









































ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 10 • 2019 • 1

59

Review article                                                         doi: https://doi.org/10.35469/ak.2019.182
received: 2019-03-12                                                        UDC: 796.012:612.67

THE BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND EXERCISE 
ON PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND DAILY LIFE ACTIVITIES 

IN AGING ADULTS

Dorjana ZERBO-ŠPORIN

University of Primorska, Faculty of Health Science, Izola, Slovenia

Corresponding Author: 
Dorjana ZERBO-ŠPORIN

 University of Primorska, Faculty of Health Science, Polje 42, 6310 Izola, Slovenia 
Phone: +386 5 663 54 63

E-mail: dorjana.zerbosporin@fvz.upr.si

ABSTRACT 

Due to increased longevity, degenerative diseases and disabilities have become one 
of the largest health care problem. The state of well-being with a low risk of premature 
health problems is important for successful aging. Even if the impact of physical activi-
ty and exercise on performance of daily life activities is still poorly understood, it seems 
that regular training has important benefits on physical and cognitive functioning in 
healthy elderly population. Combined training including strength, balance, flexibility 
exercises and activities that improve cardiorespiratory fitness, are important to ensure 
the independency of elderly people.

Keywords: physical activity, exercise, physical functioning, daily life activities, 
older adults



60

Dorjana ZERBO-ŠPORIN: THE BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND EXERCISE ON PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND DAILY LIFE ..., 59–71

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 10 • 2019 • 1

VPLIV GIBANJA NA TELESNE IN UMSKE SPOSOBNOSTI ZA 
IZVAJANJE VSAKODNEVNIH OPRAVIL V STAROSTI

IZVLEČEK

Ena izmed posledic podaljševanja povprečne življenjske dobe so tudi različne tele-
sne omejitve in številne degenerativne bolezni, ki postajajo vse večji zdravstveni pro-
blem. Kvalitetno staranje je povezano z dobrim počutjem posameznika in nizkim tve-
ganjem za zgodnji pojav bolezni. Vpliv redne telesne aktivnosti in vadbe na sposobnost 
izvajanja vsakodnevnih opravil v starosti še ni povsem pojasnjen, je pa vadba dokazano 
povezana z boljšimi telesnimi in kognitivnimi sposobnostmi starejše osebe. Kombini-
rani trening, ki vključuje vaje za moč, ravnotežje in gibljivost, v povezavi z rednimi 
vzdržljivostnimi telesnimi aktivnostmi, pomembno prispeva k ohranjanju samostojnosti 
starostnika.

Ključne besede: telesna aktivnost, telesna vadba, vsakodnevne telesne aktivnosti, 
starejše osebe

INTRODUCTION

European today can expect to live longer. According to Eurostat (2019) in 2017, 
one fifth (19%) of the Europeans population was aged 65 and over. The share of elderly 
people tends to increase. Especially for those aged 80 + years it will be more than 
double by 2080 to reach 13% of the whole population. The consequence of this in-
creased longevity is that degenerative diseases and disabilities have become one of the 
largest health care problems. The negative impact of a longer life span is a potential for 
suffering physical frailty and it could become questionable whether life can be enjoyed 
fully under physical conditions that constrain daily activities (Spiduso, Francis, & Mac-
Rea, 2005). The degree to which participation in physical activity (PA) and exercise 
translates into improved physical functioning and enhanced performance of daily life 
activities (ADL) is not yet clear. There is not a simple linear relationship between being 
active and being independent on others, but at least no increase in disabilities after be-
ing regular physically active was found (Chodzko-Zajko et al., 2009). 

During aging structural and functional attenuation occurs in most physiological sys-
tems, even in the absence of diseases. These age-related changes can influence daily 
life activities through reduction in functional capacity. Advancing primary aging is 
mainly associated with the decline in PA volume and intensity, higher prevalence of de-
generative conditions, body composition changes, and the decrease in maximal aerobic 
power. Aging is also characterized by the reduction in muscle strength and power and 
by the decline in flexibility, balance and cognitive functions (Shephard, 1997; Hunter, 



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 10 • 2019 • 1

61

Dorjana ZERBO-ŠPORIN: THE BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND EXERCISE ON PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND DAILY LIFE ..., 59–71

McCarthy & Bamman, 2004; Chodzko-Zajko et al., 2009). At present, aging includ-
ing loss of abilities is an inevitable process. There is, however, evidence that regular 
exercise has anti-aging effects. Target strength and aerobic training can attenuate a car-
dio-respiratory decline, muscle wasting and improve resistance to the development of 
disability with aging. Most common age-associated chronic conditions cause alteration 
in physiological functions and thus physiological interventions, of which physical exer-
cise is a good example, can be a remedy (Tseng, 1995; Garatachea et al., 2015). Regular 
aerobic exercise improves endothelial function with increasing nitric oxide production 
and thus regulate vascular tonus. In addition, aerobic exercise stimulates angiogenesis 
and the reverse cholesterol transport. It increases heart rate variability, reduces activity 
of angiotensin II and inhibits blood coagulation. Resistance exercise improves muscle 
mass and strength in elderly. The molecular mechanisms involved are calcium flux, 
ATP/ADP ratio, intracellular pH redox balance. Post-exercise gene transcription mostly 
involves myogenic regulators. Exercise also attenuates neurodegeneration due to aging, 
by maintaining the hippocampal structure and upregulating neurotrophic factors, such 
as BDNF (brain derived neurotrophic factor) important for synaptic plasticity and cog-
nitive performance (Garatachea, et al., 2015; Slutsky & Etnier, 2016).

The primary goal of care for the elderly is to ensure their independent life as long 
as possible. There is evidence of an association among habitual PA in later life and the 
maintenance of effective functions (Wanderley et al., 2011). 

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this article is to present a short overview of the literature regarding the 
benefits of PA and exercise on physical functioning and daily life activities in an adult, 
aging population. For this purpose, databases PubMed and Scopus were searched in 
February 2019 for literature sources published from 1995 to 2018 using research strat-
egy: (physical activity OR exercise) AND physical functioning AND daily life activi-
ties AND older adults. A literature search was conducted including articles based on 
the following criteria: (1) clinical trials and reviews (2) published in English language. 
The research strategy generated 168 articles which were analyzed using the algorithm: 
review the titles, for the remaining review the abstracts and for the last remaining re-
view the full text. Finally, 22 articles were selected to address the objective of the 
study: impact of physical activity and exercise on the ability to perform everyday task 
and independency in the elderly. Other relevant literature from the field was included.

SUCCESSFUL AGING

Successful aging (Rowe & Kahn, 1997) is determined by three main components: 
low probability of disease and disease-related disability, high cognitive and physical 
functional capacity, and active engagement with life. Subjects are considered to suc-



62

Dorjana ZERBO-ŠPORIN: THE BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND EXERCISE ON PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND DAILY LIFE ..., 59–71

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 10 • 2019 • 1

cessfully age if they can perform physical activities expected from an adult with no or 
little difficulties. Their ability to perform basic physical daily activities such: walking, 
stair climbing, bathing, dressing, doing housework, gardening etc. is usually valued 
through questionnaires (Strawbridge, Cohen, Shema, & Kaplan, 1997). Physical re-
serve in old age is of a great significance and can be define as the distance from physi-
cal frailty: musculoskeletal function, aerobic capacity, and motor coordination decline. 
Individuals that still have sufficient physical reserve can continue to live in their homes 
and to carry out regular daily activities (Spiduso, Francis, & MacRea, 2005). Cognitive 
reserve, the capacity to maintain healthy brain functions, is an important issue in suc-
cessful aging. Identified components of cognitive reserve are childhood intelligence, 
higher mental ability, better management of stressful experiences, better use of health 
services, implementation of health education in lifestyle and a choice of cognitively 
more stimulating leisure activities. Managing the components that influence on cogni-
tive aging and cognitive reserve is an important issue to maintain brain functions in 
old age (Whalley, Deary, Appleton, & Starr, 2004). Especially hippocampus is impor-
tant for cognitive performance. Studies have shown that maintaining a normal body 
weight and being physically active are beneficial for hippocampal structure and func-
tion (Slutsky & Etnier, 2016). The state of well-being with a low risk of premature 
health problems is important for successful aging (Rowe & Kahn, 1997).

MAIN CONDITIONS THAT INFLUENCE DAILY LIFE ABILITIES IN 
OLDER ADULTS

Decrease in bone and muscle mass, including faster decline in type II muscle fibers, 
decrease in tensile strength of tendons and ligaments, increase in muscle and related 
structure stiffness and the articular cartilage weakness are some of the most important 
aging conditions that influence daily life abilities in older adults (Shephard, 1997; An-
ish, 2009). Impairments in leg muscle power as well age – related decline in sensory 
capabilities, are important factors underlying mobility limitations in older adult daily 
life (Bean et al., 2004). Using bed rest as an aging model to study degenerative physiol-
ogy of human systems we can follow physiological alterations at different ages. For ex-
ample, the negative effect of bed rest on muscle mass and function was greater in older 
men, whereas metabolic disturbance was greater in younger adult men (Pišot et al., 
2016). The available evidence suggests that bone mass reduction in the case of extreme 
physical inactivity represents an acceleration of the normal ageing of the bone and un-
derlines the importance of being active to maintain tissue balance (Bilancio, Lombardi, 
Cirillo, Pišot, Rittweger, & De Santo, 2012). There was no significant impairment in 
cognitive performance, mental health and satisfaction with life after the 14-day bed 
rest, except in the delayed recall of older adults (Dolenc & Petrič, 2013). The obtained 
results provide evidence that favourable living, as well the quality of social interactions 
can protect against cognitive decline during physical inactivity (Dolenc & Petrič, 2013; 
Dimec Časar, Tušak, & Dolenc, 2015). When computerized cognitive training is being 



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 10 • 2019 • 1

63

Dorjana ZERBO-ŠPORIN: THE BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND EXERCISE ON PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND DAILY LIFE ..., 59–71

implemented during the bed rest study the improved in cognitive performance was evi-
dent and can successfully moderate detrimental bed rest effects in healthy older adults 
(Marušič et al., 2015; Marušič et al., 2017).

 

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY TO IMPROVE PHYSICAL FUNCTIONING IN DAILY 
LIFE ACTIVITIES OF ELDERLY

Healthy older adults who are able to engage in exercise can develop positive ad-
aptations to the training. When compared to older adults (60–74 years), 73% of the 
reduction in total energy expenditure in nonagenarians is attributed to a reduction in PA 
level. The reduced physical activity in nonagenarians is associated with less physical 
functionality (Frisard et al., 2007). Nevertheless, multicomponent exercises including 
muscle power training enhance muscle mass, power output, and functional outcomes 
also in nonagenarians (Cadore et al., 2014). 

Exercise, even at moderate level, in particular avoiding sedentary behavior, may 
delay disabilities and improve survival in older age. Types of activities that bring joy 
and are in the same time easy to include in daily life are suitable. For example, regular 
practice of daily life activities will allow their maintenance. Positive association was 
found among house/garden work and physical/mental well - being in older women 
(Peeters, van Gellecum, van Uffelen, Burton, & Brown, 2014). Simple interventions 
like pet ownership are important in maintaining daily life abilities levels of older people 
(Raina, Waltner-Toews, Bonnett, Woodward, & Abernathy, 1999). Even regular walk-
ing induces benefits for health, in addition is simple, safe and free of charge. We can 
walk anytime and anywhere: at home, up the stairs, in the nature in shopping malls 
(Drev, 2010). Dance, especially challenging dance programs are an effective counter-
measure of aging on the brain.  Dancing has a superior potential to induce more positive 
effects on brain volumes in elderly people to peperitive physical exercises (Rehfeld et. 
al., 2018). An important message is that exercises in old age are not beneficial only for 
physical functioning, but they also are neuro-protective (Herold, Törpel, Schega, & 
Müeler, 2019).

But for most health outcomes, additional benefits occur as the amount of PA in-
creases through longer duration, greater frequency and finally, higher intensity. Ideally, 
exercise programs for successful aging should include endurance training, resistance 
training and exercise for flexibility and balance (Simonsick, Guralnik, Volpato, Balfour, 
& Fried, 2005; Chodzko-Zajko et al., 2009). In this case gradually increasing regular 
PA is extremely important. When preparing the training program, we must consider any 
health restrictions of the elderly subject (Gerževič & Plevnik, 2014). The WHO guide-
lines are relevant to all healthy adults aged 65 years and over unless specific medical 
conditions: older adults should do at least 150 minutes (for additional benefits 300 min) 
of moderate-intensity aerobic PA or do at least 75 minutes (for additional benefits 150 
min) of vigorous intensity aerobic PA throughout the week. Aerobic activity should be 
performed in bouts of at least 10 minutes duration. Older adults should perform PA to 



64

Dorjana ZERBO-ŠPORIN: THE BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND EXERCISE ON PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND DAILY LIFE ..., 59–71

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 10 • 2019 • 1

enhance balance and prevent falls on 3 or more days per week. Muscle-strengthening 
exercise should be done on 2 or more days a week. When older adults cannot do the 
recommended amounts of PA due to health conditions, they should be as physically ac-
tive as conditions allow (Global Recommendations on Physical Activity for Health - 65 
years and above, 2011). 

Endurance activities for elderly 

Improvements in daily life abilities are often achieved by endurance training. En-
durance exercises for elderly usually include brisk walking or jogging, swimming, yard 
work and dancing. Endurance training is an effective tool against the cardiorespiratory 
decline observed during aging. After an 8-year follow-up of older adults, Paterson, 
Govindasamy, Vidmar, Cunningham, and Koval (2004) report that a lower cardiorespi-
ratory fitness is a significant determinant of becoming dependent. Authors suggest that 
initiatives to encourage physical activity in older adults should emphasize exercise to 
maintain or improve cardiorespiratory fitness. Thais de Lima, Corrêa Kanan, Augustin 
Schwanke, and Mânica da Cruz (2013) suggest that 3 months aerobic training pro-
gram by treadmill walking result in significant increases in step length and self-selected 
walking speeds in healthy, independent, elderly women. Frequent, especially brisk pace 
walking is a relatively safe and easy activity also for hip fracture prevention (Fes-
kanich, Flint, & Willett, 2014). Aerobic exercise can improve physical performance 
but even a number of aspects of cognition and brain function (Hillman, Erickson, & 
Kramer, 2008). 

Heart rate is commonly used as a guide to exercise intensity. The American Heart 
Association suggest the target ranges for moderate-intensity exercise as 50% to 75% 
of average maximum heart rate. Exercise sessions should maintain target heart rate for 
20 to 60 minutes (continuous or intermittent), with a minimum of 3 x 10-minute bouts 
collected throughout the day. According to American College of Sports Medicine, to 
achieve cardiorespiratory fitness aerobic exercise 3 to 5 days per week should be per-
formed (McDermott & Mernitz, 2004).

Strength training for elderly

Physical activity maintains muscular strength and endurance, flexibility and balance, 
all factors important for independent living of an elderly person. Generally, a progres-
sive resistance training protocol can produce substantial increases in muscle strength 
and power of aging people (Skelton, Young, Greig, & Malbut, 1995; Hanson et al., 
2009). Leg strength and endurance are necessary for housekeeping, food preparation, 
shopping etc. Neuromuscular activation deficits precede changes in muscle size and 
strength, and this may be the initial mechanism that influences leg muscle power loss 
(Reid et al., 2014). A progressive resistance training program is effective in improving 
leg power in elderly men and women (Earles, Judge, & Gunnarsson, 2001; Bean et al., 
2004; Holviala et al., 2014). Furthermore, for improvement daily life activities of el-

https://go4life.nia.nih.gov/exercise-type/endurance/


ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 10 • 2019 • 1

65

Dorjana ZERBO-ŠPORIN: THE BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND EXERCISE ON PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND DAILY LIFE ..., 59–71

derly, a functional muscle power training program based on higher velocity movements 
that mimic daily life activities should be prescribed (Cress, Conley, Balding, Hansen-
Smith, & Konczak, 1996; Miszko et al., 2003; Bean et al., 2004; Henwood & Taaffe, 
2005). To combine, a progressive resistance training that incorporates rapid rate-of-
force development movements may be safely undertaken in healthy older adults and 
results in significant gains in muscle strength, muscle power, and physical performance 
(Henwood & Taaffe, 2005). Resistance exercises are powerful physical interventions 
to induce functional brain changes, especially by improvements in executive functions. 
Resistance exercises lead to mantain white matter and to smaller white matter lesions 
(Herold, Törpel, Schega, & Müeler, 2019). Incorporating the elastic resistance training 
in nursing homes could be an effective strategy against functional decline during aging 
(Urzi, Marušič, Ličen, & Bužan, 2019). Resistance training should be performed at 
least twice per week and exercises should target the major muscle groups. Patients can 
exercise all muscle groups at each session or divided the series into shorter sessions of 
3 to 4 muscle groups that are worked on alternation, so 4–6 sessions per week. Each 
set should consist of 8 to 12 repetitions at a somewhat hard to harder intensity level us-
ing the Borg Rating of Perceived Exertion Scale. Sessions should be no longer than an 
hour, with 48 hours between sessions (McDermott & Mernitz, 2004).

Balance and flexibility training for elderly

Combined exercises including strength, balance and flexibility exercises are effec-
tive in reducing the risk of falls (Campbell et al., 1997) and consequent limitations in 
daily life activity in old age. Flexibility is the range of motion around a joint and is as-
sociated with injury prevention. Of particular importance in aging is the maintenance 
of posterior thigh and ankle flexibility and of lower back flexibility. Appropriate flex-
ibility can protect against chronic lower back pain and maintain the ability to perform 
daily life activities. Activities that improve flexibility include exercises that lengthen 
the muscles such as tai-chi, yoga, and stretching. A static stretching program including 
all major muscle groups performed a minimum of 2 to 3 times per week can improve 
agility and balance. Stretching exercises can be involved in warm-up and cool-down 
phases of an aerobic or resistance training (McDermott & Mernitz, 2004). A fitness 
program that includes exercises to improve flexibility, and strength, with an emphasis 
on balance (for safety external support must be provided) involving the lower body 
muscles would be a good choice for elderly patient (McDermott & Mernitz, 2004).

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY PROGRAMS INCLUDING COGNITIVE TASKS

Physical activity and exercise alone are neuro – protective (Guadagni et. al, 2018; 
Northey, Cherbuin, Pumpa, Smee, & Rattray, 2018; Tyndall et. al., 2018; Herold, Tör-
pel, Schega, & Müeler, 2019), but less is known how to combine physical and cognitive 



66

Dorjana ZERBO-ŠPORIN: THE BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND EXERCISE ON PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND DAILY LIFE ..., 59–71

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 10 • 2019 • 1

training for greater effects on cognitive functions and how brain training alone influ-
ence mobility in older adults. Cognitive training itself can improve mobility-relatated 
outcomes in older adult, especially for challenging walking conditions (Marušič, Ver-
ghese, & Mahoney, 2018). Physical activity programs for older adults can bring greater 
benefits when cognitive tasks are integrated. For example, challenging dance programs 
that combine aerobic fitness, sensorimotor skills and cognitive demands are promising 
in counteracting the decline in physical and cognitive abilities during aging (Müller et. 
al., 2017; Rehfeld et. al., 2018).  Older adults should be made aware of the plasticity 
of the brain and the potential to maintain or improve their cognitive functioning when 
engage in mentally challenging physical activity (e.g. activities that combine physical 
and cognitive tasks as dance, tai-chi) (Gheysen et al., 2018). A systematic review of the 
effect of aerobic exercise on cognition in older adults showed an improving in auditory 
attention and cognitive processing speed (Angevaren et al., 2008). Physical activity, 
alone or combined with cognitive and nutritional interventions could enhance function-
al fitness in older adults (Paravlić, Marušič, Gerževič, Urzi, & Šimunič, 2016). Simul-
taneous training of cognitive and physical abilities presents an important technique to 
improve cognitive and motor-cognitive performance, so offering a better basis on daily 
life functioning (Gerževič, Plevnik, & Marušič, 2017). Even exercise at moderate level 
reduces the risk of developing cognitive impairment in older adults (Paterson, Jones, & 
Rice, 2007). It seems that brain derived neurotrophic factors as metabotrophin mediate 
the effects of exercise on cognition (Gomez Pinilla, Vaynman, & Ying, 2008). Although 
the effects of exercise on cognition are promising, information about the specific dose 
and type of exercise are still missing (Taylor, 2014).

Daily life abilities can be also impaired because of sleep disorders, which are com-
mon in elderly population. Regular physical exercise has been found as beneficial to 
initiating and maintaining sleep (Montgomery & Dennis, 2002). 

CONCLUSIONS

State of well-being with a low risk of premature health problems is crucial for suc-
cessful aging. Even still poorly understood relationship between physical activity and 
performance of daily life abilities, it seems that regular training has important benefits 
on physical functioning and daily life abilities in healthy elderly population. In par-
ticular, a variety of resistance exercise trainings favorably impact walking and balance 
activities, through maintaining muscle strength, power and neuromuscular capability of 
aging people. An additional beneficial effect on physical functioning is achieved if rap-
id movements that mimic daily life abilities are incorporated in the training programs. 
Combined training including strength, balance and flexibility exercises are effective in 
reducing the risk of falls the consequences of which can very limited performance of 
daily life abilities in the old age. Old adults should be also encouraged to emphasize 
exercise, such as brisk walking, to maintain cardiorespiratory fitness, a significant de-



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 10 • 2019 • 1

67

Dorjana ZERBO-ŠPORIN: THE BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND EXERCISE ON PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND DAILY LIFE ..., 59–71

terminant of healthy aging. Importantly, in the preparation of the training program is 
necessary to consider any health restrictions of the subject. 

REFERENCES

Angevaren, M., Aufdemkampe, G., Verhaar, H. J. J., Aleman, A., & Vanhees, L. (2008). 
Physical activity and enhanced fitness to improve cognitive function in older people 
without known cognitive impairment. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 3, 96 
p. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD005381.pub2.

Anish, E. J. (2009). The senior athlete. In C. Madden, et al. (Eds.), Netter’s sports medicine 
1.ed. (pp 86-100), Philadelphia: Saunders, Elsevier.

Bean, J. F., Herman, S., Kiely, D. K., Frey, I. C., Leveille, S. G., Fielding, R. A., Fron-
tera, W. R. (2004). Increased Velocity Exercise Specific to Task (InVEST) training: a 
pilot study exploring effects on leg power, balance, and mobility in community-dwelling 
older women. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 52(5), 799–804. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2004.52222.x.

Bilancio, G., Lombardi, C., Cirillo, M., Pišot, R., Rittweger, J. & De Santo, N. G. 
(2012). From space flights to osteoporosis. Annales Kinesiologiae, 3(1), 27-34.

Cadore, E. L., Casas-Herrero, A., Zambom-Ferraresi, F., Idoate, F., Millor, N., Gómez, 
M., …  Izquierdo, M. (2014). Multicomponent exercises including muscle power 
training enhance muscle mass, power output, and functional outcomes in institution-
alized frail nonagenarians. Age, 36(2), 773-785. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11357-013-
9586-z.

Campbell, A. J., Robertson, M. C., Gardner, M. M., Norton, R. N., Tilyard, M. W., & 
Buchner, D. M. (1997). Randomised controlled trial of a general practice programme 
of home-based exercise to prevent falls in elderly women. British Medical Journal, 
315(7115), 1065–1069. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.315.7115.1065.

Chodzko-Zajko, W. J., Proctor, D. N., Fiatarone Singh, M. A., Minson, C. T., Nigg, C. 
R., Salem, G. J., Skinner, J. (2009). Exercise and physical activity for older adults. 
Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 41(7), 1510–1530. https://doi.org/10.1249/
MSS.0b013e3181a0c95c.

Cress, M. E., Conley, K. E., Balding, S. L., Hansen-Smith, F., & Konczak, J. (1996). 
Functional training: muscle structure, function, and performance in older women. Jour-
nal of Orhopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, 24(1), 4–10. https://doi.org/10.2519/
jospt.1996.24.1.4.

Dimec Časar, T., Tušak, M. & Dolenc, P. (2015). Changes in mental health and satisfac-
tion with life during physical inactivity induced by bed rest experiment. Annales Kine-
siologiae, 6(1), 27-38. 

Dolenc, P., & Petrič, M. (2013). The effects of prolonged physical inactivity induced by 
bed rest on cognitive functioning in healthy male participants. Annales Kinesiologiae, 
4(2), 129-143.

Drev, A. (2010). V gibanju tudi v starosti. Retrieved from: https://www.nijz.si/sl/
publikacije/v-gibanju-tudi-v-starosti.

https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD005381.pub2
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2004.52222.x
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2004.52222.x
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11357-013-9586-z
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11357-013-9586-z
https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.315.7115.1065
https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181a0c95c
https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181a0c95c
https://doi.org/10.2519/jospt.1996.24.1.4
https://doi.org/10.2519/jospt.1996.24.1.4
https://www.nijz.si/sl/publikacije/v-gibanju-tudi-v-starosti
https://www.nijz.si/sl/publikacije/v-gibanju-tudi-v-starosti


68

Dorjana ZERBO-ŠPORIN: THE BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND EXERCISE ON PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND DAILY LIFE ..., 59–71

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 10 • 2019 • 1

Earles, D. R., Judge, J. O., & Gunnarsson., O. T. (2001). Velocity training induces power 
specific adaptations in highly functioning older adults. Archives of Physical Medicine 
and Rehabilitation, 82(7), 872–878. https://doi.org/10.1053/apmr.2001.23838.

Eurostat (2019). Population structure and aging. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/euro-
stat/statisticsexplained/index.php/Population_structure_and_ageing.

Feskanich, D., Flint, A. J., & Willett, W. C. (2014). Physical activity and inactivity and 
risk of hip fracture in men. American Journal of Public Health, 104(4), 75-81. https://
doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301667.

Frisard, M. I., Fabre, J. M, Russell, R. D., King, C. M., DeLany, J. P., Wood, R. H., & 
Ravussin, E. (2007). Physical activity level and physical functionality in nonagenarians 
compared to individuals aged 60–74 years. Journal of Gerontology, 62A(7), 783–788. 
https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/62.7.783.

Garatachea, N., Pareja-Galeano, H., Sanchis-Gomar, F., Santos-Lozano, A., Fiuza-Lu-
ces, C., … Lucia, A. (2015). Exercise attenuates the major hallmarks of aging.  Rejuve-
nation Research, 18(1), 57-89. https://doi.org/10.1089/rej.2014.1623.

Gerževič, M., & Plevnik, M. (2014). Priporočila za vadbo v tretjem življenjskem obdobju. 
In M. Gabrijelčič Blenkuš, R. Situlin & S. Pišot (Eds.), Telesna aktivnost in prehrana 
za kakovostno staranje [Physical activity and nutrition for quality aging] (pp 36-42). 
Retrieved from: http://www.zrs-kp.si/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Pangea_GIBANJE-
ATTIVITA.pdf.

Gerževič, M., Plevnik, M., & Marušič, U. (2017). Benefits of motor and/or cognitive 
exercise: A review with recommendation for the third age. Annales Kinesiologiae, 8(1), 
34-49.

Gheysen, F., Poppe, L., DeSmet, A., Swinnen, S., Cardon, G., De Bourdeaudhuij, I., 
… Fias, W. (2018). Physical activity to improve cognition in older adults: can physical 
activity programs enriched with cognitive challenges enhance the effects? A systematic 
review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical 
Activity, 15, 63-76. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-018-0697-x.

Global Recommendations on Physical Activity for Health - 65 years and above (2011). 
Retrieved from: https://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/physical-activity-recommen-
dations-65years.pdf?ua=1.

Gomez-Pinilla, F., Vaynman, S., & Ying, Z. (2008). Brain derived neurotrophic fac-
tor functions as a metabotrophin to mediate the effects of exercise on cognition. Eu-
ropean Journal of Neuroscience, 28(11), 2278-2287. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-
9568.2008.06524.x.

Guadagni, M., Clark, C. M., Tyndall, A., Raneri, J.K., Parboosingh, J. S., Hogan, D. 
B., ... & Poulin, M. J. (2018). Effects of six-month aerobic intervention on sleep in 
healthy older adults in the brain in motion study: a pilot study. Journal of Alzheimer´s 
Disease Reports, 2(1), 229-238. https://doi.org/10.3233/ADR-180079.

Hanson, E. D., Srivastan, S. R., Agrawal, S., Menon, K. S., Delmonico, M. J., Wang, M. 
Q., & Hurley, B. F. (2009). Effects of strength training on physical function: influence 
of power, strength, and body composition. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning 
Research, 23(9), 2627-2637. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181b2297b.

Henwood, T. R., & Taaffe, D. R. (2005). Improved physical performance in older adults 
undertaking a short-term programme of high velocity resistance training. Gerontology, 
51(2), 108–115. https://doi.org/10.1159/000082195.

https://doi.org/10.1053/apmr.2001.23838
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statisticsexplained/index.php/Population_structure_and_ageing
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statisticsexplained/index.php/Population_structure_and_ageing
https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301667
https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301667
https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/62.7.783
https://doi.org/10.1089/rej.2014.1623
http://www.zrs-kp.si/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Pangea_GIBANJE-ATTIVITA.pdf
http://www.zrs-kp.si/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Pangea_GIBANJE-ATTIVITA.pdf
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-018-0697-x
https://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/physical-activity-recommendations-65years.pdf?ua=1
https://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/physical-activity-recommendations-65years.pdf?ua=1
https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181b2297b
https://doi.org/10.1159/000082195


ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 10 • 2019 • 1

69

Dorjana ZERBO-ŠPORIN: THE BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND EXERCISE ON PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND DAILY LIFE ..., 59–71

Herold, F., Törpel, A., Schega, L., & Müeler, N. G. (2019). Functional and/or structural 
brain changes in response to resistance exercises and resistance training lead to cog-
nitive improvements – a systematic review. European Review of Aging and Physical 
Activity, 16(10), 1-33. https://doi.org/10.1186/s11556-019-0217-2.

Hillman, C., Erickson, K. I. & Kramer, A. F. (2008). Be smart, exercise your heart: exer-
cise effects on brain and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9(1), 58-65. https://
doi.org/10.1038/nrn2298.

Holviala, J., Häkkinen, A., Alen, M., Salliner, J., Kramer, W., & Häkkinen, K. (2014). 
Effects of prolonged and maintenance strength training on force production, walking, 
and balance in aging women and men. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in 
Sports, 24(1), 224-233. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2012.01470.x.

Hunter, G. R., McCarthy, J. P., & Bamman, M. M. (2004). Effects of resistance training 
on older adults. Sports Medicine, 34(5), 329-348. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-
200434050-00005.

Marušič, U., Kavcic, V., Giordani, B., Gerževič, M., Meeusen, R. & Pišot, R. (2015). 
Computerized spatial navigation training during 14 days of bed rest in healthy older 
adult man: Effects on gait performance. Psychology and Aging, 30(2), 334-340. https://
psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/pag0000021.

Marušič, U., Giordani B., Moffat, S. D., Petrič, M., Dolenc, P., Pišot, R., & Kavcic, V. 
(2017). Computerized cognitive training during physical inactivity improves executive 
functions in older adults. Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition, 25(1), 49-69. https://
doi.org/10.1080/13825585.2016.1263724.

Marušič, U., Verghese, J., & Mahoney, J. R. (2018). Cognitive-based interventions to im-
prove mobility: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the American Medical 
Directors Association, 19(6), 484-491. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jamda.2018.02.002.

McDermott, Y. A., & Mernitz, H. (2004). Exercise and the Elderly: Guidelines and Practi-
cal Prescription Applications for the Clinician Case Studies and Commentary. Journal 
of Clinical Outcome Management, 11(2), 117-128. Retrieved from: https://digitalcom-
mons.calpoly.edu/kine_fac/51.

Miszko, T. A., Cress, M. E., Slade, J. M., Covey, C. J., Agrawal, S. K., & Doerr, C. E. 
(2003). Effect of strength and power training on physical function in community-dwell-
ing older adults. The Journal of Gerontology Biological Science & Medical Science, 
58(2), 171–175. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/58.2.M171.

Montgomery, P., & Dennis, J. A. (2002). Physical exercise for sleep problems in 
adults aged 60+. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 4, 1-14. https://doi.
org/10.1002/14651858.CD003404.

Müller, P., Aye, N., Schmicker, M., Dordevic, M., Kaufman, J., Hökelmann, A., & Mül-
ler, N. G. (2017). Dancing or FitnessSport? The effects of two training programs on 
hippocampal plasticity and balance abilities in healthy seniors. Frontiers in Human Neu-
roscience, 11, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2017.00305.

Northey, J. M., Cherbuin, N., Pumpa, K. L., Smee, D. J., & Rattray, B. (2018). Exer-
cise interventions for cognitive function in adults older than 50: a systematic review 
with meta-analysis. Bitish Journal of Sports Medicine, 52(3), 154-160. https://doi.
org/10.1136/bjsports-2016-096587.

Paravlić, A., Marušič, U., Gerževič, M., Urzi, F., & Šimunič, B. (2016). The effects of 
different exercise-based interventions on functional fitness of older adults. Annales Ki-
nesiologiae, 7(2), 117-137.

https://doi.org/10.1186/s11556-019-0217-2
https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2298
https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2298
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2012.01470.x
https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200434050-00005
https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200434050-00005
https://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/kine_fac/51
https://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/kine_fac/51
https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/58.2.M171
https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD003404
https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD003404


70

Dorjana ZERBO-ŠPORIN: THE BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND EXERCISE ON PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND DAILY LIFE ..., 59–71

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 10 • 2019 • 1

Paterson, D. H., Govindasamy, D., Vidmar, M., Cunningham, D. A., & Koval, J. J. 
(2004). Longitudinal study of determinants of dependence in an elderly population. 
Journal of American Geriatric Society, 52(10), 1632–1638. https://doi.org/10.1111/
j.1532-5415.2004.52454.x.

Paterson, D. H., Jones, G. R., & Rice, C. L. (2007). Ageing and physical activity: evi-
dence to develop exercise recommendations for older adults. Applied Physiology, Nutri-
tion and Metabolism, 32(2E), 69–108. https://doi.org/10.1139/H07-111.

Peeters, G., van Gellecum, Y. R., van Uffelen, J. G. Z., Burton, N. W., & Brown, W. 
J. (2014). Contribution of house and garden work to the association between physical 
activity and well-being in young, mid-aged and older women. British Journal of Sports 
Medicine, 48(12), 996-1001. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2012-091103.

Pišot, R., Marušič, U., Biolo, G., Mazzucco, S., Lazzer, S., Grassi, B., ... Šimunič, B. 
(2016). Greater loss in muscle mass and function but smaller metabolic alterations in 
older compared with younger men following 2 wk of bed rest and recovery. Journal of 
Applied Physiology, 120(8), 922-929. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00858.2015.

Raina, P., Waltner-Toews, D., Bonnett, B., Woodward, C., & Abernathy, T. (1999). In-
fluence of companion animals on the physical and psychological health of older people: 
an analysis of a one-year longitudinal study. Journal of American Geriatric Society, 
47(3), 323-329. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.1999.tb02996.x.

Rehfeld, K., Lüders, A., Hökelmann, A., Lessmann, V., Kaufmann, J., Brigadski, T., 
... Müller, N. G. (2018). Dance training is superior to repetitive physical exercise in 
inducing brain plasticity in the elderly. PLoS ONE, 13(7), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1371/
journal.pone.0196636.

Reid, K. F., Pasha, E., Doros, G., Clark, D. J., Patten, C., Phillips, E. M., ... Fielding, 
R. A. (2014). Longitudinal decline of lower extremity muscle power in healthy and 
mobility-limited older adults: influence of muscle mass, strength, composition, neuro-
muscular activation and single fibre contractile properties. European Journal of Applied 
Physiology, 114(1), 29-39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-013-2728-2.

Rowe, J. H., & Kahn, R. L. (1997). Successful aging. Gerontologist, 37(4), 433–440. 
https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/37.4.433.

Shephard, R. (1997). Aging, Physical Activity, and Health. Champaign, IL (USA), Human 
Kinetics.

Simonsick, E. M., Guralnik, J. M., Volpato, S., Balfour, J., & Fried, L. P. (2005). Just 
get out the door! Importance of walking outside the home for maintaining mobility: 
findings from the womens health and aging study. Journal of American Geriatric Soci-
ety, 53(2), 198–203. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2005.53103.x.

Skelton, D. A., Young, A., Greig, C. A., & Malbut, K. E. (1995). Effects of resis-
tance training on strength, power, and selected functional abilities of women aged 
75 and older. Journal of American Geriatric Society 43(10), 1081–1087. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.1995.tb07004.x.

Slutsky, A. B. & Etnier, J. L. (2016). Caloric restriction, physical activity, and cognitive 
performance: A review of evidence and discussion of the potential mediators of BDNF 
and TrkB. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 17(2), 1-17. https://
doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2016.1223422.

Spiduso, W. W., Francis, K. L., & MacRea, P. (2005). Physical dimensions of aging. 
Campaing, IL (USA), Human Kinetics.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2004.52454.x
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2004.52454.x
https://doi.org/10.1139/H07-111
https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2012-091103
https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00858.2015
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.1999.tb02996.x
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0196636
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0196636
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-013-2728-2
https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/37.4.433
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2005.53103.x
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.1995.tb07004.x
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.1995.tb07004.x


ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 10 • 2019 • 1

71

Dorjana ZERBO-ŠPORIN: THE BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND EXERCISE ON PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND DAILY LIFE ..., 59–71

Strawbridge, W. J., Cohen, R. D., Shema, S. J., & Kaplan, G. A. (1997). Successful 
aging: predictors and associated activities. American Journal of Epidemiology, 144(2), 
134-144. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a008900.

Taylor, D. (2014). Physical activity is medicine for older adults. Postrgraduate Medical 
Journal, 90, 26–32. https://doi.org/10.1136/postgradmedj-2012-131366.

Thais de Lima, R., Corrêa Kanan, J. H., Augustin Schwanke, C. H., & Mânica da 
Cruz, I. B. (2013). The effect of aerobic training on healthy elderly women’s walk-
ing speed, step length and habitual physical activity. Pan American Journal of Aging 
Research, 1(2), 32-39. Retrieved from: http://revistaseletronicas.pucrs.br/ojs/index.php/
pajar/article/view/13287.

Tseng, B. S., Marsh, D. R., Hamilton, M. T., & Booth, F. W. (1995). Strength and aerobic 
training attenuate muscle wasting and improve resistance to the development of disabil-
ity with aging. The Journals of Gerontology, 50A (Special Issue), 113-119. https://doi.
org/10.1093/gerona/50A.Special_Issue.113.

Tyndall, A., Clark, C. M., Anderson, T., Hogan, D. M., Hill, M. D., Longman, R. S., & 
Poulin, M. J. (2018). Protective effects of exercise on cognition and brain health in old-
er adults. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 46(4), 215-223. https://doi.org/10.1249/
JES.0000000000000161.

Urzi, F., Marušič, U., Ličen, S., & Bužan, E. (2019). Effects of elastic resistance training 
on functional performance and myokines in older women – a randomized controlled 
trial. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, 20(7), 830-834. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jamda.2019.01.151.

Wanderley, F. A. C., Silva, G., Marques, E., Oliveira, J., Mota, J., & Carvalho, J. (2011). 
Associations between objectively assessed physical activity levels and fitness and self-
reported health-related quality of life in community-dwelling older adults. Quality of 
Life Research, 20(9), 1371–1378. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-011-9875-x.

Whalley, L. J., Deary, I. J., Appelton, C. L., & Starr, J. M. (2004). Cognitive reserve and 
the neurobiology of cognitive aging. Aging Research Review, 3(4), 369-382. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.arr.2004.05.001.

https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a008900
https://doi.org/10.1136/postgradmedj-2012-131366
http://revistaseletronicas.pucrs.br/ojs/index.php/pajar/article/view/13287
http://revistaseletronicas.pucrs.br/ojs/index.php/pajar/article/view/13287
https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/50A.Special_Issue.113
https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/50A.Special_Issue.113
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-011-9875-x

	_GoBack
	_Hlk3367923
	_GoBack
	_GoBack
	_GoBack
	_Hlk3056869
	_GoBack
	_GoBack
	_Hlk23766418
	_GoBack
	_Hlk26527070
	_GoBack
	_GoBack

