







































 

 

 
1 

© 2025 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

A brief overview of the impact of avian influenza on animals   

 

 
John T. Hancock1+ 
Ros C. Rouse2 
Gareth Robinson3 
Tim J. Craig4 

1,3,4School of Applied Sciences, University of the West of England, 
Bristol, BS16 1QY, UK. 
1Email: John.hancock@uwe.ac.uk   
3Email: Gareth2.robinson@uwe.ac.uk  
4Email: Tim.craig@uwe.ac.uk 
2Business and Innovation, University of the West of England, Bristol 
BS16 1QY, UK. 
2Email: Ros.rouse@uwe.ac.uk    
 

 
(+ Corresponding author) 

 ABSTRACT 
 
Article History 
Received: 14 November 2024 
Revised: 30 December 2024 
Accepted: 10 January 2025  
Published: 27 January 2025 
 

Keywords 
Animal-human transmission 
Avian influenza 
Bird flu 
Cattle 
H5N1 
Marine mammals  
Mink. 

 
Avian influenza (AI) virus, and the (HPAI)H5N1 subtype in particular, is a 
serious problem for many wild bird populations, where devastating losses have 
been reported. However, AI is not restricted to bird species. Here, a literature 
search was used to assess the range of animals infected by AI. This included 
reports in the scientific journals as well as news outlets. As can be seen, infection 
has been reported in commercial mammals such as cattle and mink where there is 
close animal-to-animal contact, as well as close contact with humans. Some 
domestic animals, such as cats, have been reported to be AI virus positive too, 
again where there is a possibility that conditions will be conducive to animal-to-
human transmission. Many animals in the wild have been found to be infected 
with AI virus, and many of these, perhaps not surprisingly, are marine mammals. 
Mink-to-mink viral transmission has been suggested to have taken place, but 
most animals which have been infected have had close contact with birds, often 
handling or eating carcasses. There are also reports of humans becoming infected, 
for example, from cattle. Although this overview is intended to be neither 
comprehensive nor quantitative it is hoped that such information will aid in the 
management of AI, especially (HPAI)H5N1, in the future. 
 

Contribution/Originality: This article gives an up-to-date overview of the range of animals which have 

been reported to be infection-positive for Avian influenza. This shows that the viral infection is not restricted 

to birds, but is found in many mammalian species.  

 

1. INTRODUCTION 

Avian influenza (AI) virus has been in circulation for many years. Originally referred to as “Fowl Plague” 

it was first described in northern Italy in 1878, and about twenty years later was found to be caused by a virus, 

which was further characterized in 1955 as a type A influenza virus [1]. Avian influenza (AI: often known as 

avian flu or bird flu) virus, especially the (HPAI)H5N1 subtype (clade 2.3.4.4b), is one of these. AI has led to 

devastating drops in bird populations, especially sea birds, such as reported by the BBC in February 2024 [2]. 

AI is caused by a virus which has two main types: Highly pathogenicity avian influenza [HPAI] and low 

pathogenicity avian influenza (LPAI) [3]. These groups are subdivided into haemagglutinin [H1–H16] and 

neuraminidase [N1–N9] subtypes. Most LPAI viruses cause a milder form of disease. HPAI viruses have H5 

and H7 subtypes, and many of these subtypes have been found in infected birds. Probably the subtype of most 

Animal Review 
2025 Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 1-16. 
ISSN(e): 2409-6490 
ISSN(p): 2412-3382 
DOI: 10.18488/92.v12i1.4051 
© 2025 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

 
 
 

 
 
 
 

 

 
 
 
 

mailto:John.hancock@uwe.ac.uk
mailto:Gareth2.robinson@uwe.ac.uk
mailto:Tim.craig@uwe.ac.uk
mailto:Ros.rouse@uwe.ac.uk
https://www.doi.org/10.18488/92.v12i1.4051


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concern is (HPAI)H5N1. Much has been written about bird outbreaks and possible bird infections, both in the 

scientific literature [4-6] and the popular media  [2, 7-9] so this will not be considered in depth here. What is 

perhaps less well known is the evidence that AI viruses can infect a wide range of mammals, with differing 

symptoms. The fact that humans can become infected with the AI viruses is well-established, but remains of 

concern, and there is some discussion about H5N1 becoming the next pandemic subtype [10-12]. A recent 

British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) article asks if the AI pandemic is inching towards humans [13].  

Although there are other reviews covering this topic, such as that by Peacock, et al. [14] and others 

Consortium, et al. [15]; Graziosi, et al. [16] and  Plaza, et al. [17] it seems timely to bring some examples of 

non-avian species being reported as infected with the AI virus together. Here a broad approach for a review is 

used, encompassing reports from science literature, but also more common media outlets such as news 

channels, as often these are looked at in isolation and by a wide range of readers. This is not a comprehensive 

report, but a brief overview to get an overall picture of what the present situation is like, and to highlight 

literature where a more in-depth discussion can be found if required. 

 

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 

To obtain information for this overview a wide range of sources were used. These included reports found 

on the internet, and media outputs, such as Guardian newspaper (UK) and the BBC. Sci-entific literature was 

also sourced, primarily from Google Scholar [18] or National Library of Medicine Pubmed [19] and the 

original articles accessed and cited.  

 

3. EVIDENCE OF A WIDE RANGE OF ANIMAL SPECIES BEING INFECTED WITH AI 

There is certainly concern about where the next human viral pandemic will emerge from. SARS-Cov-2, 

which caused the COVID-19 pandemic, was thought to originate from bats, and the transmission to humans 

has been hotly debated, for example in work by Ridley and Brown [20] and the exact route will probably 

never be known. However, others have asked what we might consider as the next emergent zoonotic disease 

[21] and AI is a candidate. 

In experimental animal models it has been clearly shown that some non-avian species can be infected with 

AI. H5N1 (HPAI) can cause upper respiratory tract infection in ferrets and cats [22] and ferrets have been 

used in cytokine studies Short, et al. [23]. Rhesus macaques have also been used, again for studying cytokine 

effects caused by AI [24]. Guinea pigs have been used for assessing the public health risk [25]. Belser [26] 

gave an update on the use of animal models, albeit back in 2009 [26] which included a discussion of the use of 

mice. Of course, more current reviews on the use of animals in influenza research are also available [e.g. 

Nguyen, et al. [27]]. 

With the media reporting that several animals are now being infected by AI virus, it is timely to look at 

this more deeply. In April 2024 the Guardian reported the first case of AI in a walrus [28] along with a wide 

range of birds, including penguins [29]. 

Here, we have looked across the literature and pulled out examples which highlight the widespread nature 

of AI virus. It clearly is not just found in avian species, as can be seen in Table 1. 

 



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Table 1. Examples of animals (Including humans) being reported positive for avian influenza vi-rus. Data was gathered until mid-August 2024. 

Animal group Animal type Animal(s) Country Cause  
(If known) 

Subtype  
(If known) 

Ref. Notes 

Birds Commercial Poultry: Broiler chickens, turkeys USA - A(H7N3) USDA [30]  11 flocks, 8.8 
M birds 

Poultry Russia - A(H5N8) Pyankova, et al. [31] - 
Turkeys USA - HPAI  

H5N1 
CDC [32] - 

Poultry India - H5N1 World Organization for Animal 
Health [33]  

- 

Birds  Wild  Goose, duck, sanderling, eagle, crow, 
bufflehead, owl, cormorant, hawk, raven, 
vulture, ruddy turnstone, blackbird, pigeon, 
grackle, teal, pintail, swan, gull 

USA - - USDA [34]  - 

Penguins South Georgia - - BBC News [29] - 
Mute swans (Cygnus olor) Denmark - H5N1 World Organization for Animal 

Health (WOAH) [35]  
Swans were 
dead 

Various (Non-poultry including wild birds) Denmark - H5N8 World Organization for Animal 
Health [36]  

- 

Various (Non-poultry including wild birds) Canada - H5N5 World Organization for Animal 
Health [37]  

- 

Great skuas UK - H5N1 Guardian [38]  75% decline in 
population 

Gannets UK - H5N1 Guardian [38]  25% decline in 
population 

Black-headed gulls, guillemots, kittiwakes, 
herring gulls, terns 

UK - - RSPB [39]  - 

Cranes Hungary - - RSPB [39]  Large 
outbreaks 

Swans Romania - - RSPB [39]  Large 
outbreaks 

Black-headed gulls UK - - British Trust for Ornithology 
[40]  

10000 (4% 
UK 
population: 
2023) 

Terns UK - - British Trust for Ornithology 
[40]  

- 

Birds Domestic 8 cases in birds Timor-Leste - H5N1 World Organization for Animal 
Health [41]  

- 



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Mammal Commercial Dairy cows USA - HPAI  
H5N1 

CDC [32] First cows 
reported 
(Kansas and 
Texas (March 
2024) 

Cows (Cattle) USA -   USDA [42]  Across at 
least 10 states 

Mink Spain From wild 
waterfowl? 

HPAI  
H5N1 

CDC [32] May have 
been mink-
mink 
transmission 

Mink Sweden - LPAI 
H10N4 

CDC [32] 1984 
(October) 

Mink USA From people 
(?) 

A(H1N1) CDC [32] 2019 

Goats USA - H5N1 World Organization for Animal 
Health [43]  

2024 (March) 

Foxes, mink, raccoon dogs Finland Not 
confirmed 

- UK Health Security Agency 
[44]  

Near bird 
oubreak 

Big cat, lion, bobcat, bear, fox, coyote, fisher 
(Pekania pennanti), marten, otter, racoon, skunk, 
opossum, squirrel  

USA - Includes 
H5N1  

USDA [45]  - 

Seal, fox UK - HPAI  
H5N8 

CDC [32] - 

Foxes, bears, skunks Canada - H5N1 CDC [32] - 
Mammal  Wild Fox  Netherlands From birds? HPAI  

H5N1 
BBC News [29]  2021 

Fox Estonia - - CDC [32] - 
Fox, otter, lynx, badger Europe - HPAI  

H5 
CDC [32] - 

Raccoon dogs, foxes Japan - HPAI  
H5 

CDC [32] - 

Polar bear Arctic - HPAI 
A(H5N1) 

CDC [32] Animal 
died/first 
report from 
arctic animal 
(2023: 
December)  

Red fox Sweden - H5N1 World Organization for Animal 
Health [46]  

2023 (August) 



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Red fox Northern 
Ireland 

- HPAI 
H5N1 

World Organization for Animal 
Health [47]  

2023 (August) 

Red fox Scotland - H5N1 World Organization for Animal 
Health [47]  

- 

Cats Poland - H5N1 World Organization for Animal 
Health [48]  

- 

Cats France, Italy - H5N1 UK Health Security Agency 
[44] 

- 

Lion (Panthera leo)  Peru - H5N1 World Organization for Animal 
Health [48]  

- 

Mammal  Domestic  Cat Thailand Ate pigeon 
carcass 

(HPAI) 
H5N1  

Songserm, et al. [49]  - 

Cat Germany From wild 
birds? 

H5N1 Klopfleisch, et al. [50] - 

Cat South Korea Migratory 
birds that 
travelled 
from Japan 
and South 
Korea? 

- CIDRAP [51]  - 

Dogs Italy On poultry 
farm 

- UK Health Security Agency 
[44] 

5 dogs 
infected 

Bush dog UK Contaminat-
ed meat?  

H5N1 CIDRAP [51]  - 

Bottle nose dolphin, seal, USA - - USDA [45]  - 
Walrus Hopen Island 

(Svalbard) 
- - The Guardian [28] First such 

case April 
2024 

Sea lions Peru - HPAI  
H5N1 

CDC [32] - 

Mammal  Marine Sea lions New England - H5N1 CDC [32] - 
Seals UK, Germany, 

Denmark 
- H7N7, 

H4N5, 
H4N6, 
H3N3, 
H10N7 

CDC [32] 2021 

Seals USA - HPAI  
H5N1 

CDC [32] 10 animals 



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Elephant seal, fur seal,  South polar 
region 

- HPAI 
A(H5N1) 

CDC [32] First from 
south polar 
region: 2023 
(December) 

Grey seal, porpoise, dolphin UK - HPAI  
H5N1 
(H5Nx) 

World Organization for Animal 
Health [47]  

2023(March) 

Southern elephant seals (Mirounga leonina)/ 1 
Antarctic fur seal (Arctocephalus gazella). 

South Georgia 
Island 

- H5N1 World Organization for Animal 
Health [47]  

- 

Seal lion (Otaria flavescens)- and dolphin 
(Tursiops truncatus) 

Peru - H5N1 World Organization for Animal 
Health [48]  

- 

Harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) Denmark Possibly 
from dead 
swans 

HPAI  
H5N1 

World Organization for Animal 
Health (WOAH) [35]  

- 

Spiny porpoise (Phocoena spinipinnis) and 
Chilean dolphin (Cephalorhynchus eutropia). 

Chile  - H5N1 World Organization for Animal 
Health [48]  

- 

Mammal  Human  2 cases USA From 
poultry 
(2022), one 
from cattle 
(2024) 

 - CDC [52]  - 

1 case Russia Poultry 
farmer- 
(December 
2020) 

A(H5N8) Pyankova, et al. [31] - 

Child with moderate illness Hong Kong Poultry (?) 
(2020) 

LPAI  
H9N2 

CDC [32] - 

Child with mild illness Senegal Poultry 
(2019) 

LPAI  
H9N2 

CDC [32] - 

Five cases China - LPAI  
H9N2 

CDC [32] - 

Asymptomatic 80-year-old man England Ducks HPAI  
H5N1 

CDC [32] - 

 China - LPAI  
H3N8 

CDC [32] 2022 (April) 

Seven cases China Poultry HPAI  
H5N6 

CDC [32] 2022 

Four cases China - LPAI  
H9N2 

CDC [32] - 

Young child Cambodia - LPAI  
H9N2 

CDC [32] - 



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Child Vietnam Poultry HPAI  
A(H5) 

CDC [32] - 

Four cases (Three children) China - LPAI  
H9N2 

CDC [32] 2022 

One case (died) China Poultry HPAI  
H5N1 

CDC [32] 2022 

Child Laos Poultry HPAI  
H5N6 

CDC [32] 2021 

One case (Died) China Poultry?  LPAI 
H10N3 

CDC [32] 2021 (May) 

36 cases China - HPAI  
H5N6 

CDC [32] During 2021 - 
18 deaths 

24 cases China - LPAI  
H9N2 

CDC [32] One death 

Four cases China Poultry HPAI  
H5N6 

CDC [32] May-Sept 
2022 - one 
death 

One case China Not known LPAI 
H10N3 

CDC [32] 2022(May) 

Four cases China - LPAI  
H9N2 

CDC [32] One 
hospitalised 

Two cases (Asymptomatic) Spain Poultry 
workers 

HPAI  
H5N1 

CDC [32] 2022 

One case (Child) Ecuador Poultry HPAI  
A(H5) 

CDC [32] 2023 
(January) 

Two cases (Asymptomatic) Cambodia - HPAI  
H5N1 

CDC [32] One death 

One case USA - HPAI) 
A(H5N1 

CDC [32] First case of 
cow-human 
transmission 

One case USA - H5N1 Looi [53]  Farmer from 
cattle: State of 
Michigan 

 



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There are some general points which can be highlighted from the data. Firstly, it is obviously a global problem. 

In the UK, there are reports of major problems in birds in Scotland and Wales, for example, as reported by the BBC 

News [54] although on 30th May 2024 the UK government declared the country free of bird flu [55]. However, 

reports of animal infections span across USA, Russia, Japan, India, Thailand, South Korea etc. There are even 

reports from the polar regions, with elephant seals and fur seals being infected in the south [32] and polar bears 

being infected in the Arctic [32]. 

Secondly, there is a growing range of animals which are becoming infected. One of the groups which has 

reached prominence in the press is cattle [42]. This has been quite widespread, especially in the USA and it has 

been reported across at least ten States and 85 herds. Other commercial animals include goats  [56] but perhaps 

more notably mink [32, 57]. Here worries may arise because of potential parallels with the prominence of mink 

infections during the COVID-19 pandemic [58]. During COVID-19, millions of mink in several countries were 

killed as they were found to be infected with SARS-CoV-2, mink-mink transmission was reported, and then perhaps 

more alarmingly there were suggestions of mink-human infection routes [59]. It has been thought that mink-mink 

AI viral transmission has already happened [32] as well as a farmer suspected of becoming infected from cattle 

[13]. A second case of a farmer being infected from a herd of cows was recently been reported [53] whilst in July 

2024 it was reported that there were four dairy workers who had tested positive [60]. Infected cows may pass on 

the virus in their milk. The situation with AI virus and cattle was recently reviewed by Neumann and Kawaoka 

[61]. 

In USA, it has been reported that 24 cats contracted H5N1 on a single farm, and this was thought to be down 

to consumption of raw milk [62]. Half of these animals died. Cats more generally have been raised as a concern, 

with reports that in the USA at least 16 have contracted AI virus this year [63] presumably from eating infected 

wild birds. 

As well as commercial animals which may be in contact with other animals, such as birds, but also in the close 

vicinity of humans, wild animals have been found to be infected. It is likely that these animals are becoming infected 

as they are in contact with, perhaps eating, infected carcasses. If a bird is frail because it is suffering, or if it had 

already died, then it becomes an easy target for other animals, many which are known to scavenge. Perhaps it 

should come as no surprise that foxes, bears, and coyotes are listed. Other species include lion, skunk, and otter. 

Domestic animals are being reported as being infected, especially cats [62, 63] and these may have become infected 

by eating carcasses, for example, one was reported as eating a dead pigeon, even though it would be assumed that 

such animals are well fed in their domestic environment. Cats were particularly infected with SARS-CoV-2 [64, 65] 

and although drawing parallels between the two diseases is fraught with issues due to the profound differences in 

the causative viruses, it is still quite concerning that companion animals are so susceptible to AI virus. Indeed, AI 

infection in cats is not trivial. In Poland, 47 cats were tested (including one Caracal caracal), with 29 being positive 

from 13 regions of the country. Cats had a range of symptoms, including bloody diarrhea, breathing problems and 

neurological issues. Eleven cats died [66]. And as stated above 16 were found to be positive in the USA this year 

[63]. 

Of prominence in the list given here are marine mammals (Table 1), no doubt because of their proximity to 

seabirds such as tern and gulls. Seals and walruses have already been mentioned here, but also listed are dolphins 

and porpoises. The reports are quite worldwide too, ranging from the UK and Denmark to USA, and then down to 

Peru, Chile, and the polar regions.  

What can be seen from the results are several points worth noting. It is worldwide, it is not just avian species 

which have found to be infected, and, so far, contact with infected birds is often, but not always, the cause.  

 

 

 



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4. DISCUSSION 

Birds have been the focus in discussions of AI spread and prevalent, although not all birds have the same 

morbidity [67, 68]. This is not the first time the matter of AI viral infection has been dis-cussed outside of bird 

species [69-71] and it is unlikely to be the last. Others are collating similar data, also on a global scale. One 

excellent source of data is from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, which under a 

section on Animal Health, lists animals infected with H5Nx HPAI [72]. There are numerous bird species listed, as 

would be expected. These range across farmed animals including chickens, ducks, emu, and ostrich, as well as a 

wide range of wild birds. These include water birds such as ducks and geese, but also owls, hawks, robins, crows, 

and woodpeckers. Mammalian species which have been reported to be infected include a similar range of animals to 

that listed above, but also include wild boars, pika, and badgers. What is also telling about this list is that any new 

species identified as being positive since 2021 are written in red, and a glance at the list suggests about half of all 

the listings are so colored. This is an indication that either the viruses are spreading to more species quite 

dramatically, or that surveillance has significantly improved, or a combination of both. 

One of the issues which is worth considering is of course why the virus has the ability to infect the cells of 

certain animals and not others. The molecular biology of the infection of cells with the AI virus is not covered here, 

but others have reviewed the area. For example, Wang, et al. [11] consider the epidemiology, virology and 

pathogenicity of human infections, with the view to gaining a better understanding of interspecies transmission of 

the virus. Charostad, et al. [73] discuss the structural biology and genetics of H5N1, and then go on to look at the 

immune response to the virus in humans.  

The apparent prevalence of the AI virus across a range of mammalian species leads to some suggesting that we 

should at least raise awareness [74] with the BMJ asking if we should be worried “about a growing threat from 

“bird flu””, for example [75]. Therefore, it seems a timely point to bring some of the reports on how AI is affecting 

mammalian species into one place, and to discuss the range of what is happening around the world. This is 

particularly important as conservation work continues, and people interact with the natural environment, and 

animals within it, in a variety of ways [76]. 

Of importance here are the ramifications for human health. As highlighted in Table 1, humans around the 

world have been reported to be AI virus positive. Many of these so far are from China, Cambodia, Vietnam, Hong 

Kong and Laos, although there are other examples from USA, Spain, UK and Ecuador. Perhaps of particular 

concern is the suggestion that AI virus infected farmers who had close contact with their diseased cows [13, 53]. 

Therefore, there is no reason why any area of the world is safe and not likely to see future infections in humans. 

Such infections are often because people are in close contact with birds, usually poultry, which is an understandable 

route to become infected. Recently, the first death of a person with the H5N2 subtype of the virus was reported   

[74, 77]. 

This is far from a comprehensive review of the situation, but does highlight the breadth of the issue. Vaccines 

for AI are available, although in the UK it is stated that poultry and most captive birds must not be vaccinated, with 

zoo birds being able to be inoculated if they meet specific criteria [44]. What is unclear at this stage is how 

vaccination of animals involved in the food chain might be deemed appropriate, given it prevents serious disease 

rather than infection, thus might prove a risk within the food chain. 

This short review may enable researchers, academics, and students to reflect on their activities. If walking 

along a beach and seeing a few dead gannets, is it appropriate to use them as a research sample or elements of them 

in an artwork [76]? Afterall, the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) gives, “the general 

recommendation to not touch any sick or dead animals.” [71]. They go on to say “There is no single vaccine 

against avian influenza. A specific vaccine is needed for each specific avian influenza strain,” [as of Feb 2023]. 

Similar advice was given by the UK Health Security Agency, who advised that: “Members of the public should be 

discouraged from touching dead or sick animals.” [44]. In twenty-three years leading up to 2019, 881 infections of 



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H5N1 were reported in humans, with a case fatality rate (CFR) rate of 52%, so this can be a serious disease. Of 

course, this is not the only review to suggest pandemic preparedness for AI [78] (and of course there is a general 

pandemic preparedness context [79]) but here are few there are things which could be done for the future. These 

may include: 

• Better education of those who may come into contact with AI, especially if that contact may not be expected, 

such as on fieldtrips or simply being in the natural environment, or a farm setting. Worryingly, some people 

are seeking raw milk infected with H5N1, thinking that it will boost their immunity [80] so clearly correct 

dissemination of information is important; 

• Further vigilance and surveying of the global situation. This is taking place by several oganizations such as 

the CDC, but raw data needs to be fed into such databases; 

• Further research into the animal-to-animal transmission of AI virus, and animal-to-human infection, as well 

as potentially human-to-animal infection with the virus; 

• Can the susceptibility of animals to AI be predicted [78] and why do some animals get infected and not 

others [81]? This may give an idea of which species need to be targeted for surveillance and intervention, 

and as importantly, to know which animals can be ignored. Such attempts at predictions for the susceptibility 

to the SARS-CoV-2 virus appeared to have limited success, and several surprises were seen [59] but this 

should not prevent similar work being carried out with the AI virus; 

• The consequences of the infection of specific animals need to be addressed in detail; not just from an 

economic or social point of view, but in the context of both human and animal disease control. Which animals 

are more likely to pass the disease on to humans? And which animals are likely to be infected by humans? 

Which animals (including humans) are likely to suffer more severe symptoms from the different subtypes? 

Might some animals act as a means of transmission of the virus? Might this be a source of a more contagious 

and/or virulent subtype, potentially with mammal to mammal and/or human-to-human transmission? 

Certainly, there is evidence that, for some viruses at least, infection of specific animal populations may 

enhance the viral mutation rate, making the emergence of such a dangerous subtype more likely [59]. 

Interestingly, it has been reported that the bovine HPAI H5N1 virus may have features which facilitates its 

infection and also transmission in mammals [82]. 

• What preparatory action should be taken in terms of the development and production (ultmately at scale, and 

of a vaccine for the specific subtype(s) necessary at the time, so not stockpiled) of AI virus vaccines, and a 

planned roll-out if required? 

• How will the complexities of animal vaccination be navigated, both in relation to wild animals (including at 

risk populations), animals involved in the food chain (for meat, or eggs, for example), as well as pets. What 

will ‘animal welfare’ mean here for animals denied a vaccine, or subject to culling? How will this play out in 

terms of human need and human equity (such equity not being a feature of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic) 

versus animal need? Will some animals be given vaccines before some humans (assuming that vaccine supply 

will be limited), and will this be on the basis of their perceived utility (such as farm animals, or 

endangered/valued species), or on the basis of their role and importance in disease transmission? If 

vaccination is not found to be effective in pre-venting disease but only decreasing symptomatic response, 

what will this mean for animals – based on the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic (and prior examples in the UK such a 

TB in cattle and badgers) the response may be one of culling, not vaccination. How will the response be 

affected by the relative severity of symptoms of the prevalent subtypes in a pandemic for humans and 

animals? These issues may fundamentally affect the ‘landscape’ for animals in the future, as well as the 

welfare of individual animals. 



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• What might be the impact on global food security? If vaccination is not ‘the answer’ (as some infected 

animals may pass into the food chain) then what impacts might there be on the availability of animal-based 

food material, and what specific enhanced biosecurity measures might be needed, at what cost, and to whom? 

• In what ways should we be concerned about domestic animals, which after all, will have close contact with 

humans, so could infect, or be infected by, their humans. Cats have been shown to be susceptible to infection 

with AI virus (and high morbidity and mortality), for example (also seen with SARS-CoV-2); It is to be 

remembered that in the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic, the UK Government did consider a cull of 

domestic cats [59]. 

• If an HPAI pandemic does arrive, with a subtype which has a high death rate for humans (say of the order of 

50 percent), then what will be the impacts on animal welfare more broadly. We know during the COVID-19 

pandemic that panic meant some animals were targeted [59] so it is not unreasonable to assume that pet 

abandonment, and the killing of ‘suspected’ wildlife, might also feature in human responses across the globe. 

 

5. CONCLUSIONS 

It is clear that Avian influenza viral infections are not restricted to birds and that several of the subtypes can 

cause infection in a wide range of mammal species, including humans. No reptiles, amphibians or fish have been 

found to be infected, but marine mammals are known to be AI virus positive. At the time of writing, one of the 

animals of most concern is cattle, partly as they are in the human food chain and also as they are in close contact 

with humans. Farmers have been reported to be infected, but to date no deaths of humans have been reported from 

this transmission route, with this subtype. 

As with other zoonotic viruses, such as SARS-CoV-2, mutations are likely to take place in infected animals, and 

this will make it more likely that a wider range of vertebrate species could be infected, and it makes it more likely 

that a subtype will develop with the potential for human infection, and human to human transmission, and 

potentially high human morbidity and mortality, with potential for epidemic/pandemic.  

It is hoped that this article will highlight some of the interesting emergent information about the global 

position with AI virus and animals, even though it is not intended to be a comprehensive review. Hopefully, the 

global pandemic preparedness initiatives will fully consider animal health, welfare and conservation aspects of AI 

infection. It is also to be hoped that current and future monitoring and vigilance, research and effective and timely 

mitigations will stop the spread and mutation of AI virus becoming the next human pandemic, with all the 

attendant animal and human welfare issues. 

 

Funding: This study received no specific financial support.    
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable. 
Transparency: The authors declare that the manuscript is honest, truthful and transparent, that no 
important aspects of the study have been omitted and that all deviations from the planned study have been 
made clear. This study followed all rules of writing ethics. 
Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests. 
Authors’ Contributions: All authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. All 
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. 

 

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https://apnews.com/article/bird-flu-humans-animals-deaths-ae01d3717783f0cf41e23f3fedb97017?utm_source=Live+Audience&utm_campaign=507caab053-nature-briefing-daily-20240618&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_b27a691814-507caab053-50657140
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