









































ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 11 • 2020 • 2

99

PLAYING, THEN AND NOW – DIFFERENCES IN TIME AND 
ELEMENTS OF PLAY FROM PARENTS’ PERSPECTIVE

Ranko RAJOVIĆ1, Vanja KOVIĆ2, Dragana BERIĆ3

1 University of Primorska, Faculty of Education, Koper, Slovenia
2 Faculty of Philosophy, Department of Psychology, University of Belgrade, Serbia

3 Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Niš, Serbia

Corresponding author:
Ranko RAJOVIĆ, 

University of Primorska, Faculty of Education, Cankarjeva 5, 6000 Koper, Slovenia
Tel.: +386 70 576 706

e-mail: ranko.ntc@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

The question how the general trend toward physical inactivity and sedentary be-
havior affects children’s capabilities and cognitive skills is becoming increasingly im-
portant. The aim of this study was to compare children’s play time with parents’ play 
time at their child’s age, as well as the elements of play. A survey was conducted among 
parents of children aged 6 to 8 years. The results of the survey, which was based on a 
sample of 37 parents, showed that a child nowadays spends more time playing at home 
(110 minutes/day on average compared to the 96 minutes/day their parents played as 
children) and, conversely, with a statistically significant difference, only half the time 
their parents did playing outside (96 minutes/day on average compared to the 157 
minutes/day on average that their parents spent at the same age). We also found a 
statistically significant difference in screen time in children today (93 minutes/day on 
average), which is three times as much as it used to be in their parents at that age. 
Differences were also evident in activities involving elements of rotation, balance, and 
dynamic accommodation, with most children now spending 0-15 minutes/day compa-
red to parents who used to spend an hour or more on similar activities. For activities 
based on fine motor skills, half of the children nowadays spend 15-30 minutes/day, 
whereas half of the parents used to spend an hour or more. The contemporary lifestyle 
that is highly sedentary can affect many aspects of children’s play. The paper discusses 
differences of play in the time dimension and possible consequences of such behavior 
for child development.

Keywords: motor skills, play, cognitive development, childhood, leisure time.

Original scientific article          doi: https://doi.org/10.35469/ak.2020.150
received: 2017-05-31                 UDC: 796.11



100

Ranko RAJOVIĆ, Vanja KOVIĆ, Dragana BERIĆ: PLAY THEN AND NOW  ..., 99–119

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 11 • 2020 • 2

IGRA NEKOČ IN DANES – RAZLIKA V ČASU IN ELEMENTIH 
IGRE IZ PERSPEKTIVE STARŠEV

IZVLEČEK

Vprašanje trenda vpliva telesne neaktivnosti in sedentarnega življenjskega sloga 
otrok na njihov splošni razvoj in kognitivne sposobnosti, postaja iz dneva v dan bolj 
pomembno. Za boljše razumevanje tega fenomena in podrobnejši vpogled v splošne 
trende preživljanja prostega časa pri otrocih, je bila izvedena raziskava med starši 
otrok, starih od 6 do 8 let. Namen raziskave je bila primerjava časa, namenjenega 
igri in posameznim elementom igre pri otrocih, s časom, ki so ga igri namenili njihovi 
starši, ko so bili stari toliko, kot njihovi otroci. Pri vzorcu 37 staršev otrok, starih od 6 
do 8 let je bilo ugotovljeno, da otroci danes igri doma namenijo v povprečju 110 min/
dan, medtem ko so starši v njihovih letih domači igri namenili povprečno 96 min/dan, 
kar ni statistično pomembno. Na drugi strani pa otroci danes igri na prostem namenijo 
v povprečju 96 min/dan, medtem ko so njihovi starši tej vrsti igre povprečno namenjali 
157 min/dan, kar je skoraj dvakrat več in torej očitna, statistično pomembna razlika. 
Otroci danes preživijo v povprečju 93 min/dan pred ekrani, kar je trikrat toliko časa, 
kot so ga temu namenjali starši v njihovih letih (povprečno 30 min), in je statistično 
pomembno. Pri aktivnostih, ki vsebujejo elemente rotacijskega gibanja, ravnotežja in 
dinamičnega prilagajanja očesa, večina otrok danes preživi 0‒15 min, medtem ko so 
njihovi starši tovrstnim aktivnostim namenjali v povprečju uro ali več. Aktivnostim na 
osnovi fine motorike polovica otrok nameni 15–30 min, medtem ko je polovica staršev 
tem aktivnostim namenila vsaj eno uro časa ali celo več. Sodobni življenjski slog, ki na 
eni strani vključuje malo gibanja in telesnih aktivnosti, na drugi strani pa precej časa, 
preživetega pred ekrani, lahko vpliva na številne aspekte otrokovega razvoja. Članek 
obravnava posledice tovrstnega vedenja in morebitne načine za preprečevanje tega 
naraščajočega trenda.

Ključne besede: gibalne sposobnosti, igra, kognitivni razvoj, otroštvo, prosti čas.



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 11 • 2020 • 2

101

Ranko RAJOVIĆ, Vanja KOVIĆ, Dragana BERIĆ: PLAY THEN AND NOW  ..., 99–119

INTRODUCTION

Currently, schoolteachers estimate children’s abilities (motor skills, attention, and 
concentration) to be significantly lower than those of previous generations of children 
(Rajović, Rajović, Kovačić, & Dajčman, 2016). One of the reasons for that could be the 
contemporary lifestyle that includes a lower level of physical activity (PA). 

An increasing number of teachers and experts share this opinion, which could be 
justified by numerous studies which have shown that the prevalence of certain neuro-
developmental disorders has increased over the past four decades (U.S. Environmental 
Protection Agency, 2015, p. 233). In comparison to previous generations, a changing 
trend has been observed with regard to developmental problems, such as speech disor-
ders, dyslexia, dysgraphia, and disorders associated with attention deficit, and behavior, 
emotional and impulse control. Educators and paediatricians report a rise in the number 
of schoolchildren with behavioral and learning disorders (U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, 2015, p. 233). 

Several studies carried out in the past 10 years in the countries of former Yugoslavia 
have shown that an increasing number of children have flat feet. Research conducted 
in Ljubljana, Slovenia, on a sample of 127 children aged three years, showed that 72% 
of the respondents had fallen arches (Videmšek, Klopčič, Štihec, & Karpljuk, 2006). In 
Novi Sad, Serbia, it was found that in a sample of 377 children aged six, only 31.66% 
of them had healthy feet (Milošević & Obradović, 2008). All these issues indicate a 
persistent and progressive problem that has not been fully understood yet.

The most intense period of synaptogenesis occurs in the first few years of life and 
PET imaging studies reveal that overall brain metabolism rises to twice the level in 
adults by 4–5 years of age and remains high until 9–10 years of age. The first two years 
of human life are marked by rapid elaboration of neural processes and synaptogenesis, 
followed by a so-called “plateau” phase of development (Horska, Kaufmann, Brant, 
Naidu, Harris, & Barker, 2002). Although brain size between the ages of two and five 
years does not change much, myelination and synaptic remodeling are particularly ac-
tive during this so-called “plateau” phase of development (Tau & Peterson, 2010). Such 
findings help us understand the importance of childhood and especially the first few 
years of life for brain development. However, it is becoming increasingly evident that 
one of the main issues of contemporary lifestyle is sedentary behavior, more generally 
lack of physical activity, and consequent deterioration of child development and health. 
It is often forgotten that physical activity is a necessity and not a luxury. Until the age 
of twelve, the human brain goes through intensive developmental stages. Children pos-
sess enormous energy that is biologically given to them for movement, through which 
important brain functions develop, structures interconnect and new neural pathways 
form. Through complex movements like walking uphill and downhill, skipping, jump-
ing, rolling, running, climbing, tumbling, etc., a child prepares for life by developing 
basic biological functions. The human organism has a very difficult task maintaining 
homeostasis in ages marked by rapid change. Some consequences are more, and some 
less obvious, but it is a fact that a sedentary lifestyle is responsible for a growing num-



102

Ranko RAJOVIĆ, Vanja KOVIĆ, Dragana BERIĆ: PLAY THEN AND NOW  ..., 99–119

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 11 • 2020 • 2

ber of diseases and disorders suffered in modern society. Sedentary behavior in chil-
dren, and particularly increasing screen time, has been linked to inadequate cardiore-
spiratory fitness (Sandercock & Ogunleye, 2013), high BMI (Ullrich-French, Power, 
Daratha, Bindler, & Steele 2010), diabetes type II (Henderson et al., 2012), hyperten-
sion (Martinez-Gomez, Tucker, Heelan, Welk, & Eisenmann, 2009), asthma (Protudjer, 
Kozyrskyj, McGavock, Ramsey, & Becker, 2012), ADHD (Christakis, 2009), and poor 
executive functions (Lillard, Drell, Richey, Boguszewski, & Smith, 2015). Moreover, 
the level of aerobic fitness in children is directly correlated to the volume of certain 
brain structures, such as basal ganglia, as well as to children’s cognitive abilities, such 
as attention and cognitive control (Chaddock et al., 2010). 

The idea that there is a connection between motor and cognitive development is not 
radically new. In 1953, Piaget suggested the importance of sensorimotor experience for 
the development of cognitive abilities (Piaget, 1953). If we look at a simple analogy, 
living beings that do not move don’t have nerve cells and a nervous system, and species 
that move have a nervous system, then important characteristics of the human inclu-
de their upright gait and motor movement. This is particularly important for children 
because their brains develop rapidly until the age of five, and the reason why walking 
and running must be one of a child’s main activities (Rajović, 2010). A growing body 
of research indicates a high correlation between intelligence and connectivity between 
lateral prefrontal regions and other brain regions (Cole, Yarkoni, Repovš, Anticevic, & 
Braver, 2012). Consistent with these findings, it is necessary to promote connectivity 
between sensorimotor and associative brain regions of the developing brain through 
specific games and activities.

The aim of the study was to investigate whether leisure time of children today con-
tains less PA and complex outdoor play in comparison to that of their parents at the 
same age. Of particular interest were the activities or children’s play that include these 
elements: (a) rotation, (b) balance, (c) dynamic accommodation, (d) fine motor skills, 
and (e) running. Complex motor movements and activities that promote aerobic fi-
tness such as running are seen as particularly important, as their lack can contribute 
to cognitive dysfunction in children (Sibley & Etnier, 2003; Chaddock et al., 2010; 
Gomez-Pinilla & Hillman, 2013; Buckley, Cohen, Kramer, McAuley & Mullen, 2014; 
Denham, Marques, O’Brien & Charchar, 2014; Erickson, Hillman & Kramer, 2015). 
There are specific games that involve rotation, balance, dynamic accommodation, fine 
motor skills, and running, and the very reason children should practice these activities 
is the prevention of many cognitive, motor, or other deficits that we can increasingly 
observe in them. In order to understand the importance and outreach of these elements, 
we will provide you with a brief overview.

Activities such as rotation and balance maintenance, often practiced through va-
rious spinning games, were long ago recognized as an important building block for 
proper child development. These activities are the source of vestibular stimulation and, 
as Elliot (1999) states, the vestibular system is one of the earliest senses to mature. 
Vestibular stimulation thus provides the child with a large amount of early sensory 
experience upon which other sensory and motor skills are built, which in turn encou-



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 11 • 2020 • 2

103

Ranko RAJOVIĆ, Vanja KOVIĆ, Dragana BERIĆ: PLAY THEN AND NOW  ..., 99–119

rage the development of higher emotional and cognitive skills (Elliot, 1999, p. 154). 
As already mentioned, aerobic fitness, apart from maintaining physical wellbeing, has 
been shown to be directly correlated to children’s cognitive abilities, such as attention 
and cognitive control (Chaddock et al., 2010). This type of fitness is mainly achieved 
through activities that involve walking and running. The impact of fine motor skills 
goes well beyond the development of dexterity, strength, and everyday skills. In the 
school readiness test, fine motor skills, along with attention and general knowledge, 
have been shown to be much stronger predictors of math, reading, and science achieve-
ments overall in elementary school than early math and reading scores alone (Grissmer, 
Grimm, Aiyer, Murrah, & Steele, 2010). Moreover, numerous studies conducted to 
date have shown a clear correlation between fine motor skills and reading performance 
(Brookman, McDonald, McDonald, & Bishop, 2013; Cameron et al., 2012; Grissmer 
et al., 2010). Because of its complexity, authors consider dynamic accommodation to 
be particularly important for the proper development of a child. In order to explore the 
cross-generational trend of leisure activities at an early school age, a survey of play 
elements and time was conducted among parents of children aged 6 to 8. 

METHODS

The research was conducted in “Dečiji kulturni centar,” Belgrade, on 9 June 2017. 
The survey with its specific questionnaire was created for the purpose of this study, as 
we could not find an appropriate questionnaire in the existing literature. The survey 
consists of four parts and is a combination of open- and closed-ended questions (see 
Appendix). The first part of the survey was structured to collect data on independent 
(demographic) variables such as sex, marital status, education level, etc. The next two 
parts, labelled A and B, focus on examining core research questions (correlation bet-
ween the amount and quality of outdoor and indoor play and cognitive development 
of children). Part A investigates this topic via a set of questions for parents about their 
children, while part B investigates the same topic from the perspective of parents in 
their childhood. The last part, C, investigates the amount of screen time in the parents 
when they were young and, in their children, now. 

The probability sampling method was used for this study in which parents who 
attended a lecture given by the first author of the paper were asked to complete the 
questionnaire after the lecture. Participation in the survey was voluntary, all parents 
who attended the lecture were happy to take part in the research. The sample consisted 
of 37 parents (7 males) with an age range of 30-49 (mean 39.97 years), 32 of them 
were married (3 divorced, 2 single). As for their education, the majority (67.6%) had a 
university diploma or higher education (19 university diplomas, 4 masters and 2 PhDs), 
while one third had a college or lower education level (5 primary school, 4 secondary 
school and 3 college), Accordingly, children can be considered a “subsample” because 
their experiences and habits were reported indirectly through their parents.



104

Ranko RAJOVIĆ, Vanja KOVIĆ, Dragana BERIĆ: PLAY THEN AND NOW  ..., 99–119

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 11 • 2020 • 2

The SPSS software (version 16.0, IBM, USA) was used for data analysis. The data 
were presented as mean and additionally frequency analysis of differences in play time 
between children and parents at the child’s age. Chi square analysis for play elements 
of: (a) rotation, (b) balance, (c) dynamic accommodation, (d) fine motor skills, and (e) 
running, and other specific games with these elements was used to determine a statisti-
cally significant relation at p<.001.

RESULTS

The results section presents a parallel perspective of core research questions betwe-
en parents and their children. As has been stated above, authors compare the childhoods 
of parents and their children at 6-8 years. At the very beginning, the amount of time 
spent playing indoors and outdoors is compared as well as screen time. Afterwards, a 
more profound and segmental approach is taken, investigating both populations regar-
ding time spent in play involving elements of: (a) rotation, (b) balance, (c) dynamic 
accommodation, (d) fine motor skills, and (e) running, and the specific games including 
these elements.

The survey results have shown that a child today spends 110 min/day on average 
playing indoors (Table 1), while their parent used to spend 96 min/day, which is not 
a statistically significant difference (t (1, 66)=0.9, p=.371). On the other hand, a child 
today spends 96 min/day on average in outdoor play, while a parent used to spend 157 
min/day on average, almost twice as much as their children, with a statistically signi-
ficant difference (t(1, 66)=3.93, p<.001). A child today spends 93 min/day in front of a 
screen on average, which is three times as much as their parents used to (30 minutes on 
average), which is statistically significant (t(1, 66)=4.95, p<.001). 

Table 1. Overview of the play time of children and parents at their age spent indoors, 
outdoors, and in front of a screen.

N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error 
Mean

Home
child 37 110.00 70.711 11.625

parent 31 96.13 52.769 9.478

Outdoors
child 37 96.62 43.494 7.150

parent 32 157.97 82.773 14.632

TV, 
Smartphone, 
etc.

child 35 92.71 69.540 11.754

parent 33 29.39 24.487 4.263



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 11 • 2020 • 2

105

Ranko RAJOVIĆ, Vanja KOVIĆ, Dragana BERIĆ: PLAY THEN AND NOW  ..., 99–119

The overview of the time that children spend in various elements of play involving 
rotation, balance, dynamic accommodation, fine motor skills, and running, as estimated 
by their parents, and the amount of time the parents used to spend in the same activities 
when they were children is structured in the survey via Likert scale with time cate-
gories. These are formed based on the minutes spent on a game (from 0, 15 min, 30 
min, 45 min, 60 min, over 60 minutes). In activities that have the elements of rotation 
(elastics, playing with marbles1, running, hopscotch), balance (elastics, rope skipping, 
climbing, hopscotch) and dynamic accommodation (jumping over obstacles, catching 
and throwing a ball, etc.), most of the children spend 0-15 minutes, while parents used 
to spend an hour or more. In fine motor skills-based activities (marbles, stickers, plasti-
cine, playing an instrument, etc.), half of the children spend 15 to 30 minutes, while half 
of the parents used to spend at least an hour or more. In activities that include walking 
and running, half of the children and 75% of the parents used to spend an hour or more 
(this is the activity in which parents and children spent an equal amount of time). 

Elements of play involving rotation

As can be seen from the comparative bar chart data presentation (Figure 1), there 
is a significant difference between the results obtained for parents and their children.

Figure 1. Play time of children and parents at children’s age spent in elements of play 
involving rotation.

1  A classic game of marbles, that used to be played in parks and playgrounds, is a dynamic game 
which involves a lot of turns and squatting. Physically dynamic nature of the game requires a constant 
change of body position which involves both rotation and sustained balance.



106

Ranko RAJOVIĆ, Vanja KOVIĆ, Dragana BERIĆ: PLAY THEN AND NOW  ..., 99–119

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 11 • 2020 • 2

Table 2. Play time of children and parents at children’s age spent in elements of play 
involving rotation.

Daily duration of games and activities involving rotation

No 
answer 0-15 min 16-30 min 31-45 min 46-60 min >60 min

Children 2.70% 48.65% 21.62% 16.22% 5.41% 5.41%

Parents 5.41% 2.70% 2.70% 21.62% 27.03% 40.54%

Chi square 
analysis for 
rotation

χ²(1.5)=36.55, p<0.001

What is striking in these two representations of data is the totally opposite maximum 
and minimum amounts of time spent in games involving rotation activities. 40.5% of 
parents used to spend over 60 minutes in games involving rotation (elastics, marbles, 
running, hopscotch) while only 5.41% of their children spend time playing these kinds 
of games.

Elements of play involving balance

Data on the comparative analysis of elements of play involving balance are presen-
ted in Table 3 and Figure 2.

Table 3. Play time of children and parents at children’s age spent in elements of play 
involving balance.

Daily duration of games and activities involving balance

No 
answer None 0-15 

min
16-30 
min

31-45 
min

46-60 
min >60 min

Children 2.70% 2,70% 51.35% 21.65% 18.92% 2.70% 2.70%

Parents 5.41% / / 8.11% 10.81%  32.43% 43.24%

Chi square 
analysis for 
rotation

χ²(1.5)=48.73, p<0.001

 



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 11 • 2020 • 2

107

Ranko RAJOVIĆ, Vanja KOVIĆ, Dragana BERIĆ: PLAY THEN AND NOW  ..., 99–119

Figure 2. Play time of children and parents at children’s age spent in elements of play 
involving balance.

 

Interestingly, the situation is similar to that reflected in Table 2, as 43.24% of pa-
rents used to spend over 60 minutes in games involving balance (elastics, skipping 
rope, climbing, hopscotch) while only 2.7% of their children spend time playing these 
kinds of games now.

Elements of play involving dynamic accommodation activities

Data on the comparative analysis of games involving dynamic accommodation ac-
tivities are presented in Table 4.

Here, too, we can see that more than one third of parents (35.14 %) used to spend 
over 60 minutes in games involving dynamic accommodation (jumping over obstacles, 
catching and throwing a ball, etc.) while only 8.11% of their children spend time in 
these kinds of games.



108

Ranko RAJOVIĆ, Vanja KOVIĆ, Dragana BERIĆ: PLAY THEN AND NOW  ..., 99–119

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 11 • 2020 • 2

Table 4. Play time of children and parents at children’s age spent in elements of play 
involving dynamic accommodation.

Daily duration of games and activities involving 
dynamic accommodation

No 
answer None 0-15 

min
16-30 
min

31-45 
min

46-60 
min >60 min

Children 2.70% 8.11% 27.03 43.24% 10.81% 8.11% /

Parents 5.41% / 2.70% 13.51% 13.51% 29.7% 35.14%

Chi square 
analysis for 
rotation

χ²(1,5)=34.14, p<0.001

Figure 3. Play time of children and parents at children’s age spent in element of play 
involving dynamic accommodation.



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 11 • 2020 • 2

109

Ranko RAJOVIĆ, Vanja KOVIĆ, Dragana BERIĆ: PLAY THEN AND NOW  ..., 99–119

Elements of play involving fine motor skills

Data on the comparative analysis of the games involving fine motor skills activities 
are presented in Table 5.

Table 5. Play time of children and parents at children’s age spent in element of play 
involving fine motor skills.

Daily duration of games and activities involving fine motor skills

No 
answer None 0-15 

min
16-30 
min

31-45 
min

46-60 
min >60 min

Children / 8,11% 21,62% 32,43% 10,81% 21,62% 5,41%

Parents 5,41% / 10,81% 16,22% 16,22% 16,22% 35,14%

Chi square 
analysis for 
rotation

χ²(1,5)=17.09, p<0.01

Figure 4. Play time of children and parents at children’s age spent in elements of play 
involving fine motor skills.



110

Ranko RAJOVIĆ, Vanja KOVIĆ, Dragana BERIĆ: PLAY THEN AND NOW  ..., 99–119

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 11 • 2020 • 2

As with most elements, that of play involving fine motor skills shows a big differen-
ce as 35.14% of parents compared to 8.11% of their children spent over 60 minutes in 
games involving fine motor skills-based activities (marbles, stickers, plasticine, playing 
an instrument etc.).

Elements of play involving running

Data on the comparative analysis of games involving running activities are pre-
sented in Table 6.

Table 6. Play time of children and parents at children’s age used in elements of play 
involving running.

Daily duration of games and activities involving running

No 
answer 0-15 min 16-30 

min
31-45 
min

46-60 
min >60 min

Children / 5,41% 29,73% 13,51% 21,62% 29,73%

Parents 5,41% 2,70% 5,41% 13,51% 21,62% 51,35%

Chi square analysis 
for rotation χ²(1,5)=10.69, p=0.058

Figure 5. Play time of children and parents at children’s age spent in element of play 
involving running.



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 11 • 2020 • 2

111

Ranko RAJOVIĆ, Vanja KOVIĆ, Dragana BERIĆ: PLAY THEN AND NOW  ..., 99–119

Results for elements of play involving running are similar to previous tables, 
showing that more than half of parents (51.35%) used to spend over 60 minutes in ga-
mes involving running activities while only 5.41% of their children are spending time 
on such games now.

Chi square analysis for rotation, balance, dynamic accommodation and fine motor 
skills were significantly different, whereas running was at the borderline of signifi-
cance. 

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

From the parent’s perspective and from our own experience we found no difficulties 
making the estimation of the past time spent outdoors when we were young. The recall 
came with ease, because apart from school and other activities, meals and sleep, most 
of the leisure time was spent outdoors. With nostalgia, generations from the late 1970s 
to the late 1980s remembered how hard our parents had to try to get us to come inside 
for meals or sleep. Free play as well as the contact with nature that seems to be scarce 
in today’s generations of children were among the motivations for this study. Hence, 
we created a questionnaire which would capture this common knowledge or insight 
(at least in this region of the world) to enable us to point to the problems and potential 
consequences of such dramatic change concerning leisure time play behaviors taking 
place over only two to three decades.

Since the aim of the study was to compare the domains of PA or play elements and 
the quantity of children’s play time with the respective values for their parents at the 
same age, we managed to analyze not only the overall time spent in indoor and outdoor 
play, but also more specific aspects of play elements involving rotation, balance, dyna-
mic accommodation, fine motor skill-based activities, and activities involving walking 
and running. We observed and reported a significant difference in both the domains 
(elements of play) and the quantity of play time between contemporary children and 
their parents at their age.

While children today spend about the same amount of time playing at home as their 
parents did during childhood (about two hours), they spend an average of one and a half 
hours playing outdoors, as opposed to their parents who used to spend almost twice that 
amount of time outdoors. In contrast, children today spend three times as much time in 
front of a screen (TV, computer, mobile phone, etc.) as their parents did in their child-
hood (one and a half hours vs.half an hour).

These findings strongly suggest that the contemporary lifestyle of children involves 
less physical activity (PA) and much more screen time, which must have a strong im-
pact on their development. 

Play is of intrinsic motivation for every child and a natural way of learning. To sti-
mulate the overall biological potential of children it is important to integrate complex 
motor skills and mental processes into play. Particularly, fine motor skills, dynamic 
accommodation, balance, and rotation have been found to be important play elements. 



112

Ranko RAJOVIĆ, Vanja KOVIĆ, Dragana BERIĆ: PLAY THEN AND NOW  ..., 99–119

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 11 • 2020 • 2

Moreover, speech, which underlies many areas of child development, is naturally foste-
red by the play process, as it is a common element of the classic children’s games listed 
in the questionnaire. If we take into consideration that there is a clear correlation bet-
ween motor, cognitive, and emotional development that decreases with age, it becomes 
clear that early childhood age plays a key-role in regard to overall child development.

When there is a clear decrease of aerobic and motor activities in children, and with 
the consequences of such behavior well known, it becomes a priority to educate parents 
and especially those who work with young children to prevent or at least reduce the 
effects of this trend.

Limitations

First, the use of a non-validated set of questions in the questionnaire survey to mea-
sure the generations’ differences in elements and quantity of play may limit the strength 
of the study. Second, the self-reported data and structure of the survey (recall bias) may 
represent another potential source of bias and third, the use of the chi- square test is less 
reliable for small sample frequencies (< 5). 

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank all the participants who took part in this study.

REFERENCES
 

Brookman, A., McDonald, S., McDonald, D., & Bishop, D. V. M. (2013). Fine motor de-
ficits in reading disability and language impairment: Same or different? PeerJ, 1(e217). 
https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.217. 

Buckley, J., Cohen, J. D., Kramer, A. F., McAuley, E., & Mullen, S. P. (2014). Cognitive 
control in the self-regulation of physical activity and sedentary behavior. Frontiers in 
human neuroscience, 8, 747. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00747.

Cameron, C., Brock, L., Murrah, W., Bell, L., Worzalla, S., Grissmer, D., & Morri-
son, F. (2012). Fine motor skills and executive function both contribute to kindergarten 
achievement. Child Development, 83(4), 1229–1244. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-
8624.2012.01768.x. 

Chaddock, L., Erickson, K., Prakash, R. S., VanPatter, M., Voss, M. W., Pontifex, M. 
B, ... Kramer, A. F. (2010). Basal ganglia volume is associated with aerobic fitness 
in preadolescent children. Developmental Neuroscience. 32(3), 249-256. https://doi.
org/10.1159/000316648. 

https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.217
https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00747
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01768.x
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01768.x
https://doi.org/10.1159/000316648
https://doi.org/10.1159/000316648


ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 11 • 2020 • 2

113

Ranko RAJOVIĆ, Vanja KOVIĆ, Dragana BERIĆ: PLAY THEN AND NOW  ..., 99–119

Christakis, D. A. (2009). The effects of infant media usage: what do we know and 
what should we learn? Acta Paediatrica, 98(1), 8-16. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-
2227.2008.01027.x. 

Cole, M. W., Yarkoni, T., Repovš, G., Anticevic, A., & Braver, T. S. (2012). Global con-
nectivity of prefrontal cortex predicts cognitive control and intelligence. Journal of Neu-
roscience, 32(26), 8988-8999. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0536-12.2012. 

Denham, J., Marques, F. Z., O’Brien, B. J., & Charchar, F. J. (2014). Exercise: putting 
action into our epigenome. Sports Medicine, 44(2), 189-209. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s40279-013-0114-1.

Elliot, L. (1999). What‘s going on there? How the brain and mind develop in the first five 
years of life. New York: A Bantam Book.

Erickson, K., Hillman, C., & Kramer, A. (2015). Physical activity, brain, and cogni-
tion. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 4, 27–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobe-
ha.2015.01.005.

Gomez-Pinilla, F., & Hillman, C. (2013). The influence of exercise on cognitive abilities. 
Comprehensive Physiology, 3(1), 403-428. https://doi.org/10.1002/cphy.c110063.

Grissmer, D., Grimm, K. J., Aiyer, S. M., Murrah, W. M., & Steele, J. S. (2010). Fine 
motor skills and early comprehension of the world: Two new school readiness indica-
tors, Developmental Psychology, 46(5), 1008-1017. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020104. 

Henderson, M., Gray-Donald, K., Mathieu, M. E., Barnett, T. A., Hanley, J. A., 
O’Loughlin, J., ... Lambert, M. (2012). How are physical activity, fitness, and seden-
tary behavior associated with insulin sensitivity in children? Diabetes care, 35(6), 1272-
1278. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc11-1785. 

Horska, A., Kaufmann, W. E., Brant, L. J., Naidu, S., Harris, J. C., & Barker, P. B. 
(2002). In vivo quantitative proton MRSI study of brain development from childhood 
to adolescence. Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 15(2), 137–143. https://doi.
org/10.1002/jmri.10057. 

Lillard, A. S., Drell, M. B., Richey, E. M., Boguszewski, K., & Smith, E. D. (2015). Fur-
ther examination of the immediate impact of television on children’s executive function. 
Developmental psychology, 51(6), 792-805. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039097. 

Martinez-Gomez, D., Tucker, J., Heelan, K. A., Welk, G. J., & Eisenmann, J. C. (2009). 
Associations between sedentary behavior and blood pressure in young children. Ar-
chives of pediatrics & adolescent medicine, 163(8), 724-730. https://doi.org/10.1001/
archpediatrics.2009.90. 

Milošević, Z., & Obradović, B. (2008). Posturalni status dece novosadskih predškolskih 
ustanova uzrasta 7 godina [Postural status of 7 years old children from Novi Sad pre-
school institutions]. Journal of the Anthropological Society of Serbia, Novi Sad, 43, 
301-309. 

Piaget, J. (1953). The origin of intelligence in the child. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Protudjer, J., Kozyrskyj, A. L., McGavock, J. M., Ramsey, C. D., & Becker, A. B. 

(2012). High screen time is associated with asthma in overweight Manitoba youth. Jour-
nal of Asthma, 49(9), 935-941. https://doi.org/10.3109/02770903.2012.724753. 

Rajović, R. (2010). NTC sistem učenja: metodički priručnik za vaspitače [NTC learning 
system: methodical manual for teachers]. Vršac: College of Professional Studies in Edu-
cation of Teachers Mihajlo Palov.

Rajović, R., Rajović, I., Kovačić, D., & Dajčman, N. (2016). Descending trend of motor 
and cognitive abilities of school children. In New challenges in education: 1. Interna-

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-2227.2008.01027.x
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-2227.2008.01027.x
https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0536-12.2012
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-013-0114-1
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-013-0114-1
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2015.01.005
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2015.01.005
https://doi.org/10.1002/cphy.c110063
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020104
https://doi.org/10.2337/dc11-1785
https://doi.org/10.1002/jmri.10057
https://doi.org/10.1002/jmri.10057
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039097
https://doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2009.90
https://doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2009.90
https://doi.org/10.3109/02770903.2012.724753


114

Ranko RAJOVIĆ, Vanja KOVIĆ, Dragana BERIĆ: PLAY THEN AND NOW  ..., 99–119

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 11 • 2020 • 2

tional Conference, Čatež, Slovenia, Book of proceedings (pp.56–61). Novi Sad: Smart 
Production.

Sandercock, G. R., & Ogunleye, A. A. (2013). Independence of physical activity and 
screen time as predictors of cardiorespiratory fitness in youth. Pediatric research, 73(5), 
692-697. https://doi.org/10.1038/pr.2013.37. 

Sibley, B. A., & Etnier, J. L. (2003). The relationship between physical activity and cogni-
tion in children: a meta-analysis. Pediatric Exercise Science, 15(3), 243-256. https://doi.
org/10.1123/pes.15.3.243.

Tau, G. Z., & Peterson, B. S. (2010). Normal development of brain circuits. Neuropsycho-
pharmacology, 35(1), 147–168. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2009.115. 

Ullrich-French, S. C., Power, T. G., Daratha, K. B., Bindler, R. C., & Steele, M. M. 
(2010). Examination of adolescents’ screen time and physical fitness as independent 
correlates of weight status and blood pressure. Journal of Sports Sciences, 28(11), 1189-
1196. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2010.487070. 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2013). America’s children and the environment, 
third edition.

Videmšek, M., Klopčič, P., Štihec, J., & Karpljuk, D. (2006). The analysis of the arch 
of the foot in three-year-old children – a case of Ljubljana. Kinesiology 38(1), 78-85. 
Retrieved from https://hrcak.srce.hr/4190.

https://doi.org/10.1038/pr.2013.37
https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.15.3.243
https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.15.3.243
https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2009.115
https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2010.487070
https://hrcak.srce.hr/4190


ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 11 • 2020 • 2

115

Ranko RAJOVIĆ, Vanja KOVIĆ, Dragana BERIĆ: PLAY THEN AND NOW  ..., 99–119

APPENDIX
QUESTIONNAIRE - Playing, then and now

  
Dear parents, please provide your answers on the given lines or by circling the 

intended answer and putting an “X” in the appropriate table boxes. There are no right 
or wrong answers in this questionnaire, so we are kindly asking you to answer the que-
stions as truthfully as possible.

1. Gender:   F           M                       Age: ________________ 

2. Education level (please circle the correct answer):
a) primary school    b) secondary school    c) college 
d) university    e) MA/MSc       f) PhD

3. You are (please circle the correct answer):
a) married     b) in a common law marriage       c) widow/widower
d) divorced     e) remarried

4. How many children do you have? ________.   
What is the birth order of the child referred to in the questionnaire? ________.

5. What is your birth order in your family? _____, 
out of how many children? ________.

6. Do you wear glasses? YES     NO  

If YES, what is your eye prescription? _________ (put + or - in front of the number) 

A. QUESTIONS ABOUT YOUR CHILD

Child’s age ______ (6 to 8 yrs.)

1. Does the child wear glasses?  YES     NO
If YES, please write the child’s eye prescription. ________ (put + or - in front of 

the number)

2. Does your child play any sport?  YES     NO

If YES, please specify the sport. _______________

How often does your child practice per week? _____________ 

When did your child start practicing that sport? _____________ 



116

Ranko RAJOVIĆ, Vanja KOVIĆ, Dragana BERIĆ: PLAY THEN AND NOW  ..., 99–119

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 11 • 2020 • 2

3. How much time does your child usually spend playing (not including video ga-
mes and similar activities):  

Outdoors: _________ minutes              Indoors: ___________ minutes

4. How much time per day does your child spend playing games containing the 
elements listed below (put an X in the appropriate box for each type of activity, that 
is, 10 X signs in total: 5 for working days, 5 for weekends). It may seem to you that 
your child does not play the same games you played as a child, but please try to specify 
the number of games your child engages in per day that contain the specified elements 
while playing in the park, playroom, on a playground, etc.

REMARK: Please put an X in the appropriate box: working day (WD - the grey column 
box) and weekend (W - the white box).

                                             Duration
Games

None.  0-15 
minutes

 15-30 
minutes

 30-45 
minutes

45-60 
minutes

Over 60 
minutes.

WD W WD W WD W WD W WD W WD W

Rotation (e.g., 
elastics, marbles, 
running, hopscotch, 
etc.)

Balance (elastics, 
marbles, climbing, 
hopscotch, rope 
jumping ...)

Dynamic accommo-
dation (e.g., running 
over obstacles, ball 
catching and throw-
ing, etc.) 

Fine motor skills, 
making sure the child 
uses all ten fingers 
(marbles, napkins, 
stickers, making 
flower wreaths, 
playing instruments, 
playing with clay 
and other modeling 
materials.       

Walking, running. 



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 11 • 2020 • 2

117

Ranko RAJOVIĆ, Vanja KOVIĆ, Dragana BERIĆ: PLAY THEN AND NOW  ..., 99–119

5. What is your child’s favorite game? __________________________________

6. What is your child’s least favorite game? _______________________________

7. If your child spends more than 60 minutes outdoors per day, please specify how 
much time: 

On working days: a) 60-120 minutes  b) 120-180 minutes c) more than 180 minutes
On weekends: a) 60-120 minutes  b) 120-180 minutes c) more than 180 minutes

B. QUESTIONS ABOUT YOUR OWN CHILDHOOD

1. Try to remember your childhood and how much time per day you (aged 6 to 8) 
played games that contained the elements listed below (put an X in the appropriate box 
for each type of activity, that is, 10 X signs in total:5 for working days, 5 for weekends).

REMARK: Please fill in the appropriate box: working day (WD - the grey column box) 
and weekend (W - the white box).

                                             Duration
Games

None.  0-15 
minutes

 15-30 
minutes

 30-45 
minutes

45-60 
minutes

Over 60 
minutes.

WD W WD W WD W WD W WD W WD W

Rotation (e.g., 
elastics, marbles, 
running, hopscotch, 
etc.)

Balance (elastics, 
marbles, climbing, 
hopscotch, rope 
jumping ...)

Dynamic 
accommodation 
(e.g., running over 
obstacles, ball 
catching and throwing 
etc.) 

Fine motor skills, 
making sure the child 
uses all ten fingers 
(marbles, napkins, 
stickers, making 
flower wreaths, 
playing instruments, 
playing with clay 
and other modeling 
materials.



118

Ranko RAJOVIĆ, Vanja KOVIĆ, Dragana BERIĆ: PLAY THEN AND NOW  ..., 99–119

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 11 • 2020 • 2

Walking, running. 

2. What was your favorite game? ______________________________________

3. What was your least favorite game? __________________________________

4. How much time did you spend playing? Outdoors: _________ minutes              
Indoors:____________ minutes

5. If you spent more than 60 minutes outdoors, please specify how much time?
On working days: a) 60-120 minutes  b) 120-180 minutes c) more than 180 minutes
On weekends: a) 60-120 minutes  b) 120-180 minutes c) more than 180 minutes

C. SCREEN TIME

1. How much time does your child spend in front of screens 
(TV, computer, smart phone etc.) on working days (WD), 
and how much on weekends (W)? 

2. How much time did you spend in front of screens 
(TV, computer) at that age on working days (WD), 
and how much on weekends (W)? 

D. QUESTIONS RELATED TO SLEEP HABITS

1. What time does your child usually go to bed?
On working days: ___________ On weekends:  _____________

2. What time does your child usually get up in the morning?
On working days: ___________ On weekends: _____________

3. Does your child nap during the day? If yes, how much time does your child spend 
napping during the day?

Answer: _________________ 

4. Are there any activities or routines your child usually engages in before going to 
bed (reading a book, watching TV, etc.)?

Please specify these activities: _________________________________________

MINUTES

WD W

MINUTES

WD W



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 11 • 2020 • 2

119

Ranko RAJOVIĆ, Vanja KOVIĆ, Dragana BERIĆ: PLAY THEN AND NOW  ..., 99–119

How long do these activities usually take? ________________________________

5. Is your child a restless sleeper, frequently rolling over during sleep?
a) No  b) Sometimes  c) Yes, frequently.

6. Does your child wake up at night?
a) No  b) Sometimes  c) Yes, frequently.

7. Is your child often tired during the day?
a) No  b) Sometimes  c) Yes, frequently.

8. Does your child fall asleep doing certain activities during the day?
a) No  b) Sometimes  c) Yes, frequently.

THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION


	_GoBack
	_Hlk40898474
	_Hlk34144101
	_Hlk40871331
	_Hlk53505499
	_Hlk33786872
	_Hlk25864445
	_Hlk38187602

