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45

Original scientific article              UDC: 796.926.034.6
received: 2018-09-03

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIMENSIONS OF 
TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE OF YOUNG ALPINE SKIING 
COMPETITORS AND COMPETITIVE PERFORMANCE 

Stojan PUHALJ1, Blaž LEŠNIK2

1 Faculty of Education, Department for Sports training, University of Maribor, Slovenia, 
2 Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana & Ski Instructors and Trainers Association of 

Slovenia

Corresponding Author:
Blaž Lešnik

University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Sport, Gortanova ul. 22, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Phone: +386 41 79 55 36

e-mail: blaz.lesnik@fsp.uni-lj,si 

ABSTRACT

In the research, the relationship between individual variables of technical assess-
ment of free and competitive style alpine skiing and the criterion variable (competitive 
performance) are addressed. The criterion variable is the total number of points that 
was achieved in the Rauch Ski Cup in the season 2013/2014. Twenty selected alpine 
skiers between the ages of 12 and 14were included in the research. Technical knowl-
edge and tactics of alpine skiing were assessed in the free skiing (TFS) during two giant 
slalom races for the Rauch Ski Cup (TCS). In order to determine bivariate correlations 
between the TFS and TFC variables and the competitive performance, the Pearson 
correlation coefficient method was used. For this particular section of the study, it was 
confirmed that all the variables used were significantly related to the criterion variable. 
In the successive test, using the calculation of multiple regression coefficients, we con-
firmed the high percentage of the explained variance of the two sets of measurements 
(TFS and TCS). In this research, the influence of technical knowledge of skiing in the 
free (TFS) and competitive skiing (TCS) on the competitive performance of alpine ski-
ing in Slovenia was studied for the first time. Based on the results of the research, the 
foundation for both an improved concept of psychophysical and technical training and 
for the modernization of the selection criteria for the young competitors in alpine skiing 
will be proposed.

Keywords: alpine skiing, young categories, competitive successfulness, technique 
in free skiing, technique in competitive skiing.

mailto:blaz.lesnik@fsp.uni-lj,si


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Stojan PUHALJ, Blaž LEŠNIK: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIMENSIONS OF TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE ..., 45–55

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1

POVEZANOST DIMENZIJ TEHNIČNEGA ZNANJA MLADIH 
TEKMOVALCEV V ALPSKEM SMUČANJU S TEKMOVALNO 

USPEŠNOSTJO

IZVLEČEK

V raziskavi smo ugotavljali povezavo med posameznimi spremenljivkami pri oceni 
tehnike alpskega smučanja v prostem in tekmovalnem smučanju s kriterijsko spremen-
ljivko (tekmovalna uspešnost). Slednjo je predstavljal seštevek točk v smučarskem po-
kalu Rauch v sezoni 2013/14. V raziskavo je bilo vključenih 40 izbranih tekmovalcev 
alpskega smučanja starih od 12 do 14 let. Področje tehnike in taktike alpskega smuča-
nja je bilo ocenjeno v prostem smučanju (TFS) in na dveh tekmovanjih v veleslalomu 
za pokal Rauch (TCS). Za določitev bivariatnih povezanosti posameznih spremenljivk 
TFS in TCS s tekmovalno uspešnostjo smo uporabili metodo izračuna Pearsonovih ko-
eficientov korelacije. V tem delu smo potrdili, da so s kriterijsko spremenljivko statistič-
no značilno povezane vse uporabljene spremenljivke. V nadaljevanju smo s pomočjo 
izračuna multiplih regresijskih koeficientov potrdili visok odstotek pojasnjene variance 
obeh sklopov meritev (TFS in TCS). V tej raziskavi je bil v slovenskem prostoru prvič 
raziskan vpliv tehničnega znanja smučanja v prostem (TFS) in tekmovalnem smučanju 
(TCS) na uspešnost v tekmovalnem alpskem smučanju. Na osnovi rezultatov raziskave 
bodo predlagana izhodišča za izboljšan koncept psihofizične in tehnične priprave ter za 
posodobitev kriterijev za selekcioniranje mladih tekmovalcev in tekmovalk v alpskem 
smučanju.

Ključne besede: alpsko smučanje, mlajše kategorije, tekmovalna uspešnost, tehnika 
v prostem smučanju, tekmovalna tehnika

INTRODUCTION

Alpine skiing as an athletic and recreational activity is a small part of global sports. 
However, in snowy and mountainous regions it is an integral part of the lifestyle of 
both the young and the old (Krautgasser et al., 2012). This research interest follows 
the concept of scientific approach in alpine skiing for children in late childhood and in 
adolescence, exploring some of the factors that influence success in this sport. Alpine 
skiing is a sport in which success in competitions depends on various internal and exter-
nal factors that are related to each other (Lešnik & Žvan, 2003). With the development 
of skiing disciplines, alpine skiing has reached the level where top results are very hard 
to reach (Hébert-Losier, Supej, & Holmberg, 2014). In the process of training, there is a 
set of different and special elements that are more effective for each discipline in alpine 



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Stojan PUHALJ, Blaž LEŠNIK: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIMENSIONS OF TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE ..., 45–55

skiing (Lešnik et al., 2017). In a multitude of factors that influence the performance 
of young alpine skiers, technical knowledge of skiing is certainly one of the most im-
portant. Based on observations in practice, we find that the skiing technique of young 
athletes is not on the level that is needed to achieve top results in competitions. The 
reasons for this, on one hand, are the modes and contents of training that include a lot 
of skiing between the gates. This, on the other hand, leaves too little time to train the 
elements of skiing techniques that are outside the ski course setting. As a consequence, 
many young competitors have a relatively narrow base of skiing skills, and there are 
many with incorrectly learned movement patterns.

The movements executed during alpine skiing, which involve continuous connect-
ing of short parallel turns, are much more complicated than the movements needed 
during performance and experimental conditions (Cigrovski et al., 2017). Each skiing 
turn consists of three phases. The first phase is the beginning of a turn. The second 
phase is the pivoting phase of a turn, and the third phase is the completion phase (Le-
šnik & Žvan, 2010). The most common deficiencies in technical knowledge in younger 
categories are the imbalance of the body, excessive slipping of the skis throughout the 
turn, choosing a slower skiing line, and uncoordinated excessive movements during 
the performances of racing, skiing turns and other technical elements of skiing. All 
this is becoming one of the main reasons for achieving poorer results in competitions, 
especially in competitions with more demanding course settings (Lešnik & Žvan, 2007; 
Puhalj, 2018).

Special elements of alpine skiing sports techniques correlate highly with the su-
ccesses and accomplishments in competitive alpine skiing (Loland & Haugen, 2000). 
It is important that the development of sporting techniques, psychological potentials 
and motoric abilities take place simultaneously (Weineck, 2009). Technical elements 
can be carried out in a series of small partial services or movement patterns which can 
be connected into a well-functioning technical execution that present quality skiing 
(LeMaster, 1999). One of the main goals of the ski training technique is stable skiing 
on the ski edges even in the most difficult conditions. In terms of mastering the tech-
nique of skiing, this means constant fine adjustments of body angles, particularly in 
the hips, knees and ankles, as well as tilting of the body to the side. Distribution of the 
appropriate strength to complete a turn especially across the fall-line refers to when an 
increasing gravitational force and resistance develop through extreme inclination of the 
skis in order to maintain the line of a turn (Wörndle, 2007). In practice, we talk about 
slipping in turns, which often reflects inadequate or poor technique and pivoting turns 
on the edges with a good ski grip on a snowy surface (LeMaster, 1999) or, according to 
Jouberts (1978), for finding quality support on a snowy surface. Development of effec-
tive control over the skiing speed and direction can be achieved through a turn on the 
edges where the front and the rear of the ski slide along the same line of the turn. The 
skis should only move forward, preferably with zero side slipping and with minimum 
energy loss (Loland, 2009).

The basic aim of the training of the technique is therefore a balanced, fluid, light 
and controlled pivoting of skis with appropriate patterns of movement and without 



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ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1

excessive pressure on the surface. Quality ski training should include both skiing be-
tween the gates and skiing outside course settings. It is generally known that a high 
level of technical knowledge can be achieved primarily through training in a variety 
of conditions (hard surface, poor visibility, powder skiing and mogul skiing, to name 
a few). This was also the main starting point for setting up the criteria for the quality 
technical knowledge of young competitors in alpine skiing (Puhalj, 2018). The so-cal-
led Technical Skills Knowledge Model of Young Competitors consists of the variables 
of the free skiing technique (TFS) and the variables of the technique in competitive 
skiing between the gates (TCS). Therefore, the main aim of this research is to find out 
the correlation between the selected variables of skiing technique knowledge and the 
competitive performance of young athletes in alpine skiing.

METHODS

The study included 20 young boys (year of birth 2000 and 2001; height 158.97 cm, 
+/- 9.11 cm; weight 50.18 kg, +/- 9.42 kg) , all of whom were selected athletes in alpine 
skiing. The factors of technique in freeride skiing (TFS) that were studied are Balance 
in Free Skiing (FSBL), Coordination in Free Skiing (FSCO) and Phase of Completing 
the Turn in Free Skiing (FSCT). The factors of technique in competitive skiing (TCS) 
that were studied are Technique in Competitive Skiing (CSBL), Balance in Competi-
tive Skiing (CSBL), Phase of Completing the Turn in Competitive Skiing (CSCT) and 
Lines of Skiing in Competitive Skiing (CSLS). 

The evaluation of ski variables of the competition technique for younger boys was 
carried out during two giant slalom competitions, which also counted for the Rauch 
Cup. The first competition took place on Soriška planina (March 21, 2014), and the 
second one in Krvavec (March 29, 2014). In the 30-second starting intervals, the evalu-
ators recorded grades from 1 to 3 on the pre-prepared scoreboards (grade 1 = poor, 2 = 
medium, 3 = good). Both competitions were carried out in ideal snow conditions, which 
ensured equivalent competitive conditions for all competitors. 

The grades of the variables were obtained from 7 members of the National Exami-
nation Committee for Alpine Skiing from the Ski Instructors and Trainers Association 
of Slovenia (SITAS). The grades of the balance assessment (1 to 3) for frequent loss of 
balance in all four operating directions were marked with the lowest score; the cases of 
stable balance positions were marked with the highest score. The same evaluation was 
used in both the competitive and free skiing. Assessment of the pivoting of skis in turns 
took place under the same criteria in the competitive giant slalom as well as in the gi-
ant slalom turns in free skiing with special tasks. Turns with more slipping of the edges 
were marked with the score 1 and the turns without slipping of the edges were marked 
with the score 3. The skiing lines on the medium steep racing tracks, which were car-
ried out with a longer pre-preparation over the gate with a turn above the gate or with 
a turn below the gate, were rated with the score 1. Turns with a more direct beginning 
and completion were rated with the score 3. Turns a little over and a little below the 



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1

49

Stojan PUHALJ, Blaž LEŠNIK: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIMENSIONS OF TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE ..., 45–55

gates (configuration, preparation and ski course setting all considered) were marked 
with the score 2. The co-ordination of movements was assessed only in free skiing 
and was based on harmonic, timely and spatially coordinated uninterrupted movements 
from one turn to another. The moving phases followed each other slower downwards 
and faster upwards. Special attention was also paid to the coordinated pole planting, 
which also marked the beginning of the vertical movement. This was absolutely neces-
sary when passing from one turn to another on the lower ski with a lifted upper ski. A 
score of 3 was assigned for a well-coordinated movement from one turn to another and 
a score of 1 for uncoordinated movement (Puhalj, 2018).

The Pearson correlation coefficient method was used to calculate the correlation 
between individual variables and the criterion variable (achieved points in the Rauch 
Ski Cup for the season 2013/14). On the basis of certain components, consisting of free 
skiing (TFS) and competitive skiing between the gates variables (TCS), we also calcu-
lated the percentage of the explained variance. 

The criterion variable represents competitive performance at the highest degree of 
children’s competitions in alpine skiing organized under SAS. Ranking level at compe-
titions (criterion variable) for each competitor is calculated on the basis of the sum of 
official results (SAS, 2010). 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The analysis of the correlation between variables of the technique in free skiing 
(TFS) and the variables of the technique in competitive skiing (TCS) shows a statisti-
cally significant correlation with the criterion variable (success in the Rauch Cup). As a 
rule, the participants of the study who received higher scores for their skiing technique 
also achieved a higher ranking in the competitions for the Rauch Cup. 

Table 1 shows the association of all three variables of the free skiing technique skills 
and the performance in competitions at the level of a 1 % risk. The coordination in free 
skiing variable runs the highest level of association with the performance in competiti-
ons (rFSCO=0.762**). An almost as high correlation was calculated for the variables of 
balance in free skiing (rFSBL=0.728**) and for the variable quality completing the turn 
in free skiing (rFSCT=0.601**). The three variables considered together account for as 
much as 83 % of the variance area of the component of the technique in free skiing 
(TFS), which means that the selected criteria for determining and checking the tech-
nique of young competitors in free skiing is appropriate. Statistically high significant 
correlations between the components of the technique in free skiing indicate that the 
training elements of free skiing techniques are a very important part of training for 
young competitors. Therefore, in the future, during snow training, trainers will have 
to spend more time conducting training for balance, coordination and skiing turns in 
freeride skiing. All these elements of skiing techniques are closely interconnected and, 
as such, provide a quality performance of skiing turns, which form the basis of the 
competition skiing style. An important reason for increasing the amount of the skiing 



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ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1

technique training in free skiing is that it also allows for the diversification of training 
on snow. Special exercises based on atypical motor structures can be a good variation 
of training on snow, which in turn can have a positive impact on the technical kno-
wledge of skiing (Lešnik & Žvan, 2010). The acquisition of technical skills for young 
athletes, along with quality physical conditioning, is very important because over the 
years all the missing technical knowledge becomes increasingly difficult to correct and 
the imbalances more difficult to adjust (Raschner, Müller, & Hildebrandt, 2015).

Among the 3 variables of the competition technique of skiing between the gates 
(TCS), the completing the turn variable (rCSCT=0.743**) is strongly associated with the 
competition performance, while the balance variable is slightly less associated with it 
(rCSBL=0.613**). Both connections are statistically significant at the level of a 1 % risk. 
The third considered variable, which determines the quality of the selected turning line, 
is the least connected with success in competitions, but is still statistically significant 
at the level of a 5 % risk (rCSLS=0.506*). The three variables presented in total explain 

Table 1: Calculation of Pearson‘s coefficients between individual variables of the tech-
nique in free skiing (TFS) and technique in competitive skiing (TCS), and criterion 
variable, and percentage of explained variance of main component in free skiing (FSEV 
%) and in competition skiing (CSEV %).

TFS N AV SD r  h2 Λ % EV 

FSBL 20 6.55 1.669 .728** 0.745 ( F S E V 
%)

FSCO 20 7.10 1.518 .762** 0.928 2.494 83.140

FSCT 20 7.05 1.731 .601** 0.821

TCS N AV SD r   h2 Λ % EV 

CSBL 20 10.75 1.803 .613** 0.683 ( C S E V 
%)

CSCT 20 13.05 2.328 .743** 0.814 2.188 72.940

CSLS 20 11.75 2.337      .506* 0.691

Legend: TFS-Technique in free skiing; FSBL-Balance in free skiing; FSCO-Coordination in free 
skiing; FSCT- phase of completing the turn in free skiing; TCS- technique in competitive skiing; 
CSBL- Technique in competitive skiing; CSCT- phase of completing the turn in competitive ski-
ing; CSLS-lines of skiing in competitive skiing; N-number of competitors; AV-average result; 
SD-standard deviation; r-Person’s coefficient of correlation with criterion variable; *- statistical 
significance of r on 5% risk level; **- statistical significance of r on 1% of risk level; h2- main 
component comunality; λ – main component value; %EV- % of explained variance; FSEV%- % 
of explained variance of main component in free skiing; CSEV%- % of explained variance of 
main component in competition skiing.



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Stojan PUHALJ, Blaž LEŠNIK: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIMENSIONS OF TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE ..., 45–55

73 % of the space variance of the competition technique of skiing between the gates 
component (TCS), which means that the selected criteria for identifying and assessing 
the technique of young competitors in the competition ski course setting are appropri-
ate. Stable skiing on the edges means constant fine-tuning of body angles in the hips, 
knees and ankles, as well as tilting of the body to the side. All the measured parameters 
of the technique are considered to be crucial for the competition results in alpine skiing 
(Wörndle, 2007; Loland, 2009).

In accordance with the results, the competitors with a better balance on the skis, a 
cleaner turn performance and a better selected and a faster line of the turn were ranked 
higher in the competitions for the Rauch Cup 2014/15. Therefore, these segments of 
competitive skiing techniques will require even more attention in the future. At such 
training, the use of various didactic tools, such as markers, cones and other aids (Pišot 
& Videmšek, 2004) is crucial in helping athletes balance the position of the body, as 
well as limit the time and length of a turn and the line throughout an entire turn (Lešnik 
& Žvan, 2010).

The main finding of this research is that all the selected variables for checking and 
determining the quality of the technique of young, skiing competitors in alpine skiing 
are significantly related to the criterion variable (competition performance). Particu-
larly interesting is the fact that the highest degree of association with the criterion is 
displayed by the variables that are manifested as the most important ones in practice 
too. Although all the variables used proved to be statistically significant at the highest 
level of integration, we must, in particular, point out the variable of the coordination of 
movement in free skiing (rFSCO=0.762**), completing the turn between the gates varia-
ble (rCSCT=0.743**) and the balance in free skiing variable (rFSBL=0.728**).

In competitive alpine skiing there can be many reasons for losing time; however, 
from the point of view of skiing technique, one of the main reasons for losing time 
during the course setting is a poor performance of turns. A good skier performs in a 
balanced, smooth and effortless manner, ensuring that they have the situation under 
control through adequate pivoting of skis. Additionally, a good skier’s switching betwe-
en moving patterns is rolling and without excessive pressure on the surface (Loland & 
Haugen, 2000). This means that the competitor can lose too much time in the beginning 
phase of a turn, the pivoting phase as well as in the completion phase of a turn. Slipping 
of skis, the wrong body position and other unnecessary manoeuvres on the track may 
also contribute to loss of time. (Sandbakk et al., 2014). In order to keep turns on the 
edges and optimum arcs of turns, one must use the pressure on the ground very rational-
ly (Loland, 2009). In this respect, the most illustrative is the high correlation between 
completing the turn between the gates variable (rCSCT=0.743**) and the performance. 
Since only the smallest details distinguish the best competitors from the finest, there are 
still many reserves in the phase of completing a turn, which must be used with a well-
-targeted ski training technique.



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CONCLUSION

The research showed a high degree of correlation between the selected elements of 
the technique in free and competitive skiing and competitive performance. The latter is 
especially important when working with younger categories of competitors. However, 
we must realize that good technical knowledge is only the basis for good tactics in 
skiing. In different settings of the gates and competition slopes, the straightest route 
between the two ski gate poles with a short radius of a turn is not always the fastest. 
Therefore, at competitions, the fastest skiers do not always win. Instead, it is the skiers 
who lose the least time on the track who are successful (Madura, Lufkin & Brown, 
2012). Researchers recommend an early start of skiing along the fall-line and thus 
immediate speeding at the beginning of the turning trajectory. The primary force of 
acceleration is gravitation (Müller & Schwameder, 2003). Using the 3D kinematical 
system of measuring and evaluating technical and tactical elements of 16 elite compe-
titors, Supej (2008) also notes that the most direct and the shortest lines in turns are not 
always the most effective ones. It has been proven that the amplitude of the reaction 
of the radial force, radii of turns, speed and acceleration are not the only parameters 
for assessing the quality of skiing, although all these parameters are essential for the 
competitive alpine skiing. The high speed of the skier at the point of observation does 
not necessarily mean that the skier is successful because he could slow down the skiing 
by inappropriate trajectory of turns (Supej, Kugovnik, & Nemec, 2005). There are turns 
with a very direct beginning with pivoting and turns with at least 1/3 of the line of a turn 
performed above the gate. In line with the research of the lines of turns, we can divide 
them into turns with lines of 50 % above and 50 % below the gate, and on turns with 
lines of 60 % above and 40 % below the gate. The choice of the most optimal manner 
of skiing between the gates depends on different factors, especially on weather condi-
tions, treatments of the snow, layout of the racing tracks, disciplines of alpine skiing, 
configuration of the racing tracks and, of course, physical and technical condition of the 
competitors. Mainly in the technical disciplines of alpine skiing on steep, configurable 
demanding fields and with difficult course settings which are dominated by turns with 
large radii, better racers perform skiing lines with early ski edging and transfer weight 
on the outside ski. They also have more turn performance above the gates than beneath 
them (Brodie, 2009). 

On the way to achieving good results in alpine skiing, strengthening of the psycho-
motor base and development of motor control processes are largely linked to ski co-
ordination. In previous research, it has been repeatedly found that general and special 
co-ordination have the greatest influence on the efficiency of the movement of young 
competitors (Bandalo, 2016; Pišot, Kipp, & Supej, 2010). Malina and Bouchard (1991) 
also find high association between the biological age (bone age) and motor abilities and 
skills in conjunction with high muscular force. In the process of acquiring ski knowled-
ge, this is especially reflected in practice. Acquisition of basic ski skills begins through 
practice of the basics of the free skiing technique (Mildner et al., 2012). Only later 
are the acquired knowledge and skills gradually upgraded on the set-up ski courses. 



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Stojan PUHALJ, Blaž LEŠNIK: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIMENSIONS OF TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE ..., 45–55

Weineck (2009) also defines a theory of gradualism in acquiring motor skills (which 
include also technical knowledge) over a 4-tier scale. Therefore, we gradually approach 
the situation in competitions where measured time is the only performance parameter. 

In the age group covered by the sample, the efficiency of movement is also associ-
ated with developmental changes (Grosser, Starischka & Zimmermann, 2004). Acce-
lerated growth can greatly aggravate movement and the entire training process needs 
to be adapted to it (Pernitsch & Staudacher, 1998). In the study, there were many cases 
where competitors were unable to achieve top-level results because of a poorly deve-
loped co-ordination capability. Due to high demands for development of special motor 
skills (Pišot, Kipp & Supej, 2010), mechanical movement analysis is followed by the 
qualities, where the human body is seen as a system of internal mechanical forces and 
skiing is seen as the interaction between these forces and the external forces connected 
with the environment (Supej et al., 2005). According to the findings, the physical self-
-concept is more closely connected with body composition and morphologic features in 
boys than in girls, whereas the body fat proportion is the strongest predictor of physical 
self-concept in boys. The findings show that, particularly in boys, the physical self-con-
cept is also largely based on the morphologic features and body composition (Puhalj, 
Matejek, & Planinšec, 2013). 

In the research, the influence of technical knowledge of skiing in free and compe-
titive skiing in comparison to the competitive performance in alpine skiing has been 
explored and it has shown a high degree of integration. Research findings of this study 
are an important confirmation for systematic integration of the training of skiing tech-
niques into the training process of younger categories in alpine skiing. Based on the 
research results, the necessary conditions for devising exercise, the establishment of 
new criteria for selecting children, and the prediction of the likelihood of sports results 
in alpine skiing for the selected sample of children will be suggested with orientations 
for a more friendly and athletic-focused approach.

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Brodie, M. A. D. (2009). Development of Fusion Motion Capture for Optimisation of Per-
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