




































American Research Journal of Economics, Finance and Management 

Volume 11 Issue 3, July-September 2023 

ISSN: 2836-9416 

Impact Factor: 5.57 

Journal Homepage: https://americaserial.com/Journals/index.php/ARJEFM, 

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49 | P a g e  

NAVIGATING THE WAVES: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF 
AMERICAN AND CHINESE MARINE ECONOMIES 

 
 

1Dr. Keren Sun and 2Dr. Xiaoming Li 
1Keren sun, professor of Qingdao Huanghai University, China, PhD of University of Utah, 

2Department of Finance, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, China 
 

Abstract: The relationship between humanity and the ocean has a deep historical significance, 
particularly in the context of the economic dimension. The concept of ocean Gross Domestic Product 
(GDP) was introduced in 1974 to quantify the wealth generated from ocean-related activities (Colgan, 
2013). Pontecorvo et al. (1980) and Pontecorvo (1988) estimated the ocean sector's contribution to the 
U.S. economy in the late 20th century. Collaborative efforts by the Bureau of Economic Analysis 
(BEA) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) have resulted in prototype 
statistics for U.S. ocean GDP (Nicolls et al., 2020). 
In 2011, China's marine economic GDP surpassed that of the United States, marking a significant shift 
in global maritime economic dynamics (Zhang et al., 2016). This milestone ignited a sense of national 
pride and ambition in China as a maritime powerhouse. To gain a comprehensive understanding of 
the maritime economic development in both China and the United States, it becomes imperative to 
analyze their respective paths and disparities. The recently proposed Four Eras Theory of Ocean 
Utilization (Sun, 2021) provides a promising analytical framework to dissect these differences and 
chart the developmental trajectories of maritime economies. This framework serves as a valuable tool 
for examining the maritime accomplishments and challenges faced by China and the United States. 
Keywords: Ocean GDP, maritime economy, economic development, China, United States. 
 
  
1 Introduction 
From a historical perspective, the relationship between mankind and the ocean is extremely close, 
among of these relationships, the economic relationship between humans and the ocean is the most 
important one. It is well known that GDP is the best indicator to measure the amount of human wealth 
produced and created. Therefore, 1974 Nathan Associates proposed the concept of ocean GDP (Colgan, 
2013). “Pontecorvo et al. (1980) and Pontecorvo (1988) estimated the contribution of the ocean sector 
to the U.S.A Economy for the years  
1977 and 1987.” (Park &Kildow, 2014, p5). Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) cooperates with the 
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to develop prototype statistics of U.S. 
Ocean GDP (Nicolls, et al, 2020).   
In 2011, China's marine economic GDP surpassed that of the United States of America (Zhang, et al., 
2016), then China began to have the feeling and mind of a great maritime country and a powerful 
maritime country. This feeling and mind are reflected in some speeches and reports.  

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In such a situation, it is necessary to analyze the development path and differences between China and 
the United States of America in the maritime economy, in order to have a clearer understanding of the 
development status of the maritime economy in China and the United States of America, and to find a 
better development path. However, above analysis needs to be carried out with the help of a framework, 
the four eras theory of the use of the ocean by mankind was put forward in 2021 (sun, 2021), we think 
the four eras theory of the use of the ocean by mankind could be used as a good analysis frame to analyze 
the development path and differences between China and the United States in the maritime economy.  
Through a comparative analysis of the composition of the United States and China’s marine GDP, as 
well as an analysis of the development path of the world’s marine economy, we believe that there is still 
a clear gap between China and the United States of America in terms of marine economic development. 
China still needs to learn from and imitate the United States of America. 
2 Literature Review  
The concept of ocean GDP was proposed in 1974 (Colgan, 2013). “Pontecorvo et al. (1980) and 
Pontecorvo (1988) estimated the contribution of the ocean sector to the U.S. Economy for the years 
1977 and 1987.” (Park &Kildow, 2014, p5). Lou, et al. (2005) analyzed the quantity, composition, and 
geographical distribution of China’s marine resources, as well as analyzed the degree of correlation 
between various marine subindustries and the total marine output value, then found that the China 
marine resources are rich; marine aquaculture industry, coastal tourist industry, ship construction 
industry, are the pillar industries of China economy, and have the greatest contribution to China’s 
economy. 
He (2011) described the development achievement in China marine economy statistics over twenty 
years from 1990 to 2010. Its development characteristics are the upgrade from decentralized statistics 
to centralized statistics, the upgrade from partial statistics to comprehensive statistics, the upgrade 
from loose management to institutionalized management.  
      Song, et al. (2011) did a comparative analysis of the marine economic development of China and the 
United States from the angles of development scale, economic contribution, trends, industrial 
structure, and productivity. They found that, the U.S. marine economy is highly developed, the U.S. 
tertiary marine industry accounts for a high proportion in the U.S. marine economy, the marine 
economy’s contribution share to the U.S. economy is stable, and the labor productivity of U.S. marine 
industry is high. China's marine economy is showing a trend of rapid development, the proportion of 
China tertiary marine economy industry in China marine economy is showing an increasing trend, the 
contribution of the marine economy to the Chinese economy is increasing, the labor productivity of 
China marine economy is low.  
Colgan (2013) combines the industry and geographic location features to measure the ocean economy 
activity of the USA, at the national, state, and county levels. The national ocean economy of the U.S. is 
about 2% of U.S. employment and 1.7% of gross domestic product. Colgan (2013) also argues that the 
ocean economy of the USA will have a larger share in rural areas. Wang (2013) constructed the marine 
economic competitiveness evaluating indicators, and utilized the DEA analysis method to evaluate the 
China main marine economic zones’ competitiveness.        
Zhang, et al. (2016) analyzed the evolution of China’s marine industry surpassing the United States in 
the period of 2005 to 2012, they think China has taken the first step towards becoming a powerful 

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country of maritime economy and will be a leading country headed by marine GDP in the world. Yan 
(2018) focused on how China coastal cities can make better use of the direct economic contribution of 
the marine economy in the National Maritime Silk Road strategy of China. Yan (2018) also pointed out 
that the development of China marine economy must adhere to the concept of ecological harmony and 
innovative development. 
Sun (2021) from the perspective of human use of the ocean, proposes four era theories on the 
relationship between humans and the ocean, i.e., in the first era, the ocean is a geographic barrier for 
mankind; in the second era, the ocean is a road for human transportation; in the third era, the ocean is 
a granary for mankind; in the fourth era, the ocean is a treasure house of mankind’s natural resources, 
and gets the following conclusion: every era has the most significant feature of this era; Change of the 
eras is accompanied by the continuous improvement process of human influence and utilization of the 
oceans; historically, once a country has maritime hegemony, this country would become wealthy, 
powerful, and the leaders of maritime civilization.  
3 Compared with China, the United States of America has taken the lead out of the 
era of geographical barriers of the Ocean    
Ocean was a natural safety barrier for human beings. China has a long history of using the ocean as a 
barrier. There is a poem in the classic Chinese book titled the Bible of Poetry, which is translated into 
English as “Xiangtu is brave and talented, so that overseas people also submit to him”. There is a 
sentence in another Chinese classic book titled Noble Book, which is translated into English as “Walk 
all over the earth, until the sea”. The first poem means that a country or region could be conquered even 
if this country or region has sea as barrier, the second sentence means that sea is a barrier for human 
beings. 
The Ming Dynasty of China implemented sea ban policy, the purpose of which was to protect oneself 
via the natural barrier of the sea, mainly to resist armed smuggling, looting and harassment in coastal 
areas of China from the Japanese warriors, merchants, and ronin. The Qing Dynasty also used the ocean 
as barriers many times and for a long time:  the sea ban was implemented at the beginning of the Qing 
Dynasty, the purpose of which was to deal with the attack from the sea by Zheng Chenggong, the 
remnant force of the Ming Dynasty; the Qing Dynasty lifted the sea ban after Zheng Chenggong was 
suppressed; due to increasingly serious pirate activities and the potential threats from Western culture, 
Western civilization, and Western industrial products in East Asian waters, the policy of fully opening 
the sea began to shrink after more than 30 years.    
People's liberation army navy was established on 23 April 1949, the PLA Navy had been mainly 
responsible for offshore defense work for decades, and was largely a riverine and littoral force (brown-
water navy) until the late 1980s. PLAN has developed rapidly after entering the 21st century, seeking to 
build a navy with both offshore defense and ocean-going escort capabilities. Now PLAN is the second 
largest navy in the world in terms of tonnage, and has the largest number of major combatants of any 
navy. I think that since China’s reform and opening up in the 1980s, China has stepped out of the era 
of using the ocean as a barrier function.  
The United States of America has also experienced the era of using the ocean as a barrier function. At 
the beginning of the founding of the United States, the US naval power was also very weak. October 13, 
1775 was the date of the United States Navy official establishment, but the Continental Navy was 

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disbanded with the end of the War of Independence. Due to the threats to American merchant shipping 
from Barbary pirates, the Naval Act of 1794 and a resolution to reestablish a permanent standing U.S. 
Navy were passed by Congress in 1794. The war with the British in 1812 made the United States feel 
weak in its navy. In the American Civil War, the U.S. Navy fought the small Confederate States Navy 
with both sailing ships and ironclad ships to shut down the Confederacy's civilian coastal shipping. 
After the Civil War, most of its ships were laid up in reserve, and by 1878, the Navy was just 6,000 men. 
The publication of Mahan’s work titled “The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660–1783” in 1890 
marks the transformation of American ocean strategy. The United States began to walk out of the era 
of using the sea as a barrier and finally gained the hegemony of the sea in 1939, as 1939 was marked as 
the year of end of Britain's cycle of hegemony by Robert Gilpin (Spiezio, 1990). Therefore, it is obvious 
that, compared with China, the United States has taken the lead out of the era of geographical barriers 
of the Ocean. 
4 The United States of America is the last owner of maritime hegemony of the era of 
sea channel of trade and transportation              
 The human needs for transportation belong to the category of means (Sun &Philips, 2020), 
transportation is a means for humans to satisfy their needs. Roads are infrastructures that match 
human transportation. The sea provides vast roads for mankind, which can be extended to all 
directions. Although sea roads are natural, human use of sea roads requires two abilities, one is the 
capacity for maritime transport, the other is the ability to protect the safety of maritime transport and 
the smooth flow of sea routes. The first ability is relative to maritime navigation technique &knowledge, 
the courage and passion of the navigator, ship building technology and level, etc. The second ability is 
relative to the military strength of a country’s navy. It is clear that there are differences in the possession 
of these two capabilities by different countries, and that the countries with the highest combined 
capabilities have easy access to maritime hegemony. History also proves that maritime hegemony is 
constantly alternating: from Portugal's maritime supremacy, to Spain's maritime supremacy, to the 
United Provinces' maritime supremacy, to the United Kingdom's maritime supremacy, to the U.S.'s 
maritime supremacy. The United States is the last owner of maritime hegemony of the era of sea 
channel of trade and transportation. If a country has maritime hegemony, it can form a monopoly on 
the sea road, and if a country has the monopoly on the sea road, it can form a monopoly on the world 
commodity trade and transportation, as the monopoly on the world commodity trade and 
transportation can bring huge economic benefits, therefore, the control and monopoly of ocean 
transportation channels can bring huge economic benefits. So, before 1800, monopoly dominated in 
the overseas expansion and colonial trade of Europe:   
“It is inconceivable that any country would have willingly shared access to such fabulous riches as the 
spices of the Eastern seas or the gold and silver of Mexico and Peru. Following the example of the 
Iberian kings, every other European monarch refused to permit any other power to trade with his 
colonies before the end of the eighteenth century.” (Hamilton, 1948, p51).   
Interestingly, under British maritime hegemony, the United Kingdom implemented an inclusive and 
open maritime policy, i.e., freedom of navigation and free trade policies. It is economic ideas rather 
than the pressure of interests that were central to repeal the Corn Laws (Irwin, 1989). To maintain the 
international trade order is the ultimate goal of the United Kingdom by holding sea power. During the 

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maritime hegemony process “Britain as the hegemon can be seen to have provided a 'public good' to 
the international economy in the form of a liberal ideology” (O'Brien, et al., 1992, p.110).   
The United States does not seem to show a diligent pursuit of maritime hegemony. 1939 was marked 
as the year of end of Britain's cycle of hegemony (Spiezio, 1990), that means the world entered the era 
of the U.S.'s maritime supremacy. All this is due to the occurrence of World War I and World War II, 
and the accumulation of U.S. economic, political, military and technological strength.      
The United States has always pursued the policy of the freedom of the seas, which has been followed 
after entering the era of American maritime hegemony: “Generation after generation, America has 
battled for the general policy of the freedom of the seas. And that policy is a very simple one – but a 
basic, a fundamental one. It means that no Nation has the right to make the broad oceans of the world 
at great distances from the actual theater of land war unsafe for the commerce of others.” (Franklin D. 
Roosevelt, Fireside Chat on the Greer Incident, September 11, 1941). “Upon our naval and air patrol – 
now operating in large number over a vast expanse of the Atlantic Ocean – falls the duty of maintaining 
the American policy of freedom of the seas – now.” (Franklin D. Roosevelt, Fireside Chat on the Greer 
Incident, September 11, 1941). 1979 United States launched Freedom of Navigation Program.   
The U.S. maritime strategy is influenced by Mahan's theory. Mahan’s work titled “The Influence of Sea 
Power Upon History, 1660–1783” was published in 1890, in his this book Mahan argued that: (1) 
national greatness was associated with the sea; (2) the importance of strategic locations, such as choke 
points, canals, and coaling stations, had been emphasized; (3) states should increase production and 
shipping capacities and acquire overseas possessions; (4) the primary mission of a navy was to secure 
the command of the sea by destroying or neutralizing the enemy fleet and not by destruction of 
commerce. 
Mahan’s sea power theory provided the basis for the strengthening of the U.S. Navy. America's powerful 
naval and military forces have given the United States enough power to control the world's strategic 
maritime passage. The U.S. control over the world's maritime strategic passages is mainly manifested 
in the following aspects: (1) the U.S. won two major battles during the 1898 Spanish–American War, 
eventually the US drove the Spanish out of the Pacific Ocean, and occupied all the important islands in 
the Pacific Ocean, including Guam, Hawaii. (2) strategic locations of the islands of the ocean are the 
key points for controlling the ocean, by the end of World War II, most of the islands in the Pacific, most 
of Southeast Asia, were occupied by the United States, then the U.S. for the first time effectively 
controlled the Pacific, Indian and Atlantic oceans. (3) via the US global military base networks to control 
the world's maritime strategic passages. According to Pentagon property portfolio, the United States 
has a military presence or a base in over 500 locations overseas, which have been spread across 80 to 
160 nations.    
The U.S. has also paid a substantial economic price for maintaining maritime hegemony and 
maintaining control over the world's strategic maritime corridors. “As per US defence budget proposals 
for 2019, the DoD requested for $686.1 Billion. This is more than $74 billion over the 2018 defence 
budget. However, as per the Rand Survey Report, the annual defence budget hovers around $150 
billion, with an annual increase of $20 billion.” In 1902 President Theodore Roosevelt said that: “A 
good Navy is not a provocation to war.   

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It is the surest guaranty of peace.” Because the power and benefits of maritime hegemony and control 
over strategic maritime corridors can only be fully demonstrated in non-peaceful times, in times of 
peace there is no obvious power and benefits. Therefore, under the current control structure of ocean 
hegemony and world ocean strategic channels, and state of peace, China's best strategy is to make great 
use of the ocean passages rather than to change the current control structure of the ocean hegemony 
and strategic passages. The most important sign of vigorously using the ocean passages for peaceful 
purposes is to vigorously develop the ship manufacturing industry, marine construction industry, and 
the marine transportation industry; another important sign of vigorously using the ocean passages for 
peaceful purposes is the construction of “Maritime Silk Road 21st Century”, which is a strategic measure 
to build a peaceful and stable surrounding environment,  to open up new areas of cooperation and 
deepen mutually beneficial cooperation with Association of Southeast Asian Nations, and will be helpful 
for China and the countries along the maritime Silk Road to carry out all-round cooperation in the fields 
of port shipping, marine energy, economic and trade, scientific and technological innovation, ecological 
environment and human exchanges.      
Table 1 GDP of China's Three Marine Industries and Their Annual Growth Rates unit: ten percent of 
billions (current price) and %  
  

 

Marine 
 ship 
manufacturing 
industry 
(current price)  

Column  
2’s  
growth  
rate  

Marine 
engineering 
industry 
(current 
price)  

Column  
4’s  
growth  
rate  

Marine 
transportation 
industry 
(current price)  

Column  
6’s  
growth  
rate  

2019  1182  11.3%  1732  4.5%  6427  5.8%  
2018  997  -9.8%  1905  -3.8%  6522  5.5%  
2017  1455  -4.4%  1841  0.9%  6312  9.5%  
2016  1312  -1.9%  2172  5.8%  6004  7.8%  
2015   1441  3.4%  2092  15.4%  5541  5.6%  
2014  1387  7.6%  2103  9.5%  5562  6.9%  
2013  1183  -7.7%  1680  9.4%  5111  4.6%  
2012  1331  -1.1%  1075  12.7%  4802  6.5%  
2011  1437  17.8%  1096  14.9%  3957  7.1%  
2010  1182  19.5%  808  14.5%  3816  16.7%  
2009  828  15.8%  658  31.9%  3748  -2.4%  
2008  762  36.4%  411  -9.0%  3858  16.1%  
2007  448  17.6%  342  28.0%  3414  21.1%  
2006  252  32.4%  135  20.4%  1060  10.4%  
2005  176  11.8%  103  17.2%  1145  5.0%  
2004  141  54.4%  -  -  852  21.9%  
2003  -  32.1%  -  -  -  30.0%  
Source: China Marine Economic Statistics Bulletins from Ministry of Natural Resources of the People’s 
Republic of China.   

    industry    
  
year   

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Based on the data in Table 1, the average annual growth rate of China GDP of marine ship 
manufacturing industry from 2002 to 2019, i.e., x1, can be calculated as the following:  
(1+x1)17 =1*(1+32.1%) *(1+54.4%) *(1+11.8%) *(1+32.4%) *(1+17.6%) *(1+36.4%)  
*(1+15.8%) *(1+19.5%) *(1+17.8%) *(1-1.1%) *(1-7.7%) *(1+7.6%) *(1+3.4%) *       (1-1.9%) *(1-4.4%) *(1- 
9.8%)*(1+11.3%) x1=11.89%        
Based on the data in Table 1, the average annual growth rate of China GDP of marine engineering 
industry from 2004 to 2019, i.e., x2, can be calculated as the following:  
(1+x2)15 =1*(1+17.2%) *(1+20.4%) *(1+28.0%) *(1-9.0%) *(1+31.9%) *(1+14.5%)  
*(1+14.9%) *(1+12.7%) *(1+9.4%) *(1+9.5%) *(1+15.4%) *(1+5.8%) *(1+0.9%) *       (1-3.8%) *(1+4.5%)  
x2=10.41%    
Based on the data in Table 1, the average annual growth rate of China GDP of marine transportation 
industry from 2002 to 2019, i.e., x3, can be calculated as the following:  
(1+x3)17 =1*(1+30.0%) *(1+21.9%) *(1+5.0%) *(1+10.4%) *(1+21.1%) *(1+16.1%)  
*(1-2.4%) *(1+16.7%) *(1+7.1%) *(1+6.5%) *(1+4.6%) *(1+6.9%) *(1+5.6%) *  
(1+7.8%) *(1+9.5%) *(1+5.5%) *(1+5.8%)            x3=9.72%      
Table 2 Real GDP of the U.S.'s Three Marine Industries and Their Annual Growth Rates unit: dollar 
and %  

 

Ship and boat 
building 
sector  

Column  
2’s  
growth  
rate  

Marine 
construction 
sector  
  

Column  
4’s  
growth  
rate  

Marine 
transportation 
sector  
  

Column  
6’s  
growth  
rate  

2005  $15,921,601,0 
56   

-  $6,377,378,9 
17   

-  $39,637,460,76 
8   

-  

2006  $15,566,473,7 
27   

-2.23%  $6,313,996,8 
94   

-0.99%  $44,842,301,90 
5   

13.13%  

2007  $18,194,173,2 
46   

16.88%  $6,439,805,2 
77   

1.99%  $47,234,742,54 
2   

5.34%  

2008  $18,166,209,2 
66   

-0.15%  $6,168,829,5 
33   

-4.21%  $52,545,516,81 
7   

11.24%  

2009  $16,731,589,7 
52   

-7.90%  $5,886,597,4 
14   

-4.58%  $54,623,846,70 
9   

3.96%  

2010  $17,231,196,1 
09   

2.99%  $5,717,259,3 
26   

-2.88%  $54,539,331,70 
6   

-0.15%  

2011  $16,862,861,7 
72   

-2.14%  $5,277,055,3 
52   

-7.70%  $54,454,853,54 
5   

-0.155%  

2012  $16,975,720,9 
24   

0.67%  $5,331,640,7 
32   

1.03%  $55,656,428,69 
8   

2.21%  

2013  $17,460,017,4 
90   

2.85%  $5,168,480,3 
02   

-3.06%  $59,087,473,89 
2   

6.16%  

2014  $17,054,922,2 
63   

-2.32%  $4,891,169,1 
35   

-5.37%  $58,552,009,17 
2   

-0.91%  

    industry    
  
year   

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2015  $18,725,492,4 
27   

9.80%  $5,110,874,1 
90   

4.49%  $60,912,169,54 
0   

4.03%  

2016  $18,130,991,3 
11   

-3.17%  $5,008,435,
2 
36   

-2.00%  $58,967,090,9
2 
3   

-3.19%  

2017  $18,406,473,
5 
18   

1.52%  $5,248,299,8 
95   

4.79%  $59,624,561,86 
6   

1.12%  

Source: NOAA Office for Coastal Management https://coast.noaa.gov/digitalcoast/data/   
Based on the data in Table 2, the average annual growth rate of the U.S. GDP of ship and boat building 
industry from 2005 to 2017 can be calculated, and this result =1.21%.   
Based on the data in Table 2, the average annual growth rate of the U.S. GDP of marine construction 
industry from 2005 to 2017 can be calculated, and this result = -1.62%.  
Based on the data in Table 2, the average annual growth rate of the U.S. GDP of marine transportation 
industry from 2005 to 2017 can be calculated, and this result =3.4%.   
By comparing the average annual growth rates of the United States and China in three sectors of ship 
and boat building sector, marine construction sector, and marine transportation sector, we can find 
that China is showing long-term high growth in above these three sectors in the 21th Century, the 
United States is slow to grow in above these three sectors from 2005 to 2017, and even retrogression in 
the marine construction sector. Due to China’s long-term high growth in above these three sectors, in 
2003, China's shipbuilding industry accounted for more than 10% of the world's output for the first 
time; in the first half of the year 2007, China's new ship orders increased significantly, ranking first in 
the world for the first time; by the end of 2005, throughput of Shanghai Port had reached 400 million 
tons, making Shanghai port the world's largest port.  
Based on the above analysis, we can draw the following conclusion: the United States enjoys the prestige 
of controlling the strategic channel of the ocean, and China makes full use of the economic role of the 
channel.    
5 The United States of America has no urgent need for blue granaries  
 Like land, the sea is an important source of human food. Therefore, the sea is regarded as the blue 
granary for humans, fishing is one way for humans to get food from the ocean, and the other main way 
is fishing farming, but the size of the blue granary depends on the human's ability to exploit the sea.       
Table 3 world fisheries and aquaculture production, utilization, unit: million tonnes, live weight   

   1986–
1995 
Average 
per year   

1996–
2005  
Average 
per year  

2006–
2015 
Average 
per year   

2016   2017   2018  

Capture: 
Inland   

6.4   8.3  10.6  11.4  11.9  12.0  

Capture: 
Marine  

80.5   83.0   79.3   78.3  81.2  84.4  

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Total 
capture   

86.9   91.4  89.8  89.6  93.1  96.4  

Aquaculture: 
Inland   

8.6   19.8  36.8  48.0  49.6  51.3  

Aquaculture: 
Marine  

6.3  14.4  22.8  28.5  30.0  30.8  

Total 
aquaculture  

14.9   34.2  59.7  76.5  79.5  82.1  

Total world 
fisheries and 
aquaculture  

101.8   125.6  149.5  166.1  172.7  178.5  

Human 
consumption  

71.8   98.5  129.2  148.2  152.9  156.4  

Non-food 
uses  

29.9   27.1  20.3  17.9  19.7  22.2  

Population  
(billions)   

5.4  6.2  7.0  7.5  7.5  7.6  

Per  capita 
apparent 
consumption  
(kg)  

13.4   15.9  18.4  19.9  20.3  20.5  

 Source: FAO, The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2020, P. 3.   
 From the data in Table 3, we can see that 2016, 2017, 2018 per capita apparent consumption (kg) of 
fisheries and aquaculture production reached around 20 kg, and the amount of total marine capture 
has basically stabilized at around 90 million tonnes from 1986 to 2018, but the amount of aquaculture 
increased greatly, the ratio of the amount of total aquaculture to the amount of total capture was 17%, 
37%, 66%, 85%, 85%, 85% in 1986-1995, 1996-2005, 2006-2015, 2016, 2017, 2018 respectively. The 
ratios above show that the contribution of farming and fishing to human food supply is almost evenly 
divided now, which also shows the huge development potential and space of farming. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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Table 4 Real GDP of the U.S.'s Living Resources Sector unit: dollar  

   
industry   
  
year  

Fishing  Fish  
Hatcheries and  
Aquaculture  

Seafood  
Processing  

Seafood 
Markets  

Total  

2005  $1,352,756,15 
7   

$1,351,441,429   $3,701,772, 
111   

$754,048,420   $7,160,018,117   

2006  $1,533,923,97 
7   

$1,211,674,218   $4,346,538, 
693   

$745,536,232   $7,837,673,120   

2007  $1,325,989,67 
2   

$1,087,263,28
6   

$4,450,159, 
605   

$711,446,677   $7,574,859,240   

2008  $1,334,689,07 
2   

$937,645,095   $3,806,877, 
134   

$672,467,633   $6,751,678,936   

2009  $1,275,761,26 
2   

$1,194,553,941   $4,067,153, 
911   

$677,594,805   $7,215,063,919   

2010  $1,469,976,13 
5   

$1,173,572,800   $3,632,777, 
994   

$686,157,109   $6,962,484,038   

2011  $1,701,047,74 
2   

$873,244,500   $3,692,549, 
989   

$705,099,949   $6,971,942,180   

2012  $1,644,230,5
0 
2   

$871,029,822   $3,677,916, 
284   

$732,693,612   $6,925,870,221   

2013  $1,361,659,36 
2   

$1,114,846,209   $3,858,639, 
006   

$744,927,561   $7,080,072,138   

2014  $1,177,983,91 
3   

$1,099,161,739   $3,749,206, 
774   

$752,654,117   $6,779,006,543   

2015  $1,234,288,79 
8   

$1,258,631,346   $3,986,420
, 
563   

$778,671,394   $7,258,012,101   

2016  $1,228,651,78 
6   

$1,312,770,377   $3,577,149, 
179   

$3,983,887,23 
5   

$10,102,458,576   

2017  $1,298,775,40 
2   

$1,359,976,163   $3,698,637, 
115   

$4,150,183,55 
2   

$10,507,572,23
3   

Source: NOAA Office for Coastal Management https://coast.noaa.gov/digitalcoast/data/   
Based on the data in Table 4, we can calculate and get the data of Table 5:  

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Table 5 the Annual Growth Rate of Real GDP of the U.S.'s Living Resources Sector    

 

The growth 
rate of 
fishing 
sector  

The 
 growt
h rate  of 
 fish 
hatcheries 
and 
aquaculture  
Sector  

The growth 
rate of  
seafood 
processing 
sector  

The 
 gro
wth rate 
seafood 
markets 
sector  

of  The growth 
rate of living  
resources  

2006  13.39%  -10.34%  17.42%  -1.13%   9.46%  
2007  -13.56%  -10.27%  2.38%  -4.572   -3.35%  
2008  0.66%  -13.76%  -14.46%  -5.48%   -10.87%  
2009  -4.42%  27.40%  6.84%  0.76%   6.86%  
2010  15.22%  -1.76%  -10.68%  1.26%   -3.50%  
2011  15.72%  -25.59%  1.65%  2.76%   0.136%  
2012  -3.34%  -0.254%  -0.40%  3.91%   -0.66%  
2013  -17.19%  27.99%  4.91%  1.67%   2.23%  
2014  -13.49%  -1.41%  -2.84%  1.04%   -4.25%  
2015  4.78%  14.51%  6.33%  3.46%   7.07%  
2016  -0.46%  4.30%  -10.27%  -    -  
2017  5.71%  3.60%  3.40%  -   -  
 
The data in Table 5 show that the U.S. living resources sectors are at the intersection process of growth 
and retreat. Based on the data in Table 4 or Table 5, the average annual growth rate of the U.S. GDP of 
fishing sector from 2005 to 2017 can be calculated, and this result = -0.339%; the average annual 
growth rate of the U.S.  
GDP of fish hatcheries and aquaculture sector from 2005 to 2017 is 0.052%, it is because that the U.S. 
did not take part  in the blue revolution, “U.S. aquaculture production as a share of global aquaculture 
production has fallen steadily from a high of 10% in 1950 to the currently all-time low of 0.39% in 2017.” 
(Shamshak, et al., 2019, p. 724); the average annual growth rate of the U.S. GDP of seafood processing 
sector from 2005 to 2017 is 0.0071%; the average annual growth rate of the U.S. GDP of seafood 
markets sector from 2005 to 2015 is 0.32%; the average annual growth rate of the U.S. GDP of total 
living resources sector from 2005 to 2015 is 0.136%.             
When we calculate the average annual growth rate of the U.S. GDP of seafood markets sector, we choose 
the time period from 2005 to 2015 rather than from 2005 to 2017, this change is due to “the addition 
of seafood wholesale activities to the seafood market industry, which only included seafood retail 

    industry    
  
year   

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activities before 2016.”1 Above data show that the U.S. living resources sector has stagnated from 2005 
to 2017.  
Table 6 GDP of China's Marine fisheries Industry and its Annual Growth Rates unit: ten percent of 
billions (current price) and %  

   industry   
  
year  

GDP of marine fisheries 
industry (current price)  

Marine fisheries industry’s annual 
growth rate  

2019  4715  4.4%  

2018  4801  -0.2%  

2017  4676  -3.3%  

2016  4641  3.8%  

2015   4352  2.8%  

2014  4293  6.4%  

2013  3872  5.5%  

2012  3652  6.4%  

2011  3287  3.7%  

2010  2813   4.4%  

2009  2509  12.4%  

2008  2216  3.3%  

2007  1904  -  

2006  1902  -6.1%  

2005  2011  20.0%  
Source: China Marine Economic Statistics Bulletins from Ministry of Natural Resources of the People’s 
Republic of China.  
Based on the data in Table 6, the average annual growth rate of China GDP of marine fisheries industry 
from 2007 to 2019, i.e., x4, can be calculated as the following:  
(1+x4)12 =1*(1+3.3%) *(1+12.4%) *(1+4.4%) *(1+3.7%) *(1+6.4%) *(1+5.5%)  
*(1+6.4%) *(1+2.8%) *(1+3.8%) *(1-3.3%) *(1-0.2%) *(1+4.4%)            x4=3.99%     
Compared the marine fisheries between the U.S. and China, we know that the U.S. living resources 
sector has stagnated from 2005 to 2017, China has maintained a steady long-term growth status, the 
average annual growth rate is 3.99 per cent. The main reason for this status is that the United States 
has no food pressure, while China has food pressure.  

                                                      
1 https://coast.noaa.gov/data/digitalcoast/pdf/econ-report-2016.pdf  

  

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6 The United States of America is the leader of the era of human natural resources 
treasure house              
Economics has a basic premise: human desires/wants are infinite, but resources are limited. Human 
beings are always seeking resources and places where they contain them. With the improvement of 
human science and technology, human beings are more and more aware of the abundance of marine 
resources, and the ocean is the treasure house of human natural resources. Marine resources include 
marine mineral resources, sea chemical resources, marine biological (aquatic) resources and marine 
power resources. 
Table 7 Real GDP of the U.S.'s Offshore Mineral Extraction Industries and Their Annual Growth Rates 
unit: dollar and % 

 

Limestone,  
sand  and  
gravel sector  

Column  
2’s  
growth  
rate  

Oil and gas 
exploration 
and 
production  
sector  
  

Column  
4’s  
growth  
rate  

Offshore 
mineral 
extraction:  
total  
  

Column  
6’s  
growth  
rate  

2005  $2,951,578,02 
5   

-  $86,085,932, 
877   

-  $89,037,510,90 
1   

-  

2006  $3,102,101,18 
3   

5.10%  $99,826,216, 
046   

15.96%  $102,928,000,0 
00   

15.60%  

2007  $3,059,804,4
7 
1   

-1.36%  $111,112,000 
,000   

11.31%  $114,172,000,0 
00   

10.92%  

2008  $2,288,374,74 
1   

-
25.21%  

$103,443,000 
,000   

-6.90%  $105,731,000,0 
00   

-7.39%  

2009  $1,986,929,23 
1   

-13.17%  $131,495,000 
,000   

27.12%  $133,482,000,0 
00   

26.25%  

2010  $1,593,730,41 
9   

-
19.79%  

$101,110,000 
,000   

-23.11%  $102,704,000,0 
00   

-
23.06%  

2011  $1,357,898,66 
9   

-
14.80%  

$104,645,000 
,000   

3.50%  $106,003,000,
0 
00   

3.21%  

2012  $1,361,974,63 
9   

0.30%  $127,670,000 
,000   

22.00%  $129,032,000,0 
00   

21.72%  

2013  $1,477,413,08 
1   

8.48%  $131,580,000 
,000   

3.06%  $133,057,000,0 
00   

3.12%  

2014  $1,468,595,69 
8   

-0.60%  $134,308,00
0 
,000   

2.07%  $135,776,000,0 
00   

2.04%  

2015  $1,743,923,70 
2   

18.75%  $164,671,000 
,000   

22.61%  $166,415,000,0 
00   

22.57%  

    industry    
  
year   

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2016  $1,946,810,49 
5   

11.63%  $163,953,000 
,000   

-0.44%  $165,900,000,0 
00   

-0.31%  

2017  $1,831,713,46 
6   

-5.91%  $145,275,461 
,903   

-11.39%  $147,107,175,3 
70   

-11.33%  

Source: NOAA Office for Coastal Management https://coast.noaa.gov/digitalcoast/data/   
Based on the data in Table 7, the average annual growth rate of the U.S. GDP of limestone, sand and 
gravel sector from 2005 to 2017 can be calculated, and this result = -3.98%.   
Based on the data in Table 7, the average annual growth rate of the U.S. GDP of oil and gas exploration 
and production sector from 2005 to 2017 can be calculated, and this result =4.36%.  
Based on the data in Table 7, the average annual growth rate of the U.S. GDP of total offshore mineral 
extraction sector from 2005 to 2017 can be calculated, and this result =4.18%. 
Table 8 GDP of China's Three Marine Industries and Their Annual Growth Rates unit: ten percent of 
billions  
(current price) and %  

 

Marine oil 
and gas 
exploration 
industry 
(current 
price)  

Column  
2’s  
growth  
rate  

Marine 
mining 
industry 
(current 
price)  

Column  
4’s  
growth  
rate  

Marine 
chemical 
industry 
(current price)  

Column  
6’s  
growth  
rate  

2019  1541  4.7%  194  3.1%  1157  7.3%  
2018  1477  3.3%  71  0.5%  1119  3.1%  
2017  1126  -2.1%  66  -5.7%  1044  -0.8%  
2016  869  -7.3%  69  7.7%  1017  8.5%  
2015  939  -2.5%  67  15.6%  985  14.8%  
2014  1530  -5.9%  53  13.0%  911  11.9%  
2013  1648  0.1%  49  13.7%  908  11.4%  
2012  1570  -8.7%  61  17.9%  784  17.4%  
2011  1730  6.7%  53  2.1%  691  2.5%  
2010  1302  53.9%  49  -0.5%  565  12.4%  
2009  748  8.5%  21  7.5%  611  26.0%  
2008  874  -1.1%  9  21.3%  542  6.8%  
2007  769  17.3%  5  -24.2%  209  16.3%  
2006  683  29.2%  8  -24.2%  140  13.0%  
2005  467  17.9%  8  -6.1%  79  -19.8%  

Source: China Marine Economic Statistics Bulletins from Ministry of Natural Resources of the People’s 
Republic of China.  
Based on the data in Table 8, the average annual growth rate of China GDP of marine oil and gas 
exploration industry from 2005 to 2019, i.e., x5, can be calculated as the following:  
(1+x5)15 =1*(1+17.9%) *(1+29.2%) *(1+17.3%) *(1-1.1%) *(1+8.5%) *(1+53.9%) *(1+6.7%) *(1-8.7%)  
*(1+0.1%) *(1-5.9%) *(1-2.5%) * (1-7.3%) *(1-2.1%) *(1+3.3%) *(1+4.7%)            x5=6.35%   

    industry    
  
year   

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The average annual growth rate of China GDP of marine oil and gas exploration industry from 2012 to 
2019, i.e., x6, can be calculated as the following:  
(1+x6)8 =1*(1-8.7%) *(1+0.1%) *(1-5.9%) *(1-2.5%) * (1-7.3%) *(1-2.1%) *(1+3.3%) *(1+4.7%)            x6=-
2.43%   
Based on the data in Table 8, the average annual growth rate of China GDP of marine mining industry 
from 2005 to 2019, i.e., x7, can be calculated as the following:  
(1+x7)15 =1*(1-6.1%) *(1-24.2%) *(1-24.2%) *(1+21.3%) *(1+2.1%) *(1-0.5%)  
*(1+7.5%) *(1+17.9%) *(1+13.7%) *(1+13.0%) *(1+15.6%) *(1+7.7%) *(1-5.7%) * (1+0.5%) *(1+3.1%)      
X7 =1.84%  
Based on the data in Table 8, the average annual growth rate of China GDP of marine chemical industry 
from 2005 to 2019, i.e., x8, can be calculated as the following:  
(1+x8)15 =1*(1-19.8%) *(1+13.0%) *(1+16.3%) *(1+6.8%) *(1+26.0%) *(1+12.4%) *(1+2.5%) *(1+17.4%)  
*(1+11.4%) *(1+11.9%) *(1+14.8%) *(1+8.5%) *(1-0.8%) *(1+3.1%) *(1+7.3%)            x8=7.90%    
Table 9 GDP of China's Marine Power Industry and its Annual Growth Rates unit: ten percent of billions 
(current price) and % 

   
industry   
  
year  

GDP of marine power 
industry (current price)  

Marine power industry’s annual 
growth rate  

2019  199  7.2%  

2018  172   12.8%  

2017  138  8.4%  

2016  126    10.7%  

2015  116  9.1%  

2014  99     8.5%  

2013  87  11.9%  

2012  70  14.3%  

2011  49    25.0%  

2010  28   31.3%  

2009  12  25.2%  

2008  8  51.6%  

2007  5  17.0%  

2006  -  3.1%  

2005  -  6.7%  
Source: China Marine Economic Statistics Bulletins from Ministry of Natural Resources of the People’s 
Republic of China.   
Based on the data in Table 9, the average annual growth rate of China GDP of marine power industry 
from 2005 to 2019, i.e., x9, can be calculated as the following:  

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(1+x9)15 =1*(1+6.7%) *(1+3.1%) *(1+17.0%) *(1+51.6%) *(1+25.2%) *(1+31.3%) *(1+25.0%) *(1+14.3%)  
*(1+11.9%) *(1+8.5%) *(1+9.1%) *(1+10.7%) *(1+8.4%) *(1+12.8%) *(1+7.2%)            x9=14.50% 
Viewing from above calculated results, China’s acquisition of marine resources is mainly reflected in 
renewable energy and low-value-added products: the average annual growth rate of China GDP of 
marine power industry from 2005 to 2019, i.e., x9, is 14.5%; the average annual growth rate of China 
GDP of marine chemical industry from 2005 to 2019, i.e., x8, is 7.9%. China is also striving to pursue 
the acquisition of high-value-added resources, such as oil and natural gas, however, such efforts have 
not achieved much: the average annual growth rate of China GDP of marine oil and gas exploration 
industry from 2012 to 2019, i.e., x6, is -2.43%; the average annual growth rate of China GDP of marine 
mining industry from 2005 to 2019, i.e., x7, is 1.84%. The U.S. focuses on acquisition of high-value-
added products: the average annual growth rate of the U.S. GDP of oil and gas exploration and 
production sector from 2005 to 2017 is 4.36%; the average annual growth rate of the U.S. GDP of 
limestone, sand and gravel sector from 2005 to 2017 is -3.98%, which means that the world has truly 
entered the era of treating the ocean as a treasure house of natural resources, and the United States is 
the leader in this era.  
7 The U.S. marine economy industry has formed a reasonable regional division of 
labor 
 Compared with the marine economy of China, the marine economy of the U.S. has formed a relatively 
clear regional division of labor structure, and China's marine economy has not yet formed a clear 
regional division of labor structure.      

The U.S. marine economic geography has been divided into eight regions:  Great Lakes,  Gulf of Mexico, 
 Mid-Atlantic,  Northeast,  North Pacific (Alaska),  Pacific (Hawaii),  Southeast,  West  

Coast.   
The Great Lakes is dominated by the freshwater fisheries, including the commercial fishing and 
recreation fishing; the Gulf of Mexico is dominated by offshore mineral extraction (primarily oil and 
natural gas); the Mid-Atlantic is dominated by marine tourism and recreation industry; the Northeast 
is dominated by marine tourism and recreation industry, marine transportation industry and, boat and 
ship building; the North Pacific (Alaska) is dominated by commercial fishing; Pacific (Hawaii) is 
dominated by marine tourism and recreation industry; the Southeast and the West Coast are dominated 
by marine tourism and marine transportation industry. 
8 Conclusion         
In this paper, we analyze the development path and differences between China and the United States 
of America in the maritime economy, and have the following findings: (1) the United States of America 
has taken the lead out of the era of geographical barriers of the Ocean; (2) the United States of America 
is the last owner of maritime hegemony of the era of sea channel of trade and transportation; (3) China 
has made great achievements in the blue granary; (4) the United States of America is the leader of the 
era of human natural resources treasure house; (5) the U.S. marine economy industry has formed a 
reasonable regional division of labor. The overall conclusion is that there is still a clear gap between 
China and the United States in terms of marine economic development. China still needs to learn from 
and imitate the United States in the development way of maritime economy.  

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