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Establish Dewey’s Concept of Democracy in TVET in 

Kenya Towards Realizing Sustainable Development.  

A Pragmatic Approach 

 

Alfred Simiyu, Stanley Omuterema, Juma Injendi, Philip Mukonvi   

 

Abstract: UNESCO, World Bank and different countries including Kenya have 
placed education and training as a central tool towards youth employability and 
realization of the industrialization agenda. Despite the dying industries and increase 
in demand for employability skill in training, TVET graduates lack employability 
skills. The study was tasked to establish how Dewey’s concepts of democracy can 
facilitate TVET in Kenya to realize Sustainable Development. The study sought to 
answer the following research question: how can Dewey’s concepts of democracy 
facilitate TVET in Kenya towards realizing Sustainable Development. The study used 
rational research design that adopted philosophical analysis and synthesis methods 
Both primary and secondary sources were purposefully sampled. Content analysis 
was adopted to analyze data. The study found out that the change from 8.4.4 
education system to Competency Based Education and Training (CBET) in technical 
education and training was motivated by Dewey’s principles of democracy of 
education and thus full implementation of CBET can lead to Sustainable 
development in Kenya. However, there exists challenges of unqualified trainers, 
inadequate resources and poor industrial and training institution linkages to breed 
skills for the world of work. The study recommends adequate funding of TVET 
institutions to facilitate TVET in Kenya to have adequate resources for trainee 
empowerment, coordinate collaborations between TVET institutions and industry 
in skilling for the world of work and, finally, promote critical skills in problematized 
learning. 

Keywords: Democratic concept, TVET, Sustainable Development, Pragmatic 

 

Introduction 

 
lobally, Sustainable development (SD) paves the way as a means towards mitigating 
social, economic and environmental challenges of development. Education and 
training have been taken as prerequisites for sustainable development globally (UN, 

2021). However, UNESCO identifies that reaching and teaching sustainability is a dominant 
challenge each institution has to work with. In an attempt to realize this dream, UNESCO 
proposes integration of Education for Sustainable Development in every education level and 
greening TVET (Technical and Vocational Education and Training) towards availing relevant 
skills, attitudes and knowledge for national development (UNESCO, 2012).Thus lifelong 

G 



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learning has become an explicit or implicit ideal of either general or technical education for the 
majority of the states that adopt a humanistic approach in training (Cronholm, 2021; Guven, 
2020). 
 

The convention   on Technical and Vocational Education (1989) article 2(1) identifies 
TVET as a level of training additional to general education that is responsible for giving trainees 
required skills, attitudes and knowledge related to occupations towards self-empowerment and 
lifelong learning (Darol et al., 2020). TVET being a major workforce supplier that facilitates 
implementation of development, there is need for adopting a holistic approach  in education 
training that links training and labour markets (Hanushek et al, 2017), inclusive and aligned to  
Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs) (Muigua, 2020), that can achieve national development 
agendas and vision (Ikenga, 2022). 

 
In 2015, with the launch of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) the revised goals 

of TVET read: to empower individuals and promote employment, decent work and lifelong 
learning, to promote inclusive and sustainable economic growth, to promote social equity and 
finally to promote environmental sustainability (Paryono, 2017). Globally, each country has 
adopted its own approach in training its citizens towards sustainability (Okoth, 2022). However, 
two TVET models that adopt formal sector firm based and non-formal training are of interest in 
the study.  

 
The German model is the most advanced and outstanding model that adopts a shared 

responsibility in training of its citizens among the stakeholders and levels of government (Wang, 
2011). Training is dual since the companies and vocational centres share in the training session 
of the skill development plan. In addition, the curriculum formulation and assessment are 
moderated by the educators and industrial practitioners hence making the system labour market 
popular (Osawa et al, 2023). This system demands strong stakeholder collaboration and adequate 
funding policy. This model cannot be easily applicable in developing nations due to the internal 
efficiencies of the technical training centres and the limited industries (Afeti, 2018).  

 
Japanese model consists of vocational tracks in regular schools and enterprise – based 

training. Vocational education is built on strong links between the educators and the employers. 
The employer prefers to recruit general education graduates in order to train them for lifetime 
within their premises thus enhances production. Japan Industrial and Vocational Training 
Association (JIVTA) is the main organ that is concerned with placement of trainees within the 
enterprises and place strict requirements on the enterprises to facilitate required skills for the 
enterprise (Wang, 2011). 

 
In the African continent, Ahadzie (2003) opines that social, economic and political 

conditions in African countries have made TVET systems in Africa different. However, 
apprenticeship has a long tradition in Africa and this can be traced in African Indigenious 
Education (AIE) (Ahadzie, 2003). The influence of western industrialisation and in company 
approaches in technical training has had significant impact in Africa TVET systems (AU, 2007). 
However the growth of industry in Africa has greatly relied on the first class and G 8 Countries 
in terms of funding and even operations (Allais, 2020). According to Kerre (2017) TVET has a 



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great role in changing Africa’s path towards development despite the challenges of under 
resourcing, low image and insufficient training of TVET teachers amog others. 

 
Despite the challenge of funding (Onwusa, 2021), mismatch in training (Kigwilu et al, 

2016), and unprepaedness in handling Competency Based Educationa and Training (Osawa et 
al., 2023, Musau, 2023), African states have adopted a Competency Based Education and 
Training (CBET) to facilitate development in the context of the national needs of each country 
(AU, 2018). According to Tambwe (2019) Tanzania adopted CBET and the major challenge has 
been demotivated trainers Some states have adopted apprenticeship approaches while others a  
company approach (Allais, 2020). Therefore, the combination of apprenticeship and in company 
approches can lead to standardization and formalization towards a sound TVET that can 
facilitate national and sustainable development (Palmer, 2020). 

 
Kenya is a developing nation and Kisirkoi (2019) looks at the acts of parliament and 

commissions of inquiry as great contributions in the modeling of TVET system in Kenya. 
Sessional paper no 10 of 1965 on African socialism and its application to planning in Kenya 
aimed at alleviation of poverty, hunger and disease (GOK,1964) while the Ndegwa’s Commission 
(1970) recommended expansion of TVET in general education and also creation of post-
secondary institutions (GOK, 1976). 

 
The presidential party on the second university in Kenya recommended the establishment 

of Moi University, expansion of vocational education to train increased numbers of school 
leavers, and finally enrich school curricula with technical subjects (GOK, 1981). The presidential 
party on education and manpower training for the next decade and beyond focused on education 
financing; focusing on quality and relevance, the major objective was to enrich the curriculum 
with technical subjects towards providing vital skills for self-reliance (GOK, 1988). The above 
commissions tasked the education system to adopt education for self-reliance modeled as 8.4.4 
and technical subjects in the curriculum towards providing skills for the world of work. TVET 
institutions, on the other hand, were not prepared to attain the goal due to the challenge of 
funding, resources and equipment (Osawa et al, 2023). 

 
The Sessional paper no 1 of 2012 on a reformation of Education, Training and research 

places TVET as a key element to provide access, quality and relevant skills to the youth for 
Kenya’s development agenda. In line with this paper, the Constitution of Kenya 2010 places 
education and training as a right for every Kenyan citizen; thus, education and training is for all 
(GOK, 2010). 

 
These policies have had an effect on enrolment (Kamar, 2022), resource allocation 

(Arunga, 2018) and even curriculum implementation in TVET. This has caused internal 
inefficiency in Technical Training Institutions (Okinyi et al., 2021), weak monitoring, and the 
evaluation of TVET system is heavily supply driven rather than demand driven (Amutabi,2021) 
with a low image and stigmatization  (Osuanyi 2014). Despite the above, political goodwill has 
facilitated TVET curriculum with empowering youths towards employability and lifelong 
learning by embracing competency training (GOK,2018). Competency education and training  
have raised concerns among scholars in terms of the cost (Odada & Kariuki, 2023) and  



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preparednes (Osawa et al., 2023). The reality of the situation indicates that few institutions have 
presented trainees for summative assessment, attained competent status for the world of work 
demands, or produced demand compliant graduates (Federation of Kenya Employers,2023). Of 
the few institutions that have accomplished this, there is still a gap between the required skill 
and what the industry  is  demanding as is evidenced by the still skyrocketing unemployment 
rates (Musau,2023). The policy field of TVET is relatively insignificant, even compared to general 
and higher education. Investment in TVET is relatively low. And TVET research also has hardly 
any significance in the research landscape. There is thus a discernible contradiction between the 
current and growing perception of TVET as a policy-making field and its traditional and actual 
importance. So how can the role of TVET be strengthened in the political perception and in 
relation to actual political decisions? Against this background, it becomes clear what significance 
supranational cooperation has for strengthening TVET. Our study, therefore, is tasked to assess 
the applicability of  Dewey’s educational thought in the implementation of CBET in Kenya 
towards creating lifelong learning among trainees to fix the training industy gap that exists at the 
moment. 

 
1.1 Statement of the Problem 

 
Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) has been viewed by society as 

the most important agent of empowering trainees in employable skills, knowledge and attitudes 
towards lifelong learning. The government of Kenya, through policy framework and funding, 
has tried to reinvent and re-position training to produce a skilled human resource that is relevant 
to society and provides vast knowledge, skills and attitudes towards realizing its development 
agenda. 

 
Related literature has hinted that there exists a skills mismatch between training and 

industry. The mismatch is a result of inadequate, poorly motivated, unskilled trainers, the 
obsolete nature of training equipment and differences between training equipment with the ones 
used in industry, and limited industrial involvement in training due to a rigid policy framework. 
Our study therefore is tasked to examine the efficacy of TVET in realizing Sustainable 
Development in Kenya in light of the resources of pragmatist thought. 

 
1.2 Specific Objectives of the Study 

 
The study aimed at establishing how the Dewey’s concept of democracy can facilitate TVET 

in Kenya towards realizing Sustainable Development. 
 

1.3 Research Question 

 
The research question was: how can Dewey’s concept of democracy facilitate TVET in 

Kenya towards attaining Sustainable development? 
 
1.4 Theoretical Review 

 
The study adopted pragmatic theory. This theory is also known as pragmatism, 

vocationalism or progressivism theory (Cordeiro, 2020). According to Yamauchi et al. (2017) a 



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theoretical framework is an essential component of research that shapes the quality and scope of 
investigations. It facilitates making sense of observations by providing an overarching structure 
of the studies (Yamauchi et al., 2017). The word pragmatism originates from the Greek word 
“Pragma” which means activity (Jia, 2005). Thus, the spirit of pragmatism is to emphasize what 
is practical, efficient, fruitful and satisfying. Pragmatic thought holds that one view is judged to 
be true and another false based on the consequences within human experience (Kaur, 2019). 
 

A pragmatic approach is concerned with human experiences as human beings encounter 
or face dynamic situations that require reflective action towards positive change (Kalolo, 2015). 
In education, for instance, since change is inevitable, there is need to revise the goals of 
education, teaching methods, roles of the teacher, curriculum and finally the content for effective 
training. 
 

According to King (2022), pragmatism is an epistemological and methodological approach 
in verifying what works (truth). This study therefore focuses on education providing working 
solutions to existing problems in society. 

 
Newton et al. (2020) analyzed pragmatic evidence- based Higher Education as a useful way 

forward and recommended that educators embrace practical and skill based curriculum 
implementation, increase funding in order to facilitate construction of conducive learning 
environments (workshops and laboratories) and employ competency resource training. 
 

According to Lin et al. (2023), a study on the influence of Dewey’s pragmatism in the 
Chinese education system revealed that democratization of education, learners’ participation and 
students’ exposure to society and nature have increased innovations. 

 
According to Adeleye (2017) the influence of pragmatic thought in Nigerian schools has 

revealed a shift away from teacher centered curriculum training, with limited student interaction 
with real life situations and environments, towards the adoption of a student centered approach 
and participatory learning. In addition, the study by Sulyman and Oliniyi (2023) on the influence 
of pragmatism in teacher education in Nigeria found out that Dewey’s pragmatic theory has 
greatly facilitated science and technology in providing solutions to problems that impact 
individuals and society; for instance, rape, murder and unemployment. 

 
The study by Anita et al. (2023) on the use of pragmatic approaches in teaching speaking 

skills for vocational high school students found that this approach enables students to practice 
interpersonal communication skills along with other innovative skills, incorporating language 
theories into real life. According to Rai and Lama (2020), a literature review on pragmatism and 
its contributions to the Indian education system found out that the theory is relevant in the 
Indian education system and a key influence in the idea of practical learning for engagement in 
real life, and participatory learning. 

 
Firmanto’s et al. (2019) study on pragmatism, that looks at the educational philosophy of 

John Dewey in learning information literacy in Indonesia, found out that Dewey’s theory is 
relevant in learning information literacy. However, Dewey’s view also poses a threat because it 



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never considers larger questions about the nature of reality but tends to remain at the level of 
practicality, focused on solving problems faced by human beings. 

 
In Kenya, the study carried out by Mbehero et al. (2022) on the analysis of the core 

competencies of CBC in light of pragmatic theory found that Competency Based Training in 
Kenya can only be implemented effectively when teachers are well acquainted with Dewey’s 
educational thought on the adoption of learners’ interests while planning for learning activities 
and creating a conducive learning environment. In addition, the study by Mugambi and 
Chepkonga (2022) on the application of pragmatism to CBC in Kenya from a philosophical 
perspective opines that education in CBC classes in Kenya can be made more meaningful by 
considering the prior experiences of learners and their interests. The above studies are only 
carried out on general education and higher education. The study aimed at establishing how 
democratic concepts of education can facilitate TVET in Kenya towards attaining sustainable 
development by identifying possible democratic concepts in the implementation of CBET, and 
then assessing whether they can reinvent TVET towards realizing sustainable development in 
Kenya. 
 

2.1 Dewey’s Concept of Democracy 
 

John Dewey (1859-1952) was one of the most significant philosophers of the 20th century 
who developed a philosophy that called for the unity of theory and practice (Feng,2019). Born 
in Burlington, Vermont in 1859, he encountered diverse views and influenced by Charles 
Sanders Pierce and William James he produced a philosophical theory that many scholars have 
termed ‘instrumentalism,’ which refers to Dewey’s pragmatic approach to education (Kaur, 
2019). His theory found relevance in his Laboratory school in Chicago. Dewey’s philosophical 
thoughts can be summarized as follows.  

 
The epistemological Perspective of Dewey’s education philosophy is inclined towards 

thought and action. From a tradition where true knowledge was vested in a well-designed 
curriculum, Dewey is confronted with curriculum centered approach and a learner centered 
approach (Feng 2019). Dewey worked on a theory of knowledge that contested dualism of mind 
and world, thought and action (Roberts, 2005). According to Dewey, thought was not only a 
collection of impressions or an absolute mind, but a meditated functional pedagogical drive 
meant to serve the interests of human survival and welfare (Ord, 2012). Thus, it was necessary 
for every thought to be tested by action and thus truth was that which works and fulfills our 
purpose. Thus, true knowledge was gained through methods of natural science and absolute 
knowledge was not easily attained by human abilities (Feng 2019). 
 

Human beings are social beings by nature, an insight embraced by the axiological 
perspective of Deweyan educational thought, which is based on subjectivity (Terna, 2020). Thus, 
the influence of others in a learning environment is of great importance and cannot be assumed. 
In addition, human life is a series of experiments directed towards specific functions in society; 
hence, there are no fixed values since they change with time and place (Adeleye, 2017). Aims 
and habits in Dewey’s philosophy are revised often and the ethical considerations of such an 



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approach are geared towards being inclusive of marginalized groups, especially youths (Roberts, 
2005). 

 
Reality exists in objects and actions that have been meditated upon by thought. Every time 

an action generates a consequence it is the consequences of the action that are the true 
manifestation of reality. Knowledge, therefore, is related to thinking and they only meet in an 
act (Talebi, 2015).  Action is superior to thought, although action and thought are 
complimentary (Kaur, 2019). 

 
According to Dewey, many educational problems exist due to a kind of dualism between 

thought and action. Thus, a functional pedagogy that is interested in the learner’s needs and 
environment and that also designs the curriculum to reflect learners’ needs, is required to address 
problematic assumptions of the past and facilitate self-realization and societal transformation, 
and thus, lifelong learning (Miettinen, 2000). 

 
Reflection as a tool of solving problems does not remain at merely posing solutions but 

continuously searches for the best possible workable solution to solve existing problems in society 
(Miettinen, 2000). Thus, such pedagogy assumes that children are not tabula rasa (blank slate) 
when they come to the school environment. Some activities and interests from home can be raw 
material for the teachers to factor in during lesson and curriculum orientation (Roberts, 2005). 

 
A functional pedagogy thus demands that teachers are expected to reinstate into experience 

(the subject matter of curriculum) the interests of their students and psychologize the curriculum 
by constructing an environment in which problematic situations shall be encountered by the 
learner to stimulate learning by innovation or correction (Darwish, 2009). In order to implement 
such a complex curriculum while refining it to reflect a specific context, demands that teachers 
be highly skilled professionals, knowledgeable in their subject matter, trained in child psychology, 
and skilled in techniques for providing specific and necessary encouragement to stimulate 
specific outputs so that the subject matter becomes part of the learners’ experience as they grow 
up (Osamah & Allazzi, 2009). 

 
2.1.1 Social Change 

 
Dewey is a highly recognized scholar who developed a well-designed pragmatic approach 

that laid foundations for the creation of a democratic classroom and thus facilitate a democratic 
society (Roberts, 2005). This view opened a new discussion in the conceptualization of education 
and the role of education for the learner and society. Education, as such, is not a preparation for 
life but education is life itself (Talebi, 2015). This discussion led to a technical definition of 
education as a reconstruction or reorganization of experiences (learners’ interests and opinions 
and environmental activities) with a view to generate new knowledge and address existing 
problems (UNESCO,1999). 

 
According to Ord (2012), experiential learning is based on assumptions that people learn 

best when they are involved in the learning experiences, knowledge is self-generated and the 
experience of learning has to be meaningful; finally, the personal disposition and commitment 



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to learning is highest when they learners are free to set their own learning objectives, aims and 
goals. Pragmatic theory does not assume absolute standards of life exist eternally and 
permanently for an effective type of education and training to be possible (Tabeli, 2015). 

 
Democracy, on the other hand, is more than a form of government. In the view of 

education as a social function, it is a mode of associated living of conjoint, communicated 
experience (Roberts, 2005). Striking a balance between a hidden curriculum and a child centered 
approach, Dewey’s emphasis on student freedom involves the ability of the learner to interact 
with his or her environment and generate new knowledge (Ord, 2012). Here the teacher only 
provides learning material based on learners’ interests. The activities the student is involved in 
are set by the teacher with a view towards innovation, interaction and theory-testing through 
looking at specific consequences that address existing problems (UN, 2021). 

 
2.1.2 Learner Development 

 
First and foremost, this progressive approach to education narrows down to paying 

attention to trainee needs in terms of skills, knowledge and attitudes during preparation of 
training tools, training methods and assessment (Tabeli,2015). The emphasis on trainee skill for 
employability has strongly promoted project-based learning that motivates trainers and trainees 
to positively interact with problems and find solutions within that context, thus providing 
evidence of effective training. 
 

However, Dewey’s learner-centered approach is based on the teacher’s ability to reorganize 
training that matters and that favors learner interaction, stimulating learning and innovation. 
Dewey’s recognition of prior learning in analyzing the conventional approach of his time targeted 
the educational practices of his day which had assumed trainees (learners) were passive recipients 
of authoritarian works and political structures, and thus prevented learners from self-discovery 
and communal inquiry; learning was a monopoly organized by set institutions. Instead, Dewey 
assumes learners’ local environments are rich in content and experiences. Learning ought to 
move from the Known to the Unknown, which helps the effective delivery of TVET to realize 
life-long individual development, and by extension, socio economic development. Thus, opposed 
to the “Tabula Rasa” assumptions of Empiricists, Dewey formulated a rational empiricist 
approach to the process of knowing (Tabeli, 2015). Interests, activities, and prior experiences are 
necessary elements in the process of knowing. 

 
2.1.3 Participatory Learning  

 
A functional pedagogy is viewed as one that spearheads individual trainee consciousness, 

decisiveness and critical evaluation of issues (Geert et al, 2006). Therefore, participation is an 
objective, as well as a means, of development.  According to Uzma Quraishi (2018), participation 
should be viewed as fostering critical consciousness and decision-making as the basis for active 
citizenship. Development strategies should empower citizens, especially the most marginalized, 
to articulate their expectations towards the State and other duty-bearers, and take charge of their 
own development.  

 



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This principle relies on the ability of education practitioners to link related subjects, i.e. 
engineering, production and entrepreneurship, in solving environmental issues. On the other 
hand, Dewey opines that students’ interest is key in participation. Student’s interests are 
conservation, investigation, construction and creative expression (Sakshi et al., 2018). 

 
The notion of ‘Intersubjectivity’ has also been addressed in relation to a teacher centered 

conception of education (Andafu & Simatwa, 2014). Dialogue between the teachers and 
students is to be encouraged during and after learning. Education is a social act, students are to 
collaborate, discuss and be directed towards helping others by transforming the totality of society. 
Thus, education is a project of freedom, self-reflection, self-managed life, and, in particular, 
involves notions of critical agency (Giroux, 2010). 
 
2.1.4 Intersubjectivity 

 
According to Ord (2012), Dewey’s experiential learning theory is vital in providing a 

theoretical ground for any study related to working with youth. In addition, it clearly defines the 
teacher’s demands in terms of teacher training to orient a curriculum with clear goals but 
temporar objectives towards specific actions. In the analysis of Teachers Perceptions on Critical 
Thinking in Jordanian Secondary school, Osamah & Khaled (2001) observed that education geared 
toward critical thinking has its origin in Dewey’s functional pedagogy, and it is vital in decision 
making and problem solving. 

 
Applying Dewey’s theory to counseling, Kalkbenner (2016) opines that interest and activity 

are key elements for personal development and thus organizing class around activities that build 
off student interests must be clearly stated within the curriculum. This reinforces the need for 
strong teacher training towards empowering the young with vital skills for lifelong learning. 
 

Social change is pushing all levels of education to adjust and fit with the changing demands 
of work. However, for a diverse culture Dewey’s theory can serve as a heuristic tool in 
reconceptualising what is reseach and what goals can be met within a given framwwork (Jia, 
2005). Moreover, according to Maddux and Donnett (2015), Dewey’s theory is vital in service 
training. On the other hand, it is only DeFalco (2026) who attempted to evaluate Dewey’s theory 
on Vocational Education and Training and he observes that vocational training is still seen 
myopically, as preparing students for the world of work and thus  includes only vague 
expectations when it comes to addressing social problems. In addition, vocational education and 
training has overemphasised “Learning to earn,” an ideology far removed from Dewey’s 
pragmatic thought.  Thus, simply assuming that vocational education and training in  any 
country is oriented towards problem solvng and so, by extenstion, well grounded in Dewey’s 
theoretical framework, would be a hasty generalization. 
 
2.2 Concept of Sustainable Development in Kenya 

 
“Sustainable development” is terminology that is being used in the 21st century to define a 

way of living that strikes a balance between the present and future generations without infringing 
or compromising lives, environment or standards (Mensah, 2019). The United Nations has 



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defined the concept of sustainable development in a way that identifies social, economic and 
environmental pillars as key to planning for future generations (United Nations, 2021). 

 
Education for sustainable development has been identified by the United Nations as an 

agenda that developing nations and developed nations can adopt to facilitate equality and 
empowerment of the young towards lifelong learning (Mensah, 2019).  Key elements in 
education for sustainable development, as identified by Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs) 
goal 4 and Goal 16, include: conservation of environment, human resource management, good 
citizenship.  To attain these goals, nations have prioritized lifelong learning and skill 
development to cultivate a citizenship that is responsive to changing times (Muigua, 2020). 
 
2.2.1 Lifelong Learning  

 
Lifelong learning is an aspect of education and training that aims at learning to learn 

(Cronholm, 2021). Lifelong learning in the modern world involves accumulation of relevant 
modern skills like digital literacy to meet the digitalization of the world (ADEA, 2020). In 
attempting to design principles of university education, Crohholm (2021) identified the need 
for education to address the whole person rather that part of the person for employability. On 
the other hand, Palmer (2020) identifies the informal sector (civil society) as a huge contributor 
in empowering the youths for lifelong learning. 

 
The rift between industrial demand for competencies which still haven’t been successfully 

facilitated in training versus the reality of training TVET institutions, demands a philosophical 
reflection on a possible theory that can guide training for lifelong learning (Osabwa et al,, 2022). 
Our study sought to establish whether Dewey’s concept of democratic education can facilitate 
TVET in realizing lifelong learning in Kenya. 

 
2.2.2 Skill Development 

 
The Kenyan Government has adopted a global initiative to empower future generations 

through education and training (GOK, 2007). The Kenya Vision 2030 prioritizes the social pillar 
as key in encouraging a responsible society and education is a legitimate means of achieving the 
goals and objectives of this pillar. The change from 8.4.4 education system to CBET facilitates 
skills in environmental literacy, work ethic and employability (GOK, 2018). The core 
competencies, common and basic competencies have been outlined in different occupational 
standards to facilitate training for the world of work (GOK, 2018). The skills required to re-
invent TVET towards facilitating an industrialization agenda in Kenya lies in a TVET system that 
is responsive to change and able to initiate innovativeness and embrace outcomes (GOK, 2018). 

 
3.0 Research Methodologies 

 
The study adopted a qualitative analysis of texts and systematic analysis of the government 

of Kenya commissions and taskforce reports in order to establish whether Dewey’s concept of 
democracy can be applied in TVET to attain lifelong learning among Kenyan youths and bridge 
the existing unemployment and skill mismatch. 



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3.1 Research Design 

 
The study adopted constructivism as its paradigm. According to Kamal (2019), this 

paradigm is best suited for qualitative studies with a philosophical orientation. This is a paradigm 
that holds to the view that reality is not objective, and every person can actively construct their 
own notions of reality from cognition (Kisirkoi, 2019). The study used rational design. According 
to Mbehero et al. (2022), a rational design embraces logical analysis and argumentation whereby 
premises are stated and logical rules followed to arrive at a sound conclusion, solutions, and 
recommendations to the specific problem under study.  

 
This design was also adopted because of its ability to aim at clarifying, reflecting on 

assumptions, and providing tentative logical conclusions (Osabwa, 2021). The design also 
facilitates tracing for consistency among different concepts in order to free technical education 
and training from contradictions (Ibanga, 2020). In sum, the study used this design to clarify 
TVET objectives, Kenya Vision 2030, the training industry link, and the applicability of Dewey’s 
concept of democracy in reinventing TVET to attain sustainable development in Kenya. 
 
3.2 Research Methods 

 
According to Ibanga (2020), these are techniques used in enhancing clarity of thought and 

sometimes a study can adopt one or several of them simultaneously and apply them to a single 
study. This study adopted Conceptual analysis also known as philosophical analysis. This method 
adopts analysis and synthesis methods. 

 
3.2.1 Philosophical Analysis   

 
Etymologically, the word analysis is derived from ancient Greek term “analusius” (Angadi, 

2019). The prefix “ana” means “up” while “lusis” means “loosing”, “release” or “separation” so 
that “analysis” means losing up or “dissolution,” the term was readily extended to the solving or 
dissolving of a problem and it was employed in ancient Greek Geometry and Philosophy (Kauka, 
2018).  
 

Analysis, therefore, is a critical evaluation, usually made by breaking a subject down into 
smaller concepts in order to understand it (Osabwa, 2022). Analysis is as essential to science as 
it is all rational enterprise since it involves three major stages; first and foremost, the search for 
an hypothesis which is sufficient to explain what is witnessed in reality; secondly, investigation 
of the extent to which this explanation is a necessary one; and, finally, comparison with 
experience in order to verify or correct the explanation (Osabwa et al, 2021). 

 
3.2.2 Synthesis Method 

 

This is a philosophical method that is concerned with the combination of elements of a 
system in order to create an over-arching judgment or clear understanding of the whole (Osabwa, 
2021). This method finds its origin in analysis and thus it complements philosophical analysis. 
The aim of synthesis is to obtain a clear, conclusive statement of the findings of the various 
research to gain clarity and consistency (Angadi, 2019). Synthesis adopts conclusions from each 



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concept, categorizes them, compares the similarities and differences, and brings out the 
conclusion from all the studied literature (Singporn & Nuangchalerm, 2021). The method was 
also used in the summing up of critical concepts of Dewey’s educational thought that apply to 
TVET, and that have guided TVET towards realizing the country’s development agenda. 

 
3.3 Data Collection 

 
Sources of data collection were purposively sampled. Both primary and secondary sources 

of data were used. The primary sources included, but are not limited to, Dewey’s texts on 
democracy and education, experience and education, Kenya vision 2030 and CBET policy 
documents TVET ACT 2013 and CBET policy 2018. The secondary sources included journals 
and repository papers and published theses and works. 
 
3.4 Data Analysis 

 
Through conceptual analysis, a research question was developed, content from Dewey and 

CBET concepts was sourced, biases and assumptions were drawn, units and categories of coding 
were developed, which entailed summarizing the contents under themes without coding but with 
notes. In this way, the relevant information was summarized repeatedly, guided by keywords and 
phrases already mentioned. The series of summarizing, which were manually done, was aimed at 
bringing out the basic results with regard to the viewpoints of each data input and to remove 
discrepancies and irrelevant data. The reasons for discarding particular aspects of each summary 
result were noted while each summary was being prepared in order not to forget the reasons for 
their exclusion. Pieces of information gathered through the summaries were synthesized, 
interlinked and paraphrased to make them more condensed, concise, coherent and manageable, 
being careful not to change the meaning of the data when combining the themes. The end result 
was a more concise and refined summary of the relevant literature regarding the key issues that 
were presented. 
 
3.5 Validity and Reliability  

 
Validity in philosophical research is determined from the truth value, based on how the 

conclusion is sought (Nigar, 2020). In a deductive argument, the conclusion follows necessarily 
from the premises and the truth value can either be valid and sound or invalid and unsound. 
 

4.0 Findings and Discussion of the Study 
 

The study is an attempt to answer how John Dewey’s democratic concept can facilitate 
TVET in Kenya towards attaining Sustainable Development. The findings of the study reveal 
that Dewey’s democratic concept, as demonstrated in his works Democracy and Education and 
related journals, indicate that Dewey’s educational thought is reflected in two major concepts: 
the concept of growth and the concept of democracy. The concept of growth entails a reflective 
development and acquisition of knowledge towards improving skills, attitudes or knowledge. 
While the concept of democracy entails educational activities creating a conducive environment 



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that promotes growth. The study identified the following themes in Dewey’s concept of 
democratic concept as key in guiding TVET towards attaining Kenya Vision 2030. 
 
4.1 Learner Centeredness in Training 

 
According to Dewey (1916), the primary role of the teacher is to plan for interesting 

activities for the learner to acquire specific aspects of active learning and thus attempt problem 
solving. 
 

Former teaching methods have embraced lecture methods, however, classroom 
management, according to Dewey, demands trainers to engage trainees in identifying learning 
activities and thus guide them towards self-directed learning. This creates an environment where 
every member is involved in shared decision making and helps lead to a representative democracy 
in larger schools where student representatives and staff make decisions. Democratic classroom 
management consists of good student-teacher relationships, student authority to make decisions, 
and discussion-based pedagogy. Democratic human relations often mean that students can get 
to know each other and their teachers well to form relationships based on trust.  

 
The central aspect in this theme is the person, that of “the trainee” needs and interests, 

being part of the trainers’ planning and training. Unlike empiricist assumptions that people are 
born tabula rasa, pragmatists suppose that people are dynamic, and thus the stimulation of our 
various sensory organs can readily create interests that facilitate learning and training. The center 
of the training process must and should always be the empowerment of the trainee who is born 
free to discover and invent. 

 
This view is in agreement with the prospects of Competency Based Education and Training 

(CBET) policy in Kenya that has been characterized by trainee empowerment, giving trainee 
activities that ignite creativity and innovation (Republic of Kenya, 2021). It is also in agreement 
with the Kenya Federation of Workers (2023), that there is need for stakeholder involvement in 
providing attachment and internship opportunities towards upskilling in technologies, new 
trends in the world of work, and existing societal problems. 
 
4.2 Partnerships Training 

 
Dewey (1938) believes that industry, education, and training cannot be done in a vacuum. 

In technical education, the adoption of the laboratory, workshop, practical rooms and practice 
sites indicate the appreciation of the fact that the environment for training must be hands on 
and foster skill development. Dewey (1938) set up a laboratory school in Chicago modeled on 
his pragmatic learning approach that insisted on sharing roles among trainees, using hands-on 
problem solving methods for discovery and innovation. Linkages with the world of work through 
practice confirm to trainees the ability of integrating theory in solving societal problems. 

 
The findings in the analyzed primary sources and secondary sources reveal that the source 

of problematized learning is the interaction of training and society and failed solutions. This 
finding agrees with Chepkoech et al. (2021) and that increased partnerships expose students and 
trainers to new training materials, equipment and projects towards that avail workable solutions 



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to existing societal problems. However, Osabwa et al. (2021) observes that these industrial 
linkages aren’t the facilitators of an effective training in a pragmatic set up; rather, it is the 
philosophical orientation of training in technical and training institutions that is the cause of 
the missing link in training and industrial engagement. 

 
Trainees can work on their own projects and through participating in TVET fairs, share 

insights by embracing problem-based learning. Dewey thinks that a problem is a thesis that 
provides an antithesis for another thesis; the creation of knowledge is continuous and through 
multiple attempts workable solutions for society are achieved. This thought agrees with the 
findings of Mbii et al. (2024) that found out that achievement of sustainable development goals 
in junior secondary schools in Kenya is possible through community service learning and 
citizenship education. 
 
4.3 Activity Based (Problematized) Training 

 
Dewey (1938) identifies activity learning methods as keys in critical thinking and orienting 

learners towards solving societal problems. This is also called the problem-solving approach to 
leaning. This entails exposure to a challenging situation where trainees work in groups and 
discover the mechanisms and the functionality of the projects in question. The working project 
becomes a yard stick of the consequent projects towards solving societal problems. 

 
Our finding agrees with Kaur (2019), who established that place-based education draws on 

the progressive idea that education should be multi-disciplinary in nature and that learning 
activities should be authentic and go beyond the school setting. One of the goals of activity-based 
education is to have students effectively build relationships with each other, which shows 
evidence of Dewey’s social learning theory (Ord, 2012). The other goals of activity-based 
education are to strengthen students’ relationships to their region and the land as well as create 
relationships between humans and their natural communities. Dewey (1938) was a proponent 
of making learning experiences centered around student interests and developing socially 
responsible citizens. All of these real-world, meaningful connections, that occur in place-based 
education, contribute to creating educational experiences that result in socially responsible 
citizens. Our analysis agrees with Defalco (2016) that the need for TVET to provide vocational 
education involves embracing activity-based learning to improve relations among trainees, 
empowering their critical abilities and embracing problem solving as an aspect of interacting with 
society. 

 
5.0 Implications of Dewey’s Democratic Concept in Technical Vocational Education and 

Training in Kenya Towards Attaining Sustainable Development 

 
This section presents a synthesis of the tenets of learner centeredness, partnership and 

activity-based training in Kenya, and establishes how the concept can facilitate the attaining of 
the sustainable development. 

 
First and foremost, trainee engagement is a crucial activity of each curriculum. The role of 

the trainer is a facilitator, helper and innovator. From a traditional form of training to a current 
form of training, the CBET policy 2018 clearly indicates the competencies required in the world 



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of work. The curriculum reflects the need for a more relaxed form of training geared toward 
skills for the world of work and also facilitates continuous learning. A curriculum that facilitates 
skills emphasizes the competencies required for the world of work as opposed to theoretical 
learning. From the standpoint of policy orientation, TVET CBET curriculum has prioritized 
learners’ activities and trainee empowerment. However, there still exist challenges to enhancing 
skills and empowering trainees. These challenges include limited resources, unqualified trainers 
and an exam-oriented system in assessment process limiting access to TVET. 

 
Secondly, Competency Education and Training in Kenya has realized that the supply 

demand model of training was a cause of skills mismatch in Kenya and a factor in the delay of 
Kenya’s achievement of national development goals. The shift to demand driven mode of 
training and industrial involvement has been prioritized, which can be aided through the 
formulation of curriculum, training and even assessment of trainees. However, although our 
analysis reveals the need for partnerships in training, industrial involvement is still limited due 
to narrow mandates and industry policies. Industries have prioritized production and profits as 
opposed to investing in meeting institutional demand for skilled work. The lack of a common 
goal between educational institutions and industry hinders effective training for lifelong 
learning. 

 
Finally, given the challenges facing societies in the twenty-first century, what could and 

should be the role of education in preparing young people for a changing world filled with 
complex problems that require new ways of thinking, working, learning, and living together? 
Learning focused on problem-solving provides key projects for students to search for possible 
solutions to living in a complex society. An education that is for democracy can provide young 
people with the critical and creative capacities to engage in collaborative and collective responses 
to these complex challenges. There exist new trends in training, especially those that prioritize 
Artificial Intelligence, Robots, Simulations and Integrated System, but there is a general feeling 
that overreliance on technology, along with exam-oriented educational systems, limit the human 
brain from cultivating critical skills and effectively applying them. It is, therefore, our view as 
researchers that critical skills for trainees be developed that engage current technologies while 
also targeting innovativeness that can find application in the world of work. And this can only 
be done by adopting Dewey’s concept of democratic education. 
 
5.1 Recommendation 

 
Our analysis recommends continuous and maximum funding of TVET programs by the 

Government of Kenya to provide adequate resources that enable the creation of conducive 
environments for training and building skills useful for the world of work. Our research also 
recommends coordinated industrial-institutional linkages and partnership to facilitate an 
environment to encourage innovations and develop workable solutions for the problems existing 
in society. Finally, our research recommends that CBET curriculum in its core, common and 
basic units prioritize critical skills for trainees that enable them to tackle complex problems that 
facilitate lifelong learning. 
 
 
 



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Address Correspondencs to: 
Alfred Simiyu 
Khisaalfred@gmail.com 
 
Stanley Omuterema  
somuterema@mmust.ac.ke 
 

Juma Injendi 
ijuma@mmust.ac.ke 
 
Philip Mukonvi 
pmukonyi@mmust.ac.ke 
 
All authors are associated with Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Kenya 

 

 


