology 

teachers are actually one of the most crucial information in the science classroom ( National council 

for teachers, 2011). However; a great deal of Nigerian young people are actually certainly not 



 

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curious about the study of science, mathematics and technology education. A ton of all of them is 

actually located in the arts and humanity (Bayudo, 2015). Due to this, Nigerian young people are 

actually stated to become knowledge-rich and skill-poor (Isaac, 2007, Bayudo, 2015). This requires a 

re-orientation of Nigerian young towards functional science, mathematics and technology education. 

This will enable its products to feature and compete effectively in the present and future world of 

scientific outlook. It is in this light that this paper looks at science, mathematics and technology 

education for sustainable national security.  

Concept of sustainable national security 

The concept "security" might be actually examined as a condition of being actually defended coming 

from risk or even stress. For a country, security signifies conditions of peace, stability, order and 

progress. National security has actually been understood in various means, each of which highlighted 

necessary elements rooting perfects. Brennan (1961) opined that sustainable national security is 

actually the security of national survival; national security is actually to become know in relations to 

the wish and also capability for self-defense. Ochoche (1998) alluded that national security pays 

attention to the amassment of army weaponry, personnel and expenditure. All the above meaning 

observes National security has actually altered overtime. It was actually increased to feature 

international business economics, long-term objectives of national progression and settlement. They 

are actually extremely significant for the security of any sort of country. Using this technique, Asad 

(2007) mentions "that national security may certainly not be actually limited to only armed forces 

condition. Socio-economical elements, complications of development and innovation, and national 

assimilation must be actually viewed as crucial in considering. Okoli, (2007) recommended that 

national security is actually greater than areal support as well as ought to pay attention to the 

physical, emotional and social equal rights of lifestyle of a culture and also its own participants both 

in the domestic environment and also within the large and global system. \ 

Similarly, Asad, (2017), Global development right now advises the necessity for one more 

comparable increasing meaning of national security to feature information, market and ecological 

problems. National security inquiry entails a considerable amount of problems. It almost discusses 

all realms of individual life (Akpan, 2016). The most effective technique to approach it is actually 

coming from the systems concept standpoint where a disconnection in any type of certain region of 

the system is actually tied to possess an overlapping result on various other places. It varies coming 

from food security to problems of ecological destruction. It discuss health and wellness concerns. It 

involves mental security along with arms security (Charles, 2014). A lot of variables might subject a 

country to hazard. To that level, national security might additionally be deemed a multidimensional 

method whose reason is actually to secure national economic values (Carlelto, Zezz & Banerjec, 

2013). One of the most vital economic values of any country is its own self-perpetuation, self-

preservation, and also survival (Harvey, 2014). A country that can guard her from damage just as 

appreciates tremendous ability for valued development. We might for that reason assume that 

national security and national development are actually united and also corresponding sensations. 

They are actually collectively associated. There may be security without genuine development as 

well as no development without security. It is actually vice-versa. 

Concept of Sustainable Technology Education 

Through maintainable technology is actually suggested education that will definitely permit us to 

stay appropriate in the system of traits within this ever before altering globe. It concerns strategic 

plans and also procedures for constant growth and also source of appropriate variety of competent 

individual or trained human capital in science and technology for potential and instant demands of 

the country ( Gabriel, 2019). Sustainability is actually currently an important consider any type of 

development attempt or even program (Attah & Gyari, 2914). Sustainability of science, mathematics 

and technology education has actually surfaced in the 21st century as a brand-new academic 

discipline (http://www.ihdp.unu.edu). It derives some impetus from the concepts of sustainable 

development and environmental science, and provides a critical framework for sustainability. 

Sustainable development is actually that which looks for to fulfil the demands and also goals of 



 

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today without weakening the capability to security those of the future (Harvey, 2014, Charles, 2014). 

It is actually a procedure through which the profiteering of sources, the instructions of financial 

investments, positioning of technical growth as well as institutional modifications are actually done 

in tranquillity as well as enrich both potential and also present possibility to fulfil individual 

demands and also goal (Jiang, 2013). Nwabueze and Ozioka, (2015) describes sustainability as that 

energetic engagement of individuals in development program which helps them to enjoy the method 

and understand community development. Sustainability relative to program technology defined as a 

requirement of the present generation to manage the resources base (physical and intellectual) in 

such a way that the average quality of life that is enjoyed in the present can potentially be (Oseinem, 

2000). Nations that take note of the development of personnels often create technical jumps offered 

there are actually additionally the facilities along with which to perform therefore. The rapid 

development attained over a brief time frame through Singapore, Hong Kong, Republic of Korea, 

Taiwan and also China is actually typical cases. technology ingrains expertise, capabilities and also 

functionalities personalises that are actually as a result enabled to establish the economic situation 

with the manufacturing and also regulation of valuable products as well as solutions as well as bring 

in financial investment (Oseinem, 2000, Obele& Asueni, 2013, Muhammed, Yusha & Lawal, 2017). 

Technology education for Sustainable National Security  

Technology is actually individual organization; that are worried about everyday life and the 

enlightening partnership in between man and his environment. They are actually very closely 

pertaining to the physical, economical and social lifestyle of the society (Sulaiman 2010). They 

guarantee survival and defense of people and also groups from such dangers as health condition, 

cravings, lack of employment, political fascism as an ecological deterioration. The country has to 

give qualitative technology Education to its own teaming young people that comprise greater than 

50% of the nation's populace (Carlelto, Zezz& Banerjee, 2013). According to Wasagu (2009) 

technology Education is actually a field that acquaint receivers along with particular fundamental 

know-how, capabilities, skills as well as mindsets that are important for effective living within the 

society. Akpan (2010) additionally suggested that technology Education contributes to quality of life 

in so many areas. These include protection, health and wellness, nourishment, transport, component, 

and also farming, material and energy production. He additionally stressed that science guarantees 

that the air we inhale, and the water we drink are life sustaining not vectors of disease and decay. 

SMT education is actually that component of education that is focus on the creation of clinically 

schooled people. It is concerned with production of scientists, technologist, engineer, developers, 

health care physicians as well as various other specialists that are actually essential components 

required in managing the undertakings of the country for sustainable national security and 

development (Akpan, 2016). Science, Mathematics and technology education is concern about 

personnels development which finds out the personality and rapid social and economical 

development (Isaac, 2017). Human development entails the progression of expertise and capabilities 

of people and the use of these properly for the development of the society (Asalebe, 2013). The 

education of any type of country must give the residents along with suitable and ample degree of 

expertise that can solve personal and societal problems. It needs to likewise allow the people to 

obtain the kind of mindset that permits all of them to engage meaningfully and actively along with 

various other citizens of the society for the general perk and also re-modelling of the society ( 

Ebiendele, 2011).  

Technology education is actually that facet of general education that offers people along with the 

possibility to get expertise and also capabilities that can be utilized basically to settle popular and 

individual issues given that it economic skill-set accomplishment and progression of mastery in 

operating items and also handling activities (Muhammed, Yusha & Lawal, 2017). The technology 

students obtain vital assuming capabilities, logical reasoning as well as complication fixing abilities, 

it infuse in the students significant behaviors that readies all of them to explanation and in a group, 

they obtain perspectives and excellent social worths that forms their viewpoints and sights ( Asalebe, 

2013, Isaac, 2007). Technology education possess the capacity to supply lifestyle basics including 

food items, water, shelter, clothing and so on. It is actually likewise a way of enhancing medical and 



 

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also cleanliness (Asalebe, 2013). All these would certainly enhance overall standard of life, decrease 

poverty and guarantee human security. The social sickness in Nigeria may certainly not be actually 

divorce from shortage of effective education ( Charles, 2014). Young people are actually the 

representatives of change and also development, be it social, financial, political, religious etc. A 

bunch of Nigeria young people nevertheless are actually said to become miseducated ( Asalebe, 

2013). When the education system continues to graduate individuals who lack skills for self reliance 

thus completely irrelevant to the society, mis-education takes place (Asalebe, 2013; Obele & Asueni, 

2013). Self-reliance flourishes on know-how which is actually practical. Self-reliance is actually a 

condition through which people are actually geared up along with the mental sources as well as 

professional skill-sets along with which to accomplish self-fulfillment without essentially relying on 

others (Suleiman, 2010, Nwabueze & Ozioka, 2015). The resultant result of miseducation is actually 

that there is an excess of man power in some discipline while there is actually lack in some. As an 

example there is actually deficiency of high and middle level manpower in science, mathematics and 

technology education while there is surplus in arts and humanities ( Abubakar, Charle & Albert, 

2014). 

Furthermore, technology education offers saleable skill-sets along with which to make it through 

despite joblessness. It offers skill-sets that are actually hooked up and also career-oriented to life 

outside the institution (Bettee & Ude, 2011). Along with minimizing possibilities for wage job, STM 

education could possibly supply with the essential instruction for creating little as well as channel 

measurements services for self-employment and also job of others (Jiang, 2013). Through this 

income is actually produced and wide range is generated for meeting individual necessities and also 

satisfaction of social responsibilities (Asalebe, 2013). technology delivers scientific as well as 

technical know-how for food abundance. Via intensive mechanization of agriculture,, watering 

farming, huge incrustation animals cultivating might be boosted, improved varieties of high yielding 

crops could be produced and cross-breeding of animals could lead to abundance of food and good 

nutrition level in the country ( Akpan, 20116). All these might be achievable merely where there is 

actually science, mathematics and technology education literate the society. Along with a well-

articulated science, mathematics and technology education farmers can be educated essentials of 

simple science, mathematics and technology education as they connect to farming strategy, agrarian 

expansion employees and also food items engineer possess a vital part to take on here (Bayudo, 

2015). The economical wide range of any sort of country relies on the welfare of its own citizens. 

Individuals should be actually and also psychologically in shape to perform economic developmental 

tasks ( Harvey, 2014). technology education creates qualified health care and various other health-

related health care specialists for national development (Jiang, 2013). The nation’s economy depends 

on crude oil production; however there is scarcity of high and middle level manpower in the field of 

petroleum technology. A well-articulated technology education and learning would certainly supply 

the needed workforce considering that it ends up grads along with the called for mental capabilities, 

social as well as social skill-sets needed to have to operate as developers, engineers and various other 

careers in the petrol business ( Isaac, 2007). technology education supplies technological and 

medical know-how needed in resolving ecological security complications like disintegration, 

flooding, air pollution, individual populace mechanics, monitoring of raw materials, oil spilling, 

unplanned pouring of litter, bush burning and so on ( Attah & Gyari, 2014). That indicates 

technology possesses service to all individual concerns (Muhammed, Yusha & Lawal, 2017). When 

Nigerian young people are actually ready as well as inspired through providing height to technology 

education, thus the problem of low level economic development and the resultant human insecurity 

could be solved when Nigerian youth are prepared and empowered by giving prominence to science, 

mathematics and technology education. 

Approaches for Achieving Sustainable Technology Education for sustainable National Security 

These approaches are actually critical for accomplishing sustainable STME for national security. 

They include among others: 



 

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Provision of adequate infrastructures and facilities in schools:: Infrastructures and resources 

describe those predisposed physical and partial enablers of teaching and learning, including 

classrooms, libraries, laboratories, workshops, play fields as well as provision of water and sanitation 

etc ( Bayudo, 2015). These are actually anticipated to become of necessary volume, dimension and 

also top quality to satisfy the minimal common for promoting any meaningful teaching and learning. 

However, in Nigerian, a lot of senior high schools possess insufficient science laboratories ( 

Sulaiman, 2010). Workshops as well as public libraries reside in short supply and also commonly 

harmful- outfitted. Consequently, the federal government in any way degrees need to make certain 

appropriate arrangement of these components for STME to grow. 

Training and retraining of more science, mathematics and technical teachers:More science, 

mathematics and technical teachers ought to be actually taught to man the existing science 

laboratories in universities. This will certainly lessen the pressure on the scientific research instructor 

and raise high outcome and efficiency. In the light of the, an appropriate technology program 

targeted at training' teachers for accomplishment of special/necessary scientific research procedure 

skill-sets need to be actually developed. 

The teachers’ role or function: The very most significant information in the scientific research 

class is actually the science teacher. Building abilities in technology relies to a sizable degree on the 

educational strategies embraced due to the teacher. Research studies have indicated that teaching 

science through inquiry based methods lead to the development of improved laboratory procedures, 

critical thinking and creativity (Muhammed, Yusha & Lawal, 2017). Inquiry based pedagogy 

engages students in the investigative nature of science through exploration of the natural and 

material world. This method fosters skills, aids memory and facilitates transfer of experience to other 

learning situation ( Gabriel, 2019; Attah & Kyari, 2014). Additionally, the teacher may use various 

other modern teaching techniques/strategies including problem-based learning methods, the cultivate 

mind reader and also constructivist understanding ideas in science teaching and discovering, the 

group task and collaborative learning and so on. 

Re-Orientation in our value system: Societal values inhibit science, mathematics and technological 

education. Some individuals are actually therefore acquisitive and money conscious that others who 

would have opted for with technology are actually drawn away to areas where they will definitely 

obtain material well being. This outcome reduced students enrolment in technology program. 

Orientation on value system needs to have to become turned around to offer technology its own pride 

of place.  

Curriculum Review/Development: An appropriate science, mathematics and technical curriculum 

that is functional and in consonance with the realities of our environment needs to be developed at all 

levels of education (Muhammed, Yusha & Lawal, 2017). The educational curriculum would 

certainly consist of programs of guideline which will certainly allow students get pertinent seasoned 

skill-sets on college graduation in any way amounts. Skills acquisition and skills development are 

actually especially vital today considering that globalization provides excellent assurance to nations 

along with rich reasonable skill-sets, yet establishes possibly hazardous dangers to those without 

these economic capabilities required for international and national economic situation. The teaching 

profession today requires imaginative and educated male and female, that may utilize a vast array of 

skill-sets and expertise to instruct, promote and also test trainees and colleagues to obtain important 

skills. In view of this, Eyibe ( cited in Obele & Asueni, 2013) recommended the adoption of what he 

called a futuristic curriculum for this new millennium in our educational system. The futuristic 

curriculum if adopted ensures that no student should leave school without skill development in 

science, mathematics and technology needed for the scientific, technological and socio-economic 

development programs of the nation in a era of globalization.  

 

 



 

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Science, Mathematics and Technology abilities and its implication on sustainable National 

Security 

The impacts of technology education for national security could be highlighted in some following 

areas. These include: 

Cryptography (Data Security) 

This uses Number Theory (Modular Arithmetic) and also idea of Prime Number, as well as is 

actually the science utilization mathematics to secure or to encrypt and decrypt data. Data security is 

a chief security concern when it comes to transmission of computer passwords, electronic e-

commerce, private conversations and Automatic Teller machine (ATM) cards (Jiang, 2013). 

Cryptography is actually the method of concealing info, changing some secret information to a non-

readable text message. It allows one to hold delicate details or even send it around troubled systems 

(like the net) to ensure it can easily certainly not know through any person apart from the ideal 

individual( s). Functions of cryptography feature army info and intelligence, electronic commerce, 

bank and payments and electronic building access. It is just one of the keystones of web security 

(Zakariyya & Barwa, cited in Jiang, 2013). 

Wavelet Transformation (Signals Intelligence) 

This is actually a new technique which is really vital with all kinds of signal transmission and also it 

is actually based upon signal transmission of a set of numbers. Wavelet evaluation is an amazing 

new technique which uses concepts of mathematics and also physics in dealing with tough public 

and security concerns (Zakariyya & Barwa, cited in Jiang, 2013). Some requests of wavelets are 

actually highly effective analytical resource which could be utilized for a large variety of requests 

such as: Signal handling, Data squeezing, Fingerprint (which is actually even more unusual), for 

sensing the residential properties of simple variety useful, In web website traffic explanation for 

developing the companies dimension, Industrial oversight of gear-wheel, Computer graphics and 

also multi-fractal review, Wave proliferation, Image handling, Pattern identification, Detection of 

plane and sub along with Wavelets technique complicated info at unique settings and ranges as well 

as restores all of them along with higher accuracy (Zakariyya & Barwa, cited in Jiang, 2013). 

Financial Security 

According to Abubakar, Charles-Ogan and Albert (2014), economic security entails financial 

instrument which is a tradable asset of any kind, either cash, evidence of an ownership interest in an 

entity or a contractual right to receive or deliver cash or another financial instrument. Technology 

skills such as counting and budgeting are needed for personal financial security (Ebiendele, 2011, 

Muhammed, Yusha & Lawal, 2017). Likewise skills such as identification of numbers and correct 

valuation of money are needed for easy examining of ATM cards and discovery of fraud specifically. 

In the banks, savings, assets and liabilities, and bonds are valued using numbers. Loans, overdrafts 

and Commission On Transaction (COT) are given out using simple or compound interest rates. 

Likewise mathematical skills congruity is actually called for when for instance a reveal cost is 

actually taken and also stochastic calculus is actually utilized to get the matching worth of by-

products of the sell. 

Conclusion 

The paper wraps up that an operational Technology Education would certainly promote individual 

security and also enrich human security and enhance sustainable development of the society. Given 

that an operational or functional and sturdy STM Education possesses the possibilities for profit 

creation and also wide range production along with which joblessness and hardship might be actually 

eliminated. 

Recommendations 

To boost and guarantee education for sustainable national security of the society, the list below 

suggestions are actually produced. 



 

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1. For national security to exist, general social security has to be actually given. Today social 

services are certainly not performing properly. Nigeria government ought to apply ground a solid 

system that inhibit uprisings and confront the cause for such uprisings. 

2. Education system needs to deliver people along with possibility to get skills and competence along 

with which to function in the intricate society of present day globe. In the globalized planet these 

days science has actually ended up being a social aspect. It is actually a pivot which intermittent task 

hinges on. Settlement of problems is actually certainly not achievable without a sustainable 

technology education program. 

3. Education is actually an investment that returns in economical development and also sustainable 

development. Consequently, Nigerian federal government needs to put in properly in technology 

education. Since with function of technology all-natural sources of the country might be enhanced 

right into items and solutions for much better top quality of lifestyle of all citizens and also boosted 

human security. 

4. Nigerian government is actually straining to get over corruption and various other social bad 

habits; there is actually necessity to create technology education realistic and viable. Nigerian young 

people might be equipped with a solid and worthwhile technology education. Through an enriched 

technology curriculum skills and capabilities for farming, medical, vulcanization and rubber sun 

tanning, cleansing soap making, lack of employment, hardship and so on issues might be curtails. 

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