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Teaching Philosophy and Doing Philosophy in the Space of Play  

 
 

Larisa Retyunskikh  
 

Introduction 
 

  
 ear friends, I am a professor of philosophy and have been teaching philosophy more 
than 30 years. In 1992, I started to do philosophy with children using my own 
methods. I had known nothing about Lipman’s curriculum. I based my method only 

on my university experience and philosophical education, trying to do something unofficial and 
useful for children. That’s how “Philosophical Games for children and adults” appeared.  It was my 
first program in philosophy with children. When I discovered Lipman’s work and the world practice 
in P4C, I was surprised by the very similar points of our programs despite some differences. I started 
to use Lipman’s term, “doing philosophy” as opposed to “teaching philosophy.” The differences and 
similarities between both of these pedagogical practices became clear to me as I worked with 
university students and with children. What’s the basic platform of deference between doing 
philosophy and teaching philosophy? I believe that it is the difference between the philosophical styles 
of Socrates and Plato. I will try to make that argument in what is to follow. 
 
  It is traditional “to do philosophy” in P4C and other forms of practical philosophy, and “to 
teach philosophy” at university and high school.  There are many cross-points between doing and 
teaching philosophy, but the main cross-point is “philosophizing.” If we present philosophical concepts 
to our students, we give them the result of great philosophers’ philosophizing. If we involve our 
student in philosophizing, we make them “philosophers.” Who is a Philosopher? In my mind he or 
she is a person who looks for wisdom (motivation); who could be surprised (the pushing); who thinks 
reflexively (the way). In other words, philosophizing is a process of thinking, and philosophical 
concepts are a result of philosophizing.  
 
  I understand philosophizing as a certain way of thinking. I do not take the age differences into 
account. If philosophizing is a way of thinking it could be used by grown-up as well as by children. 
From this perspective, any person who starts philosophizing becomes a “philosopher”, one who is 
interested in the essence of things. Another point is that philosophizing is a kind of play, like 
“language games,” which was suggested by Wittgenstein. We will explore play and language games in 
what is to follow. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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1. Doing Philosophy and Teaching Philosophy 
 

 
1.1. Philosophy and Philosophizing 
 

The epistemological status of philosophizing can be defined by comparing it to the term 
“philosophy,” which could be understood widely. 

 
For example: 

• all learning exclusive of the technical 

• pursuit of wisdom     

• search for general understanding of values and reality by chiefly speculative means, an analysis 
of the grounds and concepts expressing fundamental beliefs 

• a system of philosophical concepts  

• a theory underlying or regarding a sphere of activity or thought 

• the most general beliefs, concepts and attitudes of an individual or group 

• knowledge of things and their causes, whether theoretical or practical 
• the system which a person forms for the conduct of life 
• research into mysteries  

• art of questioning  
 

This is a very short list of existing definitions of philosophy.  
 
  The term “philosophy” is often used in a synonymic way with the term “metaphysics,” coming 
from Aristotelian philosophy. So, the main topic of Kant’s “Critique of Pure Reason” is the 
possibility of metaphysics, understood in a specific way. Kant defines metaphysics in terms of  “the 
cognitions after which reason might strive independently of all experience,” and his goal in the book 
is to reach a “decision about the possibility or impossibility of a metaphysics in general, and the 
determination of its sources, as well as its extent and boundaries, all, however, from principles” (Kant 
1998, p. 101). Kant’s position is based on the certainty that philosophy could only be looking for The 
Truth, but it will never reach The Truth. That is why there are many philosophies, and none of them 
is correct. So, how can we teach philosophy? If every philosophy gives us an original world view and 
we will never recognize any of them as a true theory, it seems to follow that we should never ask 
students what they know as the correct answer, but, rather, we can ask them what they think. This 
could be characterized as turning from teaching philosophy to doing philosophy. Kant adds that the 
philosophical writer, or teacher of philosophy is not to be regarded as the paradigm of judgement but 
he/she “should be taken as the occasion for forming the student’s own judgement.  What the pupil is 
really looking for is proficiency in the method of reflecting and drawing inferences for himself” (Kant 
2015, p. 107). 
 
  So, the nature of philosophy is different from other types of knowledge; in philosophy there is 
no common standard for following ideas one by one. That is why Kant supposed that we could not 
teach philosophy, but that we could teach philosophizing. He made a distinction between philosophy 
and philosophizing. Philosophy is opinion, and philosophizing is a way of founding it.  
 



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Let us compare. 

 
Teaching philosophy 

 
Doing philosophy 

1. Translate information about philosophy and 
philosophers  

1. Thinking together  

2 The way of development is evolution and 
increase of knowledge  

2. The way of development is evolution of 
cognitive skills: questioning, conceptualizing, 
interpreting, analyzing     

3. The result of development is knowledge  3. The result of development is “good thinking” 

4.The way of evaluation: student have correct 
information about the subject (objective 
criteria)  

4.The way of evaluation: 
(subjective criteria) 

 
  Certainly, the above is a very simplified outline of differences, but it allows us to see the 
problem in the sphere of philosophical education. What do you want to do as a new philosophy 
teacher? If you want your students to know the names of philosophers and learn by memory some 
aphorisms and to remember the main texts, then you are closer to “teaching philosophy.” If you want 
them to think philosophically, then you need to help them to “do philosophy.” Doing philosophy has 
a background in our mind. If we believe Kant, we should recognize the existence of “metaphysical 
addiction” which pushes us to find answers to eternal questions, such as: What is freedom? What is 
knowledge? What is God?  If all of us have a metaphysical addiction, it seems to follow that everyone 
can be a philosopher, that everyone has the possibility to philosophize.  
 
  Karl Popper makes a similar claim when he says “All men and all women are philosophers” 
(2012, p. 17).  
 

If people are not conscious of having philosophical problems, they have, at any 
rate, philosophical prejudices. Most of these are theories which they take for 
granted: they have absorbed them from their intellectual environment or from 
tradition. Since few of these theories are consciously held, they are prejudices in the 
sense that they are held without critical examination, even though they may be of 
great importance for the practical actions of people, and for their whole life 
(Popper 2012, p. 17).    

 
So, according to Popper there are two criteria to being a philosopher, which allow everybody to be 
one: philosophical prejudices, and thoughts about life and death.   
 
  Let us think of the difference between having a philosophy and doing philosophy. Virtually 
everyone "has a philosophy" in the sense that we have many basic beliefs about the world and 
ourselves and use certain key concepts to articulate those beliefs. Many of us initially come to thus 
"have a philosophy" (or elements of several philosophies) often only unconsciously, or by following 



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"what's obvious" or "what everybody knows", or by adopting a view because it sounds exciting or is 
intellectually fashionable.  
 
  "Doing philosophy," on the other hand, is a self-conscious unearthing and rigorous 
examination of these basic beliefs and key concepts. In doing so, we try to clarify the meanings of 
those beliefs and concepts and to evaluate critically their rational grounds or justification. Thus, 
rather than having their heads in the clouds, philosophers are really more under the surface of their 
thinking, examining the structures that support – or fail to support – that thinking.  
 
1.2. Philosophizing as a Kind of Thinking 
 
  Philosophizing is always thinking, but thinking is not always philosophizing. What kind of 
thinking is philosophical thinking? Based on Kant’s and Popper’s ideas we may say that it is thinking 
(a) “about” and thinking (b) “by”:  
 

(a) About life and death, love and hate, happiness and unhappiness, justice and injustice, and so 
on. In other words, it is about traditional philosophical concepts. For example, if I think 
about my morning exercises trying to choose the best ones, I stay in an everyday life thinking 
space. If I start to think of why I need them? For health. What is it? Why it is important to be 
healthy? What does it mean to be healthy? – I jump into philosophizing, because the object of 
my thinking is a common thing. 

(b) By philosophical skills: argumentation, interpretation, conceptualization, questioning and 
others. For example, it is not enough to say that all people want to be happy, I need to give 
rational arguments, based on knowledge, understanding, and vision   

  Returning to Kant let us remember his famous essay “What Is Enlightenment?” 
Enlightenment is man's emergence from his self-imposed nonage. Nonage is the inability to use one's 
own understanding without another's guidance. This nonage is self-imposed if its cause lies not in 
lack of understanding but in indecision and lack of courage to use one's own mind without another's 
guidance. Dare to know! (Sapere aude.) "‘Have the courage to use your own understanding,’ is therefore 
the motto of the enlightenment” (Kant (1999). p. 11). 

  So, the aim of philosophizing is to make a person capable of having a philosophy, to be free in 
choosing his or her own position. “Teaching philosophy” could be defined as understanding, with 
another's guidance. Only “doing philosophy” gives a human the possibility of using one's own mind 
without another's guidance. 

1.3. What about Truth? 
 
  Philosophizing is always existing in the space of language, like all other human intellectual 
activity. The classical tradition of thinking requires strong compliance between terms and concepts. 
This compliance establishes relations of identity between terms and concepts when it comes to 
definitions and finding analogies. However, the practice of human reasoning and cognition is far 
from the ideal image created by classical science and philosophy. In my mind, it is consistent with the 
transformation of the concepts of Truth through the ages. For philosophers from ancient times to the 
present day the Truth either exists or does not exist, but it does deal with objective reality. Descartes, 
for example, deeply believed in the Truth. Kant supposed it was limited by knowledge but quite real 



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too. Even those philosophers who declared the impossibility of reaching the truth (Berkeley and 
others) perceive the Truth like a reality. 

  Modern philosophy tends to discuss the problem of The Truth in the context of thinking and 
language. For Wittgenstein, for example, the Truth is only a language construction which could be 
called a game. Close to the position about The Truth we find in postmodern philosophy  
(Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, Jean-François Lyotard, Richard Rorty and others). In this way of 
understanding The Truth, we put it into the language and claim the position of relativity of The 
Truth, which means the full freedom of opinions about every concept. This kind of mental 
orientation gives us the wild space of philosophizing, using philosophy not for finding The Truth but 
for making ourselves.   

   In my opinion, this position is closer to the everyday practice of thinking. We do not use strict 
analogies to understand and explain something. Language creates many forms of understanding and 
explaining the processes and phenomena around and inside us. Philosophizing is aimed at 
understanding reality by language. Doing philosophy, we try to make the meaning of words clearer. 
When teaching philosophy, we interpret the words of philosophical texts and try to make a 
philosopher’s thinking clearer. 
 
  Philosophical thinking, as I said before, is immersed in language and all our definitions and 
philosophical issues are founded in language with language games as Wittgenstein called them 
(Wittgenstein, 1958a, p.32). Language games are the way of creating language as it is, according to 
Wittgenstein. Why is it a game? In my opinion, it is a game because there is no one single way of speaking, 
understanding and thinking, there are no strong rules of interpretation because language creates the reality of 
meaning, which often does not correlate with physical reality and always includes an element of 
imagination. Language games are skills of understanding in the context of philosophizing. “And this 
is true. – Instead of producing something common to all that we call language, I am saying that these 
phenomena have no one thing in common which makes us use the same word for all, – but that they 
are related to one another in many different ways. And it is because of this relationship, or these 
relationships, that we call them all ‘language’” (Wittgenstein. 1958, p. 31).   
 
1.4. Philosophy for Children 
 
  When talking about philosophizing as a type of thinking it is important to remember 
Lipman’s term “good thinking”. It is very close to the term philosophizing with a focus on the quality 
of thinking. Philosophy for Children (P4C) is one of the philosophical practices aimed at the 
development of good thinking. In Lipman’s opinion, good thinking is the aim of education and critical 
and creative thinking are indispensable parts of good thinking (Lipman 2003). He wrote: “As we urge 
to ‘teach for thinking’ we cannot lose sight of the fact that what we have in mind is good thinking. 
But how do we identify good thinking?” (Lipman1995, pp. 37-41). He further suggests that criteria of 
good thinking involve judgment, reasoning, being strong, relevant and reliable.  Another marker of 
good thinking is the ability to question. By asking questions, the child learns to design the concrete 
concepts connected with the development of the subject world by means of the language of concepts, 
senses and abstraction. A very important marker of good thinking is reflexivity. As we see it is quite 
difficult (if not impossible) to define accurately the concept of good thinking. We could only describe it 
by some of its characteristics (e.g., logical, creative, open, etc.), making specific semantic space of good 
thinking as Lipman did. Good thinking could be described as philosophizing, which has not only 
rational but irrational components.  

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  The rational background of critical thinking is critical philosophy, as defined by Kant. The 
critical way of thinking is not the way of negotiation, but the way of analyzing, and philosophy is the 
art of thinking but not the possibility of getting The Truth.  That is why he claims in The Critique of 
Pure Reason that it is impossible to teach philosophy, as we said before.  If it is only possible to teach 
philosophy in terms of “philosophizing,” – as a kind of training of our rationality – then teaching 
philosophy should be doing philosophy at the same time.  
 
1.5. Bringing “Doing” into “Teaching Philosophy”  
 
  If we have university or high school philosophy courses, then, we should combine them with 
information about philosophers and doing philosophy. Every philosophical theory is a result of 
thinking of a philosopher. If we cannot involve students in this process of thinking together with 
studying a philosopher, we cannot help them to understand the main ideas and therefore to know 
them. For example, I can ask a student to describe building or creating a tree from the position of 
Democritus’ atomistic theory. It is also interesting to introduce philosophical debates from the 
middle ages to inform students about traditional philosophical problems from the standpoint of 
nominalists or realists, using not only the arguments employed by these traditions but also inviting 
students to create new ones.  Or one could divide the class in two teams and start a debate focused on 
a topic, like: How many angels will fit on the tip of the needle? Debates like this can be a good exercise for 
the training of argumentation. One should have strong guidelines for these types of activity, like in 
every game. This kind of activity can be useful, informative and fun.  
 
  The next example. This exercise could be used in a university course as well as P4C. It is 
possible to present the topic of Socrates to every age and discuss the problem of justice. One can 
introduce the problem as follows: How can you identify – what is just and what is not? For example, a 
man has stolen a loaf of bread and was imprisoned – is it just? What if he has stolen the bread 
because he could not buy bread to feed a hungry child? Can one and the same thing be just and 
unjust simultaneously? If we take war – is it just? Does what is “just” and what is “right” define the 
same thing?  
 
Two students can read Plato’s text about justice, each playing a different role: 
 
Socrates. Tell me, please, what do you feel is just: to tell the truth or to lie?  
A friend. Of course, to tell the truth.  
Socrates. Then what is just: to mislead or to avoid it?  
A friend. For sure, to avoid misleading is just.  
Socrates. Later on, what is just – to do harm or to be helpful.  
A friend. To be helpful. 
Socrates. Consequently, to tell the truth, to avoid misleading and to be helpful is just, but to lie, to do harm and 
to mislead is unjust?   
A friend. Undoubtedly! May Zeus be with us! 
Socrates. Does the same apply to the enemies?    
 
  The question becomes the first step of discussion. We ask students to give the answer (yes or 
no) and provide an argument. We write every argument on a piece of paper. After that, we ask 
somebody to make a classification of arguments. We work together to group the arguments into 
different types.  Then we organize a team for each group of arguments. Every team is assigned the task 



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of continuing the dialogue and presenting it as a “new film about justice.” Each participant could be 
an actor, producer, writer, etc. Each group has a limited amount of time to complete the assignment.  
The lesson ends with the performance (dramatization) of the film. 
 
  As you can see, this example connects cognitive, creative and moral aspects of philosophizing 
with the background of philosophical knowledge (Plato’s dialogue on justice).   
The first step (questioning) is aimed at stimulating moral thinking. 
The second step (reading Plato’s text) is aimed at demonstrating Socrates’ method and stating the 
problem of Justice. 
The third and fourth steps (argumentation and classification) are the elements of traditional logical 
work. 
The fifth step (creating), involves students forming their own concept of justice by making moral 
choices. All these kinds of thinking use the principle of family resemblances: we find out something 
in common in different scenes or aspects of the argument. We have no correct answer, but we 
nevertheless want to reason about our position. We can choose a different logic of thinking and 
defend what is common, so that we will have different families (perspectives) of the same things.  
 
  Thus, philosophizing can exist in many forms – in rational texts, essays, art, poems etc. We 
philosophize by looking for answers to our questions and testing the opinions of different people – 
philosophers, poets, children, just as Socrates did.   
 
  That is why, it seems to me that doing philosophy implies a Socratic style of philosophy. Let 
us remember that Socrates never wrote anything and declared his lack of knowledge (I know that I 
know nothing). This is very different from Plato. The latter wrote more than 30 books in which he 
presented his own philosophy with the certainty that it was a correct worldview. So, the Platonic type 
of philosophy is based on knowledge, which could be transmitted to other people (teaching 
philosophy). But the Socratic type is based on lack of knowledge – questioning (doing philosophy). 
But the irony of the situation is that Plato wrote almost all his papers in dialogue form, with Socrates 
as the main character, and almost all that we know about Socrates we know from Plato. It 
demonstrates the unity of teaching and doing philosophy one more time.  
 
  It is a pity that there are people involved in philosophical practice or teaching philosophy who 
ignore one of these two sides.  I have met P4C followers who have assumed the idea that I know that I 
know nothing belongs to Lipman (rather than Socrates) and that it had been initially presented by the 
character of Elfie. At the same time, there are a lot of boring philosophy teachers at schools and 
universities who know about Socrates but have never tried to use his methods.  
 

2. Philosophizing as a Form of Play 
 
  Philosophizing is a play with meanings or a game about concepts. Take the classic example of a 
game: chess, football, poker, etc. What is a game? How do we decide if this is or is not a game? Why is 
this a game but that is not? And so on. If these are all games, do we want to say that they must have 
something in common? Is there anything in common between football and philosophy? But what would it 
be? If we try to make a definition or find out the background of our understanding, we will start to 
philosophize. That is what we do in the community of inquiry, we play with the meaning of words, and 
we exist in the “house of being” (as Heidegger puts it) by way of language.    
 
2.1. How Can Children Philosophize  



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  Being in play is outside of daily, mundane being. Philosophy has its root in everyday being, 
but raises our mind above it like play. The kinship of play and philosophy makes philosophy not a 
stranger in the world of childhood, where play is a total activity.  Every child is a player. All children 
create their own world in their minds with language. In this sense, every child is a creator, much like 
the classical Demiurge of ancient philosophy who constructs the world by playing. So, children’s 
philosophizing is an organic process of the development of thinking. 
 
  A child starts to live in language as a player. He or she asks many questions starting with 
“What does it mean?” They play with words like a footballer with a ball. If they find out a good 
meaning, they will try to save it as one might save the rules of a game. They create concepts. Concept-
creating, according to Gilles Deleuze, is a philosophy. Children are philosophers because they can 
recognize and feel meaning that could be called an “a priori way of understanding.” For instance, if 
we want to make something clear for ourselves and other people, we often say a magic word “like”. 
(“The sun is like an apple”; “The boy is like an angel”, etc.). We try to find resemblances in different 
things. The ability to see that correlation, even if the things are very different (e.g. computers and 
stones) is a marker of philosophical thinking. Children do it easily because they do it while playing. 
Play allows them to exceed the bounds of everyday life and explore reality. 
 
        All children are creators. They construct their own world in their minds and imagination. 
Children’s philosophizing is always a creative process. Young children come into the world free of 
cultural and social stereotypes. In this sense, they are freer than most adults. That is why children’s 
philosophizing tends to be fresh, original, and imaginative.   

Let us read some children’s statements.  

Anastasia (9 years old): “Freedom is when a man can live his own life, express his own thoughts” 

Ksenia (11 years): “Freedom is a feeling of absolute control over yourself”. 

Serguei (14 years): “Mind is the ability of a man not to repeat his mistake more than two times. The first time 
man understands he made a mistake, the second time he understands not to repeat it again”. 

        What do we mean by the word “creativity”? Creativity is the human ability to make something 
new, something that has not existed before. Creativity is the condition of human rationality. In 
existentialism, creativity is understood as a display of human freedom. The famous Russian 
philosopher Nicolai Berdyaev wrote in his book The Sense of Creativity, that human beings could exist 
in greatness and strength, as well as in nothingness and weakness only due to creativity. Creativity is 
the basis of human freedom. Creativity is not only an action, but also a feeling. A child feels him or 
herself as a creator, a demiurge philosophizing. He or she originates new senses of things via playing. 
So, children’s philosophizing can be more successful and creative when it comes in the form of 
playing. 

  Vygotsky’s idea of a high-level form of thinking, which develops together with language, allows 
us to realize the evaluation of thinking; it makes a person able to give an original, her or his own, solution 
for any problem. 
 
2.2. How to Connect Doing Philosophy and Teaching Philosophy in the Space of Play 
 
  Philosophizing is a unique form of thinking having rational and emotional foundations. That is 
why it can be realized in many ways, paradigms, and logical forms. If we teach students to think, we 



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need to understand why. Philosophizing should not be transformed like in “the glass bead game” 
(Hesse, 2002). It is needed for making choices and decisions. The most difficult choice of our life is a 
moral choice. Thinking can help us to do it in harmonic unity with reason and feeling. 
 
  So, to teach philosophy is not only to teach thinking but teach morality and choice. When 
talking of teaching morality, I do not mean giving strong rules of behavior. I mean only helping our 
students in making his/her own decision between good and evil. I suggest that my students read 
philosophical texts or quotes that deal with problems. It is not the presentation of a correct answer 
that is the focus but making a possibility for thinking. Usually I give opposing ideas and ask students 
to compare them. This is the main difference between my approach and Lipman’s principles of doing 
philosophy. I present the ideas of philosophers with their own names. I do not substitute the names 
of fictitious girls and boys. If, for example, we talk about an idea –I know that I know not nothing– I talk 
about Socrates. In the process of doing philosophy I often include elements of teaching philosophy 
(information), and in process of teaching philosophy I usually use the skills of doing philosophy.    
 
Example. This exercise could be done by teams of 5-6-persons, individually or in pairs, with a 
preparation time of between 5-10 minutes. The students are assigned the following task:  
1) To choose a known literary work which illustrates a given thought (sometimes I can ask students to 
play a mute scene from it in such a way that others could understand the represented work, using the 
positive potential of role play).  
2) To explain why that piece was selected and what it means. For example, what is Kant trying to 
illustrate or explain when he claims: “The consciousness of an internal tribunal in a man (before which his 
thoughts accuse or excuse one another) is conscience. Every man has a conscience, and finds himself observed by 
an inward judge which threatens and keeps him in awe…It follows him like his shadow, when he thinks to 
escape.”  
    

Conclusion 
 
  In summary, we should see philosophizing in general as a thought-provoking way of 
understanding the world, making personal choices and seeking meaning in life, all of which result 
from the stimulation of the mind. Doing philosophy requires different skills. Teaching philosophy 
allows us to be involved in the space of real culture and history. Principles of doing and teaching 
philosophy are not in conflict but complement each other. It is for that reason that I believe that all 
P4C educators ought to have a sound philosophical background.   

References 
Beck, A.T. (1975). Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders. Madison, CT: International Universities 

Press, 
Berdyaev, N. (2015) The Philosophy of Freedom. The Meaning of the Creative Act. Moscow: 

“Akademichesky Project, Delovaya Kniga.” 
Hesse Herman (2002) The Glass Bead Game. Picador (first published 1943). 
Kant, I. (1998) Critique of Pure Reason (eds. & trans. Paul Guyer and Allen W. Wood) Cambridge: 

Cambridge University Press.,  
Kant I. (2015): Critique of Practical Reason. 2nd Edition. Part of Cambridge Texts in the History of 

Philosophy. 
Kant Immanuel (1999) "An answer to the question: What is enlightenment?". In Mary J. Gregor 

(ed.). Practical Philosophy. The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant. Cambridge 

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University Press. 
Lipman M. (1995) Good Thinking. Inquiry: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Philosophy - 1995 15 (2):37-41. 
Lipman, M. (2003) Thinking in Education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
Popper K. (2012) In Search of a Better World: Lectures and Essays from Thirty Years. New York:  

Routledge. 
Wittgenstein, L. (1958) Philosophical Investigations (trans. G.E.M Ascombe). Oxford: Basil  
           Blackwell.  
 

Address Correspondences to:  
Professor Larisa Retyunskikh, Faculty of Philosophy 
Moscow State University (named after Lomonosov) 
retunlar@gmail.com 

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