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Review article                                                         doi: https://doi.org/10.35469/ak.2019.185
received: 2019-04-18                                                        UDC: 796.012:612.33

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY REGULATES THE INTESTINAL 
MICROBIOTA COMPOSITION

Mihaela JURDANA1 & Darja BARLIČ-MAGANJA1

1University of Primorska, Faculty of Health Sciences, Slovenia

Corresponding Author:
Mihaela JURDANA

University of Primorska, Faculty of Health Sciences, Polje 42, Izola, Slovenia
Phone: +386 5 66 26 469

E-mail: mihaela.jurdana@fvz.upr.si

ABSTRACT

Gut microbiota is the name given today to the bacterial population living in our 
intestine. It provides nutrients, metabolites and affects the immune system. Recent ani-
mals and human studies suggest that regular physical activity increases the presence 
of beneficial microbial species of gut microbiota and improves the health status of the 
host. When gut bacteria diversity reduces, there are systemic consequences leading to 
gastrointestinal, physiological and psychological distress. This review describes the 
communication pathway of the microbiota-gut-brain axes and other possible mecha-
nisms by which physical activity causes changes in microbiota composition. Further-
more, it provides the latest evidence of the beneficial role of exercise, which in turn can 
affect health and various disease processes. The results of research studies in this area 
are increasingly becoming a focus of scientific attention.

Keywords: Gut microbiota, physical exercise, health.

mailto:mihaela.jurdana@fvz.upr.si


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TELESNA AKTIVNOST URAVNAVA SESTAVO 
ČREVESNE MIKROBIOTE

IZVLEČEK

Črevesna mikrobiota je bakterijska združba v črevesju. Zagotavlja hranila, meta-
bolite in vpliva na imunski sistem. Nedavne študije na živalih in ljudeh nakazujejo, da 
redna telesna aktivnost povečuje prisotnost koristnih bakterijskih vrst, ki so del čreve-
sne mikrobiote in na ta način izboljšuje zdravstveno stanje gostitelja. Upad raznolikosti 
črevesnih bakterij  vodi v sistemske posledice, ki povzročajo gastrointestinalne, fiziolo-
ške in psihološke težave. Pregledni  članek opisuje komunikacijsko pot, os mikrobiota-
-črevesje-možgani ter druge možne mehanizme, s katerimi telesna aktivnost povzroča 
spremembe v sestavi mikrobiote. Poleg tega ponuja najnovejše dokaze o koristni vlogi 
telesne aktivnosti, kar lahko vpliva na zdravje in različne bolezenske procese. Rezultati 
raziskav na tem področju so vse bolj v središču pozornosti znanstvenikov.

Ključne besede: črevesna mikrobiota, telesna aktivnost, zdravje.



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INTRODUCTION

Microbiota in Gastrointestinal Tract

The human gastrointestinal tract (GIT) is inhabited by trillions of microbial cells 
whose coordinated actions are important in human life, having crucial roles in several 
physiological and pathological processes (Clemente, Ursell, Parfrey & Knight, 2012). 
These microorganisms are known as gut microbiota and are sometimes referred to as a 
»forgotten organ« (O’Hara & Shanahan, 2006). The gut microbiota is mostly made up 
of two bacterial phyla. More than 90% of them belong to Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes, 
including species of Ruminococcus, Lactobacillus and Clostridium genera, whereas 
the minority of species belong to phyla such as Actinobacteria and Proteobacteria. 
Firmicutes phyla mainly includes Ruminococcus, Clostridium, Lactobacillus, Eubac-
terium, Faecalibacterium and Roseburia, while in Bacteroides mainly Prevotella and 
Xylanibacter are represented (Eckburg et al., 2005).

The number, type and function of microbiota along the entire GIT have a great 
variability. Its density and diversity increase steadily along the GIT. The highest con-
centration is reached in large bowel where a complex group of microorganisms ferment 
different non-digestable food components (Bäckhed, Ley, Sonnenburg, Peterson & 
Gordon, 2005). The gut microbiota functions are highly preserved between individuals, 
whereas each individual’s gut microbiota is characterized by a specific combination 
of bacterial species due to inter-individual and intra-individual variations throughout 
human life. Its composition is influenced by different factors like microbial species 
acquired at birth, host genetics, immunological factors, drugs like antibiotics and nutri-
tion (Bokulich et al., 2016; Yatsunenko et al., 2012; Kashtanova, Popenko, Tkacheva, 
Tyakht, Alexeev & Boytsov, 2016). Recent studies indicated that physical activity is 
also one of the main positive modulators of gut microbiota biodiversity. Beneficial ef-
fects of exercise on gut microbiota has been supported by investigations performed in 
animals and confirmed in human studies (Ticinesi, Lauretani, Tana, Nouvenne, Ridolo 
& Meschi, 2019).

The development and maturation of gut microbiota start in early life. Colonization 
of the infant gut should begin already during the antenatal period before the delivery 
(Aagaard, Ma, Antony, Ganu, Petrosino & Versalovic, 2014). After the birth, the infant 
gut is exposed to complex surrounding environmental and maternal microbiota which 
begins to colonize the GIT. The development and maturation of gut microbiota are in-
fluenced by several intrinsic and extrinsic factors, like mode of delivery, mother’s age, 
diet and metabolic status, type of feeding, family genetics and lifestyle (Rodriguez et 
al., 2015; Milani et al., 2017). The introduction of solid food to an infant diet changes 
the microbiota and by the age of three it resembles a relatively stable adult-like profile 
with a dense microbial population (Milani et al., 2017). In general, changes occur in 
the elderly population showing a significant decrease in bacterial diversity, especially 
a decrease in Bacteroidetes and an increase in Firmicutes (Claesson et al., 2012). Al-
though these may be related to physiological alterations there is now evidence that diet 

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Clemente%20JC%5BAuthor%5D&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=22424233
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Ursell%20LK%5BAuthor%5D&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=22424233
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Parfrey%20LW%5BAuthor%5D&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=22424233
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Knight%20R%5BAuthor%5D&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=22424233


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also plays an important role. Dietary factors, particularly carbohydrate and protein in-
take, are generally considered as the main determinants of gut microbiota composition 
(Milani et al., 2016).

The preservation of a normal and healthy gut microbiota plays a critical role in 
maintaining good health, with possible effects on the motility of GIT, conversion of 
food into useful nutrients, fortification of mucosal barrier, the homeostasis of the im-
mune system, and protection against invasion of pathogenic microorganisms. Microbi-
ota ferments non-digestible dietary residues producing short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs, 
such as n-butyrate, acetate, and propionate) which modulate the host energy balance 
increasing the nutrients availability (Samuel et al., 2008). Fermented SCFAs, secreted 
into the gut lumen, exceed the epithelial barrier and are released into the bloodstream. 
In this way they reach different organs and are used as substrates for energy metabo-
lism. Hepatocyte cells, in particular, use propionate for gluconeogenesis. SCFAs are 
involved in the gut-brain axis, stimulating the release of peptide YY (PYY) and 5-hy-
droxytryptamine (5-HT). They act as signaling molecules to regulate immune and in-
flammatory responses (Evans, Morris & Marchesi, 2013). N-butyrate regulates neutro-
phil function and migration, increases the expression of tight junction proteins in colon 
epithelia, reduces mucosal permeability and inhibits inflammatory cytokines (Nichol-
son et al., 2012). Beside producing SCFAs, bacterial species of the intestinal microbiota 
synthesize glycan, amino acids, and vitamins (K, B12, biotin, folate and thiamine), thus 
participating in the host metabolism (Flint, Scott, Louis & Duncan, 2012).

The recognition of commensal bacteria by toll-like receptors (TLRs) is necessary 
to stimulate the epithelial cell proliferation, protecting the epithelial surface against 
gut injury (Akira & Hemmi, 2003). Paneth cells, the secretory cells of the small in-
testine epithelium, perceive enteric bacteria through TLRs activation and trigger the 
expression of various antimicrobial factors. This prevents the penetration of patho-
genic bacteria over the intestinal barrier (Vaishnava, Behrendt, Ismail, Eckmann & 
Hooper, 2008). The microbiota is also related to the development of the gut associated 
lymphoid tissue (GALT), the host immune system stimulating IgA secretion and in-
hibiting colonization of the GIT by pathogens. Protective functions are performed also 
by the microbiota through competition with pathogens for nutrients and receptors and 
the production of antimicrobial molecules to avoid colonization by pathogens (Akira 
& Hemmi, 2003). Through ligands from commensal bacteria (as lipopolysaccharide, 
LPS), the gut microbiota influences the mucosal immune system development and 
function (Rakoff-Nahoum, Paglino, Eslami-Varzaneh, Edberg & Medzhitov, 2004). 
Furthermore, the innate immune system can also recognize potentially pathogenic mi-
crobes through TLRs identification of particular molecules called pathogen associated 
molecular patterns (PAMP). This leads to an increase in cytokine levels and T-cell ac-
tivation which are necessary for appropriate immune response to pathogens (Rakoff-
Nahoum et al., 2004).

In the present review, we summarize different experimental evidences about the po-
tential mechanisms by which the physical activity might influence the gut microbiota. 
Besides, we discuss the health benefits of exercise and microbiota diversity. 



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METHODS

Electronic databases MEDLINE, Science direct and PubMed including the original 
science articles and reviews, mainly published in the last two years were used to search 
the literature. Based on the keywords: microbiota, moderate exercise, intensive exer-
cise, gut and health; the role of exercise on microbial composition and benefits to health 
were described. The search was not restricted to the type of study (i.e., species, meta-
analysis, case-control, prospective cohort studies, reviews), sample size, year of publi-
cation, publication status or follow-up; however, we only included articles published in 
English and did not take into account other publications (i.e. conference presentations, 
abstracts, seminars, doctorate thesis). 

RESULTS

Microbiota and Diseases

Physiological gut microbiota variations have huge implications on human health. 
Alteration of gut microbiota composition, often defined as dysbiosis, is a cause or a 
consequence of different acute and chronic diseases not limited only to the GIT (Mar-
chesi et al., 2016; Schmidt, Raes & Bork, 2018). Dysbiosis is characterized by reduced 
bacterial biodiversity, loss of commensals with beneficial metabolic activities and over-
growth of pathogen bacteria (Kriss, Hazleton, Nusbacher, Martin & Lozupone, 2018). 
This implies a disruption of the mutual equilibrium between gut bacteria and human 
physiology resulting in the increased intestinal permeability allowing bacteria or bacte-
rial toxins and metabolites to enter into the host circulation and promote subclinical 
inflammation (Levy, Kolodziejczyk, Thaiss & Elinav, 2017). Dysbiosis reduces the 
microbial metabolism and the formation of nutrients that the body needs for its proper 
functioning. Recent studies have linked gut microbiota with different gastrointestinal 
disorders like inflammatory bowel disease, ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s disease and ir-
ritable bowel syndrome (Dieterich, Schink & Zopf, 2018), as well as with metabolic 
diseases like obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases (Arora & Bäckhed, 2016) and 
cancer (Garrett, 2015). Alterations in microbiota composition are associated with the 
onset of autoimmune and allergic diseases including multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid 
arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, psoriasis, atopic dermatitis and food allergies 
(Tanaka & Nakayama, 2017; McKenzie, Tan, Macia & Mackay, 2017). Gut micro-
biota dysbiosis may be involved in the pathophysiology of neuropsychiatric disorders 
(depression, schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorder, dementia, Alzheimer’s and Par-
kinson’s disease (Ghaisas, Maher & Kanthasamy, 2016; Kim & Shin, 2018), kidney 
diseases (Knauf, Brewer & Flavell, 2019), osteoporosis (Ohlsson & Sjogren, 2015) and 
liver cirrhosis (Qin et al., 2014). 

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Dieterich%20W%5BAuthor%5D&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=30558253
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Schink%20M%5BAuthor%5D&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=30558253
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Zopf%20Y%5BAuthor%5D&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=30558253
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Arora%20T%5BAuthor%5D&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=27071815
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=B%C3%A4ckhed%20F%5BAuthor%5D&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=27071815
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Tanaka%20M%5BAuthor%5D&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=28826938
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Nakayama%20J%5BAuthor%5D&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=28826938
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Ghaisas%20S%5BAuthor%5D&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=26627987
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Maher%20J%5BAuthor%5D&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=26627987
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Kanthasamy%20A%5BAuthor%5D&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=26627987
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Kim%20YK%5BAuthor%5D&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=28925886
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Shin%20C%5BAuthor%5D&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=28925886
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Knauf%20F%5BAuthor%5D&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=30796361
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Brewer%20JR%5BAuthor%5D&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=30796361
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Flavell%20RA%5BAuthor%5D&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=30796361
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Qin%20N%5BAuthor%5D&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=25079328


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Microbiota gut-brain-axis communication mechanism
The role of aerobic exercise

A sedentary lifestyle is associated with a greater incidence of many diseases: car-
diovascular, type 2 diabetes, cancer, obesity, and metabolic syndrome. Recently, it has 
been demonstrated that exercise-induced beneficial modification of the gut microbiota 
composition is involved in modulation of disease states and modifies host physiology 
(Choi et al., 2013).

An imbalance diet with high saturated fats, sugar intake, and low fiber consumption 
in combination with physical inactivity can influence the composition of the micro-
biota (Proctor, Thiennimitr, Chattipakorn & Chattipakorn, 2017). Poor dietary habits 
can induce gastrointestinal dysfunction and lead to inflammatory state (Dalton, Mer-
mier & Zuhl, 2019). It has been recently demonstrated that probiotic supplementation 
improves GI function, many symptoms of inflammatory diseases and psychological 
and cognition disorders (Dalton et al., 2019).

Regular aerobic physical activity can reduce the risk of several diseases and health 
conditions and improve the quality of life (Colcombe et al., 2006). Recently, human 
and animal studies have shown that aerobic exercise increases microbiota diversity 
altering the bacterial composition and influencing the important metabolites produc-
tion of gut bacteria, like SCFAs, release and modulation of mucosal neurotransmitters 
and a brain-derived neurotrophic factor, also known as BDNF (Welly et al., 2016). In 
this way, aerobic exercise can affect the conditions associated with metabolic diseases, 
neural and behavioral disorders.

Many evidences suggested an important influence and communication between hu-
man gut microbiota and the brain in a bidirectional manner. The brain affects gut mi-
crobiota through the autonomic nervous system (the vagus nerve), while gut microbiota 
influences the brain through neuroendocrine signaling via hypothalamic-pituitary-adre-
nal axis (HPAA) and neurotransmitter serotonin (5-HT) regulation (Grenham, Clarke, 
Cryan, & Dinan, 2011; Cryan & Dinan, 2012; Forsythe, Kunze, & Bienenstock, 2016; 
Dalton et al., 2019).

Disorders in the gut-brain axis functioning are discussed in the pathogenesis of 
different pathological states (metabolic and inflammatory diseases, psychiatric and de-
pressive disorders, and neurological disorders) (Dieterich et al., 2018).

Vagus nerve activity allows communication between microbiota and brain because 
it connects the CNS (central nervous system) to ENS (enteric nervous system) and 
transfers the information from the ENS to CNS that leads to response based on the 
received information (Forsythe, Kunze, & Bienenstock, 2012). The gut microbiota im-
balance can induce CNS inflammatory response. It was demonstrated that a decreased 
vagus nerve activity is associated with irritable bowel syndrome IBS and many other 
intestinal inflammations, and depression. This communication is influenced by micro-
biota metabolites because it has been shown that probiotic supplementation of Bifi-
dobacterium longum can modify the functional status of the vagus activity in the gut. 
(Bercik et al., 2011).



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HPA hypothalamic-pituitary-axis regulates physical and mental stressors response 
and it is influenced by microbiota via a complex of neural immunoregulatory mecha-
nism (Tsigos & Chrousos, 2002). HPA axis is activated by vagus nerve or by metabo-
lites such as LPS from the mucosal layer that promotes the release of inflammatory 
cytokines that exaggerate HPA activation (Grenham et al., 2011). HPA axis hyperre-
sponsiveness and disturbances in microbiota have been associated with IBS and psy-
chological disorders (Farzi, Fröhlich, & Holzer, 2018).

BDNF acts on neurons of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous 
system, promotes the survival of existing neurons, and encourages the growth and dif-
ferentiation of new neurons and synapses. Recently, it has been shown to be an impor-
tant regulator of gastrointestinal protein expression and regulation (Dokladny, Zuhl, 
& Moseley 2015). The probiotic supplements of Bifidobacterium improved the HPA 
response and restored the BDNF levels in rodents (Sudo et al., 2004).

Serotonin (5-HT) is an important neurotransmitter and hormone, it appears to play 
a key role in maintaining mood and cognition balance, intestinal secretion and motility, 
and is known as a key signaling molecule in the microbiota-gut-brain axis (O’Mahony, 
Clarke, Borre, Dinan & Cryan 2015; Jenkins, Nguyen, Polglaze & Bertrand, 2016). Germ 
free animals’ studies demonstrated that microbiota plays a role in serotonin regulation and 
influences brain and gut function (Clarke et al., 2013; Yano et al., 2015).  Other studies 
showed that Bacteroides fragilis supplementation improved control of tryptophan me-
tabolism, the precursor of 5-TH, synthesis and improved GI function (Hsiao et al., 2013).

Exercise and Gut Microbiota

Regular moderate exercise can beneficially affect our body; it can reduce the meta-
bolic and inflammatory disease in both humans and animals. The association between 
exercise training and alteration in immunity, metabolism and behavior has already been 
confirmed (Walsh et al., 2011).

Animal Studies

In animals, different forms of exercise, in particular, voluntary and forced, induced 
different effects on microbiome composition. Many studies with germ-free animals have 
indicated the relationship between gut microbiota and host function (Choi et al., 2013; 
Allen et al., 2018). Changes in gut microbiota and its metabolites can affect the structure 
of the mucus layer and immune system after gut microbiota colonization in germ-free 
animals. In the study of Allen et al. (2018) it was demonstrated that exercise training 
induced changes in the gut microbiota community structure of donor mice and caused 
changes of colon physiology in recipient mice after five weeks of gut microbiota trans-
plant and colonization. Therefore, the gut microbiota composition of recipient mice is 
dependent of the physical activity level of their respective donor. This indicates that ex-



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ercise training directly alters the host response by cytokines and gut metabolite produc-
tion. SCFAs that have been shown to be up regulated after exercise training contribute 
to enhanced energy harvest and reduce gut inflammation in physically active host (Turn-
baugh et al., 2006). The mechanism of this process still needs to be elucidated.

Other studies on animals provided evidence that voluntary exercise training in-
creased the level of host butyrate concentrations and butyrate-producing bacterial gen-
era associated with enhanced early life lean mass (Mika et al., 2015). Since butyrate 
protects against colon cancer and inflammatory diseases (Monda et al., 2017), it has 
been proposed that butyrate increase is associated with the colon cancer decrease by 
exercise (Matsumoto et al., 2008). The mechanism of gut microbiota changes with 
host increase in SCFAs and butyrate and host decrease in colon inflammation in re-
sponse to exercise is not fully understood. These data underline the need for future 
investigation. Although it is certain that voluntary and/or forced exercise altered the 
gut microbiota composition in animals. It was confirmed that maternal gut microbiota 
during pregnancy and lactation had effects on offspring gut microbiota in rats. Exercise 
during pregnancy limited the unfavorable impacts of maternal obesity in offspring, af-
fecting the plasma insulin and glucose concentration (Bhagavata Srinivasan, Raipuria, 
Bahari, Kaakoush, & Morris, 2018). Others observed that when the exercise started in 
the juvenile period it modified different bacteria ratio with an increase of Bacteroidetes 
and a decrease in Firmicutes. Furthermore, juveniles exercise causes a major change in 
genera and lead to an increase in lean body mass, suggesting that early life exercise can 
influence the gut microbiota composition and may favor optimal development of brain 
function (Mika et al., 2015).

Many authors provide evidence that a routine physical activity is anti-inflammatory 
and protective against developing the chronic inflammatory disease (Cook et al., 2016).

Human Studies

To date, few studies on humans have indicated a positive influence of exercise on 
gut microbiota and confirmed the findings of the animal studies.

It has been shown that low-intensity exercise provides a positive effect on the gut 
by reducing transient stool time and contact time between pathogens and gastrointes-
tinal mucosa layer (Petersen et al., 2017). In this manner, exercise prevents the risk of 
many diseases such as cancer and other inflammatory diseases. Other possible positive 
effects of exercise can include an elevated SCFAs and immunoglobulin production, de-
crease in LPS production and increase in butyrate concentration. The increase of fecal 
butyrate has anti-carcinogenic and anti-inflammatory properties (Petersen et al., 2017). 
Exercise-induced changes of microbiota diversity can contribute to reducing obesity 
and obesity-related complication.

In humans, a major study conducted on 86 elite rugby athletes compared to high and 
low BMI controls, showed a greater gut microbiota richness/diversity in rugby players 
(Clark et al., 2014). The increased microbial diversity was positively correlated with 



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protein consumption and creatinine kinase levels, suggesting that both, diet and exer-
cise are drivers of biodiversity in the gut. 

In addition, cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), an indicator of physical fitness has 
been positively correlated with microbial diversity in 39 healthy individuals, especially 
in taxa that augmented the production of butyrate, a gut health indicator (Estaki et al., 
2016). The authors of this study recommended that exercise could be prescribed in 
combating dysbiosis-associated diseases.

In the pilot study by Peterson et al. (2017), the microbiota of 22 professional and 
11 amateur competitive cyclists was studied. They demonstrated that gut microbiota 
profiles of professional cyclists differed from amateur control and found a correlation 
between certain microorganisms in professional cyclists and high exercise load. This 
study indicates that exercise load alters the bacterial community structure.

 Although the human study in this field is still scarce, previous animals and humans 
study showed the effects of exercise on microbiota regardless of diet. Murtaza and col-
laborators examined the effects of different dietary programs during intensified training 
on stool microbiota of elite endurance athletes (race walkers). This study revealed that 
dietary patterns exert an impact on gut microbiota profiles. In particular, a ketogenic 
low carbohydrate, high-fat diet was found to induce alterations in abundances of some 
bacteria species (Murtaza et al., 2019). Other longitudinal studies are needed to exam-
ine the effect of diets and gut microbiome on athlete training and performance.

The health benefits of physical activity in older adults have been established in 
more scientific studies. Recently, data demonstrated the association between physical 
exercise and gut microbiota diversity in the elderly (Jackson et al., 2016). Authors of 
many studies reported that gut microbiota composition is less different in some con-
ditions, such as in hypertensive patients and in patients with obesity-associated in-
flammation and gastrointestinal diseases (Monda et al., 2017; Taniguchi et al., 2018). 
Exercise can modulate the gut microbiota diversity and could have positive effects 
on the pathogenesis of mentioned conditions. Since lower inflammation was shown 
in athletes, it is possible that exercise in older adults could decrease inflammatory 
markers. Exercise determined changes in microbial composition were correlated with 
the duration of physical activity. It was recently confirmed that short-term endurance 
exercise has little effect on gut microbiota composition and diversity in elderly men, 
but mentioned little changes in the microbiota which were associated with lower 
cardiometabolic risk factors (Taniguchi et al., 2018). The study suggests that the gut 
microbiota is influenced by high-intensity interval training and diet and might play a 
crucial role in modulating CV disease development (Juneau, Hayami, Gayda, Lacroix 
& Nigam 2014).

Interestingly, a study by Tan et al. (2013) revealed that diet and exercise improved 
sleep quality and changes in gut microbiota composition in subjects with obesity-relat-
ed disorders.

All these data highlight the need for future investigation in humans to elucidate how 
the moderate and rigorous physical activity induces changes in microbiota diversity, 
composition and function having beneficial effects on human health.



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Table 1 summarizes articles that have investigated the role of exercise on gut mi-
crobiome in humans.

Table 1: Association between exercise and gut microbiota.

Authors Subjects Type of 
exercise Results

Clark et al., 2014 Elite athletes and 
controls Rugby

Bacterial diversity was 
higher in athletes than in 
control.

Estaki et al., 2016
Healthy participants 
with similar age and 
BMI

Cardio Butyrate production

Petersen et al., 2017 Professional and 
amateur cyclists Cycling Exercise load influence 

the bacterial community

Taniguchi et al., 
2018 Patients Moderate/

vigorous Decrease inflammation

CONCLUSION

The existing study data indicate that exercise can induce alterations in gut micro-
biota composition with beneficial effects for the host. Exercise improves microbiota 
diversity, maintenance of normal gut physiology and contributes to reducing inflamma-
tory markers in different pathological states. Furthermore, exercise stimulates the pro-
duction of metabolites such as butyrate and SCFAs, protecting us against GI disorders 
and colon cancer. This may explain why exercise can be a therapeutic strategy during 
treatment for many disorders in particular psychological and GI diseases. Nevertheless, 
further studies are needed to understand the mechanisms responsible for these effects. 
Further exploration is required to understand how physical activity and diet indepen-
dently influence health. In the future, exercise prescription may hopefully contribute to 
our health status through the modification of gut microbiota.



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