




































 

 

 
1 

© 2021 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

EFFECT OF TIME OF FEEDING ON BODY TEMPERATURE OF WAD BUCKS AND 
PREGNANT DOES IN TROPICAL ENVIRONMENT   

 

 

 M.J. Adegbeye1+  
S.O. Aro2 
A.N. Fajemisin3 

 P. Ravi Kanth 
Reddy4 

 

1,2,3Department of Animal Production and Health, Federal University of 
Technology, Akure, Nigeria. 

 
4Veterinary Dispensary, Animal Husbandry Department, Taticherla, Andhra 
Pradesh, India. 

 
 

 
(+ Corresponding author) 

 ABSTRACT 
 
Article History 
Received: 27 January 2021 
Revised: 24 February 2021 
Accepted: 22 March 2021 
Published: 13 April 2021 
 

Keywords 
Body temperature 
Diet-Induced thermogenesis 
Time of feeding 
Pregnant does 
Bucks 
Tropics. 
 

 
This study aims to assess the impact of time of feeding on the body temperature of 
West African dwarf (WAD) goats. Twenty-seven goats (15 buck and 12 pregnant does) 
were used in this experiment. The bucks and gravid does were fed same experimental 
diet once daily at either, 06:00h, 12:00h or 18:00h in the morning, afternoon or evening, 
respectively. Rectal temperature (P<0.001) of bucks fed at 18:00h was higher than 
12:00h fed bucks which was higher than 06:00h fed bucks. In contrast, pregnant does 
fed in the evening had lowest (P=0.009) axillary and rectal temperature while 
afternoon-fed does had the highest. Time of feeding induced increase (P<0.001) in 
axillary and rectal temperature of the bucks and pregnant does. The excursion ranges 
of temperature of morning, afternoon and evening-fed bucks was 0.42-0.79, 1.11-1.25, 
1.15-1.19oC, respectively, while the excursion range of temperature of morning, 
afternoon and evening fed bucks was 0.17-0.19, 0.55-0.72, 0.45-0.47oC respectively.  
This study shows that time of feeding can entrain body temperature and animal 
physiological state can affect the temperature rhythm of animals. In conclusion, feeding 
bucks or pregnant does in the morning or evening may be an effective strategy to 
manage heat stress in the tropics. Feeding livestock in the afternoon should be avoided. 
Feeding in the evening may be adopted in the future due to the changing climate that 
will be accomplished by increased ambient temperature. 
 

Contribution/Originality: This study is one of the very few studies that has investigated the impact of time of 

feeding on the body temperature of livestock specie fed once daily. Feeding in the evening is a good management 

strategy to reduce body temperature in bucks and pregnant does.     

 

1. INTRODUCTION 

Many factors influence the body temperature including food availability and ambient temperature [1, 2]. 

Naturally, in diurnal animals, body temperature rises from dawn to dusk which coincide with the increase in 

ambient temperature. Yet, time of feeding has been shown to affect the rhythmicity of expression of body 

temperature in mammals [3-5]. The rhythm of core body temperature was entrained by feeding time where 

temperature was phase shifted and amplitude decreased by night feeding in the summer,  indicating alteration of the 

central clock [6]. Similarly, Salfer and Harvatine [5] reported that night feeding also phase delayed the rhythm of 

core body temperature, while day-restricted feeding increased its amplitude. The above scenario suggest that time 

of feeding can be used to manage the time of body temperature peaks.  

Animal Review 
2021 Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 1-9. 
ISSN(e): 2409-6490 
ISSN(p): 2412-3382 
DOI: 10.18488/journal.ar.2021.81.1.9 
© 2021 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

 
 
 

 
 
 

 

 
 
 
 

https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6485-2489
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2451-2783
https://www.doi.org/10.18488/journal.ar.2021.81.1.9


Animal Review, 2021, 8(1): 1-9 

 

 
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© 2021 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

The climate is continually changing and there is little to nothing farmers can do to put a stop to it. This climate 

change will induce increases in ambient temperature and humidity, which may result in increased heat-stress in the 

tropics. Already, climatic conditions are one of the main factors limiting the development of animal production in 

tropical regions [7] with an ambient temperature as high as (22-32 °C or higher) [8]. This increase in global 

temperatures is an unsettling factor in livestock production, and elevations of 3-5°C are expected during this 

century [9]. Feeding cattle at night in hot weather reduced metabolic heat load during daytime when ambient 

temperature is high while more heat production will be shift to night when the ambient temperature is low [10]. 

Since farmers cannot stop the climate change-induced increases in temperature, it is plausible to find adaptive 

techniques to manage it. This study is meant to investigate the impact of time of feeding livestock on the body 

temperature because it can advance our knowledge of how diet influences thermogenesis in ruminant. Furthermore, 

it also aims to examine the best time to feed animals in order to reduce the coincidence of high temperature and 

metabolic heat. 

 

2. MATERIAL AND METHODS 

2.1. Experimental procedure 

The experiment was carried out at the Goat unit, Teaching and Research farm of the Federal University of 

Technology, Akure. Twenty-seven goats were used in this study. Experiment 1 consist of fifteen bucks randomly 

distributed into three treatments of five replicates while in experiment 2, twelve pregnant does were randomly 

distributed into three treatments of four replicates. The experiment on bucks and pregnant does were carried out 

concurrently. The buck and gravid does were fed guinea grass (Panicum maximum) and concentrate Table 1 at ratio 

50:50 dry matter and fed once daily at 06:00h, 12:00h and 18:00h in the morning, afternoon, and evening, 

respectively. Fresh water was offered ad libitum.  

 
Table-1. Gross composition (g/100g) of the concentrate diet. 

Ingredient  Diet 

Cassava peel  40.00 

Palm kernel cake  26.00 

Wheat offals  14.00 

Brewer dried grains  15.00 

Bone meal 2.0 

Urea 1.0 

Premix 1.0 

Salt  1.00 

Total 100 

Calculated crude protein (%)  10.73 

Calculated crude fibre (%) 9.82 
 

 

2.2. Body Temperature Measurement 

The axillary and rectal temperature of the bucks and pregnant does was carried out for 8 weeks between March 

and May 2020. The pregnant does were in mid-gestation stage. The temperature reading for all morning, afternoon 

and evening-fed goats were carried out three time daily between 06:00-07:00h, 12:00-13:00h and 18:00-19:00h and 

three times in a week. The readings were taken using a clinical digital thermometer 

(SKU:WA904SE1ICXF2NAFAMZ and Bio-check). For the rectum, the thermometer was inserted 2cm deep into 

the rectum and the reading were taken once the thermometer beeps. The skin temperature was taken through the 

axillary point. The ambient temperature and relative humidity records were taken between 06:00-06:15h, 12:00-

12:15h, and 18:00-18:15h, respectively, using a digital hygro-thermometer (Thermopro TP50). The average of the 

recordings taken three times a week were used as weekly value. The temperature humidity index (THI) was 

calculated from the recorded daily relative humidity and ambient temperature according to Marai, et al. [11]; 



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© 2021 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

 THI = dboC - {(0.31 - 0.31 RH) (dboC – 14.4)  

Where:  

THI = Temperature – humidity index  

dboC = Dry bulb temperature oC  

RH = Relative humidity (RH %)/100  

THI was rated as follows:  

ahs = absence of heat stress (values < 22.2). 

mhs = moderate heat stress (values between 22.2 to < 23.3). 

shs = severe heat stress (values between 23.3 to < 25.6). 

ehs = extreme heat stress (values from 25.6 and more). 

 

2.3. Statistical Analysis 

A factorial design with the following model: Yijk = µ + ai + bk + abik + eijk was used. Where Yij= any of the 

response variables; µ = the overall mean; ai= effect of the ith time of feeding, bk= effect of time of measurement, 

abik= interaction of time of feeding and time of measurement and eij= random error due to experimentation. All 

data collected were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SPSS version 23.0 [12]. The differences 

between treatment means were examined by Duncan multiple range test of the same package.   

 

3. RESULTS 

3.1. Overall Axillary and Rectal Temperature of Bucks 

Trends of overall axillary and rectal temperature of bucks animal fed under different feeding regime and at 

different time are shown in Figure 1, Figure 2. Time of feeding had no impact (P>0.05) on the axillary temperature 

of bucks fed in the morning, afternoon or evening Table 2. Rectal temperature of bucks fed in the evening was 

higher (P<0.001) than those fed afternoon, while morning-fed bucks had the lowest rectal temperature. Regardless 

of feeding time, axillary and rectal temperature (P<0.001) increased from dawn to dusk. Time of feeding and time of 

measurement interaction, showed that irrespective of feeding time, buck axillary and rectal temperature increased 

(P<0.001) from dawn to dusk. Furthermore, for axillary temperature, at 06:00h, the temperature of bucks fed in the 

morning was similar to bucks fed in the evening but higher (P<0.001) than those fed in the afternoon. At 12:00h, 

axillary temperature of bucks fed in the afternoon was higher (P<0.001) than bucks fed in the morning while the 

evening-fed bucks had the lowest axillary temperature.  

 
Table-2. Body Temperature (oC) of WAD bucks under different feeding regimes. 

Note: abc=  Means within the same column but with different superscripts are statistically (P<0.05) significant. ABC= Means along the same row but with different 
superscripts are statistically (P<0.05) significant; ToF: Time of feeding; ToM: Time of temperature measurement; THI: Temperature humidity Index; AT: Ambient 
Temperature; RH: Relative humidity. 

ToF Axillary Rectal ToM Axillary Rectal THI AT (oC) RH (%) 

Morning 38.41 38.24c 6:00 37.96c 38.05c 24.72c 24.99c 91.63a 
Afternoon 38.47 38.44b 12:00 38.54b 38.44b 30.02a 31.93a 65.83b 
Evening 38.50 38.56a 18:00 38.87a 39.20a 28.88b 30.60b 66.25b 
SEM 0.040 0.041 SEM 0.040 0.041 0.319 0.415 1.649 
P-Value 0.243 <0.001 P-Value <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 

ToF x ToM  6:00 12:00 18:00 SEM P-value Excursion  

Axillary Morning 38.13aB 38.55bA 38.54cA 0.047 <0.001 0.42  

 Afternoon 37.77bB 38.78aA 38.88bA 0.079  1.11  

 Evening 38.00aC 38.30cB 39.19aA 0.076  1.19  

Rectal  Morning 37.72bB 38.48bA 38.51cA 0.062 <0.001 0.79  

 Afternoon 37.71bC 38.64aB 38.96bA 0.078  1.25  

 Evening 38.05aC 38.44bB 39.20aA 0.070  1.15  

 



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At 18:00h, evening-fed bucks (P<0.001) had the highest body temperature, followed by afternoon-fed bucks 

while morning-fed bucks had the lowest. At 06:00h, rectal temperature of evening-fed bucks was higher than 

morning and afternoon-fed bucks which were similar. At 12:00h, rectal temperature of afternoon-fed bucks was the 

higher than morning and evening-fed bucks which were similar. Furthermore, rectal temperature (P<0.001) in 

evening-fed bucks at 18:00h was higher than afternoon-fed bucks while the rectal temperature of morning-fed bucks 

was the lowest. Ambient temperature and THI at 12:00h, was higher (P<0.001) than 18:00 and 06:00h, while RH 

was higher at 06:00h than at 12:00h and 18:00h Table 2.    

 

 
Figure-1. Overall axillary temperature for bucks under different feeding regimes. The M depicts 06:00h 
measuring time, the A depicts 12:00h measuring time while the E represents 18:00h measuring time.  This shows 
the rhythm of axillary temperature at each measuring time for the three times measurement per week. It shows 
that the time bucks were fed actually entrained the pattern of distribution of their temperature. The axillary 
temperature of morning fed bucks was controlled in a tight excursion range resulting in less fluctuation compared 
to other feeding time. 

 

 
Figure-2. Overall rectal temperature for bucks under different feeding regimes. The M depicts 06:00h measuring time, the A depicts 12:00h 
measuring time while the E represents 18:00h measuring time. This shows the rhythm of rectal temperature at each measuring time for the 
three times measurement per week. It shows that the time bucks were fed actually entrained the pattern of distribution of their temperature.  



Animal Review, 2021, 8(1): 1-9 

 

 
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© 2021 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

3.2. Overall Axillary and Rectal Temperature of Gravid WAD Does 

Figure 3, Figure 4 shows the overall axillary and rectal temperature of pregnant does fed at different times of 

the day. Axillary and rectal temperature of gravid does fed in the morning and afternoon were similar but higher 

(P=0.009) than does fed in evening Table 3. Axillary (P<0.001) and rectal (P<0.002) temperature at each time of 

measurement simultaneously increased from dawn to dusk Table 3.  Interaction between the period of feeding and 

Time of measurement of axillary and rectal temperature of gravid does in all feeding regimes increased from dawn 

to dusk. At 06:00h, axillary temperature (P<0.001) in morning-fed does was higher than evening-fed does while 

axillary temperature in afternoon-fed does was the lowest. At 12:00h, axillary temperature (P<0.001) of afternoon-

fed gravid does was higher than temperature of morning-fed does while evening-fed does have the lowest 

temperature. Axillary temperature of afternoon and evening-fed gravid does were similar but higher than in 

morning-fed does at 18:00h. Rectal temperature (P<0.001) of morning-fed does increased compared to afternoon 

and evening-fed does at 06:00h. At 12:00h, rectal temperature (P<0.001) of does fed in the afternoon increased 

compared to morning and evening-fed does which were similar. At 18:00h, rectal temperature (P<0.001) of 

afternoon-fed does was higher than morning-fed does while the temperature of evening-fed does was.  

 
Table-3.  Body Temperature of gravid WAD under different feeding regimes. 

Note: abc= Means within the same column but with different superscripts are statistically (P<0.05) significant. ABC= Means along the same row but with different 
superscripts are statistically (P<0.05) significant; ToF: Time of feeding; ToM: Time of temperature measurement; THI: Temperature humidity Index; AT: Ambient 
Temperature; RH: Relative humidity. 

ToF Axillary Rectal ToM Axillary Rectal THI AT (oC) RH (%) 

Morning 38.51ab 38.80a 6:00 38.26c 38.57c 24.72c 24.99c 91.63a 
Afternoon 38.56a 38.82a 12:00 38.56b 38.81b 30.02a 31.93a 65.83b 
Evening 38.45b 38.60b 18:00 38.72a 38.96a 28.88b 30.60b 66.25b 
SEM 0.023 0.018 SEM 0.023 0.018 0.319 0.415 1.649 
P-Value 0.009 0.009 P-Value <0.001 <0.002 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 

ToF x ToM  6:00 12:00 18:00 SEM P-value Excursion  

Axillary Morning 38.41aB 38.54bA 38.60bA 0.026 <0.001 0.19  

 Afternoon 38.08cB 38.81aA 38.80aA 0.022  0.72  

 Evening 38.28bB 38.33cB 38.75aA 0.049  0.47  

Rectal  Morning 38.74aB 38.75bB 38.91bA 0.038 <0.001 0.17  

 Afternoon 38.46bB 38.99aA 39.01aA 0.038  0.55  

 Evening 38.52bC 38.70bB 38.97abA 0.030  0.45  

 

 
Figure-3. Overall axillary temperature for gravid WAD does under different feeding regimes. The M depicts 06:00h measuring time, the A 
depicts 12:00h measuring time while the E represents 18:00h measuring time. This showed the rhythm of axillary temperature at each 
measuring time for the three times measurement per week. It shows that the time does were fed actually entrained the pattern of distribution of 
their temperature.  In the morning-fed does, the temperature rhythms were fairly consistent throughout the day for each week. In evening and 
afternoon-fed does, the temperature rhythms greatly fluctuate.     



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Figure-4. Overall rectal temperature for gravid WAD does under different feeding regimes. The M depicts 06:00h measuring time, the A depicts 
12:00h measuring time while the E represents 18:00h measuring time.  This showed the rhythm of axillary temperature at each measuring time 
for the three times measurement per week. It showed that the time pregnant does were fed actually entrained the pattern of distribution of their 
temperature.  In the morning-fed does, the temperature rhythms were fairly consistent throughout the day for each week. In evening and 
afternoon-fed does, the temperature rhythms greatly fluctuate.      

 

4. DISCUSSION  

4.1. Axillary and Rectal Temperature of WAD Bucks 

The physiological state of domestic livestock is key to their productivity [13]. West African dwarf does are 

adapted to the tropical humid condition, but could be stressed by the high ambient temperature [14]. Heat stress as 

a prevailing challenge in the tropics compromises livestock welfare. Consumption of nutrient at inappropriate time 

has the potential to cause misalignment of thermoregulatory mechanism in the body [5]. Diet-induced 

thermogenesis is associated with food ingestion which causes acute rise in body temperature in various species due 

to increase energy expenditures [4]. Food anticipatory behavior is often accompanied by increases in body 

temperature [15]. The increase in temperature in evening-fed bucks may be due to the additive effects of 

rhythmically increasing body temperature, increased activity due to food anticipation behavior and diet-induced 

metabolic heat. In morning-fed bucks, the lower rectal temperature despite metabolic heat may be due to lower 

morning ambient temperature. Body temperature is usually low in the morning and high in the evening [16]. Thus, 

lower rectal temperature in afternoon-fed bucks compared to evening-fed bucks might be because the core body 

temperature had not peaked at the time of feeding. The rise in both axillary and rectal temperature from dawn to 

dusk in bucks fed at the different times of the day shows that body temperature exists in circadian rhythm with 

lower temperature in the morning and high temperature in the evening. This is because body temperature rises 

with increasing environmental temperature [17] . Interaction of time of feeding and time of measurement showed 

that feeding time induced body temperature changes. This agrees with Salfer and Harvatine [5]  who reported that 

body temperature can be entrained by feeding time, resulting in a shift in the rhythm of core body temperature. The 

high rectal temperature in evening-fed bucks and its similarity with axillary temperature in morning-fed buck at 

06:00h suggests that the rate of elimination of metabolic heat overnight was slower due to high relative humidity. 

High relative humidity reduces the rate of dissipation of body heat due to decline in efficiency of evaporative cooling 

[18]. Feeding cattle at night in hot weather reduced metabolic heat during daytime when ambient temperature is 

high, while more heat production will be shifted to night when the ambient temperature is low [10]. Temperature 



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range in this study for axillary and rectal temperature was 37.77-39.19oC and 37.71-39.20oC, respectively. This is 

lower than the skin and rectal temperatures range reported as 37.52-39.76oC and 38.13-40.88oC, respectively [19]. 

This excursing range in this study falls between 0.4-1.90oC reported by Ayo, et al. [20]; Piccione, et al. [21].  The 

AT in this study was similar to 25.50-37.75oC reported by Minka and Ayo [22]; Aro, et al. [23]. The THI in this 

study shows that the bucks were heat stressed. The range observed in morning-fed bucks was tightly regulated by 

the SCN, whereas the feeding of other bucks at “wrong time” of the day disrupted the temperature rhythm, causing 

fluctuations in the body temperature Figure 1, Figure 2. This depicts that feeding time can entrain body 

temperature rhythms. Thus, to manage heat stress in bucks fed once a day, feeding in the morning or evening could 

be the best strategy. 

 

4.2. Axillary and Rectal Temperature of Gravid Does  

Average axillary and rectal temperature of gravid does fed in the evening was lower than WAD does fed in the 

morning and afternoon. This may be due to increased ability of evening-fed does to transfer heat load from the 

visceral part to the skin surface area resulting in increased level of heat dissipation. This result is similar to Niu and 

Harvatine [6] that reported decreased temperature in evening-fed cattle which is an indication of alteration in 

central clock. The result of this study agrees with the report that the thermal effect from food during the morning 

was higher than in the evening [3]. Increasing temperature from dawn to dusk throughout the measuring time 

shows that body temperature exists in a rhythm which occur repeatedly. Interaction of time of feeding and time of 

measurement showed that axillary and rectal temperature progressively increases in all feeding regimes. Meal 

timing is an important factor affecting the thermal effect of foods [4]. The increased axillary and rectal temperature 

at 06:00h and 12:00h in gravid does fed at this time compared to 18:00h is an indication of diet-induced 

thermogenesis. This increase is a result of the feed consumed, increasing ambient temperature and increased food 

anticipatory activity around the usual time of feeding. Feeding in the morning increased the heat load during the 

late morning to early afternoon while feeding in the afternoon increased heat load in the cooler hours of the day 

when heat losses from the animal through conduction and radiation were more efficient [24]. At 18:00h, similarity 

between the axillary and rectal temperature of afternoon and evening-fed pregnant does indicate that the heat load 

in afternoon-fed does was not quickly dissipated. The axillary and rectal temperature range was 38.08-38.80oC and 

38.46-39.01oC respectively with an excursion range of 0.17-0.72 oC. The morning-fed does had a tight excursion in 

axillary and rectal temperature compared other feeding time. This indicate the regulatory mechanism of morning-

fed does has not be disrupted compared to pregnant does in other feeding regimes which fluctuated greatly Figure 

3, Figure 4. The temperature in this study is in the range reported for skin temperature and rectal temperature as 

37.52-39.76oC and 38.13-40.88oC respectively [19]. The excursion range in our study is lower than 0.4-1.90oC 

reported in Ayo, et al. [20]; Piccione, et al. [21]. This may be due to the different physiological state of the goats 

used. The goats in our study were pregnant. Circulating hormone during pregnancy can influence the body 

temperature of animals causing 0.5–1°C reduction in maternal temperature during pregnancy [25, 26]. However, 

the rectal temperature in our study is similar to 38.80-39.28oC reported by Shittu, et al. [8] for WAD does from the 

third to fifth month of pregnancy. In contrast, it is lower than the 40.84-41.22oC reported for rectal temperature in 

WAD does at 3-5 months of gestation [27]. Thus, feeding does in the evening can be a feeding strategy to manage 

heat stress in pregnant goat. 

 

5. CONCLUSION  

The time of feeding of a goat can affect the daily average axillary and rectal body temperature range of the 

goat. Feeding bucks or pregnant goat does once daily in the afternoon or evening, causes change in the rhythm of 

body temperature compared to those fed in the morning. Farmers should avoid feeding their goats in the afternoon 

period. This study shows that feeding goat early in the morning or late in the evening is a good adaptive strategy to 



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manage heat stress in bucks. Feeding in the evening is a good adaptive strategy to manage heat stress in pregnant 

does. 

 

Funding: This study received no specific financial support.    
Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests.  
Acknowledgement: All authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. 

 

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