









































ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

143

Original scientific article                                       DOI: https://doi.org/10.35469/ak.2022.368
received: 2022-10-06         UDC: 37.015.31:379.83

OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE 
EDUCATION: A SCOPING REVIEW, 1995-2019

Timothy J. MATEER1, Joshua PIGHETTI1, B. Derrick TAFF1, & Pete ALLISON1 

1 The Pennsylvania State University 

Corresponding author: 
Pete ALLISON, PhD

The Pennsylvania State University,
701H Donald H. Ford Building, University Park, State College, PA 16802, USA

Phone: +1 814 470 5954
e-mail: pra7@psu.edu

ABSTRACT

Outdoor adventure education (OAE) programming is often referenced as an ef-
fective intervention that encourages a wide array of outcomes in participants such as 
increased confidence, independence, and communication skills. However, as outdoor 
adventure education continues to increase globally, what does the academic literature 
say about the outcomes related to these programs? Hattie, Marsh, Neill, and Richards 
(1997) conducted the last major review of program efficacy in this realm. This updated 
scoping review, largely following PRISMA guidelines (Tricco et al., 2018), aims to 
summarize the academic literature on one of the primary outdoor adventure education 
providers internationally, Outward Bound (OB). Fifty-four studies, published betwe-
en 1995 and 2019, have been summarized in this review. Utilizing Outward Bound 
International’s (OBI) framework of “people”, “place”, and “process”, themes and 
gaps in the literature are explored. Specifically, the OB literature has progressed since 
1995 in demonstrating social and emotional outcomes in a variety of settings, a better 
understanding of the nature of effective programming, and further documenting the 
role the instructor plays in the learning experience. Recommendations are provided on 
developing more rigorous methodologies for future research, understanding the role of 
the physical environment in the learning experience, and utilizing theoretical approa-
ches to integrate outdoor adventure education into broader academic realms.

Keywords: outdoor education, adventure education, Outward Bound, emotional le-
arning, experiential learning, scoping review



144

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

ORGANIZACIJA OUTWARD BOUND IN IZOBRAŽEVANJE 
SKOZI PUSTOLOVŠČINE NA PROSTEM: PREGLEDNA 

ŠTUDIJA, 1995–2019

IZVLEČEK

Programi izobraževanja na prostem se pogosto omenjajo kot učinkovita intervenci-
ja, ki pri udeležencih spodbuja širok nabor rezultatov, kot so večja samozavest, neodvi-
snost in komunikacijske spretnosti. Ker pa trend izobraževanja na prostem globalno še 
naprej narašča nas zanima, kaj o rezultatih, povezanih s temi programi, pravi strokov-
na literatura? Hattie, Marsh, Neill in Richards (1997) so opravili zadnji večji pregled 
učinkovitosti programov na tem področju. Namen tega posodobljenega pregleda obse-
ga, ki sledi smernicam PRISMA (Tricco et al., 2018), je povzeti znanstveno literaturo 
o enem od glavnih ponudnikov izobraževanja skozi pustolovščine na prostem na med-
narodni ravni, Outward Bound. V tem pregledu je bilo povzetih štiriinpetdeset študij, 
objavljenih med letoma 1995 in 2019. Z uporabo okvira Outward Bound International 
„ljudje“, „kraj“ in „proces“ so raziskane teme in vrzeli v literaturi. Natančneje, li-
teratura o Outward Boundu je od leta 1995 napredovala pri dokazovanju socialnih 
in čustvenih rezultatov v različnih okoljih, boljšem razumevanju narave učinkovitega 
programiranja in nadaljnjem dokumentiranju vloge, ki jo ima inštruktor pri učni iz-
kušnji. Podana so priporočila za razvoj strožjih metodologij za prihodnje raziskave, 
razumevanje vloge fizičnega okolja pri učni izkušnji in uporabo teoretičnih pristopov 
za vključevanje izobraževanja na prostem v širša akademska področja.

Ključne besede: izobraževanje na prostem, izobraževanje skozi pustolovščine, 
Outward Bound, čustveno učenje, izkustveno učenje, pregledne študije



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

145

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

INTRODUCTION

Time spent outdoors has been associated with both mental and physical benefits 
(Kuo, 2015), and research has found that outdoor experiential learning programs, such 
as those offered by Outward Bound (OB), can promote positive development for adole-
scent participants (Orson, McGovern, & Larson, 2020). OB is one of, if not the, largest 
provider of Outdoor Adventure Education globally. 

How effective these educational experiences are is unclear. It has been over 20 
years since Hattie, Marsh, Neill, and Richards (1997) stated in their prominent meta-
-analysis on outdoor adventure education that “adventure programs can obtain notable 
outcomes and have particularly strong, lasting effects. It is clear, however, that adven-
ture programs are not inherently good. There is a great deal of variability in outcomes 
between different studies, different programs, and different individuals” (p. 77). Since 
this meta-analysis, research on outdoor adventure education has paralleled the field’s 
growth, becoming a focal area for several academic journals such as Journal of Outdo-
or Recreation, Education, and Leadership; Journal of Experiential Education; Journal 
of Outdoor and Environmental Education; and Journal of Adventure Education and 
Outdoor Learning. While the body of research around these educational programs has 
continued to grow, the reviews that have been undertaken are weak and easily critici-
zed. For example, Fiennes et al. (2015) noted that “We found 15 systematic reviews of 
the effects of outdoor learning. They provide extensive evidence of the effects of out-
door learning. However, the set is somewhat confusing because many of them overlap 
in terms of the primary studies they include.” (p. 5) and go on to note that “Almost all 
outdoor learning interventions have a positive effect” (p. 7). However, the methodolo-
gical challenges of the previous systematic and scoping reviews of outdoor learning 
literature have not been addressed primarily because they have repeatedly used too 
wide a definition, thus creating too much diversity in the evidence. Thus, in this work, 
we focused exclusively on one organization to minimize this problem.

A lack of recent synthesis on outdoor adventure education has potentially hindered 
progress in research moving forward given the inability to clearly state what is known 
and unknown about the subject. By reviewing the current state of knowledge about the-
se educational programs, more effective studies and practices can be informed. While 
summarizing the entire field of research on outdoor adventure may be too broad and 
unrealistic in a single review, compiling information from specific programs and the 
associated educational interventions will prove useful and provide opportunities to ge-
neralize to the broader literature and practices.

OB exists as one of these arguably representative programs, serving as a primary 
provider of outdoor adventure programming in countries across the world. Originally 
founded in Britain in 1941 by Kurt Hahn and Lawrence Holt, OB originally focused 
on character development for young men (Millikan, 2006). Since these early stages, 
OB’s focus has transitioned from character development to personal growth while also 
expanding its program internationally to include a wide variety of audiences (Freeman, 
2011; Millikan, 2006). Like many other outdoor adventure programs, OB attempts to 



146

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

provide transformative learning for individuals of all ages through challenging experi-
ences in natural environments (OB Trust, 2017). Since its founding years, OB has now 
expanded to serve over 150,000 students each year in over 30 countries (OBI, 2020).

As such, OB has been associated with a number of positive outcomes identified as 
essential for the labor market and associated with positive youth development, such as 
improved goal-setting (Ang, Farihah, & Lau, 2014), resilience, leadership skills, the 
transfer of learning (Jostad, Paisley, & Gookin, 2012), general psychological well-be-
ing, improved sense of belonging, and empowerment (D’Amato & Krasny, 2011). Ad-
ditionally, research suggests that participation in OB has been associated with increases 
in youth autonomy and self-confidence (Orson et al., 2020).

The studies reviewed in this article generally reflect the diversity of the courses: 
some explore day-programs utilizing high ropes courses to facilitate teambuilding acti-
vities, others examine extended backcountry expeditions and their associated outcomes, 
and others still look at classrooms utilizing the OB framework to facilitate experiential 
learning, amongst many others. While diverse in nature, understanding the commona-
lities and differences amongst these educational experiences can help work towards 
developing a general model of learning for the OB experience. A limited understanding 
of these common traits between programs was a weakness in the academic literature 
identified by Hattie et al. (1997). Therefore, the research question guiding this review is 
What is known of the outdoor adventure education process through OB from academic 
literature published following Hattie and colleagues’ (1997) meta-analysis? We utilize 
OB’s conceptualization of “people”, “place”, and “process” as educational components 
to present our findings in an attempt to bridge this gap between research and practice. 
What constitutes each of these components within the OB experience is detailed further 
in the methods section and those that follow. The upcoming sections of this paper outli-
ne details on how the scoping review was conducted. This is followed by three sections 
outlining trends and progress on how the academic literature has developed since Hattie 
et al. (1997) within the categories of people, place, and process. Each of these sections 
conclude with recommendations for future research on how forthcoming studies can 
better understand these concepts and integrate them into a more holistic understanding 
of the OB process. Finally, a general discussion follows each of these three sections in 
which we present an argument for greater theoretical rigor in OB research.

This scoping review, largely following PRISMA methodologies and previous 
methodological guidelines established through Arksey and O’Malley (2005), Levac, 
Colquhoun and O’Brien (2010), and specifically the extension for scoping reviews (Tri-
cco et al., 2018), is intended to be of use for two primary audiences: OB practitioners 
who wish to understand the best practices supported by previous research, and educa-
tional researchers looking to build upon the previous work examining OB courses and 
methodology.



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

147

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

METHODS

Scoping Review Process

This study utilized a scoping review methodology (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005; 
Levac et al., 2010; Moher, Liberati, Tetzlaff, & Altman, 2009; Tricco et al., 2018) to 
summarize the academic literature on OB. This approach looks to review the literature 
with the goal of summarizing and reporting what is currently known on the subject and 
identifying gaps in current understanding (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005). It is considered 
especially useful when the field being reviewed is heterogeneous (Pham et al., 2014), as 
is the case with research done on OB programming given the variety of programs offe-
red and methodologies utilized to study the program. As will be obvious when discus-
sing the findings, a broad array of methods have been used to study OB programming. 
These methods have ranged from intensive ethnographic studies to widely distributed 
surveys. Due to the wide variety of data being interpreted, a scoping review methodo-
logy was chosen over the meta-analysis technique utilized by Hattie et al. (1997).

Locating Studies Relevant to the Research Question

We identified relevant studies for inclusion through database searching. The fol-
lowing databases were utilized: WorldCAT, Academic Search Complete (Ebsco), ERIC 
(Proquest), and Google Scholar. For each of these databases, the following terms were 
entered: “Outward Bound” and “education”, “Outward Bound” and “adventure”, “Out-
ward Bound” and “experiential”, and “Outward Bound” and “learning”. In addition, an 
email message was distributed via OBI requesting various practitioners across the OB 
network (in 37 different countries) to forward relevant studies to the authors for review. 
The following additional filters were applied to these searches to increase the relevance 
of the gathered studies:

 – Articles must have been published in a peer-reviewed academic journal.
 – The articles must have been published after 1995. Using Hattie et al. (1997) as 

a benchmark, this scoping review aims to summarize the research on OB pro-
gramming from that point forward.

 – Articles must have been published in English, the first language of all the authors 
of this review. 

These inclusion criteria aim to parallel the recommendations made by Levac et 
al. (2010) where the established inclusion criteria allow for a breadth of studies to be 
collected that characterizes a given field while also acknowledging relevant limitations.



148

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

Selecting Studies that Meet the Inclusion Criteria 

This initial search provided over 1000 potentially relevant research articles. The 
titles and abstracts of these initial results were reviewed by the first author. Many arti-
cles at this stage presented research on other outdoor adventure programs or were not 
presented in peer-reviewed academic journals and were thus excluded from further 
consideration in this review. This resulted in 148 research articles being downloaded 
for closer reading.

In following the recommendations for screening and eligibility criteria established 
by PRISMA, and those of previous studies (i.e., Arksey & O’Malley, 2005; Levac et al., 
2010), the research team met regularly to discuss inclusion criteria. In total, 54 studies 
were determined to fully meet the inclusion criteria after overlaying these additional 
inclusion criteria and were included in this scoping review (indicated using an asterisk 
in the reference list).

Extracting Data from the Studies

The research team met regularly to determine the most useful data to extract from 
the included studies to best answer the outlined research questions. The information 
extracted from each study included study goals and research questions, study characte-
ristics and data collection methods, and the primary findings from the study. As sugge-
sted by Levac et al. (2010), two authors extracted data from five of the same articles 
and the results were compared to establish consistency in the data extraction methods, 
and rather than quantifying the findings, we followed PRISMA methods for qualitative 
synthesis during this Inclusion phase of the research process. A similar process is used 
in establishing coding consistency in qualitative research projects (Saldaña, 2009). Dif-
ferences in extraction methods were discussed and a mutual understanding of what to 
record from each included study was established. This allowed for greater consistency 
across the research team during data collection.

Summarizing and Synthesizing the Findings

Following the recommendations outlined in Levac et al. (2010), the process of sum-
marizing the findings from this scoping review were developed referencing qualitative 
research techniques. As detailed by Saldaña (2009), broad thematic categories were de-
veloped from information extracted during the initial analysis. The initial information 
gathered from each research article studying OB was summarized into larger categories 
in order to present the findings within a cohesive, logical framework. This was done 
through an iterative process with the research team meeting regularly to discuss the 
emergent themes. These findings were considered within the context of their broader 



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

149

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

implications of identifying productive directions for future research, as well as how 
research can inform more effective OB programming.

Given the broader themes found within the academic literature and the goals of this 
scoping review, it was decided that the “three Ps” of OB programming - people, place, 
and process - provided an effective framework for conceptualizing the findings. This 
framework has been recently adopted by OBI as a guide for implementing the curricu-
lum across OB schools globally. By utilizing these categories to summarize the selected 
studies, the academic research on outdoor adventure education can be organized in a 
manner that is meaningful to the unique educational context it is intended for.

In implementing this framework to conceptualize the initial information extracted 
from each article, “people”, “place”, and “process” were adapted as follows to summa-
rize the studies and findings for this scoping review:

1.  People: The findings are relevant to a specific population of interest and how the 
OB experience is perceived by or impacts them.

2.  Place: The findings are relevant to how the physical environment or setting in-
fluences the learning or developmental experience.

3.  Process: The findings are relevant to program activities, elements, or instructio-
nal techniques and how they influence the OB experience, including the corre-
sponding outcomes. 

The following sections utilize this framework in categorizing papers based on their 
research goals and objectives. The broad themes and findings are reviewed within each 
of the “three Ps” categories. 

REVIEW OF RESEARCH METHODS

Research Approach

Responding positively to Hattie et al’s (1997) recommendation to consider alterna-
tive research designs beyond the dominant use of a pretest-posttest design, literature on 
OB programming between 1995 and 2019 is distributed nearly evenly between quan-
titative, qualitative, and mixed methodology approaches. Of the 54 studies, 18 studies 
(33.3%) were constructed as quantitative research, 19 (35.2%) as qualitative, and 17 
(29.6%) as a mixed methodology approach based on their design characteristics com-
pared to Creswell’s (2014) definitions of the three approaches.

 
Quantitative Research

Regardless of the design, all 18 quantitative articles applied self-administered su-
rveys, scales, or questionnaires. Examples of established surveys and scales used or 
modified among the studies are the OB Outcomes Instrument (OBOI; Ewert, 2014; 
Faircloth & Bobilya, 2013), the Mississippi Scale for Combat-Related PTSD and the 



150

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

Impact of Events Scale (Hyer, Boyd, Scurfield, Smith, & Burke, 1996). These instru-
ments were used to measure dimensions such as resilience (Ewert, 2014; Neill & Dias, 
2001), positive and negative affect (Kirwin et al., 2019), long-term outcomes (Gassner, 
2008; Gassner & Russell, 2008) and personal effectiveness and locus of control (Gref-
frath et al., 2011). 

Qualitative Research

Throughout the qualitative studies, an array of data collection methods were uti-
lized. Of the 19 qualitative articles, 14 employed one of the five qualitative designs 
highlighted by Creswell (2013) - six case studies, five ethnographies of various con-
structs, two phenomenological studies, and one each of grounded theory approach and 
narrative. The data collection methods used in the 14 studies demonstrating the five 
designs brought into focus by Creswell (2013) corresponded with the data collection 
methods characteristic of each design (see table 1). The remaining five studies were two 
historical analyses, two interpretive studies, and a heuristic design.

Table 1. Qualitative Data Collection

Narrative Phenomenology Grounded 
Theory Ethnography Case Study

L
ite

ra
tu

re
 in

 r
ev

ie
w

Video, 
interviews

Interviews, 
semi-participant 
observations, 
document 
analysis

Interviews

Interviews, 
document 
analysis, 
observation, 
self-reflection

Interviews, 
photography, 
moodboards, 
document 
analysis, 
observations, 
open response 
survey

Self-reported data in the qualitative research articles were collected through intervi-
ews and with open response surveys. Interviews were the most prominent self-reported 
qualitative data collection method, occurring in 13 studies. Data from open-ended que-
stionnaires were utilized in only two case studies (Leberman & Martin, 2002; Martin, 
Leberman, & Neill, 2002). Observations were conducted in eight studies, one of which 
used video to record and observe afterwards (Benham & Shephard, 1995). Data from 
the observations were also used to construct narratives (Benham & Shephard, 1995), to 
explore through phenomenology (Broaddus et al., 2013), and to gain an ethnographic 
perspective (Lowan, 2009; Vernon, 2015). Two studies (Freeman, 2011; Millikan, 
2006) were reliant solely on document analysis to develop their historical analyses of 



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

151

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

OB programming. Other applications of document analysis have been exemplified in 
case studies (Hickman Dunne, 2018; Klein & Riordan, 2009; Klein & Riordan, 2011) 
and in ethnographies (Lowan, 2009; Newbery, 2004) as the documents acted as tools 
for triangulation. 

Mixed Method Research

The majority of mixed-method research has predominantly been conducted using a 
dominant-less dominant design with quantitative data collection methods supplemen-
ted by qualitative data collection. Seven of the 17 mixed-method studies used surveys, 
ranging from mixed-response surveys with as few as three open-ended questions (Mar-
tin & Legg, 2002) to exclusively open-response surveys (Bobilya, Kalisch, & Daniel, 
2014; McKenzie, 2003). The remaining 10 studies integrated more formal qualitative 
data collection methods such as observations (e.g., Hanna, 1995; McKenzie, 2003), 
document analysis (e.g., Jirásek & Dvorackova, 2016), and interviews (e.g., Gassner,  
Kahlid, & Russell, 2006; Mott & Martin, 2017). Although grounded theory, case study, 
and phenomenology are most typically categorized as a qualitative research strategy 
(Creswell, 2013), five studies incorporated quantitative data collection within these 
traditionally qualitative designs (Bobilya et al., 2014; Jirásek & Dvorackova, 2016; 
Martin & Leberman, 2008; McKenzie, 2003; Mott & Martin, 2017). 

Data Collection

An analysis of the timing of data collection in OB programming literature was con-
ducted to depict the length of time the data represent in relation to OB programming. 
Data collection across the literature occurred in a range from pre-program to up to 
eight years after OB programs conducted between 1995 and 2020. A frequency table of 
when data collection among the three research designs occurred is described in Table 
2. Among the literature, 24 articles reported on data collected at one timepoint where-
as the remaining 30 articles collected data at two or more timepoints. Studies using a 
single timepoint data collection period were non-experimental or qualitative in nature. 
Studies that gathered data at multiple time points took on a quantitative quasi-expe-
rimental or single-sample repeated measures design, or a longitudinal approach in a 
qualitative or mixed methods approach. 



152

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

Table 2. Frequency of Data Collection Periods

Pr
e-

Pr
og

ra
m

D
ur

in
g

Pr
og

ra
m

Im
m

ed
ia

te
ly

 
Po

st
-P

ro
gr

am

U
p 

to
 6

 m
on

th
s 

af
te

r

6 
m

on
th

s –
 1

 y
ea

r 
af

te
r

1 
ye

ar
 +

 a
ft

er

U
ns

pe
ci

fie
d

Quantitative 
(n = 18) 11 0 14 7 0 2 0

Qualitative
(n = 19) 0 12 8 5 3 1 4

Mixed 
Methods 
(n = 17)

8 2 15 4 3 4 1

Total 19 14 37 19 3 7 5

Several notable findings on data collection arose. First, no qualitative research col-
lected data prior to the OB programming. The data collection methods conducted du-
ring programming were primarily of a qualitative nature, except for Jirásek & Dvorack-
ova (2016), who administered a quantitative frequency chart at three points during pro-
gramming. While no qualitative data were collected pre-program in a qualitative study, 
eight mixed-method studies incorporated pre-program and post-program quantitative 
surveys in addition to qualitative data collection methods such as interviews, focus gro-
ups, observations, and document analysis that occurred during or after programming 
(e.g., Greffrath et al., 2011; Hanna, 1995; Harper, Norris, & D’astous, 2014). Finally, 
among all 54 studies, only one study under review (Mott & Martin, 2017) collected and 
examined data beginning with the pre-program and extending to over 1 year proceeding 
program participation.

PEOPLE, PLACE, AND PROCESS

The 54 reviewed studies provide insight into how research has further developed 
in understanding the people, place, and process of the OB learning experience since 
1995. While these categories are not mutually-exclusive, we have used people, place, 
and process as a means to organize the results of this study. A brief overview of each 
study reviewed is provided in Table 3 (on pages 158 to 168). The information in Table 
3 is intended to provide context on the diverse areas that these studies were conducted 
in and the various methodologies utilized to produce the current state of knowledge on 



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

153

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

OB programming since Hattie et al. (1997). We hope this table will serve as a quick 
reference for individuals seeking more information on a study referenced in a later sec-
tion as all relevant background information cannot be immediately included in the text 
of the manuscript. Findings within each of the people, place, and process categories are 
outlined briefly in the following paragraphs prior to being explored in greater depths in 
the subsequent categories.

Regarding the people aspect of the OB experience, a considerable amount of re-
search in the past 25 years has focused on unique groups of interest and documented 
how the outdoor adventure education experience impacts these diverse populations. 
Specifically, a large portion of recent research has examined veterans and other at-risk 
populations and the expansion of OB outside of traditional Eurocentric and North Ame-
rican settings. Given that Hattie et al. (1997) noted the lack of participant background 
information incorporated into early OB research, this has been one area in which the 
literature has seen a notable expansion since 1995. While this progress has been promi-
sing, we recommend that researchers look to more modern research techniques in hu-
man development and educational literature to further build upon this initial progress.

Studies examining the influence of place on the OB educational experience have 
been surprisingly scant since 1995. Two primary lines of research have emerged from 
this relatively small body of literature, exploring the influence of the physical envi-
ronment on the learning process or the influence of an OB course on the participants’ 
pro-environmental learning outcomes. Given that learning in challenging outdoor en-
vironments is touted as a primary component of the OB experience (OB Trust, 2017), 
this presents a promising direction for future research. This could be an especially im-
portant gap in knowledge to explore if competing models of learning through outdoor 
adventure education are to be developed, something that has still not come to fruition in 
the academic literature since Hattie et al. (1997) called for it almost twenty years ago.

Lastly, and somewhat unsurprisingly, process represents a well-studied aspect of 
the OB educational experience since 1995. Research has examined specific parts of the 
OB experience such as the final expedition (the autonomous final journey independent 
of course instructors on OB expeditions), the solo camping experience incorporated 
into many expeditions, course facilitation by instructors, social relations, perceptions 
of challenge, and post-course learning outcomes. This represents considerable progress 
since 1995 as Hattie et al. (1997) noted that many outcomes from the outdoor adventure 
education experience were not linked back to specific course components or that the 
nature of many programs had not been well documented. Additionally, some of this re-
search on the OB learning process has begun to “ascertain the effects of the instructor” 
(p. 72), another suggestion for future research made by Hattie et al. (1997). To further 
develop our understanding of the OB learning process, we point to other educational 
and psychological concepts that could add greater methodological rigor and theoretical 
grounding to the field of outdoor adventure education research.

The following three sections expand upon the information provided in the prece-
ding paragraphs in greater detail. Each of the three outlined components of the OB lear-
ning experience – people, place, and process – are inherently interrelated with the other 



154

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

components. We do not aim to explore each of these parts in isolation in the following 
sections. Rather, we attempt to explore the nuances that emerge in our understanding 
of outdoor adventure education when each element is the focal area of study. General 
themes and findings within people, place, and process are discussed and benchmarked 
against the state of the academic literature reviewed by Hattie et al. (1997). We then 
conclude each section with recommendations for future research and how studies on 
OB can continue to develop in rigor and applicability to practice. A brief general di-
scussion is then presented in the conclusion making the case for greater theoretical 
rigor within the field of outdoor adventure education. 

People

The academic literature on “people” has primarily explored the OB experience thro-
ugh two primary lenses: how programming helps veterans and other at-risk populations 
and how OB coursework manifests itself across multiple cultures in educating different 
audiences. For various populations acting as participants in the OB experience, social-
-emotional growth, defined in a variety of ways, was supported by findings. There was 
less evidence that the OB experience aided in helping specific psychological issues in 
at-risk populations. Furthermore, interactions between the culture of the participants 
and the cultural roots of the programming may play a role in determining program 
outcomes. Despite the mixed results on these fronts, the social-emotional growth pro-
vided evidence that most populations gained outcomes such as confidence, goal-setting 
skills, and interpersonal skills from their OB experience. While many of these findings 
parallel those reported by Hattie et al. (1997), significant progress has been made in the 
area of their call to better incorporate the background of the participants into the study 
design. We conclude this section by indicating some methodological approaches for 
quasi-experimental designs that may help researchers better understand the effects of 
the OB educational experience on unique populations.

Four studies specifically focused on OB’s effect on veteran populations in Canada 
and the United States, examining how it helped ease their transition back into eve-
ryday life (Ewert, 2014; Harper et al., 2014; Hyer et al., 1996; Scheinfeld, Rochlen, 
& Russell, 2017). While each of these studies defined social-emotional constructs in 
slightly different terms, the OB experience was linked to various outcomes for veteran 
populations in North America such as increased interpersonal skills, goal-setting, and 
self-confidence (Ewert, 2014; Harper et al., 2014). Scheinfeld et al. (2017) similarly 
found that an OB course helped improve various aspects of mental health (e.g. distress 
and the perception of interpersonal relationships) for individuals. Despite these positive 
findings in other studies, Hyer et al. (1996) found that the OB experience had no effect 
on the post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms of veteran participants. 

Similar studies examining the influence of OB educational experiences on other 
at-risk adult populations have paralleled the results found in veteran populations. Out-
comes included improved goal-setting abilities, interpersonal skills, and confidence 



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

155

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

(Leberman, 2007; Maxwell, Perry, & Martin, 2008; Walker, Onus, Doyle, Clare, & 
McCarthy, 2005). Maxwell et al. (2008) notably departed from approaches taken by 
other studies on populations of interest by purposively sampling individuals that dro-
pped out of an OB educational intervention focused on helping those facing long-term 
unemployment. The findings indicate that a lack of social integration contributed to 
the individuals discontinuing their participation in the program (Maxwell et al., 2008). 
While this finding is largely in line with those of other studies, this study design pre-
sents a promising alternative to understanding OB programming. Additionally, as a 
notable parallel to Hyer et al.’s (1996) findings on veterans, Walker et al. (2005) also 
found that their at-risk adult population, those recovering from traumatic brain injuries, 
saw increased emotional growth but no improvement in their specific psychological 
condition after an OB course. While this body of evidence suggests that OB course 
participation can result in social and emotional growth for at-risk adult populations, it is 
not as effective in improving psychological conditions that are unique to specific at-risk 
groups (Hyer et al., 1996; Walker et al., 2005).

Four additional studies examined the impacts of the OB experience on at-risk youth 
in various contexts (Ang et al., 2014; Broaddus et al., 2013; Fischer & Attah, 2001; 
Pommier & Witt, 1995). These studies provided similar evidence for social-emotional 
growth to what was found within veteran OB participants and other at-risk adult popu-
lations. The varied contexts within which these studies were conducted provides inte-
resting insight into how different cultures intersect with programming for at-risk youth. 
For example, Purdie and Neill (1998) examined under-achieving Japanese students 
enrolled in a 22-day OB Australia program. The participants showed a significant dec-
rease in confidence and peer relations when surveyed post-program. When compared to 
a population of Australians enrolled in a similar course, the Japanese students rated the 
group cohesion and course value significantly lower than their Australian counterparts 
(Purdie & Neill, 1998). Alternatively, two other OB interventions for at-risk youth that 
were provided within the individuals’ own culture, the United States (Broaddus et al., 
2013) and Singapore (Ang et al., 2014) respectively, were more successful in achieving 
their desired goals. While this contrast was only examined explicitly by Purdie and 
Neill (1998), these findings suggest that cultural factors may play a role in determining 
the success of an OB educational program for at-risk individuals. This may be especial-
ly true as OB programming has had difficulty in moving past its roots in traditional cha-
racter-building practices originating in the European context (Freeman, 2011; Millikan, 
2006). In addition to these studies, Sibthorp, Funnell, Riley, Chan, and Meerts-Bran-
dsma (2018) specifically examined how course language administration (as a potential 
proxy for the participants’ cultural views) influenced program outcomes for youth in 
an OB Hong Kong program. This was found to have no effect on the course outcomes 
(Sibthorp et al., 2018). While this contrasts with the findings of other studies, this may 
be due to language preference not being an adequate representation of the participants’ 
cultural views. As a whole, these studies suggest that the intersection of participant and 
program culture may matter for at-risk youth learning outcomes.



156

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

In complement to these trends within at-risk youth studies, a variety of research 
projects have explored how OB courses have become tailored to various geographical 
and cultural contexts of participants. The use of “dramaturgy” in the Czech Republic 
(Jirásek, Jirásková, Majewská, & Bolcková, 2017; Jirásek, Veselský, & Poslt, 2017; 
Martin, 2011; Martin et al., 2002) or incorporating indigenous perspectives into OB 
Canada courses (Lowan, 2009) are examples of this. The dialectic nature of individuals’ 
cultural backgrounds interacting with OB course content exemplifies how the people of 
OB courses are continually co-creating the learning process and how the experiences 
are simultaneously influencing them. Jirásek, Veselský, et al. (2017) discuss how the 
“dramaturgical” approach to OB education in the Czech Republic is grounded in the 
unique people, place, and culture of the area. Martin (2011) used an autoethnographic 
approach to summarize his past work studying dramaturgical techniques, stating that 
the dramaturgy approach supported the holistic development of participants through 
a variety of games stimulating different learning and development styles, including 
physically, socially, psychologically, and spiritually (Martin, 2011). These assertions 
have been supported empirically by other studies (Jirásek & Dvorackova, 2016; Martin 
et al., 2002). Lowan (2009), utilizing a collaborative ethnographic approach in a Cana-
dian context, asserts that “grounding Indigenous education programs in the teachings 
and traditions of respective Indigenous cultures in order to support decolonization and 
cultural revitalization” can help improve program efficacy. Taken as a whole, these 
studies examining OB across cultural contexts suggest that tailoring educational pro-
gramming to the unique background of the participants may help improve the course 
outcomes.

While the findings across many of these unique groups parallel the social and emo-
tional outcomes already reported by Hattie et al. (1997), studies within this variety of 
unique contexts represent significant progress in terms of their call to further incor-
porate participant background into the study design. As Lerner (2018) asserts in his 
writing on human development research, growth and change throughout the lifespan 
is a non-ergodic process. Therefore, researchers should take an idiographic approach 
and study a phenomenon of interest across many contexts. Commonalities should then 
be identified across these contexts to find generalizable concepts (Lerner, 2018). While 
social and emotional growth within these various unique populations and contexts may 
simply reinforce Hattie et al.’s (1997) general findings, the consistency across these 
various groups is encouraging.

We wish to conclude this section by briefly looking at other research approaches 
within the educational and human development literature to identify ways in which 
the people aspect of the OB experience may be studied more effectively. Many studies 
within this section took a broad array of descriptive and reductionist approaches to 
understanding OB programs. While much of the rich qualitative data presented through 
these studies have helped further the theoretical understanding of learning in outdoor 
adventure education, the pre- and post-test approaches utilized do not fully explore the 
complexity of the learning experience for participants. Approaches such as propensity 
score matching (Caliendo & Kopeinig, 2008; Dehejia & Wahba, 2002) and regression 



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

157

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

discontinuity design (Cappelleri & Trochim, 2001; Cook, 2008) provide opportunities 
to more fully account for participant background when studying educational processes 
and outcomes. Propensity score matching allows researchers to “find in a large group of 
nonparticipants those individuals who are similar to the participants in all relevant pre-
treatment characteristics” (p. 32, Caliendo & Kopeinig, 2008). This way, quasi-experi-
mental studies can more effectively isolate the effects of OB educational intervention 
while also acknowledging the relevant background characteristics of those involved in 
the learning process. Similarly, regression discontinuity design examines similar in-
dividuals who fall above or below a certain threshold in qualifying for a program or 
intervention. The regression analysis then explores whether “a treatment effect appears 
as a ‘jump’ or discontinuity at the cutoff point in the regression function linking the 
assignment variable to the outcome” (p. 152, Cappelleri & Trochim, 2001). This may 
prove to be a useful approach in designing future quasi-experimental studies, especially 
for OB programs that target qualifying at-risk populations such as that done by Ang et 
al. (2014). As OB research continues to explore the program’s influence for new and 
different populations, methodological advances will also help to better understand the 
program effects in these different contexts.

Place

OB asserts that challenging experiences in outdoor environments are a central ele-
ment of their programming (OB Trust, 2017). To cater for a wide array of participants 
around the world, there are OB schools in 37 locations across 34 countries on six con-
tinents around the world (OBI, 2023). The articles under review discuss research con-
ducted in OB programs from 10 different countries, representing 28.6% of the countries 
covered by OBI. Given that the physical environment is touted as a critical component 
within OB, this section reviews research that has explored its role within the learning 
experience. 

Relative to other areas of the OB experience, studies that have explicitly examined 
“place” as a central concept have been relatively scarce. Hattie et al. (1997) called for 
an expansion of competing models within the outdoor adventure education literature. 
Understanding the physical environment as an interrelated component of the learning 
experience is necessary if these models are to be developed. This section concludes 
with recommendations for future research on how to better incorporate place into future 
OB research. Recommendations include incorporating research on the sense of place 
and perspectives from environmental psychology. 

The link between culture and place represents an interrelationship within which OB 
courses can ground their practice of promoting learning outcomes. This lens inherently 
acknowledges people grounded in place as a driver of the learning process. Lowan 
(2009) linked these elements via collaborative ethnography in a Canadian indigenous 
context. They assert that indigenous OB programming should be designed specifically 
around the symbiotic relationship indigenous peoples have with their unique geographi-



158

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

cal location (Lowan, 2009). Furthermore, a pair of studies examining the dramaturgical 
approach to OB programming in the Czech Republic found that the course helped to 
inspire a strong spiritual connection to nature and appreciation for human-nature relati-
onships (Jirásek, Jirásková, et al., 2017; Jirásek, Veselský, et al., 2017). As outlined in 
the previous section, cultural context may play an integral role in OB programming out-
comes. It is of note that a large portion of studies with findings relevant to the physical 
environment were also grounded in a specific culture. Two additional studies that did 
not find pro-environmental outcomes for OB participants were not as closely grounded 
in a specific culture or location (Hanna, 1995; Martin, Bright, Cafaro, Mittelstaedt, & 
Bruyere, 2009).

Other studies have more closely examined how the physical environment influen-
ces the OB learning process. Many of these studies focused on challenge and risk and 
how such elements promote learning amongst participants. Hickman Dunne (2018) 
explored how participants interpret their interactions with the physical environment in 
the context of outdoor adventure education in a British setting. Using an ethnographic 
approach, they found that participants derived both joy and unpleasant memories from 
their interactions with the physical environment. Outdoor adventure equipment and 
clothing also emerged as a dominant theme with participants often expressing frustrati-
on with its appearance or function, while its necessity was acknowledged by both par-
ticipants and staff (Hickman Dunne, 2018). Given this challenge and the corresponding 
risk specifically associated with the physical environment on OB courses, a small body 
of studies also explored how safety and risk influenced the course outcomes (Holden, 
2004; Leberman & Martin, 2002; Mott & Martin, 2017). The staff working for OB 
New Zealand saw risk mitigation as one of their primary jobs (Mott & Martin, 2017). 
This represents a balancing act for OB program managers as challenge via the physical 
environment is acknowledged as a central part of program learning (Hickman Dunne, 
2018), yet risk mitigation is a vital component of program management (Mott & Mar-
tin, 2017). These findings indicate that the physical environment and the associated 
challenge are inextricably related to the OB learning process, much of which has al-
ready been acknowledged by OB practitioners. Despite this, the specific relationships 
between challenges involving the physical environment and learning outcomes have 
largely been unexplored.

As place remains a relatively understudied idea within the academic literature on 
OB, there are ample opportunities to look to other areas of research for inspiration on 
how to explore this concept. Research on sense of place (e.g. Kudryavtsev, Stedman, 
& Krasny, 2012; Stedman, 2003; White, Virden, & Van Riper, 2008) may provide one 
direction on how to study the physical environment embedded within the OB learning 
experience. The literature on sense of place often defines the concept as having three 
components: the physical environment, human behavior, and psychosocial processes 
(Stedman, 2003). Studies that have previously explored OB programs embedded within 
specific areas and cultural contexts somewhat unsurprisingly were found to have the 
strongest outcomes related to the physical environment (Jirásek, Jirásková, et al., 2017; 
Jirásek, Veselský, et al., 2017; Lowan, 2009). Despite this, none of the aforementioned 



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

159

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

studies explored these relationships in a way that grounded the research in a broader 
sense of place theory. As OB presents the opportunity for individuals to experience a 
relationship with the physical environment in new and challenging ways (Hickman 
Dunne, 2018; Holden, 2004; Leberman & Martin, 2002; Mott & Martin, 2017), indivi-
duals may experience a shift within the tripartite framework that makes up a sense of 
place. This shifting sense of place may then have implications for the learning proces-
ses and outcomes.

Furthermore, while outdoor adventure education does not explicitly hold connec-
tedness to nature as one of its primary goals, the wide variety of writings within the 
field of environmental psychology could help provide insight into how the physical 
environment influences the learning process. For example, concepts such as the affec-
tive forecasting of experiences in nature (Nisbet & Zelenski, 2011), linked pathways 
between nature and general health (Kuo, 2015), and the mental health benefits of outdo-
or recreation (Lackey et al., 2021) all indicate that individuals feel mentally and physi-
cally better when immersed in natural environments. These shifts linked to elements of 
the physical environment potentially hold implications for the learning experience in 
outdoor adventure education. Despite this possible connection, there are currently few 
studies exploring these relationships.

The physical environment represents an element of the OB learning experience that 
is inextricably linked to other parts of the process. The physical environment of OB 
courses helps to facilitate challenge (Hickman Dunne, 2018) while also connecting 
individuals to each other (Lowan, 2009). If the field is to develop effective models of 
learning in the setting of outdoor adventure education, as Hattie et al. (1997) called for 
over 20 years ago, these relationships need to be explored further. Research opportu-
nities can take advantage by examining the role of ‘place’ in any one of the remaining 
71.4% countries with OB programming yet to be studied. The research recommendati-
ons indicate ways forward in which the field of outdoor adventure education research 
can begin to explore these gaps in understanding.

Process

The following section focuses on the OB process, specifically exploring course ac-
tivities that facilitate learning and the outcomes that correspond to these activities. In 
examining OB learning processes broadly, the relationships with other participants, 
course challenges, and instructor facilitation were all identified as elements of the OB 
experience that impact participant learning. Regarding expedition-based programs, the 
solo camping experience and the final expedition have both been retrospectively cited 
as specific course elements that also contribute heavily to the learning outcomes. A 
broader understanding of the learning outcomes linked to these course elements does 
not seem to have progressed significantly since the broad social and emotional compo-
nents identified by Hattie et al. (1997). Despite a lack of progress on this front, linking 
outcomes back to course elements and the learning process does show a significant 



160

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

step forward in the academic literature since 1995. We specifically explore the role the 
instructor plays in the learning process for individuals as Hattie et al. (1997) identified 
this as a major gap in the literature over 20 years ago. Finally, as in previous sections, 
this section concludes with recommendations for future research on how to better un-
derstand the learning processes of OB. Specifically, we recommend utilizing a life co-
urse approach to studying the relationship between the learning process and outcomes. 
Future researchers can also look at the ways specific OB organizations have built upon 
the general OB model in attempts to improve program efficacy. 

The growth of social relationships (closely related to the people category previously 
outlined) and challenge (closely linked to the place category previously outlined) are 
two course components that have been consistently identified across studies as being 
impactful for OB participants. Regarding social relationships amongst participants, this 
has been found to be an impactful course element in a variety of contexts. Locations 
in which studies have identified the importance of social relationships for OB learning 
include: New Zealand (Martin & Leberman, 2005), Australia (Neill & Dias, 2001), 
Hong Kong (Sibthorp et al., 2018), the Czech Republic (Jirásek & Dvorackova, 2016), 
and the United States (Goldenberg, Klenosky, McAvoy, & Holman, 2002; Goldenberg, 
McAvoy, & Klenosky, 2005). As outlined previously in the section on people, Maxwell 
et al. (2008) exemplify the role social relationships play in the OB experience. In pur-
posively sampling individuals who dropped out of an OB program focused on at-risk 
individuals, a lack of social integration into the program was cited as one of the pre-
dictive components leading to dropout (Maxwell et al., 2008). Given the need for tea-
mwork on OB courses due to the challenging nature of the experience (Goldenberg et 
al., 2002; Goldenberg et al., 2005; Greffrath et al., 2011), social relationships seem to 
be a key component for success.

In examining the other end of the dialectic relationship between course components 
that lead to positive learning outcomes, course challenges, which are often an impe-
tus to form close social bonds on OB courses, have also been cited frequently as an 
impactful element of the OB experience (Goldenberg et al., 2002; Goldenberg et al., 
2005; Tolich, 2012). The challenge explored in this section is often facilitated by the 
physical environment in which OB courses are situated (Hickman Dunne, 2018). While 
these challenges leading to growth exist across OB course types (Greffrath et al., 2011), 
two specific challenging elements that have been frequently cited in previous studies 
are traditionally associated with expedition-based programs. These two course com-
ponents are the solo camping experience and the final expedition in which participants 
autonomously complete a task without the guidance of the instructor (Bobilya et al., 
2014; Gassner et al., 2006; Gassner & Russel, 2008; Kalisch, Bobilya, & Daniel, 2011). 
Bobilya et al. (2014) specifically explored perceptions of the final expedition for pro-
gram participants at the North Carolina OB School. They found that the autonomy and 
teamwork associated with the experience were both impactful for participants (Bobilya 
et al., 2014). In a similarly structured study, Kalisch et al. (2011) explored participant 
perceptions of the solo camping experience. The participants reported feeling both pe-
aceful and anxious while also taking the time to reflect (Kalisch et al., 2011). While it 



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

161

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

is beyond the scope of this review to cover all the forms of challenge that have been 
documented by the OB literature, these examples indicate that both internal reflection 
and external collaboration facilitated by challenging experiences are part of the lear-
ning process in OB courses.

We now turn our attention to the influence of course instructors within the OB expe-
rience. As mentioned previously, this is a specific element of the learning process that 
Hattie et al. (1997) noted as under-researched. Since 1995, a wide variety of studies 
have been conducted examining the role of instructors and the broader administrati-
on within the OB experience (Hovelynck, 2001; Galloway, 2007; McKenzie, 2003; 
Sibthorp et al., 2018). Many of the reviewed studies list instructors as an impactful 
element of OB courses without exploring the relationship in further detail (Gassner 
& Russel, 2008; Martin & Leg, 2002; McKenzie, 2003; Sibthorp et al., 2018). This 
evidence indicates that course instructors play the primary role in facilitating the OB 
learning process but does not provide much context for the nature of the process. 

As a beneficial complement to some of the previously cited studies, researchers 
have collected qualitative data to provide further context on the role of OB instructors. 
Interviews conducted by Hovelynck (2001) in Belgium with OB instructors found that 
group development is key to their educational model. The conversations they facilitate 
transition from technical aspects of an activity to the communication methods them-
selves, then to the group “owning up” to communication development, and finally to 
the development of a group theme. This process inherently weaves personal and group 
learning together (Hovelynck, 2001). Furthermore, Martin, Dench, and Paku (2016) 
conducted a broad study using semi-structured interviews to examine how school and 
executive directors perceive the culture of OB New Zealand. The findings show that 
these managerial positions believe that, while language has changed over the years, 
the primary learning outcome of this program is still self-discovery and that course 
instructors play a key role in facilitating experiences (Martin et al., 2016). This concep-
tualization of instructor roles aligns well with impactful elements of the learning pro-
cess that have been previously cited. In both the solo camping experience and the final 
expedition, the instructor facilitates a learning process with the goal of eventually fully 
turning the leadership over to the group and individual (Bobilya et al., 2014; Gassner et 
al., 2006; Gassner & Russel, 2008; Kalisch et al., 2011). Within this thread of thought, 
OB instructors can be seen as catalysts coordinating learning experiences across vario-
us interrelated parts within an outdoor adventure education course. 

Following the review of the course components that help to contribute to the OB 
learning process, we turn our attention briefly to the outcomes associated with these 
course components. While understanding how these course elements contribute to the 
learning process represents significant progress since Hattie et al. (1997), the under-
standing of course outcomes has seemingly not advanced as much. The inconsistent 
language across studies describing social and emotional growth has likely hindered the 
ability for studies to build upon each other. The following summarizes the social and 
emotional growth outcomes identified by studies in this section: savoring, mindful-
ness, and positive affect (Kirwin et al., 2019); initiative, self-confidence, and kindness 



162

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

(Sibthorp et al., 2018); self-confidence, self-awareness, and time management (Martin 
& Leberman, 2005); accomplishment, autonomy, community, and teamwork (Bobilya 
et al., 2014); self-confidence and reliance, interpersonal effectiveness, and mental to-
ughness (Bobilya, Kalisch, Daniel, & Coulson, 2015); and resilience (Neill & Dias, 
2001), to name a few. These all fall under the umbrella of “personal growth” (Freeman, 
2011) or “self-discovery” (Millikan, 2006), which are at the heart of the OB philosophy 
and programming.

We conclude this section with recommendations on how researchers examining OB 
programming can further their understanding of the learning process. It is notable that 
many studies simply examined the outcomes linked to course components without pro-
bing the learning process further. Taking a life course approach to understanding post-
-course outcomes (e.g. Colley, Currie, & Irvine, 2019; Tsang & Havitz, 2014) represents 
one direction that researchers could take to better understand how learning processes are 
effective beyond pre- and post-program measures. In this approach, researchers purposi-
vely sample individuals with a common experience (in this case, an OB course), and have 
participants reflect on the meaning and nature of the experience later in life (Colley et al., 
2019; Elder, 1994; Tsang & Havitz, 2014). This can potentially help researchers under-
stand how course components such as social relationships or the solo camping experience 
potentially trigger a cascading effect that leads to positive outcomes later in life (Masten 
& Cicchetti, 2010). This approach could help to add depth and understanding to the rela-
tionship between learning outcomes and the educational process.

Additionally, as has been done extensively with the dramaturgical approach to the 
OB experience (Jirásek, Jirásková, et al., 2017; Jirásek, Veselský, et al., 2017; Martin, 
2011; Martin et al., 2002), purposively sampling and studying unique variations on the 
OB experience may help provide a better understanding of impactful learning proces-
ses. As Martin et al. (2002) did, these approaches to the learning process can then be 
piloted in other settings. These program variations can help provide new directions on 
how to further develop OB programming more broadly.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

We now conclude this scoping review by making a brief case for the incorporation 
of broader theory within the academic literature studying OB. In examining the studies 
reviewed within this manuscript, the following statement by Hattie et al. (1997) rema-
ins relevant: “Adventure programs have been conducted as if they operated in isolation 
from the educational world. There is little incorporation of research on group dynamics, 
attitude change, educational theory, and cognitive processes” (p. 77). The reviewed 
studies have provided rich descriptions of what makes the learning process effective on 
OB courses, but there have been only limited attempts to reintegrate findings into bro-
ader educational or developmental conversations following these descriptive results. In 
studying psychological processes such as learning in an OB program, it is important for 
theory to remain at the forefront of discussions (Bringmann & Eronen, 2016). This can 



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

163

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

help to maintain a strong conceptual understanding of the relationships between course 
elements and provide direction on how to improve programming.

Considering perspectives such as the relational developmental systems metatheory 
(Lerner, 2018) in OB research may provide a useful shift in perspective for the future 
of the academic literature. This theory about theories acknowledges that “change across 
life occurs through mutually influential relations between individuals and their con-
texts” (p. 18, Lerner, 2018). This perspective presents the opportunity to acknowled-
ge many of the tensions that we have probed throughout this review and incorporate 
them into the study design. These include but are certainly not limited to the relation-
ship between the cultural roots of a program and the cultural roots of the participants, 
the connection between the challenge presented via the physical environment and the 
growing social relations between participants, and the relationship between participant 
backgrounds and the corresponding learning outcomes. Each of these elements creates 
a “layer” to the learning experience that is in dynamic tension with the other layers. The 
broader fields of human development and education have approached this tension thro-
ugh more specific theories, such as self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000) or 
transformative learning theory (Mezirow, 1997), which bring forward new perspectives 
for OB and outdoor adventure education researchers more broadly.

What other broader perspectives should researchers consider? It is our hope that 
the conceptual (e.g. utilizing sense of place as a research lens) or methodological (e.g. 
regression discontinuity for quasi-experimental designs) recommendations at the end 
of each section (people, place, and process) can provide some direction for these future 
directions. Obviously, there are innumerable theories and lenses for outdoor adventure 
education researchers to examine beyond those recommended in this paper, and we 
look forward to seeing the innovative perspectives that evolve in the future.

With this final recommendation, we return to the original goals of this paper. This 
scoping review was intended to provide perspective on how the academic literature 
has developed since the prominent meta-analysis conducted by Hattie et al. (1997) and 
provide recommendations for future directions for the field of study.  Research has mo-
ved forward on several fronts, such as better incorporating participant background into 
studies, documenting effective program elements, and better understanding the role the 
instructor plays in the OB experience. Other areas, such as understanding the role the 
physical environment plays (place) within the OB experience and understanding the na-
ture of outcomes beyond social-emotional growth have not progressed as quickly. We 
hope that by examining the other areas of academic literature recommended throughout 
this article, these gaps in knowledge can be explored more effectively in the future.

There is evidence that OB and outdoor adventure education more broadly provide 
impactful experiences for participants, and growing evidence supports this claim on an 
international scale. But as Hattie et al. (1997) stated, these programs are not inherently 
good. Academic research has the responsibility of helping OB and the broader field of 
outdoor adventure education build toward more effective programming. Progress has 
been made on this front since Hattie et al. (1997), and it is our hope that this scoping 
review can help this progress continue in the future.



164

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

Ta
bl

e 
3.

 A
 b

ri
ef

 o
ve

rv
ie

w
 o

f t
he

 st
ud

ie
s i

nc
lu

de
d 

fo
r r

ev
ie

w
 in

 th
is

 m
an

us
cr

ip
t

A
ut

ho
rs

Pr
og

ra
m

 P
ro

vi
de

r
St

ud
y 

Po
pu

la
tio

n
St

ud
y 

M
et

ho
ds

Sa
m

pl
e 

Si
ze

A
ng

 e
t a

l.,
 2

01
4

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 
Si

ng
ap

or
e

A
t-r

is
k 

yo
ut

h 
pa

rti
ci

pa
tin

g 
in

 a
 fi

ve
-

da
y 

ce
nt

er
-b

as
ed

 o
ut

do
or

 
ad

ve
nt

ur
e 

pr
og

ra
m

Yo
ut

h 
A

t-R
is

k 
Pr

og
ra

m
 E

va
lu

at
io

n 
su

rv
ey

 
ad

m
in

is
te

re
d 

at
 th

re
e 

po
in

ts
: p

re
-p

ro
gr

am
, o

ne
 

m
on

th
 p

os
t-p

ro
gr

am
, a

nd
 th

re
e 

m
on

th
s p

os
t-

pr
og

ra
m

; b
eh

av
io

ra
l d

at
a 

(n
um

be
r o

f c
la

ss
es

 a
nd

 
ex

tra
cu

rr
ic

ul
ar

 a
ct

iv
iti

es
 sk

ip
pe

d 
in

 th
e 

pa
st

 w
ee

k)
 

co
lle

ct
ed

 fr
om

 sc
ho

ol
 p

re
-p

ro
gr

am
 a

nd
 3

-m
on

th
s 

af
te

r t
he

 p
ro

gr
am

13
6 

(C
on

tro
l=

60
, 

Tr
ea

tm
en

t=
76

)

B
en

ha
m

 &
 

Sh
ep

ar
d,

 1
99

5
U

ns
pe

ci
fie

d,
 

pr
og

ra
m

 to
ok

 p
la

ce
 

on
 th

e 
sh

or
e 

of
 

La
ke

 M
ic

hi
ga

n 
in

 
th

e 
U

ni
te

d 
St

at
es

A
fr

ic
an

 A
m

er
ic

an
 sc

ho
ol

 
le

ad
er

s p
ar

tic
ip

at
in

g 
in

 a
 

ce
nt

er
-b

as
ed

 p
ro

fe
ss

io
na

l 
de

ve
lo

pm
en

t p
ro

gr
am

V
id

eo
 re

co
rd

ed
 p

ar
tic

ip
an

ts
' a

ct
iv

iti
es

 a
t t

he
 

pr
of

es
si

on
al

 d
ev

el
op

m
en

t r
et

re
at

 fo
r A

fr
ic

an
 

A
m

er
ic

an
 e

du
ca

to
rs

 th
ro

ug
ho

ut
 th

e 
w

ee
k;

 e
ac

h 
pa

rti
ci

pa
nt

 p
ar

tic
ip

at
ed

 in
 a

n 
in

te
rv

ie
w

 a
t t

he
 

co
nc

lu
si

on
 o

f t
he

 w
ee

k 
an

d 
th

re
e 

fo
llo

w
-u

p 
in

te
rv

ie
w

s o
ve

r t
he

 fo
llo

w
in

g 
si

x 
m

on
th

s

5

B
ob

ily
a 

et
 a

l.,
 

20
14

N
or

th
 C

ar
ol

in
a 

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 
Sc

ho
ol

In
di

vi
du

al
s e

nr
ol

le
d 

in
 e

xp
ed

iti
on

-b
as

ed
 

pr
og

ra
m

s o
f 7

-5
0 

da
ys

Fi
na

l E
xp

ed
iti

on
 S

ur
ve

y 
so

lic
iti

ng
 o

pe
n-

en
de

d 
re

sp
on

se
s c

om
pl

et
ed

 o
n 

th
e 

la
st

 d
ay

 o
f t

he
 fi

na
l 

ex
pe

di
tio

n

33
1

B
ob

ily
a 

et
 a

l.,
 

20
15

N
or

th
 C

ar
ol

in
a 

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 
Sc

ho
ol

In
di

vi
du

al
s e

nr
ol

le
d 

in
 e

xp
ed

iti
on

-b
as

ed
 

pr
og

ra
m

s o
f 8

-2
8 

da
ys

Po
st

-c
ou

rs
e 

su
rv

ey
: o

pe
n-

en
de

d 
qu

es
tio

ns
 o

n 
co

nt
en

t l
ea

rn
ed

 a
nd

 th
e 

in
te

nt
io

n 
to

 tr
an

sf
er

 
le

ar
ni

ng
; t

w
o-

ye
ar

 fo
llo

w
-u

p:
 o

pe
n-

en
de

d 
qu

es
tio

ns
 

on
 c

on
te

nt
 le

ar
ne

d 
an

d 
th

e 
w

ay
s s

ki
lls

 w
er

e 
ut

ili
ze

d 
po

st
-c

ou
rs

e;
 th

e 
re

su
lts

 w
er

e 
in

de
pe

nd
en

tly
 c

od
ed

 
by

 th
re

e 
re

se
ar

ch
er

s.

Po
st

-
C

ou
rs

e=
36

9,
 

Tw
o-

ye
ar

=3
0

B
ob

ily
a 

et
 a

l.,
 

20
17

N
or

th
 C

ar
ol

in
a 

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 
Sc

ho
ol

In
di

vi
du

al
s e

nr
ol

le
d 

in
 e

xp
ed

iti
on

-b
as

ed
 

pr
og

ra
m

s o
f 4

-2
8 

da
ys

O
pe

n-
en

de
d 

su
rv

ey
 q

ue
st

io
ns

 c
om

pl
et

ed
 o

n 
th

e 
fin

al
 d

ay
 o

f p
ro

gr
am

m
in

g 
on

 p
os

t-p
ro

gr
am

 le
ar

ni
ng

 
an

d 
gr

ow
th

, t
he

 re
sp

on
se

s w
er

e 
co

de
d 

an
d 

th
em

es
 

de
ve

lo
pe

d 
in

du
ct

iv
el

y

18
9



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

165

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181
A

ut
ho

rs
Pr

og
ra

m
 P

ro
vi

de
r

St
ud

y 
Po

pu
la

tio
n

St
ud

y 
M

et
ho

ds
Sa

m
pl

e 
Si

ze
B

ro
ad

du
s e

t a
l.,

 
20

13
B

al
tim

or
e 

C
he

sa
pe

ak
e 

B
ay

 
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd

B
al

tim
or

e 
po

lic
e 

offi
ce

rs
 

an
d 

m
id

dl
e 

sc
ho

ol
 

st
ud

en
ts

 p
ar

tic
ip

at
in

g 
in

 
a 

on
e-

da
y 

te
am

bu
ild

in
g 

pr
og

ra
m

Su
rv

ey
s u

se
d 

to
 m

ea
su

re
 b

ot
h 

re
si

lie
nc

e 
an

d 
se

lf-
co

ns
tru

ct
s;

 O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 O
ut

co
m

es
 In

st
ru

m
en

ts
 

w
as

 u
se

d 
to

 m
ea

su
re

 se
lf-

co
ns

tru
ct

s;
 th

e 
M

ul
tid

im
en

si
on

al
 R

el
at

io
ns

hi
p 

Q
ue

st
io

nn
ai

re
 w

as
 

us
ed

 to
 m

ea
su

re
 re

si
lie

nc
e

27

Ew
er

t, 
20

14
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 fo

r 
Ve

te
ra

ns
U

ni
te

d 
St

at
es

 V
et

er
an

s 
in

 a
 fi

ve
-d

ay
 o

ut
do

or
 

ad
ve

nt
ur

e 
pr

og
ra

m

Su
rv

ey
s u

se
d 

to
 m

ea
su

re
 b

ot
h 

re
si

lie
nc

e 
an

d 
se

lf-
co

ns
tru

ct
s;

 O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 O
ut

co
m

es
 In

st
ru

m
en

ts
 

w
as

 u
se

d 
to

 m
ea

su
re

 se
lf-

co
ns

tru
ct

s;
 th

e 
M

ul
tid

im
en

si
on

al
 R

el
at

io
ns

hi
p 

Q
ue

st
io

nn
ai

re
 w

as
 

us
ed

 to
 m

ea
su

re
 re

si
lie

nc
e

31
0

Fa
irc

lo
th

 &
 

B
ob

ily
a,

 2
01

3
N

or
th

 C
ar

ol
in

a 
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 

Sc
ho

ol

In
di

vi
du

al
s e

nr
ol

le
d 

in
 e

xp
ed

iti
on

-b
as

ed
 

pr
og

ra
m

s o
f 4

-2
8 

da
ys

Ps
yc

ho
m

et
ric

 in
ve

st
ig

at
io

n 
of

 th
e 

N
or

th
 C

ar
ol

in
a 

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 S
ch

oo
l C

ou
rs

e 
Im

pr
es

si
on

 S
ur

ve
y,

 
an

 a
da

pt
ed

 v
er

si
on

 o
f t

he
 O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 O

ut
co

m
es

 
In

ve
nt

or
y;

 a
na

ly
si

s i
nc

lu
de

d 
de

sc
rip

tiv
e 

st
at

is
tic

s, 
in

te
r-i

te
m

 c
or

re
la

tio
ns

, t
es

t-r
et

es
t r

el
ia

bi
lit

y,
 

ex
pl

or
at

or
y 

fa
ct

or
 a

na
ly

si
s, 

an
d 

in
te

rn
al

 c
on

si
st

en
cy

26
8

Fi
sc

he
r &

 
A

tta
h,

 2
00

1
N

or
th

 C
ar

ol
in

a 
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 

Sc
ho

ol

Te
en

s i
n 

fo
st

er
 c

ar
e 

pa
rti

ci
pa

tin
g 

in
 a

 se
ve

n-
da

y 
ou

td
oo

r a
dv

en
tu

re
 

co
ur

se

Pr
e-

 a
nd

 p
os

t-p
ro

gr
am

 su
rv

ey
s c

on
si

st
in

g 
of

 b
ot

h 
sc

al
ed

 a
nd

 o
pe

n-
en

de
d 

qu
es

tio
ns

 fo
cu

si
ng

 o
n 

pr
og

ra
m

 p
ar

tic
ip

an
t b

eh
av

io
r a

nd
 e

xp
er

ie
nc

es
 

w
er

e 
gi

ve
n 

to
 th

e 
pr

og
ra

m
 p

ar
tic

ip
an

ts
, f

os
te

r 
ca

re
 w

or
ke

rs
, a

nd
 fo

st
er

 p
ar

en
ts

 a
t t

hr
ee

 p
oi

nt
s:

 
pr

e-
pr

og
ra

m
, p

os
t-p

ro
gr

am
, a

nd
 th

re
e 

m
on

th
s p

os
t-

pr
og

ra
m

.

23

Fo
uh

ey
 &

 
Sa

ltm
ar

sh
, 1

99
6

Th
om

ps
on

 Is
la

nd
 

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 
Ed

uc
at

io
n 

C
en

te
r

U
ni

ve
rs

ity
 st

ud
en

ts
 

en
ro

lle
d 

in
 a

 se
rv

ic
e 

le
ar

ni
ng

 p
ro

gr
am

Ex
am

in
ed

 c
ou

rs
e 

co
m

po
ne

nt
s t

hr
ou

gh
 th

e 
le

ns
 

of
 v

ar
io

us
 e

xp
er

ie
nt

ia
l e

du
ca

tio
n 

an
d 

ou
td

oo
r 

ad
ve

nt
ur

e 
th

eo
rie

s.

6-
10

Fr
ee

m
an

, 2
01

1
H

is
to

ric
al

 A
na

ly
si

s
N

/A
H

is
to

ric
al

 a
na

ly
si

s o
f p

rio
r r

es
ea

rc
h,

 w
rit

in
gs

 fr
om

 
pr

om
in

en
t e

du
ca

to
rs

, a
nd

 o
th

er
 re

le
va

nt
 d

oc
um

en
ts

.
N

/A



166

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

A
ut

ho
rs

Pr
og

ra
m

 P
ro

vi
de

r
St

ud
y 

Po
pu

la
tio

n
St

ud
y 

M
et

ho
ds

Sa
m

pl
e 

Si
ze

G
al

lo
w

ay
, 2

00
7

N
or

th
 C

ar
ol

in
a 

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 
Sc

ho
ol

; V
oy

ag
eu

r 
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 

Sc
ho

ol

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 c
ou

rs
e 

le
ad

er
s

O
ut

do
or

 L
ea

de
r E

xp
er

ie
nc

e 
U

se
 H

is
to

ry
 su

rv
ey

s 
an

d 
Fa

ct
or

ia
l D

ec
is

io
n 

V
ig

ne
tte

s (
pr

ov
id

in
g 

le
ad

er
sh

ip
 c

ho
ic

es
 fo

r v
ar

io
us

 o
ut

do
or

 a
dv

en
tu

re
-

re
la

te
d 

m
ed

ic
al

 d
ec

is
io

ns
) p

ro
vi

de
d 

to
 tr

ip
 le

ad
er

s, 
re

sp
on

se
s a

na
ly

ze
d 

vi
a 

a 
hi

er
ar

ch
ic

al
 li

ne
ar

 m
od

el
.

10
3

G
as

sn
er

, 2
00

8
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 

Si
ng

ap
or

e
A

du
lts

 w
ho

 p
ar

tic
ip

at
ed

 
in

 th
e 

C
la

ss
ic

 C
ha

lle
ng

e 
co

ur
se

 (2
1 

da
y 

ex
pe

di
tio

n)

Su
rv

ey
 w

ith
 p

ar
tic

ip
an

ts
 ra

tin
g 

ho
w

 im
pa

ct
fu

l 
di

ffe
re

nt
 c

ou
rs

e 
co

m
po

ne
nt

s w
er

e 
on

 th
ei

r c
ur

re
nt

 
liv

es

31
8

G
as

sn
er

 &
 

R
us

se
ll,

 2
00

8
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 

Si
ng

ap
or

e
A

du
lts

 w
ho

 p
ar

tic
ip

at
ed

 
in

 th
e 

C
la

ss
ic

 C
ha

lle
ng

e 
co

ur
se

 (2
1 

da
y 

ex
pe

di
tio

n)

Su
rv

ey
 w

ith
 p

ar
tic

ip
an

ts
 re

tro
sp

ec
tiv

el
y 

ex
am

in
in

g 
th

e 
ov

er
al

l i
m

pa
ct

 o
f t

he
ir 

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 c
ou

rs
e 

on
 th

ei
r c

ur
re

nt
 li

ve
s a

nd
 h

ow
 im

pa
ct

fu
l v

ar
io

us
 

as
pe

ct
s o

f t
he

 e
xp

er
ie

nc
e 

w
er

e

31
8

G
as

sn
er

 e
t a

l.,
 

20
06

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 
Si

ng
ap

or
e

A
du

lts
 w

ho
 p

ar
tic

ip
at

ed
 

in
 th

e 
C

la
ss

ic
 C

ha
lle

ng
e 

co
ur

se
 (2

1 
da

y 
ex

pe
di

tio
n)

Q
ue

st
io

nn
ai

re
 a

sk
in

g 
pa

rti
ci

pa
nt

s t
o 

ra
te

 th
e 

pe
rc

ei
ve

d 
im

pa
ct

 o
f t

he
ir 

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 c
ou

rs
e 

an
d 

th
e 

co
ur

se
 c

om
po

ne
nt

s c
on

tri
bu

tin
g 

to
 th

es
e 

im
pa

ct
s

31
8

G
ol

de
nb

er
g 

et
 

al
., 

20
02

N
or

th
 C

ar
ol

in
a 

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 
Sc

ho
ol

In
di

vi
du

al
s e

nr
ol

le
d 

in
 

ex
pe

di
tio

n 
pr

og
ra

m
s o

f 
4-

21
 d

ay
s i

n 
le

ng
th

Q
ue

st
io

nn
ai

re
 a

sk
in

g 
pa

rti
ci

pa
nt

s t
o 

id
en

tif
y 

im
pa

ct
fu

l c
ou

rs
e 

co
m

po
ne

nt
s, 

th
e 

ou
tc

om
es

 
re

la
te

d 
to

 th
os

e 
co

ur
se

 c
om

po
ne

nt
s, 

an
d 

ul
tim

at
el

y 
th

e 
br

oa
de

r v
al

ue
s i

m
pa

ct
ed

 b
y 

th
os

e 
ou

tc
om

es
; 

re
sp

on
se

s a
rr

an
ge

d 
in

to
 h

ie
ra

rc
hi

ca
l v

al
ue

 m
ap

s

21
6

G
ol

de
nb

er
g 

et
 

al
., 

20
05

N
or

th
 C

ar
ol

in
a 

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 
Sc

ho
ol

In
di

vi
du

al
s e

nr
ol

le
d 

in
 

ex
pe

di
tio

n 
pr

og
ra

m
s o

f 
4-

21
 d

ay
s i

n 
le

ng
th

Q
ue

st
io

nn
ai

re
 a

sk
in

g 
pa

rti
ci

pa
nt

s t
o 

id
en

tif
y 

im
pa

ct
fu

l c
ou

rs
e 

co
m

po
ne

nt
s, 

th
e 

ou
tc

om
es

 
re

la
te

d 
to

 th
os

e 
co

ur
se

 c
om

po
ne

nt
s, 

an
d 

ul
tim

at
el

y 
th

e 
br

oa
de

r v
al

ue
s i

m
pa

ct
ed

 b
y 

th
os

e 
ou

tc
om

es
; 

re
sp

on
se

s a
rr

an
ge

d 
in

to
 h

ie
ra

rc
hi

ca
l v

al
ue

 m
ap

s

21
6



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

167

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181
A

ut
ho

rs
Pr

og
ra

m
 P

ro
vi

de
r

St
ud

y 
Po

pu
la

tio
n

St
ud

y 
M

et
ho

ds
Sa

m
pl

e 
Si

ze
G

re
ffr

at
h 

et
 a

l.,
 

20
11

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 
So

ut
h 

A
fr

ic
a

3r
d-

ye
ar

 u
ni

ve
rs

ity
 

st
ud

en
ts

 p
ar

tic
ip

at
in

g 
in

 tw
o 

di
ffe

re
nt

 o
ut

do
or

 
ad

ve
nt

ur
e 

ed
uc

at
io

n 
pr

og
ra

m
s

A
 c

ro
ss

ov
er

 re
se

ar
ch

 d
es

ig
n 

w
ith

 tw
o 

se
pa

ra
te

 
ex

pe
rim

en
ta

l g
ro

up
s p

ar
tic

ip
at

in
g 

in
 e

ith
er

 a
 c

en
tre

-
ba

se
d 

ad
ve

nt
ur

e 
pr

og
ra

m
 o

r a
n 

ex
pe

di
tio

n-
ba

se
d 

w
ild

er
ne

ss
 p

ro
gr

am
, t

he
 g

ro
up

s s
w

itc
he

d 
tre

at
m

en
ts

 
af

te
r fi

ve
 m

on
th

s;
 g

ro
up

s c
om

pl
et

ed
 p

re
- a

nd
 

po
st

-p
ro

gr
am

 "R
ev

ie
w

 o
f P

er
so

na
l E

ffe
ct

iv
en

es
s 

an
d 

Lo
cu

s o
f C

on
tro

l"
 su

rv
ey

s f
or

 e
ac

h 
tre

at
m

en
t; 

po
st

-tr
ea

tm
en

t s
em

i-s
tru

ct
ur

ed
 in

te
rv

ie
w

s a
nd

 fo
cu

s 
gr

ou
ps

 w
er

e 
al

so
 c

on
du

ct
ed

28

H
an

na
, 1

99
5

C
ol

or
ad

o 
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 S

ch
oo

l
Yo

ut
h 

en
ro

lle
d 

in
 

pr
og

ra
m

s o
f 1

0-
11

 d
ay

s
Su

rv
ey

 m
ea

su
rin

g 
m

in
im

al
 im

pa
ct

 k
no

w
le

dg
e,

 b
as

ic
 

ec
ol

og
ic

al
 k

no
w

le
dg

e,
 w

ild
er

ne
ss

 is
su

e 
at

tit
ud

es
, a

s 
w

el
l a

s p
re

di
sp

os
in

g 
fa

ct
or

s, 
be

ha
vi

or
al

 in
te

nt
io

n,
 

an
d 

se
lf-

re
po

rte
d 

be
ha

vi
or

 fo
r O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 a

nd
 

A
ud

ub
on

 F
ie

ld
 E

co
lo

gy
 C

am
ps

 a
t t

hr
ee

 ti
m

e 
po

in
ts

: 
pr

e-
pr

og
ra

m
, p

os
t-p

ro
gr

am
, a

nd
 si

x 
m

on
th

s a
fte

r 
pr

og
ra

m
 c

on
cl

us
io

n

32

H
ar

pe
r e

t a
l.,

 
20

14
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 

C
an

ad
a

C
an

ad
ia

n 
ve

te
ra

ns
 

pa
rti

ci
pa

tin
g 

in
 a

 se
ve

n-
da

y 
ou

td
oo

r a
dv

en
tu

re
 

ed
uc

at
io

n 
pr

og
ra

m

U
til

iz
ed

 th
e 

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 O
ut

co
m

es
 In

ve
nt

or
y 

to
 m

ea
su

re
 p

sy
ch

os
oc

ia
l c

on
st

ru
ct

s p
re

-p
ro

gr
am

, 
im

m
ed

ia
te

ly
 p

os
t-p

ro
gr

am
, a

nd
 si

x 
w

ee
ks

 p
os

t-
pr

og
ra

m
; 1

2 
se

m
i-s

tru
ct

ur
ed

 in
te

rv
ie

w
s e

xa
m

in
in

g 
co

ur
se

 o
ut

co
m

es
, h

ea
lth

 a
nd

 w
el

lb
ei

ng
, a

nd
 th

e 
co

ur
se

 in
 re

la
tio

n 
to

 p
ar

tic
ip

an
t’s

 c
ar

ee
r a

nd
 m

ili
ta

ry
 

se
rv

ic
e 

w
er

e 
al

so
 c

on
du

ct
ed

Su
rv

ey
=5

0,
 

In
te

rv
ie

w
=1

2

H
ic

km
an

 
D

un
ne

, 2
01

8
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 

Tr
us

t (
U

ni
te

d 
K

in
gd

om
)

Sc
ho

ol
 g

ro
up

s b
as

ed
 in

 
th

e 
U

ni
te

d 
K

in
gd

om
 o

n 
ou

td
oo

r e
xp

ed
iti

on
s

Se
m

i-s
tru

ct
ur

ed
 in

te
rv

ie
w

s w
ith

 O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 
Tr

us
t s

ta
ff;

 a
n 

et
hn

og
ra

ph
y 

of
 fo

ur
 sc

ho
ol

 g
ro

up
 

tri
ps

 th
ro

ug
h 

th
e 

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 T
ru

st
; p

ai
re

d 
fo

llo
w

-u
p 

in
te

rv
ie

w
s w

ith
 p

ar
tic

ip
an

ts
 in

cl
ud

in
g 

m
oo

d 
bo

ar
d 

ac
tiv

ity

St
aff

=2
6,

 
Pa

rti
ci

pa
nt

s=
44



168

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

A
ut

ho
rs

Pr
og

ra
m

 P
ro

vi
de

r
St

ud
y 

Po
pu

la
tio

n
St

ud
y 

M
et

ho
ds

Sa
m

pl
e 

Si
ze

H
ol

de
n,

 2
00

4
N

or
th

 C
ar

ol
in

a 
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 

Sc
ho

ol

A
du

lts
 p

ar
tic

ip
at

in
g 

in
 

an
 e

xp
ed

iti
on

-b
as

ed
 

pr
og

ra
m

 o
f a

t l
ea

st
 1

4 
da

ys

A
 q

ua
si

-e
xp

er
im

en
ta

l d
es

ig
n 

w
ith

 so
m

e 
co

ur
se

s 
be

in
g 

in
fo

rm
ed

 a
bo

ut
 th

e 
pr

es
en

ce
 o

f a
 sa

te
lli

te
 

ph
on

e 
an

d 
ot

he
rs

 n
ot

; a
ll 

th
e 

pa
rti

ci
pa

nt
s fi

lle
d 

in
 a

 p
os

t-c
ou

rs
e 

su
rv

ey
 m

ea
su

rin
g 

w
ild

er
ne

ss
 

ex
pe

rie
nc

e,
 ri

sk
-ta

ki
ng

, t
he

 p
er

ce
pt

io
n 

of
 sa

fe
ty

, a
nd

 
le

ve
l o

f s
tre

ss
.

26
1

H
ov

el
yn

ck
, 

20
01

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 
B

el
gi

um
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 c

ou
rs

e 
le

ad
er

s
M

ul
tip

le
 se

m
i-s

tru
ct

ur
ed

 in
te

rv
ie

w
s w

ith
 c

ou
rs

e 
le

ad
er

s d
is

cu
ss

in
g 

2-
3 

m
om

en
ts

 p
er

 d
ay

 p
er

 
pr

og
ra

m
 a

nd
 h

ow
 th

ey
 w

er
e 

fa
ci

lit
at

ed

8

H
ye

r e
t a

l.,
 

19
96

Pa
ci

fic
 C

re
st

 
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 

Sc
ho

ol
; N

or
th

 
C

ar
ol

in
a 

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 S
ch

oo
l

V
ie

tn
am

 W
ar

 v
et

er
an

s 
w

ith
 c

hr
on

ic
 P

TS
D

 
pa

rti
ci

pa
tin

g 
in

 a
 fi

ve
-

da
y 

ou
td

oo
r a

dv
en

tu
re

 
ed

uc
at

io
n 

pr
og

ra
m

Ve
te

ra
ns

 in
 a

 m
ul

ti-
w

ee
k 

PT
SD

 tr
ea

tm
en

t p
ro

gr
am

 
ad

m
in

is
te

re
d 

a 
5-

da
y 

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 p
ro

gr
am

 in
 

lie
u 

of
 sc

he
du

le
d 

tre
at

m
en

t (
th

e 
co

nt
ro

l g
ro

up
 d

id
 

no
t a

tte
nd

 th
e 

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 p
ro

gr
am

); 
ve

te
ra

ns
 

su
bj

ec
t t

o 
a 

ba
tte

ry
 o

f s
ur

ve
ys

 m
ea

su
rin

g 
sy

m
pt

om
 

ch
an

ge
 in

 P
TS

D
 su

bj
ec

ts
 p

re
-p

ro
gr

am
, i

m
m

ed
ia

te
ly

 
po

st
-p

ro
gr

am
, a

nd
 o

n 
ex

it 
fr

om
 th

e 
m

ul
ti-

w
ee

k 
tre

at
m

en
t; 

th
e 

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 p
ar

tic
ip

an
ts

 a
ls

o 
fil

le
d 

in
 a

 su
rv

ey
 a

nd
 p

ro
vi

de
d 

op
en

-e
nd

ed
 

co
m

m
en

ts
 o

n 
th

ei
r p

er
ce

pt
io

n 
of

 th
e 

ex
pe

rie
nc

e

21
9 

(C
on

tro
l=

11
1,

Tr
ea

tm
en

t=
10

8)

Ji
rá

se
k 

et
 a

l.,
 

20
16

Va
ca

tio
n 

Sc
ho

ol
 o

f 
Li

pn
ic

e-
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 C

ze
ch

 
R

ep
ub

lic

A
du

lts
 p

ar
tic

ip
at

in
g 

in
 a

 
12

-d
ay

 e
xp

ed
iti

on
M

ix
ed

 m
et

ho
d 

de
si

gn
 in

cl
ud

in
g 

fr
eq

ue
nc

y 
ch

ar
ts

 
w

ith
 p

ar
tic

ip
an

ts
 id

en
tif

yi
ng

 c
lo

se
 re

la
tio

ns
hi

ps
 

in
 th

e 
gr

ou
p 

re
co

rd
ed

 a
t t

hr
ee

 p
oi

nt
s t

hr
ou

gh
ou

t 
th

e 
ex

pe
di

tio
n,

 p
os

t-c
ou

rs
e 

re
fle

ct
iv

e 
es

sa
ys

, a
 

po
st

-c
ou

rs
e 

su
rv

ey
 o

n 
gr

ou
p 

co
he

si
on

, a
nd

 m
id

-
co

ur
se

 a
nd

 p
os

t-c
ou

rs
e 

m
in

d 
m

ap
s e

xp
lo

rin
g 

ho
w

 
pa

rti
ci

pa
nt

s f
ee

l a
bo

ut
 th

e 
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 c

ou
rs

e

26

Ji
rá

se
k,

 
Ji

rá
sk

ov
á 

et
 a

l.,
 

20
17

Va
ca

tio
n 

Sc
ho

ol
 o

f 
Li

pn
ic

e-
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 C

ze
ch

 
R

ep
ub

lic

A
du

lts
 p

ar
tic

ip
at

in
g 

in
 a

 
12

-d
ay

 e
xp

ed
iti

on
Po

st
-c

ou
rs

e 
un

st
ru

ct
ur

ed
 in

te
rv

ie
w

s a
nd

 th
e 

de
ve

lo
pm

en
t o

f s
ys

te
m

ic
 c

on
st

el
la

tio
ns

; c
on

te
nt

 
an

al
yz

ed
 fo

r s
pi

rit
ua

l e
le

m
en

ts
 o

f t
he

 e
xp

er
ie

nc
e

12



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

169

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181
A

ut
ho

rs
Pr

og
ra

m
 P

ro
vi

de
r

St
ud

y 
Po

pu
la

tio
n

St
ud

y 
M

et
ho

ds
Sa

m
pl

e 
Si

ze
Ji

rá
se

k,
 

Ve
se

ls
ký

 e
t a

l.,
 

20
17

Va
ca

tio
n 

Sc
ho

ol
 o

f 
Li

pn
ic

e-
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 C

ze
ch

 
R

ep
ub

lic

A
du

lts
 p

ar
tic

ip
at

in
g 

in
 a

 
12

-d
ay

 e
xp

ed
iti

on
-b

as
ed

 
pr

og
ra

m

U
ns

tru
ct

ur
ed

 in
te

rv
ie

w
s o

n 
th

e 
sp

iri
tu

al
 a

sp
ec

ts
 o

f 
th

e 
ex

pe
di

tio
n 

pa
ire

d 
w

ith
 th

e 
Pr

ag
ue

 S
pi

rit
ua

lit
y 

Q
ue

st
io

nn
ai

re
.

12

K
al

is
ch

 e
t a

l.,
 

20
11

N
or

th
 C

ar
ol

in
a 

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 
Sc

ho
ol

In
di

vi
du

al
s e

nr
ol

le
d 

in
 e

xp
ed

iti
on

-b
as

ed
 

pr
og

ra
m

s o
f 7

-4
5 

da
ys

Pa
rti

ci
pa

nt
s g

iv
en

 a
n 

op
en

-e
nd

ed
 su

rv
ey

 o
n 

th
ei

r 
pe

rc
ep

tio
ns

 o
f t

he
 so

lo
 e

xp
er

ie
nc

e 
du

rin
g 

th
e 

la
st

 
ho

ur
 o

f t
he

 so
lo

, r
es

po
ns

es
 c

od
ed

 fo
r s

al
ie

nt
 th

em
es

 
an

d 
fr

eq
ue

nc
y 

ta
bl

es
 c

on
st

ru
ct

ed

33
5

K
irw

in
 e

t a
l.,

 
20

19
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 

C
an

ad
a

In
di

vi
du

al
s e

nr
ol

le
d 

in
 

an
 e

ig
ht

-d
ay

 e
xp

ed
iti

on
-

ba
se

d 
pr

og
ra

m

Th
re

e 
pr

ev
io

us
ly

 d
ev

el
op

ed
 su

rv
ey

s w
er

e 
us

ed
 to

 
m

ea
su

re
 sa

vo
rin

g,
 m

in
df

ul
ne

ss
, a

nd
 p

os
iti

ve
 a

ffe
ct

 
in

 b
ot

h 
th

e 
co

nt
ro

l (
no

 O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 p
ro

gr
am

 
pa

rti
ci

pa
tio

n)
 a

nd
 e

xp
er

im
en

ta
l (

pa
rti

ci
pa

tio
n 

in
 th

e 
ei

gh
t-d

ay
 O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 m

in
df

ul
ne

ss
 

pr
og

ra
m

) g
ro

up
s a

t t
hr

ee
 ti

m
e 

pe
rio

ds
: p

re
-p

ro
gr

am
, 

im
m

ed
ia

te
ly

 p
os

t-p
ro

gr
am

, a
nd

 th
re

e 
m

on
th

s p
os

t-
pr

og
ra

m

30
 (C

on
tro

l=
16

, 
Tr

ea
tm

en
t=

14
)

K
le

in
 &

 
R

io
rd

an
, 2

00
9

Ex
pe

di
tio

na
ry

 
Le

ar
ni

ng
 S

ch
oo

ls
 

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

Ed
uc

at
or

s i
n 

N
ew

 Y
or

k 
C

ity
A

 q
ua

lit
at

iv
e 

ca
se

 st
ud

y 
an

al
yz

in
g 

ha
rd

co
py

 
m

at
er

ia
ls

 li
ke

 st
ud

en
t w

or
k,

 c
la

ss
ro

om
 o

bs
er

va
tio

ns
, 

an
d 

te
ac

he
r i

nt
er

vi
ew

s;
 a

na
ly

ze
d 

fo
r s

al
ie

nt
 th

em
es

 
by

 b
ot

h 
au

th
or

s

8

K
le

in
 &

 
R

io
rd

an
, 2

01
1

Ex
pe

di
tio

na
ry

 
Le

ar
ni

ng
 S

ch
oo

ls
 

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

Ed
uc

at
or

s i
n 

N
ew

 Y
or

k 
C

ity
A

 q
ua

lit
at

iv
e 

ca
se

 st
ud

y 
co

m
pr

is
in

g 
in

te
rv

ie
w

s, 
si

te
 v

is
its

, a
nd

 d
oc

um
en

t a
nd

 a
rti

fa
ct

 a
na

ly
si

s;
 

da
ta

 w
er

e 
co

de
d 

an
d 

an
al

yz
ed

 v
ia

 a
na

ly
tic

 m
em

os
, 

tri
an

gu
la

tio
n,

 a
nd

 m
em

be
r c

he
ck

s

8



170

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

A
ut

ho
rs

Pr
og

ra
m

 P
ro

vi
de

r
St

ud
y 

Po
pu

la
tio

n
St

ud
y 

M
et

ho
ds

Sa
m

pl
e 

Si
ze

Le
be

rm
an

, 
20

07
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 

N
ew

 Z
ea

la
nd

Fe
m

al
e 

off
en

de
rs

 
to

 b
e 

re
le

as
ed

 fr
om

 
pr

is
on

 w
ith

in
 o

ne
 y

ea
r 

pa
rti

ci
pa

tin
g 

in
 a

 2
0-

da
y 

ou
td

oo
r a

dv
en

tu
re

 
ed

uc
at

io
n 

co
ur

se

27
 se

m
i-s

tru
ct

ur
ed

 in
te

rv
ie

w
s a

t t
he

 e
nd

 o
f t

he
 

co
ur

se
; f

ol
lo

w
-u

p 
in

te
rv

ie
w

s w
ith

 1
4 

w
om

en
 

th
re

e 
m

on
th

s a
fte

r t
he

 e
nd

 o
f t

he
 c

ou
rs

e;
 fi

el
d 

ob
se

rv
at

io
ns

, i
ns

tru
ct

or
 re

po
rts

, a
nd

 c
as

e 
offi

ce
r r

ep
or

ts
 w

er
e 

al
so

 u
til

iz
ed

; a
na

ly
ze

d 
in

 a
 

ph
en

om
en

ol
og

ic
al

 m
an

ne
r

27

Le
be

rm
an

 &
 

M
ar

tin
, 2

00
2

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 
C

ze
ch

 R
ep

ub
lic

, 
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 

N
ew

 Z
ea

la
nd

In
te

rn
at

io
na

l p
ar

tic
ip

an
ts

 
in

 th
e 

C
ze

ch
 R

ep
ub

lic
; 

fe
m

al
e 

off
en

de
rs

 in
 

N
ew

 Z
ea

la
nd

; b
ot

h 
pa

rti
ci

pa
tin

g 
in

 m
ul

ti-
da

y 
ou

td
oo

r a
dv

en
tu

re
 

ed
uc

at
io

n 
pr

og
ra

m
s

Tw
o 

se
pa

ra
te

 st
ud

ie
s a

na
ly

zi
ng

 c
om

fo
rt,

 ri
sk

, a
nd

 
th

e 
re

la
tio

ns
hi

p 
th

es
e 

co
nc

ep
ts

 h
av

e 
to

 le
ar

ni
ng

; 
fo

r O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 C
ze

ch
 R

ep
ub

lic
, p

ar
tic

ip
an

ts
 

co
m

pl
et

ed
 a

n 
op

en
-e

nd
ed

 q
ue

st
io

nn
ai

re
 6

-m
on

th
s 

af
te

r c
ou

rs
e 

co
nc

lu
si

on
; f

or
 O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 N

ew
 

Ze
al

an
d,

 in
te

rv
ie

w
s c

on
du

ct
ed

 p
os

t-c
ou

rs
e 

an
d 

th
re

e 
m

on
th

s a
fte

r c
ou

rs
e 

co
nc

lu
si

on
.

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 C
ze

ch
 

R
ep

ub
lic

=2
5,

 
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 N

ew
 

Ze
al

an
d=

27

Lo
w

an
, 2

00
9

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 
C

an
ad

a
Fo

rm
er

 G
iw

ay
ki

w
in

 
st

ud
en

ts
, O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 st

aff
 m

em
be

rs
, 

A
bo

rig
in

al
 E

ld
er

s, 
an

d 
co

m
m

un
ity

 m
em

be
rs

 
in

vo
lv

ed
 w

ith
 th

e 
pr

og
ra

m

A
 c

ol
la

bo
ra

tiv
e 

et
hn

og
ra

ph
y 

st
ud

y 
co

ns
is

tin
g 

of
 in

te
rv

ie
w

s, 
fie

ld
 jo

ur
na

l f
ro

m
 re

se
ar

ch
er

, 
co

lla
bo

ra
tiv

e 
ex

am
in

at
io

n 
of

 p
ar

tic
ip

an
ts

' c
ou

rs
e 

jo
ur

na
ls

, a
nd

 c
ou

rs
e 

ar
tif

ac
ts

9

M
ar

tin
 &

 L
eg

g,
 

20
02

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 
N

ew
 Z

ea
la

nd
In

di
vi

du
al

s e
nr

ol
le

d 
in

 
ni

ne
-d

ay
 a

nd
 2

2-
da

y 
ex

pe
di

tio
n-

ba
se

d 
co

ur
se

s

A
 m

ix
ed

 m
et

ho
d 

lo
ng

itu
di

na
l s

tu
dy

, a
dm

in
is

te
rin

g 
a 

m
ul

tid
im

en
si

on
al

 se
lf-

co
nc

ep
t q

ue
st

io
nn

ai
re

 
pr

e-
an

d 
po

st
-p

ro
gr

am
; t

hr
ee

 o
pe

n-
en

de
d 

qu
es

tio
ns

 
w

er
e 

ad
m

in
is

te
re

d 
pr

e-
pr

og
ra

m
, p

os
t-p

ro
gr

am
, a

nd
 

si
x 

m
on

th
s a

fte
r t

he
 p

ro
gr

am
 e

xa
m

in
in

g 
co

ur
se

 
at

m
os

ph
er

e;
 q

ue
st

io
ns

 e
xa

m
in

ed
 c

ou
rs

e 
ou

tc
om

es
 

an
d 

w
ha

t e
le

m
en

ts
 o

f t
he

 c
ou

rs
e 

co
nt

rib
ut

ed
 to

 th
em

93



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

171

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181
A

ut
ho

rs
Pr

og
ra

m
 P

ro
vi

de
r

St
ud

y 
Po

pu
la

tio
n

St
ud

y 
M

et
ho

ds
Sa

m
pl

e 
Si

ze
M

ar
tin

, 2
01

1
Va

ca
tio

n 
Sc

ho
ol

 o
f 

Li
pn

ic
e-

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 C
ze

ch
 

R
ep

ub
lic

Se
lf-

ex
am

in
at

io
n 

an
d 

re
fle

ct
io

n
A

ut
oe

th
no

gr
ap

hy
 u

si
ng

 p
ar

tic
ip

an
t o

bs
er

va
tio

n 
w

ith
 

th
e 

au
th

or
 e

xa
m

in
in

g 
th

e 
pe

rs
on

al
 m

ea
ni

ng
 o

f t
he

 
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 e

xp
er

ie
nc

e

1

M
ar

tin
 &

 
Le

be
rm

an
, 

20
05

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 
N

ew
 Z

ea
la

nd
Pa

rti
ci

pa
nt

s w
ho

 w
er

e 
16

 y
ea

rs
 a

nd
 o

ld
er

 
pa

rti
ci

pa
tin

g 
in

 a
 v

ar
ie

ty
 

of
 o

ut
do

or
 a

dv
en

tu
re

 
co

ur
se

s

A
 m

ix
ed

 m
et

ho
d 

lo
ng

itu
di

na
l a

pp
ro

ac
h,

 c
on

du
ct

in
g 

qu
es

tio
nn

ai
re

s o
n 

th
e 

fir
st

 d
ay

, l
as

t d
ay

, a
nd

 1
2 

w
ee

ks
 a

fte
r p

ro
gr

am
 c

om
pl

et
io

n;
 su

rv
ey

s a
nd

 o
pe

n-
en

de
d 

qu
es

tio
ns

 e
xa

m
in

ed
 le

ar
ni

ng
 a

ro
un

d 
a 

va
rie

ty
 

of
 c

on
ce

pt
s s

uc
h 

as
 le

ad
er

sh
ip

, s
el

f-
co

nfi
de

nc
e,

 a
nd

 
so

ci
al

 c
om

pe
te

nc
e

15
7

M
ar

tin
 e

t a
l.,

 
20

16
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 

N
ew

 Z
ea

la
nd

Sc
ho

ol
 a

nd
 e

xe
cu

tiv
e 

di
re

ct
or

s
A

 c
as

e 
st

ud
y 

fr
am

ew
or

k 
on

 o
rg

an
iz

at
io

na
l c

ul
tu

re
 

w
ith

 p
rim

ar
y 

da
ta

 b
ei

ng
 c

ol
le

ct
ed

 th
ro

ug
h 

se
m

i-
st

ru
ct

ur
ed

 in
te

rv
ie

w
s;

 fi
nd

in
gs

 fu
rth

er
 tr

ia
ng

ul
at

ed
 

vi
a 

an
al

ys
is

 o
f O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 N

ew
 Z

ea
la

nd
 a

nn
ua

l 
re

po
rts

 a
nd

 re
se

ar
ch

er
s' 

fir
st

ha
nd

 k
no

w
le

dg
e 

of
 

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

14

M
ar

tin
 e

t a
l.,

 
20

02
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 

C
ze

ch
 R

ep
ub

lic
, 

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 
A

us
tra

lia

In
di

vi
du

al
s e

nr
ol

le
d 

in
 

14
-d

ay
 e

xp
ed

iti
on

-b
as

ed
 

pr
og

ra
m

s

O
pe

n-
en

de
d 

su
rv

ey
 q

ue
st

io
ns

 w
er

e 
ad

m
in

is
te

re
d 

to
 

pa
rti

ci
pa

nt
s 6

-m
on

th
s a

fte
r a

ll 
co

ur
se

s;
 se

co
nd

ar
y 

fo
llo

w
-u

p 
w

as
 d

is
tri

bu
te

d 
to

 tw
o 

co
ur

se
s o

ne
 y

ea
r 

af
te

r c
om

pl
et

io
n 

an
d 

tw
o 

ye
ar

s a
fte

r c
om

pl
et

io
n 

fo
r 

th
e 

th
ird

 c
ou

rs
e;

 e
xa

m
in

ed
 th

e 
im

pa
ct

fu
l e

le
m

en
ts

 
of

 O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 c
ou

rs
es

 u
til

iz
in

g 
a 

dr
am

at
ur

gi
ca

l 
ap

pr
oa

ch
 to

 e
du

ca
tio

n

70

M
ar

tin
 e

t a
l.,

 
20

09
C

ol
or

ad
o 

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 S
ch

oo
l

7t
h 

an
d 

8t
h 

gr
ad

e 
st

ud
en

ts
 e

nr
ol

le
d 

in
 a

n 
Ex

pe
di

tio
na

ry
 L

ea
rn

in
g 

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 S
ch

oo
l

Ex
am

in
in

g 
th

e 
in

flu
en

ce
 o

f a
 w

at
er

sh
ed

 e
du

ca
tio

n 
un

it;
 c

hi
ld

re
n’

s E
nv

iro
nm

en
ta

l V
irt

ue
 S

ca
le

 su
rv

ey
 

ad
m

in
is

te
re

d 
pr

e-
 a

nd
 p

os
t-p

ro
gr

am
 to

 p
ar

tic
ip

an
ts

; 
re

su
lts

 c
om

pa
re

d 
to

 a
 c

on
ve

ni
en

ce
 sa

m
pl

e 
of

 e
ig

ht
h-

gr
ad

e 
st

ud
en

ts
 in

 C
ol

or
ad

o 
se

rv
in

g 
as

 a
 c

on
tro

l 
gr

ou
p

11
2 

(T
re

at
m

en
t=

45
, 

C
on

tro
l=

67
)



172

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

A
ut

ho
rs

Pr
og

ra
m

 P
ro

vi
de

r
St

ud
y 

Po
pu

la
tio

n
St

ud
y 

M
et

ho
ds

Sa
m

pl
e 

Si
ze

M
ax

w
el

l e
t a

l.,
 

20
08

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 
N

ew
 Z

ea
la

nd
Yo

un
g 

ad
ul

ts
 fa

ci
ng

 
lo

ng
-te

rm
 u

ne
m

pl
oy

m
en

t 
w

ho
 a

re
 p

ar
tic

ip
at

in
g 

in
 a

 2
1-

da
y 

re
si

de
nt

ia
l 

pr
og

ra
m

A
na

ly
si

s o
f O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 p

ar
tic

ip
an

t d
at

a 
in

cl
ud

in
g 

de
m

og
ra

ph
ic

s, 
ex

te
rn

al
 e

nv
iro

nm
en

ta
l 

fa
ct

or
s, 

in
te

rn
al

 e
nv

iro
nm

en
ta

l f
ac

to
rs

, a
nd

 so
ci

al
 

in
te

gr
at

io
n;

 in
te

rv
ie

w
s c

on
du

ct
ed

 w
ith

 a
 sa

m
pl

e 
of

 
10

 p
ro

gr
am

 d
ro

po
ut

s

Su
rv

ey
=5

85
, 

In
te

rv
ie

w
=1

0

M
cK

en
zi

e,
 

20
03

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 
W

es
te

rn
 C

an
ad

a
A

du
lts

, y
ou

th
, f

em
al

e 
su

rv
iv

or
s o

f a
bu

se
, 

an
d 

at
-r

is
k 

yo
ut

h 
pa

rti
ci

pa
tin

g 
in

 o
ut

do
or

 
ad

ve
nt

ur
e 

co
ur

se
s 

ra
ng

in
g 

fr
om

 7
 to

 3
6 

da
ys

 in
 le

ng
th

A
n 

in
te

rp
re

tiv
e 

ca
se

 st
ud

y 
ex

am
in

in
g 

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 st
ud

en
t l

ea
rn

in
g 

pr
oc

es
se

s;
 d

at
a 

co
lle

ct
io

n 
co

ns
is

te
d 

of
 a

 p
os

t-p
ro

gr
am

 q
ue

st
io

nn
ai

re
, 

in
te

rv
ie

w
s, 

re
se

ar
ch

er
 o

bs
er

va
tio

n 
of

 g
ro

up
 

di
sc

us
si

on
s

Su
rv

ey
=9

2,
 

In
te

rv
ie

w
=2

0

M
ill

ik
an

, 2
00

6
H

is
to

ric
al

 A
na

ly
si

s
N

/A
H

is
to

ric
al

 a
na

ly
si

s o
f O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 p

ro
gr

am
m

in
g

N
/A

M
ot

t &
 M

ar
tin

, 
20

17
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 

N
ew

 Z
ea

la
nd

In
di

vi
du

al
s e

nr
ol

le
d 

in
 v

ar
io

us
 o

ut
do

or
 

ad
ve

nt
ur

e 
co

ur
se

s

A
 m

ix
ed

 m
et

ho
ds

 d
es

ig
n 

co
ns

is
tin

g 
in

te
rv

ie
w

s, 
in

ci
de

nt
 re

po
rt 

an
d 

qu
al

ity
 c

on
tro

l f
or

m
 a

na
ly

si
s, 

an
d 

pr
e-

 a
nd

 p
os

t-p
ro

gr
am

 e
va

lu
at

io
n 

qu
es

tio
nn

ai
re

s 
an

al
yz

in
g 

pe
rc

ep
tio

ns
 o

f r
is

k 
an

d 
sa

fe
ty

 o
n 

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 N
ew

 Z
ea

la
nd

 c
ou

rs
es

Su
rv

ey
 =

 6
79

2,
 

In
te

rv
ie

w
 =

 5

N
ei

ll 
&

 D
ia

s, 
20

01
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 

A
us

tra
lia

Yo
un

g 
ad

ul
ts

 o
n 

a 
22

-
da

y 
ex

pe
di

tio
n 

or
ie

nt
ed

 
pr

og
ra

m

A
 q

ua
si

-e
xp

er
im

en
ta

l d
es

ig
n;

 th
e 

ex
pe

rim
en

ta
l 

gr
ou

p 
co

m
pl

et
ed

 a
 R

es
ili

en
ce

 S
ca

le
 fo

r p
re

- a
nd

 
po

st
-p

ro
gr

am
 m

ea
su

re
s a

nd
 th

e 
So

ci
al

 S
up

po
rt 

Sc
al

e 
up

on
 c

ou
rs

e 
co

m
pl

et
io

n;
 c

on
tro

l g
ro

up
 o

nl
y 

co
m

pl
et

ed
 R

es
ili

en
ce

 S
ca

le
 fo

r p
re

- a
nd

 p
os

t- 
pr

og
ra

m
 m

ea
su

re
s

72
 

(T
re

at
m

en
t=

41
; 

C
on

tro
l=

31
)

N
ew

be
ry

, 2
00

4
G

en
er

al
 

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 
pr

og
ra

m
m

in
g

Fe
m

al
e 

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 
in

st
ru

ct
or

s
A

 q
ua

lit
at

iv
e 

de
si

gn
 c

om
pr

is
in

g 
se

m
i-s

tru
ct

ur
ed

 
in

te
rv

ie
w

s c
on

du
ct

ed
 o

ve
r 6

 m
on

th
s b

et
w

ee
n 

19
99

-
20

00
, i

nd
iv

id
ua

l r
efl

ec
tiv

e 
jo

ur
na

l t
ra

ns
cr

ip
ts

 a
nd

 a
 

gr
ou

p 
in

te
rv

ie
w.

4



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

173

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

A
ut

ho
rs

Pr
og

ra
m

 P
ro

vi
de

r
St

ud
y 

Po
pu

la
tio

n
St

ud
y 

M
et

ho
ds

Sa
m

pl
e 

Si
ze

Po
m

m
ie

r &
 

W
itt

, 1
99

5
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 

Fa
m

ily
 in

 N
ee

d 
of

 
Se

rv
ic

es
 p

ro
gr

am

A
do

le
sc

en
t s

ta
tu

s 
off

en
de

rs
 a

nd
 p

ar
en

ts
 

pa
rti

ci
pa

tin
g 

in
 a

 m
ul

ti-
m

on
th

 su
pp

or
t p

ro
gr

am

A
 lo

ng
itu

di
na

l q
ua

nt
ita

tiv
e 

st
ud

y;
 su

rv
ey

s w
er

e 
ad

m
in

is
te

re
d 

be
fo

re
 th

e 
pr

og
ra

m
 st

ar
t, 

28
 d

ay
s 

af
te

r t
he

 p
ro

gr
am

 st
ar

t, 
an

d 
fo

ur
 m

on
th

s a
fte

r t
he

 
pr

og
ra

m
 st

ar
t; 

co
nt

ro
l g

ro
up

 w
as

 n
ot

 e
xp

os
ed

 to
 th

e 
Fa

m
ily

 in
 N

ee
d 

of
 S

er
vi

ce
s p

ro
gr

am

10
7 

(T
re

at
m

en
t=

61
; 

C
on

tro
l=

46
)

Pu
rd

ie
 &

 N
ei

ll,
 

19
98

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 
A

us
tra

lia
U

nd
er

-a
ch

ie
vi

ng
 

Ja
pa

ne
se

 st
ud

en
ts

 
pa

rti
ci

pa
tin

g 
in

 a
 2

2-
da

y 
ou

td
oo

r a
dv

en
tu

re
 

pr
og

ra
m

 in
 A

us
tra

lia
, 

pr
og

ra
m

 a
cc

om
pa

ni
ed

 b
y 

a 
la

ng
ua

ge
 d

ev
el

op
m

en
t 

co
m

po
ne

nt

C
on

tro
l a

nd
 e

xp
er

im
en

ta
l g

ro
up

s c
om

pl
et

ed
 th

e 
"A

bo
ut

 M
ys

el
f"

 se
lf-

co
nc

ep
t i

ns
tru

m
en

ts
 a

t t
hr

ee
 

tim
e 

pe
rio

ds
: p

re
-c

ou
rs

e,
 im

m
ed

ia
te

ly
 p

os
t-c

ou
rs

e,
 

an
d 

si
x 

w
ee

ks
 p

os
t-c

ou
rs

e;
 e

xp
er

im
en

ta
l g

ro
up

 
al

so
 c

om
pl

et
ed

 "E
va

lu
at

io
n 

of
 C

ou
rs

e"
 in

st
ru

m
en

t 
im

m
ed

ia
te

ly
 p

os
t-c

ou
rs

e;
 m

ul
tiv

ar
ia

te
 re

pe
at

ed
 

m
ea

su
re

s a
na

ly
si

s w
as

 u
til

iz
ed

 a
nd

 c
ha

ng
e 

sc
or

es
 

w
er

e 
co

m
pa

re
d 

to
 p

re
vi

ou
s fi

nd
in

gs
 w

ith
in

 
pr

im
ar

ily
 W

es
te

rn
 p

op
ul

at
io

ns

72
 

(T
re

at
m

en
t=

32
; 

C
on

tro
l-4

2)

Sc
he

in
fe

ld
 e

t 
al

., 
20

17
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 fo

r 
Ve

te
ra

ns
U

ni
te

d 
St

at
es

 V
et

er
an

s 
pa

rti
ci

pa
tin

g 
in

 a
 si

x-
da

y 
ou

td
oo

r a
dv

en
tu

re
 

ed
uc

at
io

n 
pr

og
ra

m

A
 q

ua
si

-e
xp

er
im

en
ta

l s
tu

dy
 w

ith
 e

xp
er

im
en

ta
l a

nd
 

co
nt

ro
l g

ro
up

s c
om

pl
et

in
g 

pr
e-

 a
nd

 p
os

t-p
ro

gr
am

 
su

rv
ey

s m
ea

su
rin

g 
de

m
og

ra
ph

ic
 in

fo
rm

at
io

n,
 

m
as

cu
lin

e 
ro

le
 c

on
fo

rm
ity

, a
nd

 m
en

ta
l h

ea
lth

 
sy

m
pt

om
s

19
9 

(T
re

at
m

en
t=

18
1;

 
C

on
tro

l=
18

)

Si
bt

ho
rp

 e
t a

l.,
 

20
18

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 
H

on
g 

K
on

g
Se

co
nd

ar
y 

an
d 

un
iv

er
si

ty
 

st
ud

en
ts

 p
ar

tic
ip

at
in

g 
in

 a
 v

ar
ie

ty
 o

f o
ut

do
or

 
ad

ve
nt

ur
e 

ed
uc

at
io

n 
pr

og
ra

m
s

A
 p

re
- a

nd
 p

os
t-c

ou
rs

e 
ad

m
in

is
tra

tio
n 

of
 th

e 
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 H

on
g 

K
on

g 
Pe

rf
or

m
an

ce
 

Ev
al

ua
tio

n 
Q

ue
st

io
nn

ai
re

; s
ur

ve
y 

re
su

lts
 u

se
d 

to
 

ex
pl

or
e 

ho
w

 c
ou

rs
e 

ou
tc

om
es

 w
er

e 
re

la
te

d 
to

 c
ou

rs
e 

la
ng

ua
ge

, s
en

se
 o

f b
el

on
gi

ng
, a

nd
 te

ac
he

r-s
tu

de
nt

 
re

la
tio

ns
hi

p

22
92

To
lic

h,
 2

01
2

O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 
N

ew
 Z

ea
la

nd
Se

lf-
ex

am
in

at
io

n 
an

d 
re

fle
ct

io
n

A
n 

au
to

et
hn

og
ra

ph
ic

 st
ud

y 
fr

om
 a

 re
se

ar
ch

er
-

pa
rti

ci
pa

nt
 le

ns
 o

n 
th

e 
m

ea
ni

ng
 o

f t
he

 O
ut

w
ar

d 
B

ou
nd

 e
xp

er
ie

nc
e

1



174

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

A
ut

ho
rs

Pr
og

ra
m

 P
ro

vi
de

r
St

ud
y 

Po
pu

la
tio

n
St

ud
y 

M
et

ho
ds

Sa
m

pl
e 

Si
ze

Ve
rn

on
, 2

01
5

U
ni

te
d 

St
at

es
, 

un
sp

ec
ifi

ed
 

pr
og

ra
m

 p
ro

vi
de

r

St
ud

en
ts

 fr
om

 a
 d

iv
er

si
ty

 
pr

og
ra

m
 p

ar
tic

ip
at

in
g 

in
 

an
 u

ns
pe

ci
fie

d 
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 p

ro
gr

am

A
 q

ua
lit

at
iv

e 
st

ud
y 

co
ns

is
tin

g 
ob

se
rv

at
io

ns
 

co
up

le
d 

w
ith

 jo
tti

ng
s, 

fie
ld

 n
ot

es
, p

ho
to

gr
ap

hs
, 

an
d 

au
di

o 
re

co
rd

in
gs

; i
nt

er
vi

ew
s w

ith
 st

ud
en

ts
 a

nd
 

ad
m

in
is

tra
to

rs

N
/A

W
al

ke
r e

t a
l.,

 
20

05
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 

A
us

tra
lia

In
di

vi
du

al
s w

ith
 re

ce
nt

 
br

ai
n 

in
ju

ry
 p

ar
tic

ip
at

in
g 

in
 a

n 
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 

co
ur

se
 e

m
be

dd
ed

 in
 

a 
br

oa
de

r t
re

at
m

en
t 

pr
og

ra
m

U
po

n 
co

m
pl

et
io

n 
of

 th
e 

pr
og

ra
m

, p
ar

tic
ip

an
t g

oa
ls

 
w

er
e 

an
al

yz
ed

 fo
r c

om
pl

et
io

n;
 p

re
- a

nd
 p

os
t-

m
ea

su
re

s u
si

ng
 th

e 
D

ep
re

ss
io

n,
 A

nx
ie

ty
, a

nd
 S

tre
ss

 
Sc

al
es

, t
he

 G
en

er
al

 W
el

l-B
ei

ng
 Q

ue
st

io
nn

ai
re

, a
nd

 
th

e 
Eu

ro
pe

an
 B

ra
in

 In
ju

ry
 Q

ue
st

io
nn

ai
re

 w
er

e 
al

l 
ga

th
er

ed
; p

os
t-p

ro
gr

am
 e

ffi
ca

cy
 sc

or
es

 fo
r d

iff
er

en
t 

pr
og

ra
m

 e
le

m
en

ts
 a

nd
 th

e 
pr

og
ra

m
 a

s a
 w

ho
le

 w
er

e 
ga

th
er

ed

11

W
an

g 
et

 a
l.,

 
20

06
O

ut
w

ar
d 

B
ou

nd
 

Si
ng

ap
or

e
Fe

m
al

e 
se

co
nd

ar
y 

sc
ho

ol
 

st
ud

en
ts

 p
ar

tic
ip

at
in

g 
in

 a
 fi

ve
-d

ay
 o

ut
do

or
 

ad
ve

nt
ur

e 
ed

uc
at

io
n 

pr
og

ra
m

Pr
e-

 a
nd

 p
os

t-p
ro

gr
am

 su
rv

ey
s w

er
e 

ad
m

in
is

te
re

d 
to

 p
ar

tic
ip

an
ts

 m
ea

su
rin

g 
le

ad
er

sh
ip

, s
oc

ia
l s

ki
lls

, 
in

te
rp

er
so

na
l s

ki
lls

, s
el

f-
es

te
em

, m
ot

iv
at

io
n 

fo
r 

pa
rti

ci
pa

tin
g 

in
 th

e 
pr

og
ra

m
 (p

re
-p

ro
gr

am
 o

nl
y)

, 
an

d 
sa

tis
fa

ct
io

n 
w

ith
 th

e 
ex

pe
rie

nc
e 

(p
os

t-p
ro

gr
am

 
on

ly
)

14
9



ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

175

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

REFERENCES1

*Ang, R. P., Farihah, N., & Lau, S. (2014). An outcome evaluation of the implementation 
of the Outward Bound Singapore five-day “intercept” program. Journal of Adolescence, 
37(6), 771–778. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2014.05.003.

Arksey, H., & O’Malley, L. (2005). Scoping studies: Towards a methodological frame-
work.  International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 8(1), 19–32. https://doi.or
g/10.1080/1364557032000119616.

*Benham, M. K. P., & Shepard, E. (1995). Experience-based leadership training: Reflec-
tions of African-American school leaders. Journal of School Leadership, 5(3), 272–307. 
https://doi.org/10.1177/105268469500500305.

*Bobilya, A. J., Kalisch, K. R., & Daniel, B. (2014). Participants’ perceptions of their Out-
ward Bound final expedition and the relationship to instructor supervisory position. Journal 
of Experiential Education, 37(4), 397–414. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053825913510693.

*Bobilya, A. J., Kalisch, K., Daniel, B., & Coulson, E. R. (2015). An investigation of par-
ticipants’ intended and actual transfer of learning following an Outward Bound wilder-
ness experience. Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education & Leadership, 7(2), 93–111. 
https://doi.org/10.18666/JOREL-2015-V7-I2-7006.

*Bobilya, A. J., Lindley, B. R., Faircloth, W. B., & Holman, T. (2017). A qualitative 
analysis of participant learning and growth using a new Outward Bound outcomes in-
strument. Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education, and Leadership, 9(2), 254–257. 
https://doi.org/10.18666/JOREL-2017-V9-I2-8265.

Bringmann, L. F., & Eronen, M. I. (2016). Heating up the measurement debate: What 
psychologists can learn from the history of physics. Theory & psychology, 26(1), 27−43. 
https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354315617253.

*Broaddus, E. T., Scott, K. E., Gonsalves, L. M., Rhodes, E. L., Donovan, S. E., & 
Winch, P. J. (2013). Building connections between officers and Baltimore city youth: 
Key components of a police-youth teambuilding program. Journal of Juvenile Justi-
ce, 3(1), 48–62. Retrieved from: http://bscc.ca.gov/wp-content/uploads/JOJJ0301.
pdf#page=54.

Caliendo, M., & Kopeinig, S. (2008). Some practical guidance for the implementation 
of propensity score matching. Journal of Economic Surveys, 22(1), 31−72. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1467-6419.2007.00527.x.

Cappelleri, J. C., & Trochim, W. M. (2001). The regression-discontinuity design. Interna-
tional Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences, 19, 12940-12945. Retrieved 
from: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a918/ab5315ae7192d569dca5465c4db7baff2f8f.
pdf.

Colley, K., Currie, M. J., & Irvine, K. N. (2019). Then and now: Examining older people’s 
engagement in outdoor recreation across the life course. Leisure Sciences, 41(3), 
186−202. https://doi.org/10.1080/01490400.2017.1349696.

Cook, T. D. (2008). “Waiting for life to arrive”: A history of the regression-discontinu-
ity design in psychology, statistics and economics. Journal of Econometrics, 142(2), 
636−654. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2007.05.002.

1 References denoted with asterisks indicate studies included in the review. 

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2014.05.003
https://doi.org/10.1080/1364557032000119616
https://doi.org/10.1080/1364557032000119616
https://doi.org/10.1177/105268469500500305
https://doi.org/10.1177/1053825913510693
https://doi.org/10.18666/JOREL-2015-V7-I2-7006
https://doi.org/10.18666/JOREL-2017-V9-I2-8265
https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354315617253
http://bscc.ca.gov/wp-content/uploads/JOJJ0301.pdf#page=54
http://bscc.ca.gov/wp-content/uploads/JOJJ0301.pdf#page=54
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6419.2007.00527.x
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6419.2007.00527.x
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a918/ab5315ae7192d569dca5465c4db7baff2f8f.pdf
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a918/ab5315ae7192d569dca5465c4db7baff2f8f.pdf
https://doi.org/10.1080/01490400.2017.1349696
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2007.05.002


176

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five 
approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods 
approaches (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

D’Amato, L. G., & Krasny, M. E. (2011). Outdoor Adventure Education: Applying 
Transformative Learning Theory to Understanding Instrumental Learning and Personal 
Growth in Environmental Education. The Journal of Environmental Education, 42(4), 
237−254. https://doi.org/10.1080/00958964.2011.581313.

Dehejia, R. H., & Wahba, S. (2002). Propensity score-matching methods for nonexperi-
mental causal studies. Review of Economics and statistics, 84(1), 151−161. https://doi.
org/10.1162/003465302317331982.

Elder, G. H. Jr. (1994). Time, human agency, and social change: Perspectives on the life 
course. Social Psychology, 57(1), 4−15. Retrieved from: http://www.jstor.com/sta-
ble/2786971.

*Ewert, A. (2014). Military veterans and the use of adventure education experiences in na-
tural environments for therapeutic outcomes. Ecopsychology, 6(3), 155–164. Retrieved 
from: https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/eco.2013.0035

*Faircloth, B., & Bobilya, A. J. (2013). A psychometric investigation of the North Caro-
lina Outward Bound Student Course Impression Scale. Journal of Outdoor Recreation, 
Education, and Leadership, 5(2), 115–118. https://doi.org/10.7768/1948-5123.1207.

*Fischer, R. L., & Attah, E. B. (2001). City kids in the wilderness: A pilot-test of Outward 
Bound for foster care group home youth. The Journal of Experiential Education, 24(2), 
109–117. https://doi.org/10.1177/105382590102400208.

Fiennes, C., Oliver, E., Dickson, K., Escobar, D. A., Romans, A., & Oliver, S. 
(2015). The existing evidence-base about the effectiveness of outdoor learning. Re-
trieved from https://www.outdoor-learning.org/Portals/0/IOL%20Documents/Re-
search/outdoor-learning-giving-evidence-revised-final-report-nov-2015-etc-v21.
pdf?ver=2017-03-16-110244-937. 

*Fouhey, H., & Saltmarsh, J. (1996). Outward Bound and community service learning: 
An experiment in connected knowing. Journal of Experiential Education, 19(2), 82–89. 
https://doi.org/10.1177/105382599601900205.

*Freeman, M. (2011). From “character-training” to “personal growth”: The early history 
of Outward Bound 1941-1965. History of Education, 40(1), 21–43. https://doi.org/10.1
080/0046760X.2010.507223.

*Galloway, S. (2007). Experience and medical decision-making in outdoor leaders. Journal of 
Experiential Education, 30(2), 99–116. https://doi.org/10.1177/105382590703000202.

*Gassner, M. (2008). A closer look at course components at Outward Bound Singapo-
re: The solo and final expedition. Research in Outdoor Education, 9, 80–82. Retrieved 
from https://www2.cortland.edu/dotAsset/4a9cd94d-fa3b-489b-b300-cb5411458892.
pdf#page=80.

*Gassner, M. E., & Russell, K. C. (2008). Relative impact of course components 
at Outward Bound Singapore: A retrospective study of long-term outcomes. Jo-
urnal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 8(2), 133–156. https://doi.
org/10.1080/14729670802597345.

*Gassner, M., Kahlid, A., & Russell, K. (2006). Investigating the long-term impact of 
adventure education: A retrospective study of Outward Bound Singapore’s classic 21-

https://doi.org/10.1080/00958964.2011.581313
https://doi.org/10.1162/003465302317331982
https://doi.org/10.1162/003465302317331982
http://www.jstor.com/stable/2786971
http://www.jstor.com/stable/2786971
https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/eco.2013.0035
https://doi.org/10.7768/1948-5123.1207
https://doi.org/10.1177/105382590102400208
https://www.outdoor-learning.org/Portals/0/IOL%20Documents/Research/outdoor-learning-giving-evidence-revised-final-report-nov-2015-etc-v21.pdf?ver=2017-03-16-110244-937
https://www.outdoor-learning.org/Portals/0/IOL%20Documents/Research/outdoor-learning-giving-evidence-revised-final-report-nov-2015-etc-v21.pdf?ver=2017-03-16-110244-937
https://www.outdoor-learning.org/Portals/0/IOL%20Documents/Research/outdoor-learning-giving-evidence-revised-final-report-nov-2015-etc-v21.pdf?ver=2017-03-16-110244-937
https://doi.org/10.1177/105382599601900205
https://doi.org/10.1080/0046760X.2010.507223
https://doi.org/10.1080/0046760X.2010.507223
https://doi.org/10.1177/105382590703000202 
https://www2.cortland.edu/dotAsset/4a9cd94d-fa3b-489b-b300-cb5411458892.pdf#page=80
https://www2.cortland.edu/dotAsset/4a9cd94d-fa3b-489b-b300-cb5411458892.pdf#page=80
https://doi.org/10.1080/14729670802597345
https://doi.org/10.1080/14729670802597345


ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

177

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

day challenge course. Research in Outdoor Education, 8, 75–93. Retrieved from: https://
digitalcommons.cortland.edu/reseoutded/vol8/iss1/9/.

*Goldenberg, M., Klenosky, D., McAvoy, L., & Holman, T. (2002). Using means-end 
theory to understand the outdoor adventure experience. Research in Outdoor Education, 
6, 40–47. Retrieved from: https://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/rpta_fac/13/.

*Goldenberg, M., McAvoy, L., & Klenosky, D. B. (2005). Outcomes from the components 
of an Outward Bound experience. Journal of Experiential Education, 28(2), 123–146. 
https://doi.org/10.1177/105382590502800206.

*Greffrath, G., Meyer, C., Strydom, H., & Ellis, S. (2011). Centre‐based and expedition‐
based (wilderness) adventure experiential learning regarding personal effectiveness: An 
explorative enquiry. Leisure Studies, 30(3), 345–364. https://doi.org/10.1080/0261436
7.2011.552623.

*Hanna, G. (1995). Wilderness-related environmental outcomes of adventure and ecology 
education programming. The Journal of Environmental Education, 27(1), 21–32. https://
doi.org/10.1080/00958964.1995.9941968.

*Harper, N. J., Norris, J., & D’astous, M. (2014). Veterans and the Outward Bound expe-
rience: An evaluation of impact and meaning. Ecopsychology, 6(3), 165–173. Retrieved 
from: https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/eco.2013.0101.

Hattie, J., Marsh, H. W., Neill, J. T., & Richards, G. E. (1997). Adventure education and 
Outward Bound: Out-of-class experiences that make a lasting difference. Review of 
Educational Research, 67(1), 43–87. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543067001043.

*Hickman Dunne, J. (2018). Experiencing the outdoors: Embodied encounters in the Out-
ward Bound Trust. The Geographical Journal, 185(3), 279–291. https://doi.org/10.1111/
geoj.12288.

*Holden, T. (2004). The impacts of satellite phone technology on a North Carolina Out-
ward Bound School experience. Research in Outdoor Education, 7, 57–72. Retrieved 
from https://digitalcommons.cortland.edu/reseoutded/vol7/iss1/7/.

*Hovelynck, J. (2001). Practice-theories of facilitating experiential learning in Outward 
Bound: A research report. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 1(2), 
53–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/14729670185200081.

*Hyer, L., Boyd, S., Scurfield, R., Smith, D., & Burke, J. (1996). Effects of Outward 
Bound experience as an adjunct to inpatient PTSD treatment of war veterans. Jour-
nal of Clinical Psychology, 52(3), 263–278. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-
-4679(199605)52:3<263::AID-JCLP3>3.0.CO;2-T.

*Jirásek, I., & Dvorackova, A. (2016). The development of group connectedness and 
sense of community during a twelve-day winter journey on snowshoes: Non-formal 
education through the Czech Outward Bound course. Ido Movement for Culture, 16(1), 
39–48. https://doi.org/10.14589/ido.16.1.5.

*Jirásek, I., Jirásková, M., Majewská, P., & Bolcková, M. (2017). Experiencing spiritual 
aspects outdoors in the winter: A case study from the Czech Republic using the me-
thod of systemic constellations. British Journal of Religious Education, 39(2), 122–148. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/01416200.2014.984586.

*Jirásek, I., Veselský, P., & Poslt, J. (2017). Winter outdoor trekking: Spiritual aspects of 
environmental education. Environmental Education Research, 23(1), 1–22. https://doi.
org/10.1080/13504622.2016.1149553.

https://digitalcommons.cortland.edu/reseoutded/vol8/iss1/9/
https://digitalcommons.cortland.edu/reseoutded/vol8/iss1/9/
https://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/rpta_fac/13/
https://doi.org/10.1177/105382590502800206
https://doi.org/10.1080/02614367.2011.552623
https://doi.org/10.1080/02614367.2011.552623
https://doi.org/10.1080/00958964.1995.9941968
https://doi.org/10.1080/00958964.1995.9941968
https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/eco.2013.0101
https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543067001043
https://doi.org/10.1111/geoj.12288
https://doi.org/10.1111/geoj.12288
https://digitalcommons.cortland.edu/reseoutded/vol7/iss1/7/
https://doi.org/10.1080/14729670185200081
https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4679(199605)52:3<263::AID-JCLP3>3.0.CO;2-T
https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4679(199605)52:3<263::AID-JCLP3>3.0.CO;2-T
https://doi.org/10.14589/ido.16.1.5
https://doi.org/10.1080/01416200.2014.984586
https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2016.1149553
https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2016.1149553


178

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

Jostad, J., Paisley, K., & Gookin, J. (2012). Wilderness-based semester learning: Under-
standing the NOLS experience. Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education, and Leader-
ship, 4(1), 16−26. Retrieved from: https://js.sagamorepub.com/jorel/article/view/6652.

*Kalisch, K. R., Bobilya, A. J., & Daniel, B. (2011). The Outward Bound solo: A study 
of participants’ perceptions. Journal of Experiential Education, 34(1), 1–18. https://doi.
org/10.1177/105382591103400102.

*Kirwin, M., Harper, N. J., Young, T., & Itzvan, I. (2019). Mindful adventures: A pilot 
study of the outward bound mindfulness program. Journal of Outdoor and Environmen-
tal Education, 22(1), 75–90. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42322-019-00031-9.

*Klein, E. J., & Riordan, M. (2009). Putting professional development into practice: A 
framework for how teachers in expeditionary learning schools implement professional 
development. Teacher Education Quarterly, 36(4), 61–80. Retrieved from: https://www.
montclair.edu/profilepages/media/1411/user/Putting_Professional_Development_into_
Practice_Final.pdf.

*Klein, E. J., & Riordan, M. (2011). Wearing the “student hat”: Experiential profession-
al development in expeditionary learning schools. Journal of Experiential Education, 
34(1), 35–54. https://doi.org/10.1177/105382591103400104.

Kudryavtsev, A., Stedman, R. C., & Krasny, M. E. (2012). Sense of place in environmen-
tal education. Environmental Education Research, 18(2), 229−250. https://doi.org/10.10
80/13504622.2011.609615.

Kuo, M. (2015). How might contact with nature promote human health? Promising mecha-
nisms and a possible central pathway. Frontiers in Psychology, 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/
fpsyg.2015.01093.

Lackey, N. Q., Tysor, D. A., McNay, G. D., Joyner, L., Baker, K. H., & Hodge, C. (2021). 
Mental health benefits of nature-based recreation: a systematic review. Annals of Lei-
sure Research, 24(3), 379−393. https://doi.org/10.1080/11745398.2019.1655459.

*Leberman, S. (2007). Voices behind the walls: Female offenders and experiential learn-
ing. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 7(2), 113–130. https://doi.
org/10.1080/14729670701485832.

*Leberman, S. I. & Martin, A. J. (2002). Does pushing comfort zones produce peak le-
arning experiences? Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education, 7(1), 10–19. 
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03400765.

Lerner, R. M. (2018). Concepts and Theories of Human Development. Routledge.
Levac, D., Colquhoun, H., & O’Brien, K. K. (2010). Scoping studies: Advancing the 

methodology. Implementation Science, 5(69). https://doi.org/10.1186/1748-5908-5-69.
*Lowan, G. (2009). Exploring place from an aboriginal perspective: Considerations for 

outdoor and environmental education. Canadian Journal of Environmental Education, 
14(1), 42–58. Retrieved from: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ842739.pdf.

*Martin, A. & Legg, S. (2002). Investigating the inward sounds of Outward Bound. Jo-
urnal of Outdoor and Environmental Education, 6(27), 27–36. https://doi.org/10.1007/
BF03400753.

*Martin, A. J. (2011). The dramaturgy approach to education in nature: Reflections of a 
decade of International Vacation School Lipnice courses, Czech Republic, 1997-2007. 
Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 11(1), 67–82. https://doi.org/10
.1080/14729679.2011.575691.

https://js.sagamorepub.com/jorel/article/view/6652
https://doi.org/10.1177/105382591103400102
https://doi.org/10.1177/105382591103400102
https://doi.org/10.1007/s42322-019-00031-9
https://www.montclair.edu/profilepages/media/1411/user/Putting_Professional_Development_into_Practice_Final.pdf
https://www.montclair.edu/profilepages/media/1411/user/Putting_Professional_Development_into_Practice_Final.pdf
https://www.montclair.edu/profilepages/media/1411/user/Putting_Professional_Development_into_Practice_Final.pdf
https://doi.org/10.1177/105382591103400104
https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2011.609615
https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2011.609615
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01093
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01093
https://doi.org/10.1080/11745398.2019.1655459
https://doi.org/10.1080/14729670701485832
https://doi.org/10.1080/14729670701485832
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03400765
https://doi.org/10.1186/1748-5908-5-69
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ842739.pdf
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03400753
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03400753
https://doi.org/10.1080/14729679.2011.575691
https://doi.org/10.1080/14729679.2011.575691


ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

179

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

*Martin, A. J., & Leberman, S. I. (2005). Personal learning or prescribed educational 
outcomes: A case study of the Outward Bound experience. Journal of Experiential Edu-
cation, 28(1), 44–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/105382590502800106.

*Martin, A. J., Dench, S., & Paku, L. (2016). An exploration of Outward Bound New 
Zealand’s organisational culture. Journal of Adventure Education & Outdoor Learning, 
16(3), 206–221. https://doi.org/10.1080/14729679.2015.1122540.

*Martin, A., Leberman, S., & Neill, J. (2002). Dramaturgy as a method for experienti-
al program design. The Journal of Experiential Education, 25(1), 196–206. https://doi.
org/10.1177/105382590202500103.

*Martin, B., Bright, A., Cafaro, P., Mittelstaedt, R., & Bruyere, B. (2009). Assessing the 
development of environmental virtue in 7th and 8th grade students in an expeditionary 
learning Outward Bound school. Journal of Experiential Education, 31(3), 341–358. 
https://doi.org/10.1177%2F105382590803100303.

Masten, A. S., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). Developmental cascades. Development and Psycho-
pathology, 22(3), 491−495. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579410000222.

*Maxwell, R., Perry, M., & Martin, A. J. (2008). An evaluation of dropouts from Outward 
Bound programs for the unemployed. The Journal of Experiential Education, 30(3), 
223–235. https://doi.org/10.1177/105382590703000303.

*McKenzie, M. (2003). Beyond “the Outward Bound process”: Rethinking stu-
dent learning. Journal of Experiential Education, 26(1), 8–23. https://doi.
org/10.1177/105382590302600104.

Mezirow, J. (1997). Transformative learning: Theory to practice. New directions for adult 
and continuing education, 1997(74), 5−12. https://doi.org/10.1002/ace.7401.

*Millikan, M. (2006). The muscular Christian ethos in post-second world war American 
liberalism: Women in Outward Bound 1962–1975. The International Journal of the Hi-
story of Sport, 23(5), 838–855. https://doi.org/10.1080/09523360600673211.

Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., & Altman, D. G. (2009). Preferred reporting items 
for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. PLoS Med 6(7): 
e1000097. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed1000097.

*Mott, M., & Martin, A. J. (2017). Learning from incidents and students’ perceptions of 
safety and challenge: A case study of Outward Bound New Zealand. Journal of Outdoor 
and Environmental Education, 20(2), 14–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03401010.

*Neill, J. T., & Dias, K. L. (2001). Adventure education and resilience: The double-edged 
sword. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 1(2), 35–42. https://doi.
org/10.1080/14729670185200061

*Newbery, L. (2004). Hegemonic gender identity and Outward Bound: Resistance and re-
-inscription? Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, 13(1), 36–48. https://doi.
org/10.1123/wspaj.13.1.36.

Nisbet, E. K., & Zelenski, J. M. (2011). Underestimating nearby nature: Affective fore-
casting errors obscure the happy path to sustainability. Psychological Science, 22(9), 
1101−1106. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611418527.

Orson, C. N., McGovern, G., & Larson, R. W. (2020). How challenges and peers contri-
bute to social-emotional learning in outdoor adventure education programs. Journal of 
Adolescence, 81(1), 7–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2020.02.014.

Outward Bound. (2020). Educational Framework. Retrieved from: https://www.outward-
bound.org/about-outward-bound/philosophy/.

https://doi.org/10.1177/105382590502800106
https://doi.org/10.1080/14729679.2015.1122540
https://doi.org/10.1177/105382590202500103
https://doi.org/10.1177/105382590202500103
https://doi.org/10.1177%2F105382590803100303
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579410000222
https://doi.org/10.1177/105382590703000303
https://doi.org/10.1177/105382590302600104
https://doi.org/10.1177/105382590302600104
https://doi.org/10.1002/ace.7401
https://doi.org/10.1080/09523360600673211
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed1000097
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03401010
https://doi.org/10.1123/wspaj.13.1.36
https://doi.org/10.1123/wspaj.13.1.36
https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611418527
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2020.02.014
https://www.outwardbound.org/about-outward-bound/philosophy/
https://www.outwardbound.org/about-outward-bound/philosophy/


180

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

Outward Bound International. (2020). Outward Bound International. Retrieved from: 
https://www.outwardbound.net/ 

Outward Bound International. (2023). Our Schools. Retrieved from: https://www.out-
wardbound.net/our-schools/. 

Outward Bound Oman. (2019). Outward Bound Oman Annual Report 2018-2019. Re-
trieved from: http://outwardboundoman.com/wp-content/uploads/English-Version.pdf.

Outward Bound Trust. (2017). A Strategic Framework for the Growth and Development 
of the Outward Bound Trust 2016-2020. Retrieved from: https://www.outwardbound.
org.uk/assets/pdf/uploads/our-strategy.pdf.

Pham, M. T., Rajić, A., Greig, J. D., Sargeant, J. M., Papadopoulos, A., & McEwen, S. 
A. (2014). A scoping review of scoping reviews: Advancing the approach and enhancing 
the consistency. Research Synthesis Methods, 5(4), 371–385. https://doi.org/10.1002/
jrsm.1123.

*Pommier, J. H., & Witt, P. A. (1995). Evaluation of an Outward Bound school plus family 
training program for the juvenile status offender. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 29(2), 
86–103. Retrieved from: https://bctra.org/wp-content/uploads/tr_journals/1245-4884-1-
PB.pdf.

*Purdie, N., & Neill, J. (1998). Japanese students down-under: Is Australian outdoor edu-
cation relevant to other cultures? Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education, 
4(1), 48–57. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03400709.

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of in-
trinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 
68−78. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066X.55.1.68.

Saldaña, J. (2009). The coding manual for qualitative researchers. SAGE.
*Scheinfeld, D. E., Rochlen, A. B., & Russell, M. L. (2017). The impact of Outward Bo-

und programming on psychosocial functioning for male military veterans. Psychology 
of Men & Masculinities, 18(4), 400–408. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000066.

*Sibthorp, J., Funnell, A., Riley, M., Chan, B., & Meerts-Brandsma, L. (2018). Outdoor 
adventure education in East Asia: Interpreting Data from Outward Bound Hong Kong. 
Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education, and Leadership, 10(1), 67–78. https://doi.
org/10.18666/jorel-2018-v10-i1-8194.

Stedman, R. C. (2003). Is it really just a social construction?: The contribution of the 
physical environment to sense of place. Society & Natural Resources, 16(8), 671−685. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920309189.

*Tolich, M. (2012). My eye-opening midnight swim: An Outward Bound autoethnography. 
New Zealand Journal of Outdoor Education: Ko Tane Mahuta Pupuke, 3(1), 9–23. Re-
trieved from: https://search.informit.org/doi/abs/10.3316/informit.676006753262372.

Tricco, A. C., Lillie, E., Zarin, W., O’Brien, K. K., Colquhoun, H., Levac, D., … Stra-
us, S. E. (2018). PRISMA extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR): checklist 
and explanation. Annals of Internal Medicine, 169(7), 467−473. https://doi.org/10.7326/
M18-0850.

Tsang, W. K., & Havitz, M. E. (2014). Impact of major life events on former athletes’ adult 
participation in running. Journal of Park & Recreation Administration, 32(1). Retrieved 
from: https://js.sagamorepub.com/jpra/article/view/2970.

*Vernon, F. (2015). “How to be nice and get what you want”: Structural referents of “self” 
and “other” in experiential education as (un) democratic practice. Democracy and Edu-

https://www.outwardbound.net/
https://www.outwardbound.net/our-schools/
https://www.outwardbound.net/our-schools/
http://outwardboundoman.com/wp-content/uploads/English-Version.pdf
https://www.outwardbound.org.uk/assets/pdf/uploads/our-strategy.pdf
https://www.outwardbound.org.uk/assets/pdf/uploads/our-strategy.pdf
https://doi.org/10.1002/jrsm.1123
https://doi.org/10.1002/jrsm.1123
https://bctra.org/wp-content/uploads/tr_journals/1245-4884-1-PB.pdf
https://bctra.org/wp-content/uploads/tr_journals/1245-4884-1-PB.pdf
https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03400709
https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066X.55.1.68
https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000066
https://doi.org/10.18666/jorel-2018-v10-i1-8194
https://doi.org/10.18666/jorel-2018-v10-i1-8194
https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920309189
https://search.informit.org/doi/abs/10.3316/informit.676006753262372
https://doi.org/10.7326/M18-0850
https://doi.org/10.7326/M18-0850
https://js.sagamorepub.com/jpra/article/view/2970


ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 13 • 2022 • 2

181

Timothy J. MATEER, Joshua PIGHETTI, B. Derrick TAFF, Pete ALLISON: OUTWARD BOUND AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION ... , 143–181

cation, 23(2), 1–12. Retrieved from: https://democracyeducationjournal.org/home/
vol23/iss2/3/.

*Walker, A. J., Onus, M., Doyle, M., Clare, J., & McCarthy, K. (2005). Cognitive reha-
bilitation after severe traumatic brain injury: A pilot programme of goal planning and 
outdoor adventure course participation. Brain Injury, 19(14), 1237–1241. https://doi.
org/10.1080/02699050500309411.

*Wang, C. K. J., Liu, W. C., & Kahlid, A. (2006). Effects of a five-day Outward Bound 
course on female students in Singapore. Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Educa-
tion, 10(2), 20–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03400836.

White, D. D., Virden, R. J., & Van Riper, C. J. (2008). Effects of place identity, place de-
pendence, and experience-use history on perceptions of recreation impacts in a natural 
setting. Environmental Management, 42(4), 647−657. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-
008-9143-1.

https://democracyeducationjournal.org/home/vol23/iss2/3/
https://democracyeducationjournal.org/home/vol23/iss2/3/
https://doi.org/10.1080/02699050500309411
https://doi.org/10.1080/02699050500309411
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03400836
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-008-9143-1
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-008-9143-1

	_Hlk122510532
	_Hlk121925715
	_Hlk121925783
	_Hlk117671776
	_Hlk117676890
	_Hlk117676830
	_Hlk122521710
	_Hlk123029474
	_Hlk51764713
	_Hlk51617947
	_Hlk51764685
	_Hlk51616945
	_Hlk51676200
	_Hlk51710755
	_Hlk124939594
	_Hlk124939408
	_Hlk125008249
	_Hlk125008423
	_Hlk125010166
	_Hlk124768186
	_Hlk129167818
	_Hlk129168885
	_Hlk129939779
	_Ref116207795

