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5

Original scientific article                      UDC: 796.926.015
received: 2017-05-30

IS SPECIFIC MOTOR TEST ENOUGH TO EVALUATE NEW 
ALPINE SKI KNOWLEDGE IN SKI BEGINNERS?

Vjekoslav CIGROVSKI1, Ivica FRANJKO1, Tomislav RUPČIĆ1, Marijo BAKOVIĆ1, 
& Igor BOŽIĆ2

1University of Zagreb, Faculty of Kinesiology, Croatia
2University of Banja Luka, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Corresponding author:
Vjekoslav CIGROVSKI, Ph.D.

University of Zagreb, Faculty of Kinesiology, Horvaćanski zavoj 15, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
Phone: +385 91 544 2202

E-mail: vjekoslav.cigrovski@kif.hr

ABSTRACT

The present research aims at determining whether the results of specific motor tests 
(continuous lateral jumps in dictated tempo − SKILJ) are a sufficient measure to evalu-
ate the level of acquired alpine ski knowledge of ski beginners. Twenty four alpine ski 
naïve male participants with comparable performance levels and no record of injuries 
in the preceding six months were included in the study. They were tested on SKILJ 
test Microgate Optojump Next system prior to participating in a structured alpine ski 
school program. After completing the ski school program, the participants’ knowledge 
of short turn was tested by five judges.  Correlation coefficients between the five judges 
for the short turn element were all high and statistically significant, implying judges’ 
objectivity in grading alpine ski knowledge. On the other hand, there was no statisti-
cally significant correlation between lateral jumps in predefined pace and the acquired 
knowledge of short turn skiing technique. Therefore, we conclude that the movements 
executed during alpine skiing with continuous connecting of short parallel turns are 
much more complicated than the movements needed during the performance of SKILJ 
which cannot fully depict alpine skiing. 

Keywords: recreational level alpine skiers, motor abilities, motor skills learning 
efficiency.



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ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 8 • 2017 • 1

JE PREDLAGANI MOTORIČNI TEST VELJAVEN TEST ZNANJA 
ALPSKIH SMUČARJEV ZAČETNIKOV?

IZVLEČEK

Cilj raziskave je bil ugotoviti ali rezultati specifičnih motoričnih testov (zapore-
dni lateralni odskoki po ritmu − SKILJ) omogočajo vrednotenje napredka smučarjev 
začetnikov pri pridobivanju veščin alpskega smučanja. V raziskavo je bilo vključenih 
štiriindvajset moških smučarjev začetnikov s primerljivimi sposobnostmi, ki vsaj šest 
mesecev pred izvedbo raziskave niso bili poškodovani. Preden so se preiskovanci ude-
ležili strukturirane šole alpskega smučanja, smo jih motorično testirali s testom SKILJ 
(Microgate Optojump Next). Po zaključenem šolanju alpskega smučanja, je skupina 
petih sodnikov vsakemu preiskovancu ocenila smučanje v ozkem hodniku. Korelacijski 
koeficienti med ocenami petih sodnikov so bili visoki in statistično značilni, kar naka-
zuje objektivnost sodnikov pri ocenjevanju. Hkrati pa nismo zaznali statistično značilne 
povezave med lateralnimi odskoki z definiranim ritmom in pridobljenimi znanji smu-
čanja v ozkem hodniku. Ugotovili smo, da je gibanje, ki ga alpski smučar izvaja med 
kontinuirano in povezano izvedbo ozkega hodnika mnogo bolj zapleteno kot gibanje 
med izvedbo testa SKILJ in da slednji ne more v celoti orisati alpskega smučanja. 

Ključne besede: alpski smučarji rekreativci, motorične sposobnosti, učinkovitost 
motoričnega učenja

INTRODUCTION

Most of the cyclic sports include the performance of certain rhythmical movements 
that are systematically repeated. The movements that are repeated in alpine skiing are 
turns (Oreb, Vlašić, Cigrovski, Prlenda, & Radman, 2011). Effective and meaningful 
interconnection of individual parts of a turn, as well as connecting multiple turns into 
a whole represents a skiing rhythm (Cigrovski & Matković, 2015). The rhythmic per-
formance of multiple turns is intuitive performance without any prior thoughts on each 
part of the turn. The rhythm of the turns, maintaining good balance on the skis, and 
smooth sliding of the skis all influence our skiing technique, making it more efficient 
(Loland, 2009; Cigrovski & Matković, 2015). When analyzing competitive level ski-
ers, slalom discipline is the one in which rhythm is often commented with respect to the 
set course of gates series (Waibel, Huber, & Spitzenpfell, 2009). Slalom turns are short 
and in a narrow corridor, they are a modified version of short turn element. Although 
the rhythm of turns is also present in the wider corridor during the technique and in 
other alpine skiing disciplines, according to Waibel and coworkers (2009), slalom is a 



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discipline in which oscillations in the change of rhythm during a continuous connec-
tion of multiple turns are visible and recorded. From the aspect of recreational skiers, 
it is known that the success of alpine ski learning depends upon multiple factors, and 
among the most important are: learning conditions, the expertise of the ski instructor 
and the abilities and motivation of the ski beginners (Loland, 2009). Although one 
would expect explosive leg strength to be equally important for beginners as it is for 
competitive level skiers, tests for its assessment in alpine ski beginners failed to prove 
correlation with the success of ski learning suggesting that explosive leg strength is not 
critical in the beginning phases of learning (Neumayr et al., 2003). On the other hand, 
of all the motor abilities, it is balance that probably differs those ski beginners who 
will acquire ski knowledge sooner from those whose adoption of ski knowledge will 
go slower (Malliou et al., 2004; Ružić, Rađenović, & Tudor, 2008; Cigrovski, Franjko, 
Rupčić, Baković, & Matković, 2016). Interestingly, much less is known about the cor-
relation of coordination in the rhythm with the effectiveness of adopting ski knowledge. 
It can be assumed that ski beginners who have developed this ability at a higher level 
will adopt the elements of ski technique that are continuously linked to overcoming the 
ski terrain more quickly. Currently, the use of simulation devices to improve the motor 
performances of athletes is becoming increasingly popular. Ski simulators are specifi-
cally constructed to enable alpine skiers’ adequate conditioning trainings before going 
to the ski terrains (Straub, 2013). It is expected that ski-simulator training during the 
off-season, when access to real slopes is limited, would benefit skiers. Existing ski-si-
mulator studies largely verify the training effect through observation of changes in the 
movement pattern, while only few verify the effectiveness of reality-based ski simu-
lator (Nam & Woo, 2007; Lee, Kim, & Roh, 2012). Moreover, simulation devices are 
used at recreational level with the purpose to predict the tempo of learning new activity, 
suggest individual approaches to each beginner, allow people to enjoy skiing during 
non-winter season and practice ski-turn motor performance (Panizzolo, Marcolin, & 
Petrone, 2013). With respect to the aforementioned, data on importance of specific mo-
tor abilities learned and tested by ski simulator are scarce, but according to Nourrit-Lu-
cas, Zelic, Deschamps, Hilpron, and Delignières (2013), coordination variables tend to 
be among the most important factors for valid assessment of learning and retention of 
alpine skiing (Nourrit-Lucas et al., 2013). Skiing is an activity that requires a coordina-
tion between upper and lower body, with special accent on leg muscles that need to be 
strengthened. During ski turns, especially short turns skiers are constantly performing 
lateral leg movements which are simulated by lateral jumps during training. The use of 
ski simulators enables lateral movements / jumps to be performed more authentically 
to short turns. Repetition of lateral jumps or lateral leg movements on a ski simulator 
represents a certain rhythm that can be performed at different pace, also, the pace at 
which lateral jumps are performed can be adjusted to usual pace of turns during slalom 
skiing. Therefore, in the present research we wanted to determine whether the results 
in specific motor test (continuous lateral jumps − SKILJ) are sufficient to evaluate the 
level of acquired alpine ski knowledge of ski beginners.



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ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 8 • 2017 • 1

METHODS

Participants

Overall, 24 male participants were included in the study. They were all students of 
School of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, who exhibited comparable performance 
levels and had no record of injuries in the preceding 6 months (age 23.4±1.68 years). 
They were all ski beginners prior to inclusion in the present study, with no experien-
ce whatsoever in alpine skiing. The study was approved by Ethics Committee of the 
School of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb. Each participant voluntarily provided 
written informed consent before participating and was thoroughly informed about the 
study aims and procedures.

Variables

At the beginning, the participants were tested according to a specific SKILJ test, 
assessing their performance of lateral jumps in dictated tempo (fifteen jumps in a time 
unit) using Microgate Optojump Next system. The system consists of two bars; tran-
smitting and receiving which communicate by LED lamps and calculate the duration 
of interruptions in the communication. The calculations measure the flight and contact 
times during the performance of a series of jumps with an accuracy of 1/1000 of a 
second. Moreover, the use of two cameras allows recording of the images of the tests 
performed, synchronizing them with the measured events. The participants were then 
included in a structured alpine ski program in identical conditions, and were afterwards 
tested on the short turn alpine ski technique. Short turns best represent the continuous 
connection of short unfinished parallel turns performed in a narrow corridor.

Research Protocol

The participants were first tested on SKILJ test for motor ability assessment. The 
test was repeated 3 times and the average result of each participant was used. Two 
parallel lines 30 cm apart were put on the ground; suggesting a minimal width of late-
ral jumps. The participants were asked to perform fifteen lateral jumps in the defined 
space. During the jumps they could use hand swings for the stability and adjusting the 
tempo of jumps. Intensity of the performance was tested in two variants. In variant one, 
participants chose their own tempo and intensity for lateral jumps, optimal take off and 
flight, while in variant two they had to perform 76 lateral jumps per minute (metrono-
me). Variables that were selected and measured included: average contact with ground 
(contact / s), average duration of flight (flight / s), average power (power W / kg), ave-
rage value of pace (RSI step / s), average jump height (height / cm).



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Vjekoslav CIGROVSKI, Ivica FRANJKO, Tomislav RUPČIĆ, Marijo BAKOVIĆ, Igor BOŽIĆ: IS SPECIFIC MOTOR TEST ENOUGH  ..., 5–14

Figure 1 Participant performing lateral jumps during the testing with Microgate Op-
tojump Next system.

After taking the test, the participants were included in a ten-day alpine ski program. 
During the skiing program they all had identical conditions regarding the terrains in 
the ski center, the quality of ski equipment, the hours of daily learning and practice, 
the availability of ski instructors and the information on alpine skiing. The participants 
were randomized in three groups of eight, and when the program of alpine skiing finis-
hed they all joined one group, demonstrating the acquired knowledge of short turn. Five 
independent judges graded the demonstration of short turn on a scale from 1 to 5; where 
the grade 5 was given to participants with superb demonstration. Each grade was given 
upon previously defined criteria and each judge had to pay attention to a specific part of 
a turn. Judges’ objectivity and homogeneity was tested in previous studies and therefore 
allowed their engagement in this research (Cigrovski, Matković, & Matković, 2008). 
Moreover, each participant was filmed during the demonstration of short turn, and af-
terwards the same judges once again evaluated the video of participants’ short turn. 

Statistical Methods

The results were analyzed by the Statistica statistical package version 12. To test the 
objectivity, the correlation coefficients between grades for short turn were calculated. 
Factor analysis was used to test judges’ homogeneity. Basic descriptive parameters 
were calculated, assessing participants’ motor ability (SKILJ). Pearson’s coefficients 
were calculated for the evaluation of degrees of the correlation between motor abili-
ty (lateral jumps) and alpine ski knowledge (on-field demonstration of short turn and 
video analysis of the same element). The results were considered significant if p<.05.



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ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 8 • 2017 • 1

Table 1: Correlation coefficients between grades given by five judges for the demon-
stration of short turn.

judge 1 judge 2 judge 3 judge 4 judge 5

judge 1 1.00    0.75**    0.80**    0.77**    0.72**

judge 2 1.00    0.79**    0.79**    0.88**

judge 3 1.00    0.82**    0.82**

judge 4 1.00    0.78**

judge 5 1.00

* p<0.05; ** p<0.01

Correlation coefficients between the five judges for the short turn element are all 
high and statistically significant, implying judges’ objectivity. 

Data on judges’ homogeneity are presented in Table 2.

Table 2: Results of first components given by judges during the short turn grading.

Element of ski technique Components
(factors) Eigenvalue % variance

short turn 1 4.17 83.38

Table 2 presents the eigenvalue of the principal component which fulfils the Gutt-
man-Kaiser criterion (λ=4.17) and represents the knowledge of alpine skiing. The re-
sults suggest that all judges participating in the investigation graded the same item, i.e. 
alpine ski knowledge.

Basic descriptive parameters for the variables obtained in the SKILJ test and for the 
short turn are shown in Table 3.



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Table 3: Basic descriptive parameters for the variables obtained in the SKILJ test and 
for the short turn.

 N Mean Max Min SD

SKILJ 24 1.95 1.17 2.41 0.31

short turn 24 3.70 2.00 5.00 1.02

VIDEO short turn 24 1.08 0.93 1.27 0.10

SKILJ avg 24 1.94 1.42 2.35 0.25

SKILJ = continuous lateral jumps; VIDEO short turn =grade for filmed short turn; SKILJ avg 
=SKILJ average result; Max=maximal; Min=minimal 

Correlation between SKILJ test and the level of acquired alpine ski knowledge in 
short turn is presented in Table 4.

Table 4: Correlation between the SKILJ test and the level of acquired alpine ski knowl-
edge in short turn.

SKILJ short turn VIDEO
 short turn SKILJ avg

SKILJ 1.00 0.05 -0.01 0.94*

short turn 1.00 0.11 0.11

VIDEO short turn 1.00 -0.10

SKILJ avg 1.00

* p<0.05; ** p<0.01
SKILJ = continuous lateral jumps; VIDEO short turn =grade for filmed short turn; SKILJ avg 
=SKILJ average result

The results show no statistically significant correlation between lateral jumps in 
predefined pace and the acquired knowledge of short turn ski technique.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Alpine skiing is best characterized by repetition of ski turns, the basic motion for 
managing speed and direction during downhill descend (LeMaster, 2009). It is expec-
ted that different exercises or tests simulating specific ski movements used during off-



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ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 8 • 2017 • 1

-season would benefit skiers in terms of training and maintaining their functional and 
strength capabilities. Significant interest has been shown in the use of motion analysis 
of ski turns to improve performance while performance of turns affects overall per-
formance (Gwangjae et al., 2016). Although for recreational skiers one would expect 
similar training might help in learning or mastering specific movements important for 
ski technique it has not been proven repeatedly.  For example, explosive leg strength 
which is of utmost importance for the success of competitive level skiers, did not show 
its correlation with success of ski learning during the beginning phases (Neumayr et al., 
2003). On the other hand, balance is equally important for competitive skiers as it is for 
ski beginners, while those who have developed balance at the higher level also adopt 
ski knowledge more rapidly (Malliou et al., 2004; Ružić et al., 2008; Cigrovski et al., 
2016). Although one would expect similar importance of coordination in the rhythm 
with the effectiveness of adopting ski knowledge, our results failed to demonstrate it 
with test lateral jumps. Lateral jumps are often used during competitive skiing trainings 
because they are like lower body and leg motion during skiing. They play a crucial role 
in the control of speed and direction during turns.

In this study, we found no statistical significance between the results achieved in 
the SKILJ test (testing lateral jumps) and learned level of short turn. Results suggest 
that the movements executed during continuous connecting few short parallel turns are 
much more layered (complicated) than the movements needed during the performance 
of SKILJ. Moreover, different ways of executing short turns and lateral jumps in the 
test additionally contributed to a lack of correlation between the two variables. Besides 
the biomechanical aspects of ski turn that have been studied with different methods and 
simulators, the analysis of movement helps in determining patterns of injury and sub-
sequently leads to their successful prevention (Lee et al., 2012; Gwangjae et al., 2016). 
This is where the research with ski simulators is aimed at in the recent years (Lee et al., 
2012). As alpine skiing is a specific motor activity primarily due to the conditions in 
which it is executed and the need for continuous rhythmic body movements while de-
scending the slope in different width corridors, efforts are made in the development of 
specific training protocols and tests that would improve ski technique. Before making 
final conclusions about the existence of correlation between the results in SKILJ test 
and adoption of knowledge in short turn, we need to mention the study limitations. Fir-
stly, it included a small number of participants. In succeeding studies, a larger sample 
of participants and participants of different age need to be included. If repeatedly one 
would find no correlation between SKILJ results and alpine ski learning, conclusion 
with greater certainty would be that we cannot predict success of learning short parallel 
turn with SKILJ. Once again it must be accentuated that the SKILJ test was taken and 
modified from conditioning training of the competitive level alpine skiers. Different 
lateral jumps in dictated tempo are systematically used during conditioning trainings 
of alpine skiers. Analogy with the mentioned led to the assumption that lateral jumps 
in predefined tempo of performance like that of short parallel turns will be in close 
correlation, but as previously mentioned in similar studies, the correlations although 
sometimes logical, do not always prove in the praxis (Neumayr et al., 2003).



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Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to the HEP (Croatian national electricity company) for 
supporting the measurements as well as to Microgate and the University of Zagreb for 
their contributions to this research.

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