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43

original scientific article                                UDC:  796.015.1.332:001.8
received: 2016-08-18

THE ROLE OF SMALL-SIDED GAMES IN MODERN SOCCER 
AND THE ISSUE OF THEIR HOLISM

Miloš TUL1, Zdenko VERDENIK2, Matija MARŠIČ3, Matjaž MULEJ4

1Znanstveni licej F. Prešeren, Trst
2Fakulteta za šport, Univerza v Ljubljani

3Fakulteta za matematiko, naravoslovje in informacijske tehnologije, Aplikativna kineziologija, 
Univerza na Primorskem

4Ekonomsko-poslovna fakulteta, Univerza v Mariboru

Corresponding author:
Miloš TUL

Znanstveni licej France Prešeren,
Vrdelska cesta, 13/1, 34100 Trst, Italy

e-mail: tul.milos@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

In the modern soccer, small-sided games (SSG) present a significant proportion of 
the whole training process. SSG are introduced regularly and with different emphases, 
depending on the players' basic technical skills and on the training objectives, but also 
according to different (sports) cultural contexts. SSG immersed into the wider soccer 
area at different speeds and with different emphases, often with rather modified desi-
gns. Due to their extraordinary adaptability and efficiency, SSG as a working method 
have undergone a great expansion. Their design and (possible) versatility are explai-
ned in this paper from a somewhat unusual perspective of the systemic theories as the 
theories of achieving the greatest possible holism of our reflections and actions. In the 
foreground of this paper there is the question of SSG integrity (as the prevailing practi-
cal methods of work in modern football practice), through the analysis of the conditions 
required in order to classify the use and further development of SSG in practice as an 
innovation, taking into account the laws of requisite holism and innovation.

Keywords: soccer, small-sided games, requisite holism, innovation, innovative wor-
king.



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VLOGA IGRALNIH OBLIK V SODOBNEM NOGOMETU IN 
VPRAŠANJE NJIHOVE CELOVITOSTI 

IZVLEČEK

Igralne oblike (IO) tvorijo v sodobnem nogometu precejšen delež celotnega procesa 
vadbe. Vanj se IO vnašajo redno in z različnimi poudarki, glede na osnovno tehnično 
znanje igralcev in na cilje treninga, vendar tudi glede na različne (športno)kulturne 
kontekste. Igralne oblike so se z različno hitrostjo in z različnimi poudarki vsidrale v 
širši nogometni prostor, pogostokrat tudi s precej spremenjeno zasnovo. Zaradi izjemne 
prilagodljivosti in učinkovitosti so igralne oblike, kot metoda dela, doživele velik raz-
mah. Njihova zasnova in (možna) vsestranskost bo v tem prispevku pojasnjena z neko-
liko bolj neobičajnega vidika, to je z vidika sistemskih teorij kot teorij o doseganju čim 
večje celovitosti razmisleka in ravnanja. V prispevku je v ospredju vprašanje celovitosti 
igralnih oblik (kot prevladujoče praktične metode dela v sodobni nogometni praksi), 
preko analize pogojev, ki so potrebni zato, da uvrščamo uporabo in nadaljnji razvoj 
igralnih oblik v praksi kot inovacijo, ob upoštevanju zakonov o potrebni in zadostni 
celovitosti ter inovativnosti.

Ključne besede: nogomet, igralne oblike, potrebna in zadostna celovitost, inovati-
vnost, inovativno poslovanje.

INTRODUCTION

SSG as a special segment of the practical methods of work and methods of the game 
(Elsner, 1997) are an extremely widespread and efficient method of work in modern fo-
otball. This methodical approach appears regularly in all football-developed countries 
in the world. Although with different emphases and repeatedly revised baselines and at 
different time sequences, they were successfully anchored almost anywhere. In Europe, 
the beginnings of SSG occur in the late sixties and early seventies in Germany where 
this approach was apparently established thanks to Horst Wein (http://www.ydsoccera-
cademy.com/index.php/articles/35- history-of-the-small-sided games).

A brief description of the developmental path of SSG in Europe

The beginnings of SSG, for instance, appeared slightly later in Italy, only in the 
late 1980s. Of great importance at that time was the article of the Frenchman Christi-
an Bourrel, who, in cooperation with the Italian federal coach Maurizio Seno (1989), 
wrote Allenare i dilettanti (Amateur footballers training) and defined the general theo-



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retical and methodological bases. The visible effects of the then-prevailing pedagogical 
thinking are notable, in particular the famous French pedagogue Bernard Aucouturier. 
“Active pedagogy”, as a basis of teachning the sports elements, therefore entered the 
Italian soccer space, that mostly still did not know this approach at the time (Costantini, 
personal communication, 08 May 2015; Seno, personal communication, 05 May 2015). 
The Italian version of SSG was literaly called the thematic game, games on the (selec-
ted) theme (It. Giochi / partitelle a tema).

In Slovenia, in fact, in the former Yugoslavia, they got to know the SSG as a result 
of the academic exchanges that were maintained by some of the professors from the Fa-
culty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, in particular with the major European football/
soccer centers in Germany. The Slovenian pioneers in the field were Branko Elsner, 
Ph.D., and then Zdenko Verdenik, Ph.D. Their simultaneous engagement in the acade-
mia of the former College of Physical Education (later the Faculty of Sport), University 
of Ljubljana, and in the circles of the former Football Association of Yugoslavia facili-
tated the transition of this new methodical basis into the learning process of the Soccer 
courses at the College and into the content of compulsory licensing of soccer coaches 
at the Football Association of Yugoslavia.

At the same time, the “new” approach to training covered all republican soccer 
centers in Yugoslavia, where it immersed very specificly. The Belgrade soccer profes-
sion, for example, probably accepted the professional challenge without the necessary 
systematization and contextualization; so, the already established school of teaching 
the soccer elements without this innovation ultimately prevailed there. The reason for 
this was mainly in the fact that, at the time, the “Balkan soccer school” was a widely 
acknowledged superpower in world soccer area; the Yugoslav coaches were greatly 
appreciated in the world; the Yugoslav national team did not lag behind the best ones in 
its results. Therefore, they felt that changes in the training process are not needed. SSG 
were in this area implemented only because of personal beliefs of individual coaches 
(especially Ivica Osim and Tomislav Ivić), and not as a specific feature of the local so-
ccer school, which, in the design of the game, was still based on teaching the techniques 
and situational methods.

The Slovenian “path” to the enforcement of SSG was based on a more consistent 
and coherent development of SSG's initial methodological and substantive assumptions 
within the Soccer study course at the mentioned College. Transfer of the acquired kno-
wledge and experience in the field of SSG in the program of teaching contents for the 
licensing of trainers was natural; that was also one of the reasons for the creation of the 
substantively and methodologically regulated basis to confirm the Slovenian route to 
the licensing of trainers that was approved by UEFA (in the first years after the indepen-
dence of Slovenia) as an independent school for the education of coaches. It is worth 
mentioning that the method of the game was studied; in addition to the aforementioned 
Elsner and Verdenik, SSG's actual benefit/performance was somewhat later also studied 
by Pišot (1994). The then-magazine Trener, in which the two authors actually introdu-
ced the whole concept of work, also made a big contribution to raising the awareness 
and promoting the knowledge about SSG.



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The FC Barcelona takes great credit for the overall implementation of SSG (also in 
terms of promotion) in the modern soccer. The incipients of SSG in Spain (Catalonia) 
are said to have been established already by Laureano Ruiz (Balague, 2013), who, as 
the first person in charge of Barcelona`s youth groups in the early 1970s, introduced 
the most elementary forms of “tora” (the version we know in Slovenia as “pepček”) 
in the training process in Spanish soccer; he argues that he has not yet known such 
exercises. Barcelona's modern SSG undoubtedly present a step forward to an even gre-
ater “coming closer” of the SSG to the universal demands of the game. The so-called 
“positional playing” appeared in consolidating the legality of the game of this team, this 
time even at the level of the team tactics, which currently presents the highest level of 
complexity of the traditional SSG.

Multilateral purpose of SSG

SSG are means of socialization of soccer in society that needs orderly and cultural 
soccer player`s personality; the socialization in the game is achieved indeed only throu-
gh the most appropriate collective/team-effect, with discipline in the game, liability and 
psychological balance of the players (Verdenik, 1983, 2003). SSG that have actually 
replaced the so-called “ancillary games” ensure “(...) the joy, relaxation, emotional 
experience; motivation is greater, individuality is sufficiently emphasized, the diver-
sity of solving the game situations is abundant and the like” (Elsner, 1997). It is also 
important to take into account the consequences of the potential dominance of that 
working method. Elsner (1997) notes, for example, that there may be “(...) excessive 
individuality, automation of faulty execution of technical elements and indirectly an 
improper development of specific footbal/soccer motor elements, improper design of 
mutual communication and structural situations and the like.”

Because of clear freedom in the design (creating, structuring) that is allowed by SSG 
in the pursuit of the objectives, in the period from 1980 to 1990 in Italy, the application 
of SSG prevailed more for the development of motor abilities than for the development 
of technical/tactical skills of the players. Games on the theme, therefore became, in the 
modified form, the games “under pressure” (It. “giochi a pressione”). Their main objec-
tive was to develop particular energy components (endurance and strength). The appli-
cation of SSG in this direction marked a whole decade of Italian soccer reality, while in 
principle, the situational method of work dominated as the basic method of work in the 
designing of the game (Costantini, Personal communication, 08 May 2015).

The use of SSG with the purpose of development of motor skills was specially 
exposed by several researchers across Europe and the world. They published the first 
prominent surveys (Bangsbo, 1998), which substantiate the use of SSG for the deve-
lopment of motor abilities as functional abilities of soccer players. It should be mentio-
ned that the authors agree that a properly adjusted SSG has a very large fitness potential 
(Aguiar, Botelho, Lago, Macas, & Sampaio, 2012; Athanasios & Eleftherios, 2009; 



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Bangsbo & Lindquist, 1992; D'Ottavio, Colli, Bosco, & Tranquilli, 1997; Rampinini 
et al., 2007). 

The aim of this paper is, inter alia, to explain the dilemma of the approach to SSG 
depending on a too narrow or as wide as possible (holistic?) definition, given the con-
stant presence of dualism, which stems from practice: on the one hand, the prevailing 
reductionist theories and conservative and analytical approach to the training process 
and, consequently, also to the use of SSG, on the other hand, a more systemic approach 
(Cano, 2012, 2015). At the same time, the purpose of contribution to the analysis of 
the conditions that are necessary for the adoption of any new potential novelties in the 
working practices of innovation, which include, in particular, the law of the requisite 
holism and innovativeness.

METHOD

When examining the characteristics of SSG and their developmental path, the hi-
storical method and a case study was used. The findings of the qualitative approach 
to research have been complemented by views of two football experts with extensive 
experience in coaching from Italy (M. Seno and M. Costantini) and renowned Italian 
researcher in the field of conditioning (R. Colli).

When examining the conditions for the adoption of SSG as an innovation in football 
practice, the method of dialectical systems theory was used, which includes the law of 
requisite (i.e. appropriate) holism and the law of hierarchy of sequence and interdepen-
dence (Mulej, 1979; Mulej et al., 2013). In the treatment of the chosen theme, the law 
of entropy was incorporated (Mulej, 1979; Mulej et al., 2013). Using USOMID (Me-
thodology for creative collaboration of many for innovative work) as applied methods 
for innovation in the work, we have studied the possibilities of success, which depend 
on the guidelines for appropriate comprehensive definition of objectives and guidelines 
for appropriate overall achievement (Mulej, 1979; Mulej et al., 2013).

DISCUSSION

The coach`s experience and competence, the consideration of the local dynami-
cs (including the social ones) and the general requirements permit the construction 
of more specific SSG, which are, according to the organization, selected topics and 
emphases specific to a given environment and (sport) context. The pronounced flexibi-
lity of SSG allows the manipulation of basic exercise parameters (number of players, 
size of the field, tasks in the game, the auxiliary players, etc.); therefore, it indirectly 
requires the coach's creativity, which can be indicated by the introduction of new, dif-
ferent organizational and substantive legalities, but also completely different ways of 
integration of these factors with the purpose of achieving the biggest effect possible.



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The first condition: the requisite holism of SSG

The noted findings show that even in SSG one-sidedness is possible, but in reality − 
in order to utilize the most of their potential – the biggest possible holism is necessary. 
Holism as a word is easy to use, but difficult to precisely define. Different authors have 
different definitions (detailed in Mulej et al., 2013), either explicitly or implicitly. Li-
terally speaking, it contains everything: all the components and all their relationships 
(links, relations) and caused synergistic properties that characterize this phenomenon. 
But: what is − all? Experience has shown that people − due to natural causes − cannot 
and do not want to think and act with such a width to cover absolutely everything, as 
required by the concept and demanded by Bertalanffy (1979), when he created his 
“General systems theory” “against over-specialization”, i.e. against the common and 
dangerous one-sidedness of specialists. It turns out that, in fact, everyone feels entitled 
to define what counts as a whole, according to their own criteria. This also happens in 
soccer practice.

The mathematically generalized basis for the definition of a whole, with which the 
first authors of the systems theory have helped themselves (and achieved the overall 
impact), said that the whole (= a system, network) is everything that is composed of 
a set of components and a set of connections, relationships between them. In a strict 
soccer sense, this would mean that the whole covers all players with their abilities 
(also their opponents), the relationships between them (both in the defense and attack), 
results, strategy and chosen tactics, playing conditions, the spectators, coaches, other 
collaborators etc. It is generally a valid isomorphism (= similarity), which serves us 
well enough as long as the substantive aspect is less important than the mathematical 
basis for the description of the phenomenon on a general level. When we are interested 
in substantive aspect, we notice that the same reality, the same phenomenon can be de-
scribed with many different systems, i.e. as a variety of wholes, because we look from 
various angles and, therefore, we observe and consider essential the different parts (!) 
of the actual characteristics of the phenomenon.

According to the chosen problem (the importance and role of SSG in soccer train-
ing), we can easily figure out already from everyday practices that the direction of using 
SSG can be very different in the forefront. It can be the methodical aspect (learning/
teaching the soccer elements), economic aspects (certain game tasks performed by all 
the lower energy input, rationality), aspects of productivity (the actual usefulness of the 
selected SSG), organizational, aesthetic aspect, etc. Last but not least, we must also put 
the question of the relationship and interaction between these aspects and their integra-
tion into emergent synergies, for example, in working or in a match as the new system. 
In soccer, this means to take into account the interactions e.g. of a selected organization 
of SSG to actually teach the game element, i.e. the actual usefulness of the selected 
SSG, and vice versa, for example, the impact of the learning/teaching process on the 
selection of the organization, etc. Due to the interaction with the selected aspects, the 
game design appears quite specific (emergent synergies) and typicall for it at a given 
training process.



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So, if the so-called wholes can be so numerous and so different in their actual con-
tents, when is the dealing holistic, attaing wholeness, systemicity and when it is one-
-sided? And also: if Bertalanffy`s idea has not taken root into the practice of modern 
humanity, which one has, while the specialization is necessary and dangerous at the 
same time?

Conferences about systems theory show that in fact no definition of holism was 
accepted as a completely general. Specialization is too important and powerful, making 
the vast majority to not restrict the use of system concepts, holism etc. within their 
individual disciplines. They are not willing to give priority to holism; and push (their 
own!) specialization aside. However, the experience shows that specialization, even if 
necessary, is not enough, because it causes too many oversights until it poorly coopera-
tes with others. Therefore, the will and the ability to work interdisciplinarily are neces-
sary and one must take this as a starting point: “whoever disagrees with me, is useful, 
because it helps me to strengthen the holism; we share our differences, by linking them 
we create synergies, therefore I listen, but think about it, not only obey nor reject in 
advance, in order to hear more of the meaningful ideas.” (See e.g. Mulej et al., 2013).

The consequence of the dilemma between specialization (focus on a selected aspect, 
e.g. SSG only for the development of special endurance) and holism (focus on several 
aspects at the same time and in sinergy, e.g. some technical/tactical elements of the 
game and special endurance) is therefore a dilemma, because of which we choose whe-
ther we will have a complex or a simple approach.

A complex approach requires a lot of work to gain a fairly holistic insight and acti-
on. The approach is difficult, but the outcome are the results, that are probably holistic 
enough, so that at the end there will be no unpleasant surprise waiting for us as side-
-effects. In short: a complex and complicated work leads away from oversights and 
therefore to simple (more manageable) consequences.

Another option is to choose a simple approach that requires little work, but gives 
no real holistic insight and action. It is pleasant, causing less burden, but the results can 
easily happen to be not requisitely holistic: unpleasant surprises are 'secondary' effects. 
In short: over-simplified work leads to oversights and, therefore, to complicated con-
sequences.

But a complete (=total) holism is not feasible, and certainly not in the work and 
thinking of people as individuals without (interdisciplinary) cooperation; at the same 
time this causes an excessive burden. Apparently, at the first this requires a decision of 
what level of holism is requisite, i.e. sufficient and necessary at the same time and, 
therefore, good enough or adequate ('just right') for the present case.

Therefore, it is about an intermediate path between the two extremes. With total (= 
full, comprising everything) holism we would try to cover absolutely everything with 
every aspect and connection between them, and to connect all into the total system, 
without any selection and elimination.

The outcome would eliminate any focus on anything and would not allow any re-
sponse to the question which insights and actions are essential, or resulting fictitious 
(= one-sided, limited to a specific selected aspect) holism; it would be too narrow, too 



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selective, otherwise well focused, but giving a way for information and knowledge only 
about a fragement of reality. This is enough and important for the individual stages of 
work or individual specialists in an interdisciplinary group of participants, but not to 
manage the entire life reality!

The intermediate path between the two extremes must be sufficiently close to reali-
ty, both in terms of the needs and of the options/possibilities. Such a choice of holism 
was named requisite holism (Mulej & Kajzer, 1998). Successful people live more in 
accordance with it - the law of requisite holism, than the others do (of course, proba-
bly silently, unconsciously, naturally - simply under the influence of specialization and 
life circumstances).

The decision on the level of requisite holism is thus in hands of a human: what 
to consider and what to omit. Therefore, it also requires human responsibility and 
complete clarity of definition, which system (network, not a mental picture) of aspects/
viewpoints one chooses in a given case. It is a dilemma, whether we choose a complex 
treatment and achieve simple consequences, because nothing substantial is omitted, 
or select a simple treatment and achieve complex consequences, because something 
essential is omitted and therefore we experience some possible side-effects in addition 
to anticipated ones, too.

Holism includes reflection, decision or action that at the same time includes four 
concepts that are exposed below (Figure 1) and the phenomenon is considered as a 
system, i.e. a network, covering all at the same time and intertwined, interdependent 
and with interactions.

Therefore, we do consider, that the specialization is inevitable, and holism too. In-
deed, to specialists (e.g. the coach, fitness coach, physiotherapist, etc.) systematicity 
(2 in figure 1) is closer than sistemicity (1 in figure 1). Cooperation between mutually 
different specialists who deal with the same subject from different perspectives and are 
therefore interdependent, (3 in figure 1) provides, that on the basis of relations interacti-
ons result that allow sistemicity (1 in figure 1). If in this case they succeed to propperly 
take into consideration the law of requisite holism to get to know the essence, not to 
get lost in irrelevant details and do not even reduce the whole to over-simplified image, 
they also reach the realism (4 in figure 1). Therefore, it is about the question, how capa-
ble are the members of the expert team to be holistic in their thinking, decision-making 
and functioning, especially in the design stage of the training process, but also in its 
practical implementation, so that the plan would not remain a dead letter. Therefore, 
the term “neighboring knowledge” is getting more important than “space”, where the 
communication between the members of the expert team is implemented. Here the 
opinion of the renowned Italian training researcher is signifficant (Colli, personal com-
munication, 20 May 2015), who believes that e.g. the fitness coach is needed, but even 
more necessary is that the head coach is able to grasp the meaning and purpose of the 
exercise, suggested by the fitness coach, and transfer it into more “soccer-type frames” 
or vice versa.



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Figure 1: Definition of holism in the Dialectical Systems Theory.The cases from fotball/
soccer practice are selected purely indicatively. SSG=small sided games.

(1) The whole 
(sistemicity)

In thinking at the same time we capture 
the synergy of all the elements that make 
up the game (match) in its widest sense: 
e.g. the number of players, the game tasks, 
individual, group and team tactics, the re-
sult, conditions etc. Legality of the game is 
reflected correctly in the time, spacel and 
energy. The individual elements are not the 
central theme.

- SSG involve simultane-
ously e.g. developing all 
possible essential techni-
cal/tactical elements at 
the level of team tactics 
in the phase of attack and 
defense, and fulfill the re-
spective energy require-
ments.

(2) Parts (syste-
maticity)

Each part of the game is treated separately 
(match, the training process ...): e.g. defen-
sive line, midfield, attack , individual tecni-
cal/tactical behavior of the player, physical 
fitness, individual tactical choices, etc. as 
separate topics.

- SSG cover, for example, 
essential tecnical/tactical 
elements of group tac-
tics in both phases of the 
game (e.g. defensive line 
with or without ball pos-
session).

(3) Relationships 
(correlation, dia-
lecticness, inter-
dependence)

We are dealing with connections that are 
formed between the individual parts of the 
whole; e.g. relations between the goalkeep-
er and the defensive line, the relationship 
between the defense and the midfield, re-
lationships that are developed according to 
the opponent, in both phases of the game in 
the interaction between them.

- SSG has at the forefront 
for example the aspect 
of cooperation between 
players (individual, group 
and team tactics).

(4) realism (real-
ity proximity, ma-
terialism)

We consider how the selected content is ac-
tually realized in practice and whether the 
SSG in its appearent shape is sufficiently 
similar to reality from the technical/tactical 
and energetical point of view.

- SSG consistently illus-
trate the legality of the 
game in the temporal-
spatial and energetical 
sense.

It is therefore essential to move from a one-profession (e.g. only the aspect of the 
coach is dominating) to inter-professional creative cooperation (e.g. the coach and 
fitness coach), whenever it appears that the individual profession probably does not 
provide the requisite holism and the wider definition of holism is needed; therefore, a 
trans-disciplinary approach becomes one of the values, because it is preparing them for 
the starting point: “My specialization does matter, but not as the only one. It makes me 
needed by the others, and I need them. We are therefore interdependent, not indepen-
dent, nor unidirectionally /one-way dependent.” (Mulej & Kajzer, 1998).



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Figure 2: A summary of the basic characteristics of systemic thinking. Cases are se-
lected purely indicatively.

Systemic / holistic way of thinking Non-systemic / unilateral thinking

Interdependence/s, the relationship/s, 
opennes, dialectical system of aspects 

Independence, dependence , closed-in behav-
ior, individual aspect.

- The thinking covers all the essential aspects 
of the soccer game at the same time (e.g . 
technical/tactical aspect, aspect of physical 
preparation, importance of the result, eco-
nomics, aesthetics, etc .).

- Analysis of the performance of a player is 
limited e.g. only to the aspect of his physical 
fitness.

The complexity (and also complication) Simplicity, the complication, the parts alone

- The game includes many technical/tactical 
elements that form a meaningful and cohe-
rent complex of technical/tactical knowledge

 - From the complex of technical/tactical 
knowledge we expose only some specific 
knowledge (e.g. Individual can properly 
recieve the ball)

Attractors , influential forces (à relations) Isolation, no influential forces (à no relations)
- Between the different parts of the team (e.g. 
defence and midfield) there are relationships 
that contribute to the teams' functioning like 
coherency, coordination and maintaining the 
balance of the game.

- The relationship between e.g. defence and 
midfield are not considered, we do not per-
ceive them; parts of the team are considered 
separately; e.g. goalie coach is the only one 
for them.

Emergence , emerging (à synergy) No processes that create new properties
- Mentioned relationships between the parts 
of the team create new features of the game. 
New opportunities are offered for their devel-
opment in a more efficient and creative game. 
Many coaches observe some “solutions” of 
the players and trying to fit them into the 
concept of the game.

- Because they do not perceive or do not take 
into account the relationships, there are no 
ways to new features, e.g. team did not kick 
in.

Synergy, system, a hierarchy of systems No new features based on relationships
- Team is well-coordinated, functioning as a 
whole, without misunderstandings.

No cooperation of players in the game inste-
ad of individualism.

Whole and holism, the interdisciplinary 
approach

Only parts and characteristics of compo-
nents, single-professionalism

- Team is well-coordinated, functions as a 
whole without misunderstandings, the play-
ers are in fitness, technical and tactical train-
ing , which also takes health into account, 
etc., the specificities of the opponent and 
conditions in the next match, etc.

In consideration we cover only one aspect 
that is prevailing (e.g. aspect of physical 
fitness) and on the match we look only from 
this perspective. We interpret problems 
exclusively from this aspect.



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 7 • 2016 • 1

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Miloš TUL, Zdenko VERDENIK, Matija MARŠIČ, Matjaž MULEJ: THE ROLE OF SMALL-SIDED GAMES IN MODERN SOCCER ..., 43–65

Network, interactions (of professions , ..) No interactions (of professions , ..)
- Team is well-coordinated, it functions as a 
whole, without misunderstandings, because 
the coaches/trainers interact with each other 
and with doctors and others; they also listen 
to the players, not only themselves, etc.

Trainer's analysis of the game does not take 
into account (or does not detect) other aspec-
ts (e.g. the aspect of physical fitness, psycho-
logical aspect, ambitions, etc. are excluded 
from the analysis).

The final thought on the question of which approach to the search for holism is 
correct, is: this is crucially dependent from the subjective positions/starting points, that 
means, from the human personality – values, emotions, talents, knowledge and skills, 
from the bases of thinking, decision-making, functioning and behavior. On the way 
from the coach of individual shot to strategy coach of the team, the individual must 
therefore increasingly phase out the focus on (only) many details. It must be the cha-
racteristic of a narrowly specialized trainer/coach who is interested only in individual 
segment of the topic. Threfore, high on the scale of complexity, the coaches' look at 
the work must be wider, work less detailed and more cohesive, width of the requisite 
holism larger and less deepened in details and currently important features, more into 
the long-term essence. Input and output information are less detailed, more global, less 
tactical and operational, more strategic, political, visionary. Selection of dialectical sy-
stem of aspects (DSA) has to be adapted to reality and tasks.

It depends on DSA which style of thinking is used by who. Consideration of the re-
ality, not only of ideas and dreams (what often occurs in novice trainers/coaches), is an 
essential base of the coach`s work. Therefore, the formal education process of trainers/
coaches has an important role to draw attention to these facts. Separate treatment of the 
segments of trainer's expertise (competence areas) namely exists due to requests for 
simplification and in a single phase of qualification.



54

Miloš TUL, Zdenko VERDENIK, Matija MARŠIČ, Matjaž MULEJ: THE ROLE OF SMALL-SIDED GAMES IN MODERN SOCCER ..., 43–65

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 7 • 2016 • 1

Figure 3: The difference between (1) apparent, (2) requisite and (3) total holism.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

One-sidedness
with limitation to a sin-
gle chosen aspect - the 
mental image

Dialectical system (= network), whi-
ch combines all of essential and only 
essential aspects in a mental and/or 
emotional picture of this phenomenon, 
which corresponds to the law of requi-
site holism and therefore sufficiently 
reduces reductionism, so that it allows 
enough realistic hearing.

Total holism with the ne-
twork of completely all 
aspects - mental images

SSG with a focus on a 
single aspect chosen. 
Example: SSG focu-
sing exclusively on the 
development of special 
endurance

SSG, which include neither one in-
dividual selected aspect, except for 
the individual exercise phase, nor all 
of them at the same time, but on the 
basis of requisitely holistic analysis; 
it covers what we consider the most 
essential aspects and their interactions; 
it could also differ for every exercising 
individual separetly according to his/
her advantages and weaknesses as an 
individual and as a team member.

SSG which simultaneo-
usly cover technical/tac-
tical aspects of the game 
(at the level of the indi-
vidual, group and team) 
and enable concurrent 
development (mainte-
nance) of all aspects of 
the game in synergy.

The second condition: innovativeness, not only routine, nor only creativity.

Previously it has been shown that some specially organized forms of SSG in some 
cases and at any given moment have become innovations (e.g. “positional games” of 
Barcelona), but not in others, because there they did not give new benefits to users. 
“The position game” therefore presents an upgrade of traditional SSG since in a more 
complex form of playing the team aspect of the tactic, which presents a special, in 
practice useful (!) feature. In general, we can say that especially at the lower levels 
of competition, in principle the old established routine is prevailing, although it is of 
course necessary to consider the legality of the planning of exercise process, the gene-
ral requirements of the period of training, etc. Certain SSG are therefore deliberately 
“impoverished” in order to pursue a single, priority, specific goal (e.g. SSG with an 
emphasis on aerobic endurance components are often the content in the preparatory 
period) in a given stage. It raises the question about trainer's creativity, which shows 
the will and the ability to create something new; by definition it is different from inno-
vation, which also contains the will and ability to change a created novelty in the new 
benefit, achieved in practice of the users of novelties. What is shown in Figures 4 and 5, 
has prevailed considerably more in the innovative environment, than in environments, 
over-addicted to routines.



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Miloš TUL, Zdenko VERDENIK, Matija MARŠIČ, Matjaž MULEJ: THE ROLE OF SMALL-SIDED GAMES IN MODERN SOCCER ..., 43–65

The new idea, which was for example the idea of SSG succeeded, where the condi-
tions for the formation of innovation from the ‘Figure 4’ were fulfilled. In soccer clubs 
mentioned in the introductory part, the ability and willingness to innovate is likely 
significantly higher than in others; probably the similar assessment applies to their so-
cial environment (the Netherlands is better known for their support of innovation than 
Serbia, e.g.). But, this capacity is the biggest in clubs, able to give additional content to 
SSG (e.g. some time ago “the pace games” in Germany, SSG at the level of team tactics 
in Barcelona etc.); thus, they carried out most consistently the invention-innovation-
-diffusion process, summarized in the Figure 5. At the same time, more than others, 
they fulfilled the conditions for innovative business.1

1  General characterization of the features of innovative business covers several aspects and assump-
tions, and no longer refers only to the manufacturing part of the organization, but to all activities and 
all parts of life in all organizations, including the football clubs. The definition includes the knowledge 
about the costs, mistakes and failures (in principle are unnecessary), and that any product, process or 
organization sooner or later becomes obsolete. Survival, and therefore good (or bad) business concerns 
everyone, and so we should purposely search for possible innovations everywhere (within ourselves 
and elsewhere) and continuously. The definition also covers the attitude about work (let us work as 
smart, not like crazy) and the attainment of requisite holism with the practice and ethics of inter-
dependence (e.g. by use of ISO 26000, the international counselling standard on social responsibil-
ity). Because of the constant pressure from competitors, the innovationing must cover everything and 
constantly, and the quality of competitive ability must be systemic, which includes proper price for 
customers, quality, flexibility, uniqueness, care for the natural environment and social responsibility, 
all interrelated. This is a condition for (business) excellence. Therefore, from the assesment that the 
present product/process/service is perfect, the order necessarily follows: “Let's innovate it immedi-
ately, because it is perfect under the existing criteria, which may be changed at any moment by the 
customers and competitors and, therefore, they may withdraw their money away from us.” (cf.: Mulej 
et al., 2013).



56

Miloš TUL, Zdenko VERDENIK, Matija MARŠIČ, Matjaž MULEJ: THE ROLE OF SMALL-SIDED GAMES IN MODERN SOCCER ..., 43–65

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 7 • 2016 • 1

Figure 4: The equation of the conditions for the emergence of innovation = in practice 
of the users of beneficial novelties. Legend: X = factor relationship; all the conditions 
are necessary for success.

Invention - 
suggestion

A new idea on SSG, new organization, a new process of learning or design-
ing the game, new methods in the development of motor skills, etc.

X

Enterprise and 
entrepreneurship

How present is the entreprise/entrepreneurial approach in the way of thin-
king and functioning in the club management?
How much risks are the coaches and players willing to take? How do they 
overcome their fear and exaggerated respect for the opponent? How do 
they overcome their conceit, which is stifling their imagination? How bra-
vely and wisely at the same time the trainers compose and enforce their 
long-term views on the development of the team and the effort for its achi-
evement?

X

Management How do coaches compose short-term programs and enforce them into lear-
ning-training process (trainings, matches)?

X

Holism

How and how much do coaches attain sufficient holismfor the players to 
come to practice with pleasure and work extremely hard and ambitiously, 
because there is no boredom, workload and demands are placed slightly 
above capacity, which consequently rise?

X

Coleagues

How much is the experts team receptive to learning, the development and 
introduction of novelties into practice? How much are they willing and 
able to take into account each other due to mutual differences, making 
them complementarity?

X

Culture

Sports culture is associated with the characteristics of the society. Questi-
on: would a soccer environment where the skipping of midfield with long 
passing “traditionaly” dominates, allow the development of SSG that are 
based on ball posession (e.g. position games) and on a continuous form of 
attack at all?

X

Suppliers

Are the members of the professional staff (sports leader, the leader of the 
youth groups, coaches, fitness trainers, physiotherapists, ..., caretakers of 
the soccer field and equipment) receptive to implementation of innovations 
in the working practice? From whom do they learn?

X



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 7 • 2016 • 1

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Miloš TUL, Zdenko VERDENIK, Matija MARŠIČ, Matjaž MULEJ: THE ROLE OF SMALL-SIDED GAMES IN MODERN SOCCER ..., 43–65

Customers

Spectators, sponsors, donors, parents of young players, their schools, clubs 
in higher leagues, to which the players of adequate quality could be sold 
to help maintaining the favorable conditions for the growth of new ones. 
And the like.

X

Competitors

More successful clubs are generally more receptive to innovations that 
bring benefits at all levels of functioning (vision, organizational level, con-
tent selection, procedures of trainers selection) ... Competitors are also all 
the other contents of leisure time and all other ambitions and habits of the 
players and professional staff outside their own competition process.

X

Natural 
environment

How healthy is the playing surface maintained (environment, changing 
rooms, immediate surroundings) so that the participants do not inhale 
anything dangerous for health, in terms of the location of the playing field, 
on traffic and climate, seasons, etc.

X

Broader social 
conditions

The city conditions, opportunities to get support from citizens, schools, 
other organizations and the local management to the team/club, 'viole' and 
similar fan clubs and their harmful behavior (Večer, 19 Dec. 2015, reported 
that the penalty that was prescribed by the NZS in 2015, due to the behav-
ior of only “viole” amounts over 33,000 euros.)

X
Random 

influences 
happiness

Effect of referee`s mistakes, poor game conditions, injuries, shots in the 
post, etc.



58

Miloš TUL, Zdenko VERDENIK, Matija MARŠIČ, Matjaž MULEJ: THE ROLE OF SMALL-SIDED GAMES IN MODERN SOCCER ..., 43–65

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 7 • 2016 • 1

Fi
gu

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of

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, 

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eg

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pl
or

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th

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te
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va
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nn

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n

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m

ar
ke

tin
g



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 7 • 2016 • 1

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Miloš TUL, Zdenko VERDENIK, Matija MARŠIČ, Matjaž MULEJ: THE ROLE OF SMALL-SIDED GAMES IN MODERN SOCCER ..., 43–65

In
no

va
tio

n 
(=

 p
ro

ve
n 

us
ef

ul
 n

ov
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ty
; t

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s i

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de

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by

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ne

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in

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ve

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ke

 
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t 

ris
k 

th
an

 to
 ta

ke
 th

e 
ris

k 
of

 o
bs

ol
es

ce
nc

e 
an

d 
de

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nd

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ce

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g.

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lu

b 
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 h
as

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se

d 
th

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 o

f a
 n

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 S

SG
 fo

r 
its

el
f w

ith
 b

en
efi

t

Fo
rm

er
 in

no
va

tio
n 

- 
no

w
 b

en
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ci
al

 ro
ut

in
e

pr
ac

tit
io

ne
rs

 w
ho

 u
se

 th
e 

es
ta

bl
is

he
d 

no
ve

lty
 in

 
ev

er
yd

ay
 p

ra
ct

ic
e 

an
d 

ar
e 

th
e 

ro
le

 m
od

el
s

e.
g.

 c
lu

b 
w

hi
ch

 u
se

s t
he

 
es

ta
bl

is
he

d 
id

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 o

f a
 n

ew
 

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G

 a
nd

 is
 a

 ro
le

 m
od

el

pr
ac

tit
io

ne
rs

 w
ho

 im
ita

te
 

th
e 

es
ta

bl
is

he
d 

no
ve

lty

e.
g.

 c
lu

b 
w

hi
ch

 im
ita

te
s 

th
e 

es
ta

bl
is

he
d 

id
ea

 o
f a

 
ne

w
 S

SG

Fo
rm

er
 in

no
va

tio
n 

- 
no

w
 a

ba
nd

on
ed

au
th

or
s o

f s
ub

st
itu

tio
na

l 
ne

w
 id

ea
s

e.
g.

 a
ut

ho
rs

 o
f a

 n
ew

 
SS

G
 th

at
 p

ro
m

is
es

 m
or

e 
th

an
 th

e 
ex

is
tin

g 
on

e

su
pp

or
te

rs
 o

f a
lte

rn
at

iv
e 

ne
w

 id
ea

s

e.
g.

 c
lu

bs
 w

ho
 su

pp
or

t 
th

e 
id

ea
s o

f a
 n

ew
 S

SG
, 

th
at

 p
ro

m
is

es
 m

or
e 

th
an

 
th

e 
ex

is
tin

g 
on

e



60

Miloš TUL, Zdenko VERDENIK, Matija MARŠIČ, Matjaž MULEJ: THE ROLE OF SMALL-SIDED GAMES IN MODERN SOCCER ..., 43–65

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 7 • 2016 • 1

Fi
gu

re
 6

: I
nv

en
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ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 7 • 2016 • 1

61

Miloš TUL, Zdenko VERDENIK, Matija MARŠIČ, Matjaž MULEJ: THE ROLE OF SMALL-SIDED GAMES IN MODERN SOCCER ..., 43–65

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62

Miloš TUL, Zdenko VERDENIK, Matija MARŠIČ, Matjaž MULEJ: THE ROLE OF SMALL-SIDED GAMES IN MODERN SOCCER ..., 43–65

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 7 • 2016 • 1

Where the innovative business is practiced – also in the soccer clubs, because the 
top-quality soccer is a big, expensive and profitable business process, not just a sport 
− usually a process summarized in Figure 6 takes place. Under their influence, the 
novelties also spread to other clubs. Thus, the entire sports discipline is progressing in 
which such a process is happening. Of course, this does not take place automatically, 
because the human brain is designed for routine and people are − completely naturally 
− resisting to innovations, particularly the intrusive ones. In order to accept the novelti-
es, they have to be either coauthors of the innovation or have great trust in their authors. 
But both should be capable of requisite holism of their conduct, not only of thinking, 
but of the entire practice.

Limitations and suggestions

The analysis included only the football realities of the countries in which the authors 
of the article have multiannual work experience. Reliably, with the analysis of other 
football realities (e.g. Northern European, South American, North American, Central 
Asian, etc.) we would get a more detailed description of the developmental path of SSG 
and their versatile use, but that was not the core purpose of the article, while conside-
ring SSG only in terms of the learning potential and usefulness offered by this practical 
work methods in terms of holism.

An important factor is also the contribution of foreign coaches, who, by entering the 
various elements and sporting habits and vision, contributed to the development of the 
profession in each country. This aspect is very difficult to assess at the systemic level, 
despite the known examples of historically successful connections like e.g. between the 
Dutch and Spanish/Catalan football and the like.

In terms of increasing the learning potential of SSG, we find, that each federation 
should already on the systemic level take care of a greater emphasis on pedagogical and 
particularly on narrower didactical competences of football coaches, and particularly 
on the harmonization of standards of knowledge (UEFA 2015), especially for coaches 
on youth level and of encouraging a more creative approach. Despite the efforts at the 
institutional level (UEFA 2015), the quality of education in the individual members of 
UEFA remains very different (Sedej, 2016).

A particularly important factor is also the way of transmission of knowledge in 
courses for licensing. Higher quality methods of transmission of knowledge are going 
more towards practical knowledge, project and problem learning and the need to create 
relevant learning situations during education and the concomitant need for contextua-
lization of the acquired knowledge (Pavlin, 2012; Vannini & Mantovani, 2007; Zecca, 
2014). In general, one should avoid increasing the accumulation of isolated information 
and promote a holistic, systemic approach, sample thinking, with greater emphasis on 
the processes and connections and less on data and state (Marentič Požarnik, 1995). 
Precisely this aspect is, at the licensing procedures, very different from federation to 
federation (Sedej, 2016). Also, the above-mentioned creation of relevant learning situ-



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 7 • 2016 • 1

63

Miloš TUL, Zdenko VERDENIK, Matija MARŠIČ, Matjaž MULEJ: THE ROLE OF SMALL-SIDED GAMES IN MODERN SOCCER ..., 43–65

ations (hosting traineeship, internships, etc.), as a necessary precondition for the quality 
of qualification of coaches (UEFA 2015), presents a significant problem for individual 
coaches, since the visit of elite sports centers and the exchange of detailed information 
on the characteristics of the training process in fact, is difficult to achieve.

CONCLUSION

SSG are very common methods in the process of soccer training and are used for 
very different purposes. Despite the irrefutable prevalence and effectiveness of this 
approach, there are still very large reserves for their upgrade in the direction to even 
greater holism. In this sense, the coach`s methodical/didactical ability is shown as a 
very important competence, which should be further developed within the process of 
education of coaches, which is unfortunately not unified in European area. Greater 
emphasis should therefore take place not only on creativity but also on the actual will 
to innovate the existing football practices.

In this paper, we have tried to present the possible developmental guidelines, in par-
ticular, for overcoming of the typical dualism that prevails in the modern soccer world, 
i.e. fight between highly specialized/analytical and the routine-addicted approach and 
those broader, more holistic approaches. This aspect is also directly connected with the 
(sports) cultural stereotypes, which are typical for every football reality and are its most 
important component at the same time.

In the foreground there is e the question of the approach to SSG, which would 
avoid one-sidedness and routine in favor of increasingly interdisciplinary and holistic 
approach. One should encourage the introduction of the new ideas (innovations) beside 
the need for increasingly innovative operations of the soccer clubs. With the use of 
USOMID method, the conditions for the admission of SSG were analysed in football 
practice as a real innovation at work. 

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http://ojs.pensamultimedia.it/index.php/sird/article/view/1104/1070

