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75

Original scientific article       UDC: 796.342:796.015.1
received: 2018-05-13

PLAYING ACTIVE VIDEO GAMES WHILE IN A TENNIS 
TRAINING PROCESS: A NEW TRAINING TOOL OR A 

HANDICAP FOR CHILDREN?

Luka ŠLOSAR 2, Matej PLEVNIK 1, Uroš MARUŠIČ 3,4

1 University of Primorska, Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Kinesiology and 
Physiotherapy, Izola, Slovenia

2 OŠ Vincenzo e Diego de Castro, Piran, Slovenia
3 Institute for Kinesiology Research, Science and Research Centre Koper, Slovenia
4 Department of Health Sciences, Alma Mater Europaea – ECM, Maribor, Slovenia

Corresponding Author:
Uroš MARUŠIČ

Institute for Kinesiology Research, Science and Research Centre Koper,
Garibaldijeva 1, 6000 Koper, Slovenia

Phone: +386 5 663 77 00
E-mail: uros.marusic@zrs-kp.si and umarusic@outlook.com

ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7420-2137

ABSTRACT

Aim: The purpose of this pilot study was to quantify the effect of a continued active 
video games (AVG) playing on the tennis forehand and backhand technique develop-
ment. 

Methods: Altogether 24 tennis players (7 – 9 year olds) were randomly divided in 
two different groups, both involved in a 12-week tennis training program (twice a week 
for an hour). The participants in the experimental group received an additional twice 
a week (20-minute) AVG Virtua Tennis 4 game intervention at the end of each regular 
tennis training hour, while the participants in the control group received no additional 
intervention. Pre- and post-AVG intervention, the Tennis Rating Score for Children 
scale (TRSC) was applied to detect tennis training-related changes that occur in each 
specific stroke. 

Results: Our results at the post-test show that participants in the experimental 
group did not significantly improved in one element (TRSC12; p = 0,317) in the fore-
hand stroke and two (TRSC10; p = 0,157 and TRSC12 p = 0,157) in the backhand. 
The control group significantly improved in all the fifteen evaluated elements in both 
the forehand and backhand stroke. The experimental group had a higher effect size in 



76

Luka ŠLOSAR, Matej PLEVNIK, Uros MARUŠIČ: PLAYING ACTIVE VIDEO GAMES WHILE IN A TENNIS TRAINING PROCESS ..., 75–88

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 2

all the kinetic chain section in both the forehand and backhand stroke compared to the 
control. The same happens for the TRSC7 (point of contact – height). 

Conclusion: Prolonged AVG playing seems to improve visual attentions skills (per-
ception of a moving object) in young tennis players, giving them the opportunity to be 
able to prepare themselves for the oncoming ball sooner as compared to their control 
counterparts. From the other perspective, AVG were shown to negatively affect correct 
players positioning, especially at the beginning and at the end of a stroke. 

Keywords: exergames, tennis technique, visual attention skills.

IGRANJE AKTIVNIH VIDEO IGER V PROCESU UČENJA TENISA 
OTROK: NOVO VADBENO ORODJE ALI OVIRA?

IZVLEČEK

Cilj: Namen pilotske študije je bil preučiti vpliv dolgotrajnega igranja aktivnih vi-
deo iger (AVG) na proces usvojitve tehnike teniških udarcev bekend in forhend. 

Metode: V študiji je sodelovalo 24 teniških igralcev starih 7 do 9 let, ki so bili 
naključno razdeljeni v dve skupini. Obe skupini sta bili vključeni v 12-tedenski teniški 
program usposabljanja (dvakrat na teden po eno uro). V prvi, t. i. eksperimentalni 
skupini, so igralci poleg rednega procesa treninga, bili deležni 20 minutnega igranja 
AVG Virtua Tennis 4 neposredno po treningu. Kontrolna skupina se je udeleževala le 
rednega procesa treninga. Za oceno izvedbe tehnike udarcev smo uporabili lestvico 
teniškega napredka (TRSC).  

Rezultati: Po 12-tedenski intervenciji eksperimentalna skupina ni pomembno na-
predovala v enem elementu (TRSC12; p=0,317) pri forhend udarcu in dveh (TRSC10; 
p=0,157 in TRSC12; p=0,157) pri bekend. Kontrolna skupina je pomembno napredo-
vala v vseh petnajstih elementih tako pri forhend kot bekend udarcu. Eksperimentalna 
skupina je imela višjo vrednost učinka pri vseh elementih kinetične verige tako pri 
bekend kot forhend udarcu v primerjavi s kontrolno skupino. Enako velja za element 
TRSC7 (višina točke udarca).  

Zaključek: Dolgotrajno igranje AVG naj bi izboljšalo vidno zaznavne sposobnosti 
mladih teniških igralcev in s tem omogočilo hitrejšo postavitev na udarec. Po drugi 
strani negativno vpliva na pravilno tehnično postavitev in zamah pri forhend in bekend 
udarcih. Rezultati predstavljajo koristne informacije tako za starše kot trenerje o vplivu 
AVG na teniški razvoj mladih igralcev.

Ključne besede:  aktivne video igre, tehnika udarcev, vidno prostorske sposobnosti.



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 2

77

Luka ŠLOSAR, Matej PLEVNIK, Uros MARUŠIČ: PLAYING ACTIVE VIDEO GAMES WHILE IN A TENNIS TRAINING PROCESS ..., 75–88

INTRODuCTION

Active video games (hereinafter AVG) represent a new video games generation that 
introduced controllers and motion sensing input devices, for which a whole body physi-
cal interaction is required while playing (Mears & Hansen, 2009). Compared to the 
traditional sedentary video games, the new virtual reality experience allowed its users 
to see, hear and feel the environment as being part of it. AVG are able to track full-body 
movements in three dimensions, can measure reaction times, accelerations and detect 
the speed of a player’s movement (Staiano & Calvert, 2011). While playing, the users 
need to simulate the basic movements and features that represent the key elements and 
specificities of each sport, hence they are able to express the most authentic replication 
of a real sport experience.

The most popular AVG devices are the commercially available Xbox, Wii, and 
PlayStation consoles. According to Fulton et al. (2012), 40 % of adolescents play video 
games at least once a week, 83 % of Americans aged between 8 and 18 have at least one 
AVG console at home while 56 % have two or more (Rideout, Foehr & Roberts, 2010).

The fast growing interest in AVG made them a significant research area. Studies 
were mainly focused on the contribution they can offer as a weapon against sedentary 
lifestyle and a way to promote wellness. Review articles and meta-analysis for obser-
vational studies (Peng, Lin & Crouse, 2011; Peng, Crouse & Lin, 2013) proved that 
playing AVG compared to inactivity, increase heart rate, oxygen consumption (VO2) 
and energy expenditure. Even more recent studies (Newel, 2013; Mills et al. 2013) 
demonstrate that a critical threshold of 3 METs (Metabolic Equivalents), representing 
moderate activities (3.5 to 7 kcal / min), can be achieved while playing AVG. Ac-
cording to the above-mentioned studies, playing AVG increases physiological body 
responses. The unexplained field remains the influence of those games on the develop-
ment of motor abilities and fundamental movement skills (Barnett, Hinkley, Okely, 
Hesketh & Salmon, 2012), which provide the basis for a more successful performance 
of sport-specific movement skills (Lubans, Morgan, Cliff, Barnett & Okely, 2010). Fur-
thermore, few studies have been conducted on children using AVG and none on tennis. 

Since 2007, the Physical Activity Council (2016) reports a 6 % increase in tennis 
players, which is the highest increment among all analyzed sports. Currently, nearly 
4000 young professional tennis players (< 19 years old) are listed in the International 
Tennis Federation (ITF). Due to the fast growing number of professional tennis play-
ers across the world and the subsequent increasing competitiveness, the intensity and 
volume of training programs have been led to a higher level in early ages, intended 
to reach superior results (Reid, Crespo & Santilli, 2009). In accordance with the In-
ternational Tennis Federation Coaches’ Education Program (Crespo & Reid, 2009), 
6 to 12-year-old children represent the Introduction / Foundation stage in a tennis 
world class players’ development guidelines, with the main goal of fully mastering 
the technique of basic strokes (forehand, backhand, serve). All the distinct phases of a 
player development are inextricably linked together (Saviano, 2001) and without suc-
cessfully acquired fundamentals (technique of basic strokes), the increasing intensity 



78

Luka ŠLOSAR, Matej PLEVNIK, Uros MARUŠIČ: PLAYING ACTIVE VIDEO GAMES WHILE IN A TENNIS TRAINING PROCESS ..., 75–88

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 2

and volume of training sessions, which are enhanced in the second phase, may lead 
to injuries. 

As AVG are mainly used among adolescents, when the development of motor skills 
is in full swing, determining their positive and negative effects may offer the prospect 
of a possible application using them in favor of improving physical performance by 
their influence on motor efficiency and learning. On the other side, repetitive perfor-
mance of irregular movement patterns may destroy the correct execution of the strokes 
that were previously learned during the training sessions. Therefore, the aim of our 
study was to evaluate the impact of a continued AVG playing on the tennis technique 
development during the training process in 7- to 9-year-old children. 

METHODS

Participants

This research was conducted on 24 tennis players (7 females, 17 males, average age 
7.95 ± 0.92 years, range 7 – 9 year olds) recruited from the local tennis club (Tennis 
Club Portorož, Slovenia, EU). After a detailed presentation of the study, its purpose, 
and study design to the participants and parents, we obtained a written parental consent 
for each child. The inclusion criterion was no more than two years of regular participa-
tion in a tennis training process; players with injuries or long-term body impairments 
that prevented them from performing shots as they are usually instructed were exclud-
ed. The study was approved by the Republic of Slovenia National Medical Ethics Com-
mittee, number 0120-631/2017/2. 

Study Design

The participants were randomly allocated into experimental (tennis training + AVG; 
11 participants; female: 3; male: 7) and control (only tennis training; 13 participants; 
female: 1; male: 12) group. Both groups attended a 12-week tennis training program 
(twice a week for an hour), where the experimental group had an additional AVG in-
tervention which lasted 20 min per session and was administred after each “physical” 
tennis training. For AVG, the Virtua Tennis 4 game on Xbox 360 console was chosen. 
We used the kinect device that allowed the participants to play using merely the move-
ments of their body. 

The children were involved in a novice tennis training program where each training 
session lasted for one hour, with an emphasis on tennis strokes technique execution 
and motor skills development (agility, balance, coordination, power, reaction time and 
speed). The AVG intervention program was implemented to be able to gradually in-
crease the difficulty of the game. The game itself provides different levels of difficulty 
for “human player vs. computer option”, as well as an option to play with “multiple 



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 2

79

Luka ŠLOSAR, Matej PLEVNIK, Uros MARUŠIČ: PLAYING ACTIVE VIDEO GAMES WHILE IN A TENNIS TRAINING PROCESS ..., 75–88

human players”. For our intervention, both options were chosen depending on the num-
ber of children involved and mixed troughout the whole interventional period. The 
participants with an absence percentage up to 15 (more than 3 times) were eliminated 
from the investigation. 

Outcome Measures

Our participants are novice tennis players, therefore, as stated in the introduction, 
their main goal is to fully master the technique of main strokes. For assessing the pro-
gress made in the game of tennis, we used the TRSC that evaluates the improvement 
made in technique of both the forehand and backhand stroke. We decided not to assess 
the serve stroke, as the children up to 9 years of age who have not yet developed enough 
power for such a complex movement play the stroke only in its most basic version. The 
scale divides each stroke in fifteen different elements that need to be evaluated to reach 
the final score. We followed the protocol which had previously been validated in Šlosar, 
Šimunic, Pišot & Marusic, (2018). The TRSC is divided into fifteen different elements 
(Figure 1) that need to be evaluated to reach the final score, i.e. the current technical 
knowledge in a specific stroke. The elements correspond to different postitions end 
motions starting from the stroke preparation to a follow-through and the kinetic chain, 
that all evaluate the coordinated activation of all body segments involved (for details 
see Šlosar, Šimunic, Pišot & Marusic, 2018). The evaluation needs to be performed 
while reviewing the execution previously recorded on a video tape with the possibility 
of viewing it in slow motion and pausing the recording at the desired player position. 
Video clips were made using high quality video facilities on mobile phones and free 
computer applications for editing. All the evaluated elements were rated on 5-point 
grading Likert scale. 



80

Luka ŠLOSAR, Matej PLEVNIK, Uros MARUŠIČ: PLAYING ACTIVE VIDEO GAMES WHILE IN A TENNIS TRAINING PROCESS ..., 75–88

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 2

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ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 2

81

Luka ŠLOSAR, Matej PLEVNIK, Uros MARUŠIČ: PLAYING ACTIVE VIDEO GAMES WHILE IN A TENNIS TRAINING PROCESS ..., 75–88
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ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 2

Procedure

The evaluation was performed by the participants’ tennis coach. All the participants 
were evaluated on a forehand and backhand stroke on Day 1 and Day 84 (pre- and 
post-intervention). To better understand the influence of a continued AVG playing on 
a tennis technique, only the results corresponding to fifteen evaluated elements were 
considered, while the final TRSC score is primarly used to make the data analysis more 
comprehensible, especially for the players’ parents. 

Statistical Analysis

The distribution of each evaluated element (TRSC scale) was examined on a normal 
quantile (Q-Q) plot as well as a histogram to determine whether the data were well ap-
proximated by a normal (Gaussian) distribution. Non-normally distributed data were 
summarized with means and standard deviations. The results between the control and 
experimental group at the pre-test were compared using the Mann Whitney U-test. Dif-
ferences between pre- and post-test for the control and experimental group were evalu-
ated with a Wilcoxon test. The intervention effect size was estimated and interpreted by 
Cohen (1988) as follows: > 0.1 small; > 0.3 medium; > 0.5 large effect. 

A p value ˂ 0.05 was considered statistically significant. 

RESuLTS

All the participants from the initially included 24 were taken into statistical analy-
ses. The data from all fifteen elements of the TRSC were non-normally distributed (p < 
0.05). Mann Whitney test showed no significant differences for both the forehand and 
backhand stroke between the experimental and control group at the pre-test. Table 1 
shows the baseline characteristics of the children included. 

Table 2. Characteristics of included children.

Experimental group Control group

M SD M SD

Experience 
(months) 15 0.72 17 0.71

Age 7.43 0.82 8.38 0.96

Height 130.73 9.43 141.00 9.16

Weight 27.18 4.6 35.85 6.28



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Forehand 

A Wilcoxon test revealed a significant improvement at the post-test for all the fifteen 
evaluated elements in the control group. A moderate effect size was shown in TRSC7 
(0.42) and TRSC9 (0.46). In all the other elements, the effect was large and greater than 
0.52. At the post-test, the experimental group did not significantly improve in TRSC12 
(p = 0.317).  The same element revealed a low effect size (0.21). A moderate effect size 
was shown in TRSC1 (0.43) and TRSC10 (0.48). In all the other elements, the effect 
size was large and greater than 0.52.

Table 3. Wilcoxon test between the pre and post-test for the experimental and control 
group for the forehand stroke.

Control group Experimental group

TRSC Pre-test Post-test P (ES) Pre-test Post-test P (ES)

1 2.69 ± 0.48 3.54 ± 0.66 0,001 (0,64) 2.09 ± 0.70 2.27 ± 0.47 0,046 (0,43)

2 2.54 ± 0.97 2.85 ± 0.55 0,001 (0,66) 2.27 ± 0.79 2.82 ± 0.40 0,011 (0,54)

3 2.31 ± 0.86 2.92 ± 1.25 ˂ 0,001 (0,69) 2.00 ± 0.63 2.45 ± 1.03 0,002 (0,67)

4 2.38 ± 0.77 2.38 ± 0.77 ˂ 0,001 (0,71) 2.09 ± 0.70 2.09 ± 0.70 0,003 (0,64)

5 2.23 ± 0.83 2.77 ± 0.56 0,002 (0,60) 2.18 ± 0.75 2.73 ± 0.47 0,003 (0,64)

6 2.00 ± 0.70 2.62 ± 0.65 0,004 (0,57) 1.82 ± 0.40 2.27 ± 0.78 0,002 (0,65)

7 2.54 ± 0.78 2.85 ± 0.69 0,034 (0,42) 2.27 ± 0.79 3.45 ± 0.52 0,002 (0,64)

8 2.31 ± 0.75 2.31 ± 0.75 0,005 (0,55) 2.09 ± 0.70 2.09 ± 0.70 0,005 (0,60)

9 3.00 ± 1.08 3.31 ± 0.75 0,020 (0,46) 2.45 ± 1.03 3.00 ± 0.63 0,011 (0,54)

10 2.85 ± 0.99 3.08 ± 0.86 0,004 (0,57) 2.82 ± 0.98 3.18 ± 0.75 0,025 (0,48)

11 2.38 ± 0.77 3.08 ± 0.64 0,001 (0,64) 1.91 ± 0.83 2.45 ± 0.69 0,014 (0,52)

12 2.85 ± 0.55 3.38 ± 0.77 0,005 (0,55) 2.82 ± 0.40 2.82 ± 0.40 0,317 (0,21)*

13 2.54 ± 0.78 2.62 ± 0.65 0,008 (0,52) 2.27 ± 0.79 2.45 ± 0.52 0,003 (0,63)

14 2.23 ± 0.73 2.69 ± 0.48 0,001 (0,65) 2.00 ± 0.63 3.00 ± 0.63 0,002 (0,67)

15 2.00 ± 0.58 2.31 ± 0.75 0,003 (0,59) 1.82 ± 0.40 3.00 ± 0.48 0,002 (0,67)

Notes: ES = effect size; * p > 0,05



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ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 2

Backhand

A Wilcoxon test revealed a significant improvement at the post-test for all the fifteen 
evaluated elements in the control group. A moderate effect size was shown in TRSC7 
(0.44). In all the other elements, the effect was large and greater than 0.53. At the 
post-test the experimental group did not significantly improve in TRSC10 (0.157) and 
TRSC12 (p = 0.157).  The same elements revealed a moderate effect size (0.30), as it is 
for TRSC1 (0.48), TRSC8 (0.30) and TRSC9 (0.43). In all the other elements, the effect 
size was large and greater than 0.58.

Table 4. Wilcoxon test between the pre and post-test for the experimental and control 
group for the backhand stroke.

Control group Experimental group

TRSC Pre-test Post-test P (ES) Pre-test Post-test P (ES)

1 2.38 ± 0.77 3.08 ± 0.64 0,001 (0,65) 2.18 ± 0.60 2.36 ± 0.67 0,025 (0,48)

2 2.00 ± 0.82 2.31 ± 0.63 0,001 (0,63) 2.18 ± 0.75 2.45 ± 0.52 0,005 (0,60)

3 1.85 ± 0.69 2.62 ± 0.87 0,001 (0,64) 1.45 ± 0.52 2.27 ± 0.79 0,001 (0,68)

4 2.23 ± 0.83 2.31 ± 0.75 0,001 (0,64) 2.00 ± 0.63 2.00 ± 0.63 0,007 (0,58)

5 1.85 ± 0.55 2.62 ± 0.51 0,001 (0,63) 1.91 ± 0.54 2.91 ± 0.54 0,002 (0,67)

6 1.85 ± 0.69 2.08 ± 0.64 0,001 (0,65) 2.00 ± 0.63 2.00 ± 0.63 0,008 (0,64)

7 2.46 ± 0.78 2.62 ± 0.51 0,025 (0,44) 2.36 ± 0.67 3.45 ± 0.52 0,002 (0,58)

8 2.00 ± 0.82 2.15 ± 0.89 0,001 (0,63) 2.00 ± 0.63 2.00 ± 0.63 0,003 (0,30)

9 2.54 ± 0.78 3.08 ± 0.64 0,003 (0,58) 2.27 ± 0.78 2.82 ± 0.40 0,007 (0,43)

10 2.54 ± 0.78 2.77 ± 0.44 0,001 (0,67) 2.64 ± 0.80 2.82 ± 0.40 0,157 (0,30)*

11 2.31 ± 0.75 2.92 ± 1.04 0,001 (0,64) 1.73 ± 0.78 1.82 ± 0.75 0,046 (0,63)

12 2.54 ± 0.78 2.92 ± 0.49 0,001 (0,63) 2.64 ± 0.80 2.64 ± 0.81 0,157 (0,30)* 

13 2.31 ± 0.75 2.46 ± 0.52 0,007 (0,53) 2.18 ±0.75 2.36 ± 0.50 0,003 (0,63)

14 1.77 ± 0.44 2.38 ± 0.76 ˂ 0,001 
(0,69) 1.82 ± 0.40 2.82 ± 0.40 0,001 (0,71)

15 1.92 ± 0.49 2.15 ± 0.68 0,002 (0,62) 1.82 ± 0.40 3.00 ± 0.48 0,001 (0,68)

Notes: ES = effect size; * p > 0,05



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Luka ŠLOSAR, Matej PLEVNIK, Uros MARUŠIČ: PLAYING ACTIVE VIDEO GAMES WHILE IN A TENNIS TRAINING PROCESS ..., 75–88

DISCuSSION 

The aim of the present pilot study was to evaluate the impact of a prolonged AVG 
playing on the tennis technique of two main strokes while being in a tennis training 
process. Our results show similar intervention effects among both the forehand and 
backhand stroke. The evaluated TRSC12element has not been improved by the ex-
perimental group in both the forehand and backhand stroke. The same stands for the 
TRSC10 element only in the backhand stroke. As part of the follow-through sections, 
prolonged AVG playing seems to negatively affect a proper player positioning at the 
end of the stroke. A poorer attention at the correct tennis positions is also noted compar-
ing the effect size among groups at the TRSC1, which stands for the arm position at the 
shot preparation. In both the backhand and forehand stroke, the stroke is large in the 
control group and moderate in the experimental. The results may find explanation upon 
the model of control the user had over the actions of the avatar in AVG, which are more 
prominent on simple reaction times and timing of the hand swing. If the hand does not 
swing at the right time, the avatar would fail to shoot the ball, which is not considered 
to be a successful stroke in this model. 

The whole kinetic chain section (the sequence of activated body segments; fluidity; 
timing), is the only one among both strokes where the experimental group had a higher 
effect size. The TRSC13 element (the sequence of activated body segments) had a large 
effect size in the experimental group compared to the moderate in the control. The same 
happens with the TRSC7 element (point of contact – height) in both strokes. The results 
may suggest that AVG might increase a player’s reaction time and attention towards 
the ball arriving from the other side of the court. The results seem to confirm the ones 
concluded by Green and Bavelier (2003; 2006) which demonstrate higher visual atten-
tion skills in video game players compared to non-players. Improved visual attention 
skills represent the ability to track objects moving at a higher speed, track multiple 
items at the same time, eliminate irrelevant visible information, increase focusing and 
concentration capabilities.

The constant technology development managed to create natural user interfaces and 
gesture recognition video game consoles which are able to track full-body movements 
in three dimensions, thus offering the opportunity to play virtual sports as being in a 
real environment. The results of the present study support Wiemeyer & Kliem (2012) 
theories, asserting that, due to the way of playing some motor control competencies 
may be enhanced, such as: reaction time, balance, endurance, strength and rhythmic 
abilities. Furthermore, Wiemeyer & Hardy (2013) in accordance with our results, con-
firmed that a possible transfer of motor learning settings between the real and virtual 
environment may be possible while using AVG. 

To our knowledge, this is the first study that evaluates the effects of prolonged AVG 
playing on specific sport technique execution and not performance. Several limitations 
are however acknowledged in the study, starting from the lack of a third group playing 
just AVG without any real tennis practice and the small sample size used. Furthermore, 
a combination of technical and precision skills (suitable for beginners) would extend 



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ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 2

the range of knowledge about AVG. Finally, we cannot generalize results among the 
entire middle age population, as they are related to participants with a specific status, 
like children from wealthy families, or those with high expectations of accomplish-
ment. Although the findings of this pilot study do suggest that a possible transfer of 
motor learning settings between the real and virtual environment may be possible, this 
still needs to be addressed on larger samples. 

CONCLuSION

On the basis of the above, as many AVG like the Virtua Tennis 4 require rapid 
movements, they may improve general visual attention skills. On the other side, they 
can negatively affect correct technique positioning. The results of our study suggest 
a specific adaptation of playing AVG while being in the tennis process. Namely, 7- to 
9-year-old children who play AVG (Virtua Tennis 4) twice a week for three months 
(24 x AVG + tennis trainings) are more progressive in cognitive domain, while having 
negative adaptation from the perspective of tennis technique acquisition (the first and 
the last part of a stroke motion). The present study shows the effect of playing / not 
playing AVG in children while being in the early process of tennis training program, 
and better understand the impact of AVG games on players’ physical skills. Finally, the 
results of our pilot study, the first of its kind, could serve as – a scientific evidence not-
ing to which extent playing AVG influences the tennis technique.

Acknowledgements

We thank all the coaches who provided an insight and expertise that greatly assisted 
the research. We are also immensely grateful to the local tennis club (Tennis Club 
Portorož, Slovenia, EU) and all the players who dedicated their time for this project, 
since this research would not have been possible without them.

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