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† Corresponding author 
© 2016 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

 

TECHNICAL-ECONOMIC EFFICIENCIES OF SNAKEHEAD SEED PRODUCTION 
UNDER IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN THE MEKONG DELTA, VIETNAM 

 

Nguyen Thi Kim Quyen1† --- Truong Hoang Minh2 --- Tran Ngoc Hai3 --- Tran Thi Thanh Hien4 --- Tran 

Dac Dinh5 
1,2,3,4,5College of Aquaculture and Fisheries, Cantho University, Vietnam 

 

ABSTRACT 

This study was carried out from February to December 2014 by interviewing 75 farmers who operate snakehead seed 

production in An Giang, Dong Thap and Hau Giang provinces, Vietnam. The results showed that the total area for production 

was 629.01±756.77 m2, whereas the volume for nursing was 582.10±119.81 m3 for pond system and 1,019.56±736.66 m3 for 

combining pond – hapa system). Each hatchery used 44.26±22.63 pairs of broodstock/breeding cycle and produced whole year. 

The quantity of seed per cycle of pond system was a half of that figure of other system while seed productivity per m3 was much 

lower. Snakehead seed was mainly sold to seed traders in the Delta (82.3%). With average production cost of 47.81±16.23 

thousand Vietnam dong (VND)/m3, each farm in pond system could reach the total net profit of 49.83±18.74 thousand 

VND/m3, equivalent to 328 million VND/year. These corresponding numbers of pond – hapa system were 106.98±86.25; 

196.12±87.45 thousand VND/m3, equal to 1.75 billion VND/year. Factors of climate change affecting snakehead seed 

production involved rainfall change, droughts, water and air temperature increase, salinity intrusion which caused  diseases 

easier (36%), affected seed production in general (31%), bad water quality (10%), .... To reduce the impacts of climate change to 

production, the farmer in snakehead seed production often changed selling market, suspended production of seeds, used better 

brookstocks by choosing them more carefully and a number of other measures. 

Keywords: Climate change, Efficiencies, Seed production, Snakehead, Technical-Economic. 

 

Received: 12 November 2016/ Revised: 19 December 2016/ Accepted: 28 December 2016/ Published: 7 January 2017 

 

Contribution/ Originality 

This study is one of very few studies, which have investigated the impact of climate change on snakehead seed 

production. The paper's primary contribution is finding that which and how climate phenomenon has effected on 

seed production as well as suggesting some adaptive methods for them. 

 

1. INTRODUCTION 

Snakehead production has developed rapidly in the recent years, total production increased from 5,300 ton to 

40,000 tons during a 2002-2009 period [1]. Some provinces dominate in snakehead culture by volume and value, 

consisting of An Giang, Dong Thap, Hau Giang, Vinh Long, Tra Vinh (belong to the Mekong River Delta (MRD), 

Vietnam) [2]. Snakehead is a species that can reach high productivity in farming practice. This species also is an 

easy species that can culture with different systems, including earthen pond, cage, ditch and field culture systems 

[3]. 

 
Animal Review 
2016 Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 73-82 
ISSN(e): 2409-6490 
ISSN(p): 2412-3382 
DOI: 10.18488/journal.ar/2016.3.4/101.4.73.82 
© 2016 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

 
 

 

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Because of dramatically development of snakehead culture, a high demand of seeds has appeared in the MRD. 

Previously, snakehead farmers mainly collected natural seeds; and Cambodia was a crucial source of seeds [4].  

Currently, many hatcheries and nurseries of snakehead are operated to supply for the culture. However, they are 

facing not only difficulties in production but also climate changes. Especially, salinization, high fluctuation in 

temperature between day and night, earlier flood season have created low growth rate, easier disease and low 

survival rate in fish [5]. Therefore, climate change has been one of the greatest challenges for the humankind, 

which has affected seriously to the production, livelihoods and environment all over the world [6]. Up to now, 

however, a few researches related to impacts of climate change on snakehead seed production have been done. 

Hence, evaluation of efficiency and impacts of climate changes on snakehead seed production is necessary to conduct 

in this study. 

 

2. METHODOLOGY 

Researched period: this study was carried out from February to December 2014. Three provinces where 

represents for snakehead culture in the MRD were selected for survey, including An Giang, Dong Thap and Hau 

Giang (Figure 1). 

 

 
Figure-1. Map of the Mekong River Delta shows the study sites 

              (Source: Real24h [7]) 

 

2.1. Some Terminology on Climate Change 

- Weather is atmospheric conditions at a current time that is determined by a combination of factors: 

temperature, pressure, humidity, wind speed, rain, ... [8]. 

- Climate is usually is defined as a timely average of weather [8]. 



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- Ability to vulnerability due to impact of climate changes is a level that a system (nature, society, economy) 

could be vulnerable because of climate change or unable to adapt with negative impact of climate change [8]. 

- Response to climate change is human activities in order to adapt and mitigate climate change [8]. 

- Adaptability to climate change is the adjustment of natural or human system to the circumstances or 

environment changed, aimed to reduce ability to vulnerability due to current or potential fluctuation and changes of 

climate as well as taking advantages opportunities that they bring to Ministry of Natural Resources and 

Environment [8]. 

 - Impact assessment of Climate change is a research that identity effects of climate change on environment and 

socio-economic activities of the local provinces. Apart from negative effects, it also resulted in positive effects. 

Impact assessment of climate change also includes reorganization and evaluation adaptation solutions to climate 

change [9]. 

 

2.2. Data Collecting Method 

- Secondary data: was synthesized from related scientific reports and articles, annual statistical yearbooks from 

researched provinces, research result from previous studied and information from specialized organizations and 

Websites as well. 

- Primary data: was collected by interviewing directly 65 snakehead production hatcheries and nurseries in An 

Giang, Dong Thap and Hau Giang by prepared questionnaire which was piloted first, then edited before coming to 

mass survey. A random method was applied to pick out typical samples from the list that was provided by 

authorities. Acording to Tuan, et al. [10] the majority of snakehead seeds in An Giang province were bought in the 

province whereas 93.7% and 6.3% snakehead farmers in Tra Vinh province bought seeds from An Giang and Dong 

Thap. Moreover, based on annual reports and field work observation in Hau Giang province, snakehead farmers 

there purchased seeds in Hau Giang. There are two models of snakehead seed production, including pond an 

combining pond-hapa hatcheries and nurseries.  Therefore samples were distributed as follow: 

 

Table-1. Distribution of samples in the research provinces 

Province Pond  Combining pond-hapa Number of samples 

An Giang 20 13 33 
Dong Thap 8 14 22 
Hau Giang 4 6 10 
Total 32 33 65 

               Source: survey data 

 

2.3. Data Processing Method 

Raw data after collected was refined and coded before entering to the computer. Using Excel and SPSS for 

Windows to input, check and refined data before processing and analyzing. Several processing methods were 

applied as below: 

a. Descriptive statistics: using statistical indicators such as Mean, STD, Min, Max, percentage, frequency in 

order to describe current status of snakehead seed production. 

b. Statistical Comparison (independent sample t-test): aimed to test the differences between tow means of the 

population.  

c. Vulnerability index: according to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [11]  three components 

that contribute to the vulnerable capacity include “exposure”, “sensitivity” and “adaptive capacity”. This study, 

therefore, using these index to assess the impact of climate change to the snakehead seed production, especially 

farmers who are operating these industry. 

 



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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

3.1. Owner’s Profile 

Generally, famers in seed production households was in laboring age and mainly taking advantage of family 

labors to reduce production cost (Table 2).  The number of women participated in pond-hapa system were 41%, 

higher than that of pond system due to high capacity to join in of this system [12]. It means that hapas usually 

were put in the ponds nearby which are easy to take care. Whereas pond production system mainly use ponds as 

places for hatching of brookstocks with a numerous outdoor activities, which are only appropriate for female labors. 

Number of production experience years was 8.56 years, and there was no statistically significant difference 

between two systems. Educational level of the farmers was relative low, with secondary school and lower level 

constituting more than 94.7% in pond system and 88.9% in combining pond-hapa system, respectively. No one 

reached the higher education or had the specialization in aquaculture and fisheries. 

 

Table-2. Profile of farmers who operated snakehead seed production 

Indicators Pond (n=48) Hapa in pond (n = 27)  

Experience on snakehead seed production (years) 8.57±4.83a 9.26±3,376 

Number of  family labors (people) 4.58±1.18a 4.33±1.57a 

Average age of farmers (years old) 45.5±7.72a 43.0±8.06a 

Ratio of female labors (%) 28.7 41 

Education level (%) 

- Primary school 

- Secondary school 

- High school 

100 
50 
44.7 
5.3 

100 
37 
51.9 
11.1 

 Source:Survey data 

 

3.2. Technical Efficiency in Snakehead Seed Production 

Both two seed production system applied no any hormones to the broodstocks in order to encourage hatching. 

Long and Hieu [13] inferred that natural breeding is more effective than artificial one. The differences were shown 

in nursing the fingerlings, while pond system takes advantages of tank-ponds that were used for breeding to 

nursing fingerlings, the other one picked up and put fingerlings into a separate hapa to nursing after broodstock 

spawning. 

 

Table-3. Technical efficiency indicators of snakehead seed production 

Indicators Pond (n=48) Hapa in pond (n = 27)  

Total area (m2) 1,177±1,304a 1,635±1,862a 

Total area for seed production (m2) 425.00±56.77a 744.01±526.23b 

Total volume for nursing (m3) 582.10±119.81a 1,019.56±736.66b 

Number of ponds for hatching (pond) 36.00±21.50a 61.10±44.00a 

Number of hapas for nursing (unit) 36.00±21.50a 11.80±10.70b 

Number of broodstocks/cycle (pairs) 27.40±1.16a 61.1±44.0b 

Number of production cycles/year (cycles) 11.30±1.17a 8.74±1.87a 

Fertility (larvae/kg of female fish) 8,375.00±1,033,5a 7,954.56±1,279.56b 

FCR 12.20±1.57a 14.43±1.05b 

Total quantity of seed/cycle (1,000 individuals) 295.55±160.34a 499.13±373.66b 

Nursing density (ind./m3) 553.00±165.02a 2,108.45±767.65b 

Survival rate (%) 56.21±2.55a 61.93±5.31b 

Seed productivity (ind./m3) 311.36±94.36a 1,299.82±476.59b 

   Source: Survey data 

 



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Generally, the total production area was relative large that was higher than that result of Chung [14]. The 

majority of farms used own land for production with the proportion of farmers who hired land for farming was 44% 

for pond system and 48% for combining pond-hapa system, respectively. The breeding area of the latter was much 

higher than that of the former (744.01 m2 in comparison to 425.00 m2), and depended much to the personal 

conditions of each household. Most farms excavated small pond with the average area of 9 – 15 m2 to leave a pair of 

broodstock. Each farm, which belongs to pond system, operated 36 ponds for breeding with 1 pair of broodstock per 

pond, lower than that figure in combining pond – hapa system (61.10 ponds). In general, there were insignificant 

differences between two systems in terms of breeding pond structure (Table 3). 

In nursing activities, the area in pond system was twofold larger than that of the other one. In contrast, 

nursing volume of combining pond – hapa system was much higher than that figure of pond system because the 

farm owners in pond system mainly conducted breeding and nursing activities at the same place. Almost farmers 

selected natural process of seed production without any hormone application on broodstocks. After breeding 2 to 3 

days, fries were picked out and reared in hapa in the system of combining pond - hapa, while in system of pond, 

broodstocks were picked out of the pond and the fries were kept for rearing in the ponds. 

There were 2 production crops, including main crop (in rainy season – from April to October of Lunar 

calendar) and secondary crop (the rest months of Lunar calendar). Following Long and Hieu [13] rainy season 

facilitated high fertility of snakehead thanks to it’s favorable conditions.  There were about 8 – 12 cycles per year, 

with the number of pair of broodstocks in combining pond – hapa being double of pond system. Feed used for 

broodstocks was trash fish that was evaluated as a good source to rear parent fish. Total feed quantity accounted for 

5 – 10% of the body weight with the fluctuated price from 7 – 9,000 VND/kg. Artemia and trash fish were two 

main sources of feed for nursing fingerlings. FCR in combining pond – hapa system was slightly higher than that of 

pond system due to the higher use of trash fish in this system. 

The total fingerlings produced per cycle was relative high, of which, the figure of combining pond – hapa 

system was nearly double that of other system. The study result shows that nursing density was significant 

different between two systems, and lower that the result of Chung and Sinh [1]. Nursing density had influenced 

sharply to the survival rate and productivity of further fingerlings [12] which were characterized by 56.21% and 

311.36 individuals/m3 for the pond system and 61.93% and 1,299.82 individuals/m3 for the pond – hapa system, 

respectively (Table 3). 

 

3.3. Economic Efficiency in Snakehead Seed Production 

 

 
Figure-2. Structure of fix cost (a) and variable cost (b) of pond system of seed production 

Source: Survey data 

 



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The research result shows that the total production cost per cycle was high with 47.81 thousand VND for pond 

system (Table 4). In which, the fix cost accounted for 5% of the total cost with key proportions being depreciation of 

tools (63%) and construction (20%) (Figure 2a). Variable cost shared more than 95% of the total cost, of which three 

types of cost were feed for fingerlings, drug/chemicals and feed for broodstocks (57%, 28% and 7%, respectively) 

(Figure 2b.). Similarly, the structure of cost illustrated the same pattern in pond – hapa production system with 

proportions of tool depreciation and construction depreciation being 48% and 40% of the total fix cost, respectively. 

Ratios of feed cost for fingerlings and drug/chemicals cost were 61% and 27%, respectively (Figure 3). 

 

 

Figure-3. Structure of fix cost (a) and variable cost (b) in seed production of combining pond – hapa system 
Source: Survey data 

 

The fingerlings after nursing were usually sold to snakehead grow-out farms of the province. A small 

proportion of them was kept at the farm for commercial rearing. The revenue of seed production could reach high 

achievement, with the higher amount belonging to combining pond – hapa system. After deducting production cost, 

each farm could gain from 50 to nearly 200 thousand VND per m3 (Table 4). However, marginal ratio illustrates 

that the use of financial capital in pond system was more effective that of other system due to lower production cost 

in pond system [12]. 

 

Table-4. Economic efficiency in snakehead seed production 

Indicators Pond Pond - Hapa  

Fix cost (1,000 VND/m3/cycle) 3.45±1.02a 5.51±2.54b 

Variable cost (1,000 VND/m3/cycle) 44.45±15.62a 201.35±85.26b 

Total cost (1,000 VND/m3/cycle) 47.81±16.23a 106.98±86.25b 

Selling price (VND/fingerling) 237.00±16.21a 230.23±17.26a 

Sources of selling product (%) 100 100 

- Keeping for grow-out 7.89 17.6 

- Selling in the province 78.9 74.6 

- Selling out of province 13.2 8.8 

Total revenue (1,000 VND/m3) 97.78±22.74a 404.55±133.69b 

Net profit (1,000 VND/m3) 49.83±18.74a 196.12±87.45b 

Margin rate  1.16±0.54a 1.09±0.52a 

   Source: Survey data 

 

3.4. People Awareness about Impact of Climate Change on Snakehead Seed Production 

Some climate change phenomenon were awared by farmers including changes in rain level, drought, water 

temperature, air temperature, flood level, wind and storm (Figure 4). Climate change is considered as a key origin 

that causes extreme weather phenomena and early coming rainy season [15]. Research result shows that the late 

rainy season and less precipitation occurred most popular which may influenced negatively on snakehead seed 



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production. Moreover, drought phenomenon was stimulated that sunny was tougher and last longer. The 

temperature of water and air increased in sunny season, decreased in rainy season that could cause temperature 

stratification evident in the water body, affect the life processes of fish [9]. Following Fourier [16] the temperature 

of the earth could rise due to the changes of composition of the atmosphere. During converting heat process, the 

atmosphere absorbs more solar heat than reflecting it back to space. Hence, the majority of farmers thought that the 

temperature has been increasingly hot in the recent years. Flood, wind and storm were seen as the natural disasters, 

which damaged seriously on human and economic properties [17]. Climate change will increase the frequency of 

these climate phenomenon that might result more harm such as rising flooding in the coastal and riverside areas, 

rising risk of infrastructure devastation [9]. Recently, most farmers have aware that flooding season would come 

earlier and uncertainly, similar to the result from some researches on climate change of Jorn, et al. [5]. 

 

 
Figure-4. Some key climate change phenomena aware by famrers 

                        Source: Survey data 

 

The research result shows that climate change might affect much on snakehead production technique (Figure 

5). The impacts of climate change on aquaculture included direct effects on fish growth, fecundity, survival rate and 

indirect effects on the vitality of ecosystems, pollution ratio and eutrophication in environment and pathogens [18]. 

More specifically, the ratio of disease outbreak would be higher (36% of the respondents). When the water 

temperature increase, fish have to move to deeper layer where concentrate pathogens and toxic gases [19]. 

Moreover, snakehead seed production in general could be influenced because of climate changes due to the 

continuously impacts from input to output that could not be measured exactly by the respondents (31% of the 

respondents). Additionally, lower quality of snakehead seed was a significant impact of climate change, which made 

up 13% of the total. It was closely followed by bad water quality because of water stratification, which created many 

toxins in the bottom and lack of oxygen at night time [19]. Considerably, climate change could affect to the 

hatching of egg as well as the quality of parent fish (Figure 5). 

 

 

 

 

  



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Figure-5. Impacts of climate change on snakehead seed production 

               Source: Survey data 

 

Using the scale of 3 (1 = low, 2 = medium, 3 = high) to calculate the vulnerability of seed production farmers 

under different climate expressions, the result show that the increase in water temperature caused the maximum 

vulnerability of the community (Figure 6). Based on Huong and Trinh [20] primary cause that affected to fish 

aquaculture was high increase of water temperature. Air temperature, drought, flooding, wind change and rainfall 

change shared the same ratios of people vulnerability (medium rate) while community were at least vulnerable by 

storms (Figure 6). 

 

 
Figure-6. Spider diagram of vulnerable level of farmers due to climate change 

                            Source: Survey data 

 

In order to adapt with climate change, seed production farmers tend to narrow down their production scale 

that allow them to monitor farms more effectively (45% of respondents). When climate change impacted seriously 

on their production which could cause heavy losses or lack of capital for reproduction, the farmer could stop 

production temporarily. To deal with low broodstock quality, the farmers would try to choose better parent fish by 

finding out other source of broodstocks or paying more money for purchasing good quality one. This adaptive 

method together with culture pond and material improvement to adapt with climate change could increase the input 

cost which was selected by 30% of respondents. Other adaptive measures, including changing selling market, 

changing to produce other species or other business were chosen by 15 – 22% of respondents. 

 



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Figure-7. Adaptive methods to climate change of snakehead seed production farmers 
Source: Survey data 

 

4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

There were 2 production systems of snakehead seed: pond and combining pond – hapa which were both natural 

reproduction without using any hormone. Pond – hapa system used larger area, higher nursing density, higher 

survival rate and productivity than the other one. Net profit of pond – hapa system was also higher than pond; 

effectiveness of using capital in pond system, however, higher than that of pond – hapa system. 

Some key climate change phenomenon that affected fish seed production were (1) rain, (2) drought, (3) 

temperature and (4) flood. They affected directly to the seed production in general, easier diseases and quality of 

seed. In which water temperature might create the highest level of vulnerability. Adaptation measures were (1) 

changing production scale, (2) Temporarily stop production and (3) Selecting better broodstocks. 

 Recommendations: (1) Should conduct more trainings on technique climate changes in seed production; (2) 

Building linkages; (3) Improving process of artificial breeding; (4) improving quality of broodstocks and seeds with 

capacity in tolerance with climate change; and (5) Financial support for seed production farmers to reduce effects of 

climate changes. 

 

Funding: The authors sincerely thank to the project of AQUAFISH INNOVATION LAB for budget supporting; officers from 
Department of Fisheries in An Giang, Dong Thap, Hau Giang for their kindly supports in surveys and field trip at the research 
areas. 
Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests. 
 

Contributors/Acknowledgement: All authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study.  

 

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