












































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 8 • 2017 • 1

15

DIFFERENCES OF THE TENSIOMYOGRAPHY-DERIVED 
BICEPS FEMORIS MUSCLE CONTRACTION TIME AND 

DISPLACEMENT BETWEEN DIFFERENT AGE AND FITNESS 
GROUPS

Marko VIDNJEVIČ1, Rumiana TASHEVA2, Jure URBANC3, Urška GAŠPERIN4 

1Alma Mater Europaea – ECM, Maribor, Slovenia
2National Sports Academy (NSA) "Vasil Levski", Sofia, Bulgaria
3University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Maribor, Slovenia, 

4University of Primorska, Faculty of Health Sciences, Izola, Slovenia

Corresponding author:
Urška GAŠPERIN

University of Primorska, Faculty of Health Sciences
Polje 42, 6310 Izola, Slovenia

phone: +386 70 817 689
e-mail: urska.gasperin@gmail.com

ABSTRACT 

Introduction: The aim of this study was to compare tensiomyography-derived bi-
ceps femoris muscle (BF) contraction time (Tc) and maximal radial displacement (Dm).

Methods: Ninety male participants were divided into three age groups: young adults 
(YA; 23.7 ± 4.3 years), middle-aged adults (MA; 46.7 ± 5.6 years), and older adults 
(OA; 64.2 ± 6.5 years). Furthermore, the participants were divided in two physical 
activity groups – the sedentary and those who were regularly engaged in recreational 
sports activities (at least three times a week). Tensiomyography (TMG) method was 
used to measure the BF Dm and Tc during isometric single-twitch maximal contraction.

Results: We found shorter Tc in active YA than sedentary YA (P = 0.001). Active YA 
had also shorter Tc than active OA (P = 0.046). Active YA had also a lower Dm than 
sedentary YA (P = 0.031), while pooled YA showed a trend towards a lower Dm than 
pooled MA (P = 0.073) and pooled OA (P = 0.120).

Discussion and conclusions: TMG data indicates a transition towards higher slow-
-twitch muscle fibre type with age and sedentary lifestyle. Furthermore, TMG data also 
indicates a lower muscle tone with age and sedentary lifestyle. Data obtained with 
TMG can be used to assess muscle imbalances in human body, which may be of clinical 
importance. 

Keywords: tensiomyography, biceps femoris, lifestyle, aging, sport.

Original scientific article       UDC: 612.741
received: 2017-03-15



16

Marko VIDNJEVIČ, Rumiana TASHEVA, Jure URBANC, Urška GAŠPERIN: DIFFERENCES OF THE ...,  15–22

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 8 • 2017 • 1

Z METODO TENZIOMIOGRAFIJE IZMERJENE RAZLIKE MED 
ČASOM KONTRAKCIJE  IN ODMIKOM MIŠICE MED RAZLIČNO 

STARIMI IN FIZIČNO AKTIVNIMI SKUPINAMI

IZVLEČEK

Uvod: Namen pričujoče študije je bil primerjati s tenziomiografsko metodo (TMG) 
pridobljen čas kontrakcije (Tc) in maksimalni odmik (Dm) trebuha dvoglave stegenske 
mišice (BF).

Metode: Devetdeset moških udeležencev je bilo razdeljenih v 3 starostne skupine: 
mladi odrasli (YA; 23.7 ± 4.3 let), odrasli v srednjih letih (MA; 46.7 ± 5.6 let) in starejši 
odrasli (OA; 64.2 ± 6.5 let). Nadalje so bili udeleženci razdeljeni v 2 skupini glede 
na rednost ukvarjanja s fizično aktivnostjo- sedeči in tisti, ki so se redno ukvarjali z 
rekreativno obliko športne dejavnosti (vsaj 3-krat na teden). Metoda TMG je bila upor-
abljena za merjenje odziva parametrov Dm in Tc mišice BF na en maksimalni dražljaj.

Rezultati: Ugotovili smo, da imajo aktivni YA krajši Tc od sedečih YA (P = 0.001) 
in tudi krajši Tc od aktivnih OA (P = 0.046). Aktivni YA imajo nižji Dm kot sedeči YA 
(P = 0.031). Za YA je značilen trend nižjega Dm v primerjavi z MA (P = 0.073) in z OA 
(P = 0.120).

Razprava in zaključki: Dobljeni podatki kažejo, da mišica BF z leti in s sedečim 
načinom življenja postaja počasnejša in manj tonizirana. Na osnovi pridobljenih TMG 
podatkov se lahko oceni mišična neravnovesja v človeškem telesu in rezultate se lahko 
interpretira tudi v okviru klinične pomembnosti.

Ključne besede: tenziomiografija, biceps femoris, življenjski slog, staranje, šport

INTRODUCTION

The world's population is aging, and the proportion of elderly people keeps increa-
sing. In 2010, the proportion of people aged over 65 years accounted for about 8 % of 
the world's population. The forecast for 2050 projects that the percentage will increase 
to 16 %, which will represent some 1.5 billion people (2010 Revision of the World 
Population Prospects).

According to the Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia (2015), which sum-
marizes Eurostat's data projections, it is expected that in the year 2060 a third of Slo-
venians will be aged over 65 years. In 2015, the proportion of Slovenians older than 
65 amounted to 20 %, whereas it is estimated that this will increase to 30 % in 2060. 
Longer life spans as well as larger proportions of elderly population will likely lead to 
an increase in the number of diseases that are more prevalent with age.



17

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 8 • 2017 • 1

Marko VIDNJEVIČ, Rumiana TASHEVA, Jure URBANC, Urška GAŠPERIN: DIFFERENCES OF THE ...,  15–22

It is clear that physical inactivity significantly contributes to mortality, as the WHO 
(2013) reported that over 3.2 million people die each year due to physical inactivity. 
Many non-communicable chronic health conditions, prevailing in developed and deve-
loping countries are associated with physical inactivity (Blair, Sallis, Hutber, & Archer, 
2012; Chodzko-Zajko et al., 2009; Paterson, Jones, & Rice, 2007).

In addition to the higher incidence of these risk factors with aging, a decline in 
many physiological systems occurs along with the loss of muscle mass, impaired ba-
lance, reductions of muscle strength and endurance (Sakuma & Yamaguchi, 2012) as 
well as cognitive capacities, all of which impacts functional independence (Salthouse, 
2003).

There are various guidelines for physical activity of  people aged 65 years and 
above: (i) The WHO's recommends (WHO, 2010) at least 150 minutes of moderate-
-intensity aerobic physical activity per week, or at least 75 minutes of high intensity 
physical activity per week, or an equivalent combination of moderate and high intensity 
exercise; (ii) The American College of Sport Medicine (ACSM) and the American He-
art Association (AHA) recommend 30 minutes of moderate intensity aerobic physical 
activity 5 times per week, or 20 minutes of high intensity physical activity 3 times per 
week, or an equivalent combination of moderate and high intensity exercise with a du-
ration of at least 10 minute bouts is recommended (Nelson et al., 2007). While WHO is 
not specific, the ACSM and the AHA emphasize that it is also necessary to incorporate 
strength training twice per week, which should be composed of 8 to 10 exercises with 
10 to 15 repetitions and 1 to 2 sets.

Šimunič, Pišot, & Rittweger (2009) investigated the age and sport activity type on 
postural (VL, vastus lateralis) and non-postural (BF, biceps femoris) muscle contrac-
tion time in master athletes and non-athletes. Authors performed Tensiomyographic 
(TMG) assessment of 35+ years of control group, explosive athletes and endurance 
athletes. They found that the sport activity type significantly affects contraction time 
(Tc) only in non-postural BF muscle. BF muscle deteriorates in all groups, but least in 
explosive athletes, which emphasizes strength and power training to maintain skeletal 
muscle contractile properties. They explained that postural muscles receive enough 
daily stimuli to be prevented from major deterioration. Although they reported Tc data, 
they failed to report maximal displacement of TMG response (Dm).

Therefore, we decided to obtain TMG responses and calculate Tc and Dm of BF in 
3 age groups and 2 fitness groups. We decided to measure BF as, according to Valenčič 
& Djordjevič (2002) in Djordjevič, Rozman, & Pišot (2005), there are indications that 
BF muscle is one of the most sensitive to deterioration or improvement after physical 
inactivity or age and training, respectively. 



18

Marko VIDNJEVIČ, Rumiana TASHEVA, Jure URBANC, Urška GAŠPERIN: DIFFERENCES OF THE ...,  15–22

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 8 • 2017 • 1

METHODS

Participants

Ninety male participants were divided into 3 age groups and measured in the labo-
ratory of the Institute for Kinesiology Research in Koper, using TMG: young adults 
(YA), middle-aged adults (MA), and older adults (OA). The selection of participants 
was based on the following criteria: 15 YA (age: 23.7 ± 4.3 years; body height: 172± 8.0 
cm; body mass: 59±10.5kg), 15 MA (age: 46.6 ± 5.6years; body height: 182 ±6.7 cm; 
body mass: 88±7.0 kg), and 15 OA (age: 64.2 ± 6.5 years; body height: 175±2.6 cm; 
body mass: 87±5.0 kg). In each group, half of the participants were active 2 to 3 times 
in organized sport activities, while 15 were not.

Tensiomyography

Two contractile parameters, Dm and Tc of BF muscle were measured in ninety 
males by TMG (TMG − BMC, Ljubljana, Slovenia). The measurement point in BF 
muscle was defined at the midpoint of the line between the fibula head and the ischial 
tuberosity. Positioning the sensor directly on the skin above the muscle belly makes 
the method sensitive to mechanical displacement of the underlying muscle tissue.  The 
measurements were performed isometrically in relaxed predefined position with fixed 
joint angle at 5 degrees kneeflexion, with the participants lying on their front. Self-
adhesive electrodes were placed directly on the muscle belly: the cathode was placed 5 
centimetres distally, while the anode was 5 centimetres proximally from the measure-
ment point. The amplitude of the electrical stimulation was gradually increased to get 
maximal response. From the twitch response, theDm was analysed in mm and Tc was 
calculated in ms as time of the response reaching from 10 % to 90 % of the maximal 
amplitude. 

Statistics

All data are presented with mean values (± SD). After checking for normality of 
distribution with visual inspection, we proceeded with 3 x 2 analysis of variance with 
post hoc t-tests for independent samples and using Bonferroni corrections. All deci-
sions were accepted with alpha set at 0.05.

RESULTS

In Table 1 we found shortest Tc in active YA that is increasing with age (P = 0.003) 
and lifestyle groups (P = 0.041). Dm was found to be higher in active YA than in se-



19

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 8 • 2017 • 1

Marko VIDNJEVIČ, Rumiana TASHEVA, Jure URBANC, Urška GAŠPERIN: DIFFERENCES OF THE ...,  15–22

dentary YA (P = 0.031). Post hoc analysis revealed also shorter Tc in active YA than in 
sedentary YA (P = 0.001). Active YA had also shorter Tc than active OA (P = 0.046). 
Active YA had also lower Dm than sedentary YA (P = 0.031), while pooled YA has trend 
towards lower Dm than pooled MA (P = 0.073) and pooled OA (P = 0.120).

Table I: Comparison between active / sedentary participants of three age groups in BF 
contraction time and maximal displacement.

Age group Lifestyle group Contraction time (ms) Displacement (mm)

Young adults
Active 26.2 ± 10.2 5.5 ± 1.1

Sedentary 49.0 ± 11.7 8.8 ± 4.3

Middle-age 
adults

Active 35.2 ± 16.4 6.4 ± 2.1

Sedentary 42.8 ± 17.2 6.4 ± 2.5

Older adults
Active 33.6 ± 4.6 6.0 ± 2.5

Sedentary 37.8 ± 7.1 5.9 ± 1.1

DISCUSSION

It is well established that aging leads to progressive changes in the human body, 
which causes a loss of muscle function, weakness, disease and death. Older people are 
also the most sedentary and physically inactive segment of society, according to certain 
evidence (Paterson & Warburton, 2010), therefore, it is hard to study the aging effect 
solely, independently of physical activity or fitness level. Therefore, it is important to 
study different age groups but levelled on physical or sport activity.

There are differences in skeletal muscles between physically active and inactive 
people, as evident in muscle composition analysis conducted with TMG. This method 
enables easy as well as selective measurements of contractile properties of the muscle 
belly and was recently shown to be a valid, repeatable and non-invasive assessment of 
muscle composition (Šimunič et al., 2011; Šimunič, 2012; Šimunič, 2015).

Comparison of Dm between active / sedentary participants

The biggest differences are between active and sedentary YA. YA have expectedly 
lowest Dm, which indicates the highest BF tone. Pišot et al. (2008) provided evidence 
that Dm reflects physical activity or inactivity and demonstrated that Dm increases after 
acute muscle atrophy. There were no differences in Dm regarding the lifestyle between 



20

Marko VIDNJEVIČ, Rumiana TASHEVA, Jure URBANC, Urška GAŠPERIN: DIFFERENCES OF THE ...,  15–22

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 8 • 2017 • 1

MA and OA. Pišot et al. (2008) further explained that the smaller the Dm value before 
bed rest, the larger the change induced by bed rest, which puts TMG amplitude Dm as 
a measure of muscle belly stiffness.

Comparison of Tc between active / sedentary participants

Shortest Tc was in active YA and was getting higher with age and sedentary life-
style. Tc reflects muscle composition, whereas shorter Tc indicates lower proportion of 
myosin heavy chain type 1 (Šimunič et al., 2011). Šimunič, Pišot, Rittweger, and Me-
kjavić (2008) found that BF muscle deteriorates in much greater scale than VL with age 
and sport group and they evaluated this with Tc calculated from mechanical response 
of muscle belly, using TMG.

The data obtained highlighted the importance of physical / sports activity and the 
importance of TMG as method of evaluating muscles status and as method for monito-
ring the effects of PA on the physical fitness of people.

Based on the data obtained it would be possible to choose the most optimal training 
method and the means to plan and modify the physical preparation of the individual or 
of homogenous groups and such adjusted physical / sporting activity can improve their 
physical condition. It consequently improves physical health of people and especially 
in elderly it contributes to increased stability, autonomy, mobility, self-confidence when 
moving, which has a great impact on both well-being and satisfaction of older adults.

It is well known that regular physical activity and exercise are beneficial for physi-
cal and mental health. Hence, it is important that people consider this already in their 
younger age and educate themselves about the positive effects of being active, the im-
portance of maintaining motor abilities as well as the value of quality of life in older 
age.

Without data on movement, physical, physiological and biochemical characteristi-
cs, it is difficult to accurately design, programme and model exercise, adapted to the 
needs of individuals of a certain age and capacity.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, Tc and Dm were found to be sensitive of age and fitness level in our 
participants. That makes TMG useful for a variety of purposes. Since TMG data cor-
relates to muscle composition and muscle atrophy, it makes TMG useful in the field of 
aging, preventive assessment, sport training, rehabilitation, etc.



21

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 8 • 2017 • 1

Marko VIDNJEVIČ, Rumiana TASHEVA, Jure URBANC, Urška GAŠPERIN: DIFFERENCES OF THE ...,  15–22

REFERENCES

Blair, S., Sallis, R., Hutber, A., & Archer, E. (2012). Exercise therapy - the public health 
message. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports, 22(4), e24–e28. doi: 
10.1111/j.1600-0838.2012.01462.x VIEW ITEM

Chodzko-Zajko, W. J., Proctor, D., Fiatarone Singh, M. A., Minson, C. T., Nigg, C. R., 
Salem, G. J. et al. (2009). Exercise and physical activity for older adults. American 
College of Sports Medicine position stand. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 
41(7), 1510–1530. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181a0c95c VIEW ITEM

Nelson, M. E. et al. (2007). Physical activity and public health in older adults: recom-
mendation from the American College of Sports Medicine and the American Heart As-
sociation. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 39(8), 1435-1445. doi: 10.1249/
mss.0b013e3180616aa2 VIEW ITEM

Paterson, D., Jones, G., & Rice, C. (2007). Ageing and physical activity: evidence to 
develop exercise recommendations for older adults. Applied physiology, nutrition, and 
metabolism, 32(Suppl. 2E), S69-S108. VIEW ITEM 

Paterson, D. H., & Warburton, D. E. (2010). Physical activity and functional limitations 
in older adults: a systematic review related to Canada’s Physical Activity Guidelines. 
The international journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity, 7(38), 1-22. doi: 
10.1186/1479-5868-7-38. VIEW ITEM

Pišot, R., Narici, M. V., Šimunic, B., De Boer, M., Seynnes, O., Jurdana, M., ... Mekjavić, 
I. B. (2008). Whole muscle contractile parameters and thickness loss during 35-day bed 
rest. European journal of applied physiology, 104(2), 409-414. doi: 10.1007/s00421-
008-0698-6 VIEW ITEM

Sakuma, K., & Yamaguchi, A. (2012). Sarcopenia and age-related endocrine function. 
International journal of endocrinology, 2012: 127362. doi: 10.1155/2012/127362 VIEW 
ITEM

Salthouse, T. A. (2003). Memory aging from 18 to 80. Alzheimer disease and associated 
disorders, 17(3), 162-167. PMID: 14512830

Šimunič, B. (2012). Between-day reliability of a method for non-invasive estimation of 
muscle composition. Journal of electromyography and kinesiology, 22(4), 527–530. doi: 
10.1016/j.jelekin.2012.04.003 VIEW ITEM

Šimunič, B. (2015). Tensiomyography amplitude - a potential non-invasive skeletal muscle 
pre-frailty parameter. In U. Marušič, B. Šimunič, R. Pišot (Eds.), Hip fracture in the 
elderly: reasons, consequences and rehabilitation (pp. 47-63). Koper: University of Pri-
morska, Scientific and research centre of Koper, Publishing house Annales.

Šimunič, B., Degens, H., Rittweger, J., Narici, M., Mekjavić, I. B., & Pišot, R. (2011). 
Noninvasive estimation of myosin heavy chain composition in human skeletal mus-
cle. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 43(9), 1619-1625. doi: 10.1249/
MSS.0b013e31821522d0 VIEW ITEM

Šimunič, B., Pišot, R., & Rittweger, J. (2009). The effect of ageing on contraction time 
of postural and non-postural skeletal muscles in master athletes. In M. Mikalački (Ed.), 
Proceedings book, 1st International Scientific Conference “Exercise and Quality of 
Life”, Novi Sad, Serbia, March 26-28, 2009 (pp. 185-190). Novi Sad: University of 
Novi Sad, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education. Retrieved from http://www.eqol.
uns.ac.rs/1steqol/2%20elderly/023%20simunic%20pisot%20rittweger.pdf

http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2012.01462.x
http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181a0c95c
http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/mss.0b013e3180616aa2
https://doi.org/10.1139/H07-111
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-7-38
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00421-008-0698-6
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/127362
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/127362
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jelekin.2012.04.003
http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e31821522d0
http://www.eqol.uns.ac.rs/1steqol/2%20elderly/023%20simunic%20pisot%20rittweger.pdf
http://www.eqol.uns.ac.rs/1steqol/2%20elderly/023%20simunic%20pisot%20rittweger.pdf


22

Marko VIDNJEVIČ, Rumiana TASHEVA, Jure URBANC, Urška GAŠPERIN: DIFFERENCES OF THE ...,  15–22

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 8 • 2017 • 1

Šimunič, B., Pišot, R., Rittweger, J. & Mekjavić, I. B. (2008). Regular sport activity does 
not prevent skeletal muscle contraction time loss in master athletes. In M. Blahutková 
(Ed.), Sport a kvalita života 2008 = Sport and quality of life 2006 : sbornik abstrakt me-
zinárodní konference konané 6.-7. listpopadu 2008 v Brně : proceedings of abstratcts of 
International Conference 6th - 7th November 2008 in Brno (p. 154). Brno: Masarykova 
univerzita, Fakulta sportovních.

Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia (2015). International day of older persons. 
Retrieved from http://www.stat.si/StatWeb/en/News/Index/5477

United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division 
(2011). World population prospects: the 2010 revision, Volume I: Comprehensive tables. 
Retrieved from: http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/
trends/WPP2010/WPP2010_Volume-I_Comprehensive-Tables.pdf

Valenčič, V. & Djordjević, S. (2002). Maximal velocity and biceps femoris muscle con-
traction time dependence - tensiomyographic analysis in elite sprinters. Salzburg: Euro-
pean College of Sport Science (ECSS). In Djordjevič S., Rozman, S. & Pišot, R. (2005). 
Monitoring of biceps femoris (BF) activation pattern changes between maximal and 
supramaximal sprints. Book of Abstracts of the 10th Annual Congress of the European 
College of Sport Science in Belgrade, Serbia from 13-16 July 2005.

WHO - World Health Organisation (2010). Global recommendations on physical activity 
for health. ISBN 978-92-4-159-997-9. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/dietphysica-
lactivity/global-PA-recs-2010.pdf

WHO - World Health Organisation (2013). Global strategy on diet, physical activity and 
health. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/factsheet_inactivity/en/
index.html

http://www.stat.si/StatWeb/en/News/Index/5477
http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/trends/WPP2010/WPP2010_Volume-I_Comprehensive-Tables.pdf
http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/trends/WPP2010/WPP2010_Volume-I_Comprehensive-Tables.pdf
http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/global-PA-recs-2010.pdf
http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/global-PA-recs-2010.pdf
http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/factsheet_inactivity/en/index.html
http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/factsheet_inactivity/en/index.html

	_GoBack
	_GoBack
	_GoBack
	_Hlk501362470
	_Hlk501363405
	_Hlk501369360

