





































       V37 N1 / 2022 

©2022 American Medical Writers Association. All rights reserved.  
ISSN 2163-5315

AMWAJournal.org     54

EVERYDAY ETHICS

ABSTRACT
Writers working in industry and contracting are often 

involved in the writing of technical content marketing for 

products, services, and personal freelance businesses. In 

this article, writers in technical industries are introduced to 

the legal and ethical issues of technical content marketing 

and advertising, which covers intellectual property, truth in 

advertising, comparative and competitive advertising, and 

customer reach. The goal of this article is to provide writers 

with a better understanding of these legal terms and con-

cepts as well as ethical issues that influence technical con-

tent marketing strategy and practice.

Marketing copywriters in technical industries create tech-

nical content marketing for the commercialization of tech-

nology and for promoting personal freelance businesses. As 

Rebecca Geier states, “Content is the heart of your inbound 

marketing program. It’s how new people find your com-

pany from searches, it educates prospects and...ultimately 

it builds trust between your business and your prospects 

and customers.”1 Although the writing of marketing copy, 

marketing genres, tactics, and communication technologies 

are familiar to copywriters in technical industries, many of 

the legal and ethical issues and restrictions that influence 

the decision process are less familiar and often based on 

word-of-mouth advice from others in these fields. Technical 

content marketing writers and strategists often encounter 

internally and externally written marketing copy that may 

cause liability for the writer or organization and may be 

considered unethical practice.

 This article examines 4 categories of legal and  

ethical issues in technical content marketing—with many 

issues also of concern to freelance writers managing their 

own business. The 4 categories of legal and ethical issues in 

technical content marketing, which encompasses content 

creation and distribution include

• intellectual property,

• truth in advertising,

• comparative and competitive advertising, and

• customer reach.

The goal of this article is to examine these 4 categories of 

legal and ethical issues that influence content marketing 

practice in the commercialization of technical products  

and services.

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
One of the pivotal cultural differences between business 

executives and medical/technical (or scientific) experts is 

the practice and attitudes associated with information shar-

ing about technology. Specifically, science and technology 

have a 350-year-old philosophical and ethical tradition of 

“open science,” which is the free exchange of information 

for the improvement of society.2-5 Notably, Robert Merton 

describes the culture by stating, “The pursuit of science is 

culturally defined as being primarily a disinterested search 

for truth and only secondarily, a means of earning a liveli-

hood.”6 However in the context of marketing copywriting, 

the technology becomes the product rather than medical, 

scientific, or technical knowledge and this shift transforms 

the cultural norms associated with the sharing of informa-

tion and protection of intellectual property.7

 Often the scientific and technical information is con-

cealed or selectively disclosed by companies in order to 

maintain a competitive advantage over competing  

organizations.4,7-10 Organizations protect their technology 

or intellectual property through use of patents and trade 

secrets. A technology patent allows commercial organiza-

tions to be the sole commercial provider of an innovative 

technology (a monopoly) for a period of time in the juris-

diction covered by the granting office. For example, in the 

United States and Europe, most patents are granted for 20 

years, which is considered sufficient time for organizations 

to recoup the costs of research, development, and commer-

cialization.11,12 For many medical, scientific, and technical 

fields, 20 years is generally longer than the market lifetime 

of most new products. The intent of patent protection is to 

enable companies to disclose detailed information about a 

Scott A. Mogull, PhD / Texas State University, San Marcos, TX

Legal and Ethical Issues in Technical Content Marketing

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AMWAJournal.org     55Legal and Ethical Issues in Technical Content Marketing

technology for customer use while protecting sales of novel 

technologies. Although technical content marketing writ-

ers often avoid revealing detailed information about novel 

technology, much of this technical information is publicly 

available in US patents, which are typically published and 

available 18 months after the filing date. Thus, withhold-

ing technical information in technical content marketing 

generally imposes a greater hinderance and annoyance to 

technical consumers (for example, physicians or patients) 

than competitors who are familiar with researching patents 

as well as the scientific literature to understand patented or 

researched innovations.

 The second form of protection, trade secret, is infor-

mation about a technology or manufacturing process that 

has been developed by an organization and is protected 

through withholding proprietary information from indi-

viduals outside of an organization. In general, trade secrets 

worth protecting are those that have some commercial 

value, which may include an innovative process manufac-

turing process a technical product rather than the technical 

product itself. Many trade secrets are not eligible for patent 

protection, so, in contrast to patented technologies, trade 

secrets inadvertently divulged technical content marketing 

would undermine this competitive advantage. Many  

organizations require employees and contractors to sign a  

nondisclosure agreement (NDA) or a confidentiality agree-

ment that places an individual personally liable for informa-

tion divulged.

 Aside from trade secrets, marketing copywriters in tech-

nical fields may find that sharing technical product infor-

mation in technical content marketing helps construct the 

ethos of an organization and create a positive brand image. 

In particular, this sharing of information is most import-

ant to technical consumers in the early market, who have a 

strong curiosity and interest to understand technical inno-

vations.13 This sharing of technical information is often a 

concern for marketing copywriters in technical industries 

who typically provide relevant details, such as detailed 

understanding of molecular actions and results from clini-

cal trials in patient communication. Apart from Aristotelian 

persuasion strategies and consumer needs for information, 

copywriters of technical content marketing also need to 

consider the legal obligations of providing information that 

is necessary for the safe use of a product.

TRUTH IN ADVERTISING
In the United States, as well as the European Union and 

many other regions, advertising (as well as all forms of  

marketing or advertising) is legally required to14-16

• Be truthful and nondeceptive (in any part or as a 

whole) and

• Have evidence to support objective statements of fact 

(using appropriate and widely accepted methods of 

collecting such evidence).

Any marketing content that is inaccurate, misleading, or 

unproven is considered false (or deceptive) advertising and is 

subject to legal action against an organization or freelancer.

 In technical content marketing, the most relevant con-

siderations are to ensure the truth and accuracy of all 

content. As mentioned previously, both the expressed 

and implied claims (or factual, objective statements) in 

marketing must be accurate and supported by evidence. 

Furthermore, the overall context of the text and document 

(including visuals) must not be misleading to a “reasonable 

consumer” as interpreted by regulators.15

 At the simplest level, any expressed claim, or one that is 

explicitly stated, must be accurate and truthful. For exam-

ple, the United States Federal Trade Commission (FTC), 

the governmental organization that monitors most forms 

of advertising in the United States, provides the following 

example of expressed claim, “ABC Refrigerators will reduce 

your energy costs by 25%.”15

 In contrast, an implied claim is made indirectly or by 

inference, such as, “ABC Mouthwash kills the germs that 

cause colds.”15 According to the FTC, a “reasonable con-

sumer” could make a logical connection between these 

2 statements in an implied claim and conclude that the 

mouthwash will prevent colds.15 In this example provided by 

the FTC, the writer’s intent is to mislead readers and imply 

the use of a particular product (mouthwash) would be a 

useful product for treating colds. By law, both expressed and 

implied claims must be verified by scientific evidence using 

appropriate investigation methods. Another realm of con-

cern is personal experience or customer anecdotes (espe-

cially for health-related claims), which are not considered 

appropriate evidence to support these types of claims.15,16

 Subjective claims made by a company are more difficult 

for the FTC to evaluate and often receive less scrutiny.14,16,17 

Thus, overstated subjective claims, or “puffery”, are relatively 

prominent in consumer advertising.16 In many cases, simply 

stating that a product is “the best” is typically ignored by 

the FTC.16,17 Yet subjective claims also may be subject to 

penalty depending on the claim and the impact that such 

statements have on the overall impression of the communi-

cation. For example, a statement would be false advertising 

if it contains any unsubstantiated, objective element, such 

as “most consumers prefer XYZ.”16 Subjective statements are 

evaluated in context and technical content marketing would 

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AMWAJournal.org     56Legal and Ethical Issues in Technical Content Marketing

be considered false advertising if such statements contrib-

uted to an overall misleading impression in the mind of the 

consumer.

 Another form of subjective claims is those from individ-

uals rather than claims from a commercial organization. 

Subjective claims from individuals, called endorsements 

or testimonials, must be an honest opinion and detail the 

actual experience of the individual. Additionally, endorse-

ments must reflect the typical customer experience rather 

than unusual cases. The FTC emphasizes that simply stat-

ing “results may vary” for an atypical case is not considered 

sufficient disclosure to avoid legal penalty for misleading 

advertising.15,16 Furthermore, an individual providing an 

expert endorsement must have appropriate qualifications 

to be considered an expert in an appropriate field and pro-

vide a relevant opinion focusing on the key applications of 

the product. In many regions (including the United States), 

testimonials must be clearly qualified with a statement of 

disclosure if provided from any individual that has a per-

sonal or financial relationship with an organization. Such 

disclosure, as well as any disclaimer that qualifies a claim, 

must be presented in plain language and displayed conspic-

uously to avoid misleading readers.

 Despite these legal requirements, marketing and adver-

tising have long been pushing the boundaries of truthful 

statements and are generally perceived cynically, fairly or 

unfairly, as persuasive and deceptive communication with 

exaggerated claims that are designed to mislead naïve con-

sumers.18-23 Furthermore, marketing content is prohibited, 

by law, from deceiving or misleading customers through 

the omission of relevant (or “material”) information that 

is important for influencing a “reasonable consumer” to 

purchase or use a product.16 Furthermore, ethical techni-

cal content marketing includes completeness, so claims are 

not misrepresented or misinterpreted by the omission of 

relevant detail.23 Such perceptions and unethical practice 

undermine consumer trust and confidence in all forms of 

marketing communication and organizations. Therefore, to 

compensate for inherent audience skepticism and distrust, 

content writers should prioritize direct (explicit), objec-

tive, accurate claims and provide complete evidence and 

description of methods used to collect for the determina-

tion of each claim. Ultimately, a detailed and honest inde-

pendent expert analysis may be particularly persuasive for 

technical consumers.

COMPARATIVE AND COMPETITIVE ADVERTISING
In addition to providing accurate and honest information 

about a product, technical content marketing—particu-

larly for pharmaceuticals and medical products—is often 

responsive to competitors’ generic drugs or treatments.24 

Comparative advertising is technical content marketing 

that compares a company’s product to another product—

often one from a competitor—either explicitly by stating the 

brand name of a competing product, or implicitly through 

reference (such as “Brand X”). Despite common miscon-

ceptions about comparative advertising that have arisen 

from outdated laws and industry norms, both explicit and 

implicit competitive advertising are legal in the United 

States, the United Kingdom, and the European Union.25-27  

In fact, the FTC encourages comparative advertising 

because it provides “important information to consumers” 

by helping them distinguish between product features and 

also encourages product improvement and innovation.25 

Comparative advertising is legal as long as it adheres to the 

following conditions:25,26,28

• It provides truthful information that is not misleading 

in part or in whole.

• It compares equivalent products that meet the same 

customer need or are intended for the same purpose.

• It objectively compares one or more relevant product 

performance features that can be scientifically verified 

with appropriate evidence.

• It excludes any other distortion or misleading infor-

mation.

• If explicit, it properly identifies competitor(s)  

by using the exact trade name, trademark, or other dis-

tinguishing branding marks so the trademarks (not the 

products) are not denigrated or discredited.

Under these conditions, comparative advertising is legal 

and the courts have consistently denied any claims of def-

amation (or libel) by competitors.26,29 Comparative adver-

tising is an effective strategy for introducing new products, 

distinguishing similar products, and establishing a niche 

in the market.30-32 Yet some advertisers consider compara-

tive advertising to be unethical and risky, as it may increase 

the likelihood of complaints about a company’s advertising 

to the FTC (or other regulatory organizations) as a punitive 

response by competitors.29

CUSTOMER REACH
Much of marketing strategy is driven by profit rather than 

the effects that it has on individuals and particular groups. 

Of particular concern, content writers should be conscious 

of development and delivery of information to specific, 

overly narrow target consumers at the exclusion of other 

consumer groups.33-35 Particularly in business-to-consumer 

(B2C) advertising, a historical bias has been writing,  

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AMWAJournal.org     57Legal and Ethical Issues in Technical Content Marketing

designing, and delivering marketing communication dis-

proportionally toward affluent target markets in industrial-

ized Western countries.34-36 However, a contrasting situation 

may also be the case as some B2C advertising has been 

criticized for specifically targeting economically disadvan-

taged groups and developing nations with advertisements 

for harmful products such as cigarettes or infant formula 

instead of breastmilk.37-39 Aside from the numerous exam-

ples and case studies of biased B2C marketing practices 

that tend to reduce the market and prevent a product from 

achieving full market potential, the focus of this discussion 

is to identify ethical marketing practices so writers can avoid 

such problems and maximize connection with customers 

within legal and ethical customer reach.

 The most effective strategy for identifying target con-

sumer audiences or a specific market is to characterize 

potential consumers by providing technical marketing com-

munication focusing on the relevant needs or wants that 

are addressed by the product.40 Such an audience analysis 

should downplay or exclude personal attributes that are 

unrelated to the product need, which would create a dis-

torted or biased characterization of a target audience that 

would unnecessarily influence marketing communication 

strategy. In technical content marketing, different groups 

of audiences (or buyer personas) are identified and served 

through a collection of content that is targeted to their spe-

cific (often differing) needs or wants.41 Buyer personas may 

not specifically be a direct “buyer” or purchaser of a product 

or service, but each group contributes to the business model 

of the organization. A common example are company  

websites, which are organized into sections around the 

needs of different groups providing resources to address 

their specific need for information. With a buyer persona 

strategy, the first layer for organizing a website is to direct 

individuals from different groups into the proper section 

of resources. In particular, consider the American Medical 

Writers Association (AMWA) Journal’s homepage (Figure), 

which provides links to buyer personas to

• “Contribute,” for writers to prepare manuscripts for 

the journal,

• “Advertise,” for advertisers to promote a product or 

service to the readers, or

• “Find,” for readers to search a database of articles 

within the journal.

In this example, specific content of each section of the web-

site provides relevant information that supports the infor-

mational needs of these different groups in order to support 

the publication of the journal.

 Additionally, technical markets are international—both 

as global markets as well as domestic markets with many 

customers originally from other nations. From a writing 

and accessibility perspective, the most effective technical 

content marketing is designed for global audiences. From 

a communication lens apart from country-specific content 

regulation, technical content marketing writers can improve 

communication effectiveness with non-native English 

speakers by adhering to the following guidelines42-44

• Use deductive organization with topic sentences and 

important information at the beginning of each docu-

ment, section, and paragraph,

Figure. Example of buyer personas (or target audiences) of common visitor categories to the AMWA Journal’s home page. Sections 
of the Journal website are targeted to specific audiences, such as “Contribute” for individuals interested in writing an article for 
the journal, “Advertise,” for individuals seeking to advertise within the journal, and “Find,” for individuals seeking to find and read 
an article published by the journal. Collectively, these buyer personas represent the major constituents of the publication. This 
figure has been reprinted with permission from AMWA.

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AMWAJournal.org     58Legal and Ethical Issues in Technical Content Marketing

• Use plain language, concise phrases, short  

sentences, and the active voice; limit the use of long, 

complex sentences and avoid negative constructions,

• Use international measurements (the metric system),

• Use a consistent (or controlled) and precise vocabu-

lary based on word denotation and concrete language 

rather than colloquial words and phrases with embed-

ded connotations (eg, change the colloquial verb 

phrase “looking into” to the single verb “investigate,” 

which expresses the intended concept clearly and 

translates directly), and

• Use clear and specific statements rather than using 

culturally specific metaphors or figurative language 

(eg, change the US–centric baseball reference “home 

run” to “success”).

 Not only will these strategies increase the effectiveness 

of communication to global audiences in English, but these 

techniques will also facilitate accurate translation into other 

languages.

 Finally, although customer reach is also achieved 

through the use of technology to deliver technical content 

marketing, the latest technology may impose communi-

cation barriers to some audiences, particularly individuals 

with disabilities as well as those with older technology or 

low-bandwidth connections.45-48 For many technologies, 

using the latest communication platforms to communicate 

with affluent, able-bodied, mainstream consumers may 

prevent communication to a target audience and individu-

als from other groups. Particularly in regards to accessibility, 

or inclusion of alternative communication formats for indi-

viduals set apart by the digital divide, such communication 

may be a legal consideration in the United States, Europe, 

and many other countries.49 Yet, technology does not always 

prevent access but, in many cases, also facilitates commu-

nication to these groups (for example, YouTube will close 

caption videos by default for the hearing impaired). The 

challenge with using the latest communication technology 

is that the barriers and adaptations are technology specific 

and constantly shifting. The important point for marketing 

writers is to provide content in appropriate formats for the 

widest coverage of potential customers.

CONCLUSION
In this literature review, the goal has been to introduce 

medical writers to the legal and ethical issues of marketing 

in which additional caution is needed. As a review, this  

article is designed to serve as a foundational resource 

with reference to sources for further information and clar-

ification of individual issues. The importance of further 

researching additional issues depends on the nature of each 

situation. In particular, the ethical practices of technical 

content marketing writing and the commercialization of 

technology are developed from legal and academic sources, 

which advocate for communicating content rather than 

rhetorically persuasive strategies. Much of this discussion 

touches on legal issues and interpretations, which are con-

stantly in flux. In regard to issues with legal implications, 

specific laws and regulations vary by geographic region 

and change as new technologies enable novel marketing 

practices and lawmakers make changes to prior regula-

tions. Thus, specific marketing and advertising copywriting 

encroaching on legal issues presented within this article 

require consultation of the latest legal postings and review 

by attorneys familiar with the jurisdiction in order to evalu-

ate the appropriateness of decisions made by the technical 

content marketing writer or strategist.

Author declaration and disclosures: The author notes no com-
mercial associations that may pose a conflict of interest in rela-
tion to this article. 

Author contact: mogull@txstate.edu 

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