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Original scientific article   DOI: https://doi.org/10.35469/ak.2024.448
received: 2024-06-21        UDC: 796.926:796.012.1

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS AS INDICATORS OF 
PERFORMANCE IN YOUNG ALPINE SKIERS IN SUPER-G

Stojan PUHALJ1, Blaž LEŠNIK2, Črtomir MATEJEK1, Samo FOŠNARIČ1, 
Tjaša KMET2, Jurij PLANINŠEC1

1University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Maribor, Slovenia
2University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Sport, Ljubljana, Slovenia

Corresponding author:
Jurij PLANINŠEC 

University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Koroška cesta 160, 2000 Maribor, 
Slovenia

Phone: +386 41 236 533
E-mail: jurij.planinsec@um.si 

ABSTRACT

Purpose: The aim of this study is to determine the relationship between physical 
characteristics and performance in young alpine skiers in the Super-G discipline.

Methods: A sample of 42 U16 alpine skiing competitors (23 boys and 19 girls) 
aged 14-15 years participated in the study. The physical characteristics were mea-
sured using the Inbody 720 Body Composition Analysis and 3D Body Scan devices. 
Performance data was obtained from official records of the Ski Association of Slovenia 
for the 2018/19 U16 competitive season. Variables such as body height, body weight, 
thigh circumference, waist circumference, chest circumference, shoulder circumfer-
ence, muscle mass percentage, fat mass percentage, body mass index, and body fat 
percentage were analyzed. Pearson correlation coefficients and multiple regression 
analysis were used to assess the relationship between the physical characteristics and 
Super-G performance.

Results: Significant correlations were found between body weight, thigh circumfer-
ence, chest circumference, muscle mass percentage, and Super-G performance in boys. 
For girls, waist circumference, chest circumference, and body fat percentage were sig-
nificantly correlated with performance. The multiple regression model explained 73% 
of the variance in the boys’ performance and 59% in the girls’, although the model itself 
was not statistically significant for predicting performance.

Conclusion: Physical characteristics, especially muscle mass percentage and body 
circumferences, are significantly associated with Super-G performance in young alpine 

mailto:jurij.planinsec@um.si


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skiers. These findings underscore the importance of tailored training programs that 
consider individual physical characteristics to optimize competitive success in alpine 
skiing.

Keywords: alpine skiing, Super-G, physical characteristics, young athletes, body 
composition, performance indicators.

TELESNE ZNAČILNOSTI KOT KAZALNIK USPEŠNOSTI 
MLADIH ALPSKIH SMUČARJEV V SUPERVELESLALOMU

IZVLEČEK

Namen: Namen raziskave je ugotoviti povezanost med telesnimi značilnostmi in 
uspešnostjo mladih alpskih smučarjev v superveleslalomu.

Metode: V raziskavi je sodelovalo 42 tekmovalcev v alpskem smučanju kategorije 
U16 (23 dečkov, 19 deklic) v starosti 14–15 let. Telesne značilnosti so bile izmerjene z 
napravama Inbody 720 za analizo telesne sestave in 3D telesnim skeniranjem. Podatki 
o uspešnosti so bili pridobljeni iz uradnih zapisov Smučarske zveze Slovenije za tekmo-
valno sezono 2018/19 v kategoriji U16. Analizirane spremenljivke so vključevale tele-
sno višino, telesno težo, obseg stegen, obseg pasu, obseg prsnega koša, obseg ramen, 
delež mišične mase, delež maščobne mase, indeks telesne mase in odstotek maščobe v 
telesu. Za oceno povezave med telesnimi značilnostmi in uspešnostjo v superveleslalo-
mu smo uporabili Pearsonove korelacijske koeficiente in multiplo regresijsko analizo.

Rezultati: Pri dečkih so bile ugotovljene pomembne povezave med telesno težo, 
obsegom stegen, obsegom prsnega koša, deležem mišične mase in uspešnostjo v super-
veleslalomu. Pri deklicah so bile pomembne povezave med obsegom pasu, obsegom 
prsnega koša in deležem telesne maščobe. Model multiple regresije je pojasnil 73 % 
variance z uspešnostjo pri dečkih in 59 % pri deklicah, čeprav model sam po sebi ni bil 
statistično pomemben za napovedovanje uspešnosti.

Zaključek: Telesne značilnosti, zlasti delež mišične mase in telesni obsegi, so po-
membno povezane z uspešnostjo v superveleslalomu pri mladih alpskih smučarjih. Ti 
izsledki poudarjajo pomembnost prilagojenih vadbenih programov, ki upoštevajo po-
samezne telesne značilnosti za optimizacijo tekmovalnega uspeha v alpskem smučanju.

Ključne besede: alpsko smučanje, superveleslalom, telesne značilnosti, mladi špor-
tniki, telesna sestava, kazalniki uspešnosti.



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INTRODUCTION

Success in alpine skiing is influenced by numerous factors, including mo-
tor skills, physical characteristics, psychological traits, and technical abilities 
(Ferland & Comtois, 2018; McKnight, 2018; Müller, Schwameder, Kornexl, & 
Raschner, 1997; Puhalj, Lešnik, Povhe, Kelc, & Matejek, 2021). Among these, 
physical characteristics significantly impact skier performance. However, few 
studies have examined the relationship between physical characteristics and 
competitive performance using highly accurate measurement instruments, par-
ticularly in speed disciplines.

Rajtmajer (1984) identified a correlation between manifest and latent mo-
tor skills and anthropometric characteristics in young alpine skiers. Based on 
this research, he defined the type of elite alpine skier, which differs from the 
athletic type, with narrower shoulders, wider hips, longer upper limbs, shorter 
stature, and pronounced distal trunk and lower limb mass, particularly thigh 
muscle mass. Voluminous body mass is crucial in alpine skiing as competitors 
have to manage their body mass, which is paramount for competitive success 
(Lešnik, 1999). Klika and Malina (2003) found minor differences in the physi-
cal characteristics between successful and less successful skiers aged 14-18, 
noting better motor skills in the successful competitors. They also observed 
that combining physical characteristics, motor skills, and age predicts com-
petitive success more effectively than physical characteristics or motor skills 
alone. They suggested including the skiing technique as a variable in future re-
search. Scherr et al. (2011) noted that skiers with a higher muscle mass percent-
age were more successful in alpine skiing. Bandalo and Lešnik (2012) found 
that body constitution significantly influences skiing performance, with ski-
ers having greater body mass and height and longer and broader lower limbs 
achieving better results. Critical parameters like height, weight, muscle mass 
percentage, and fat percentage affect a skier’s ability to manage the speed and 
technical skiing demands (Bandalo & Lešnik, 2011). Skiers with more muscle 
mass generate better force, which is crucial for jumping and turn control. Body 
composition, especially body mass, predicts factors related to force and power 
in young alpine skiers (Bertozzi et al., 2024). Fat percentage influences aerody-
namics and endurance, while taller skiers can utilize their height for better force 
transfer to the skis, enabling more effective turns and excellent stability at high 
speeds (Bandalo & Lešnik, 2011). The influence of physical measurements on 
young alpine skiers’ performance proved statistically significant, with height 
having the most critical impact, while the body fat percentage had no statistical 
significance for performance (Šteharnik, 2013). Bandalo (2016) reported that 



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increased subcutaneous fat is related to the success of younger competitors, 
emphasizing the importance of body mass and height, muscle mass percent-
age, and lower limb joint diameters, especially the knee. Puhalj (2018) found 
that boys with higher body fat percentages and total body mass achieved bet-
ter results, attributing this to simpler course setups favoring heavier competi-
tors. Pernuš (2018) similarly found a significant relationship between body and 
muscle mass and competitive success in boys, while no such correlation was 
observed in girls.

Research and practice indicate that body constitution significantly impacts 
alpine skiers’ competitive success (Ferland & Comtois, 2018). Alpine skiing in-
volves full-body physical activity, requiring body and equipment control. Body 
weight is crucial for achieving top results. Optimal body positioning on the skis 
and sliding speed depend on gravitational force, terrain slope, and opposing 
forces. Heavier competitors thus have an advantage, contingent on the fat-free 
to fat mass ratio as excess fat negatively affects body control. Therefore, other 
variables like lower limb circumference (thigh circumference) and joint diame-
ters (ankle and knee) are also important. Appropriate physical measurements 
are essential for top results, alongside proper physical preparedness and skiing 
technique (Bandalo & Lešnik, 2011; Lešnik & Žvan, 2007; Sands et al., 2021; 
Supej, 2008).

Vermeulen et al. (2017) also studied morphological characteristics and alpi-
ne skiing performance and found that female speed event specialists had more 
relative fat mass than technical event specialists. Regardless of gender, techni-
cal event specialists were lighter, with less relative fat mass than speed event 
specialists. Moderate correlations were found between speed event performan-
ce and body weight, with a higher relative fat mass linked to female speed event 
success, while lower ectomorphy correlated with male speed event success.

Technical skills are also crucial for alpine skiing success, involving correct 
skiing technique, rapid adaptation to varying snow conditions, and executing 
complex maneuvers (Puhalj & Lešnik, 2018). Competitors must master various 
skiing techniques to effectively navigate different terrains and snow conditi-
ons. Technical preparation involves precise course analysis, training on varied 
terrains, and improving specific technical elements like turns, jumps, and gli-
ding. Super-G, a speed event, incorporates giant slalom and downhill elements. 
Super-G requires a low center of gravity and ski guidance on the sliding su-
rface, deriving from the downhill technique. Apart from slightly shorter skis 
compared to downhill skiing, the equipment for Super-G is similar due to the 
lower speeds and better maneuverability requirements (Lešnik & Žvan, 2007). 
Super-G is the most demanding discipline in the U16 category (ages 14-15), 



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gradually introducing elements of speed disciplines. The height difference betwe-
en the start and finish of Super-G courses should be between 250 and 450 meters, 
with an average of 40 direction changes (Smučarska zveza Slovenije – Otroški 
program, 2019).

Understanding the relationship between physical characteristics and alpine 
skiing performance is crucial for developing top young skiers. Physical charac-
teristics like body mass, height, muscle mass, and body circumferences signifi-
cantly influence the skiers’ ability to meet the technical and physical demands 
of skiing. Based on research data, coaches can better tailor the training proces-
ses to individual competitors’ needs, leading to better results and reduced injury 
risk.

Many studies indicate that children who mature biologically faster have ad-
vantages in some sports due to more developed skeletal systems and higher 
skeletal age (Škof, 2016). Older boys with advanced biological development 
show better motor skills and strength than their peers, while girls who mature 
later perform better than early developers. Young alpine skiers’ physical cha-
racteristics change with growth and development, particularly during puber-
ty, impacting skiing performance. Increases in muscle mass, changes in body 
composition, and growth are factors to consider when planning training and 
preparation for competitions.

The study aimed to determine the relationship between physical characteri-
stics and competitive performance in young alpine skiers in the U16 category 
in Super-G. We sought to assess the correlation of body mass and height, thigh 
circumference, waist circumference, chest circumference, body mass index, fat 
and muscle mass percentage, and all the measured body composition variables 
with Super-G performance. Based on previous research, we hypothesize a sta-
tistically significant relationship between body mass and height and the young 
alpine skiers’ Super-G performance. We also hypothesize that Super-G success 
correlates with thigh circumference, waist circumference, chest circumferen-
ce, fat and muscle mass percentage, body mass index, and body composition 
variables.



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METHODS

Participant Sample

The sample included U16 alpine skiing competitors aged 14-15 years. The U16 
category is the oldest in Slovenia’s children’s competitive alpine skiing program. 
All the study participants were registered competitors with the Ski Association of 
Slovenia, representing 19 ski clubs across four Slovenian ski regions. The sample 
consisted of 23 boys and 19 girls competing in Super-G. Parents and children 
were informed about the study protocol and agreed to participate.

Measurement Instruments

Measurements were conducted using the Inbody 720 Body Composition 
Analysis device (Inbody720, 2024), which provides precise whole-body com-
position analysis, including basal metabolism, muscle balance, and body fat per-
centage. The Inbody 720 employs direct segmental multi-frequency bioelectrical 
impedance analysis to measure the resistance of alternating electrical currents 
through different body segments. The 3D Body Scan device ([TC]2 National 
Science Foundation study of Harvard University, USA) ([TC]2, 2024) was used 
for comprehensive body scanning, providing the body circumferences, segment 
lengths, and joint diameters or body part measurements. Variables deemed influ-
ential on Super-G performance based on previous research were included.

Data Collection Procedure

Data collection occurred in September 2018 under controlled conditions at 
the Faculty of Sport in the kinesiology laboratory. Body composition variables 
were measured using the Inbody 720 and 3D Body Scan devices. Performance 
data in Super-G were obtained from the official records of the Ski Association 
of Slovenia for the 2018/19 U16 competitive season, which included four 
Super-G competitions. Points were awarded to the top 30 competitors in each 
race. The competitor who placed first received 100 points; second place earned 
80 points; third place 60 points; fourth 50 points; fifth 45 points, sixth 40 points, 
seventh 36 points, eighth 32 points; ninth 29 points; tenth 26 points; eleventh 24 
points, twelfth 22 points, thirteenth 20 points, fourteenth 18 points, fifteenth 16 
points, and then one point less for each subsequent position, down to thirtieth 



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place, which earned 1 point. The criterion for competition success was the total 
sum of points a competitor received across all four U16 Super-G competitions.

Data Processing Procedures

Body composition and Super-G performance variables were processed using 
IBM SPSS 23.0. Arithmetic means and standard deviations were calculated, 
followed by normality distribution checks using the Shapiro-Wilk test. Pearson 
correlation coefficients determined the relationship between individual varia-
bles and Super-G performance. Multiple regression analysis assessed the relati-
onship between selected variable sets and Super-G performance. Assumptions 
of linearity, the normal distribution of the dependent variable, homoscedastici-
ty, and multicollinearity were verified before calculating the correlations.

RESULTS

Table 1 presents the basic statistics for body composition and Super-G per-
formance in boys, showing the most considerable within-group differences in 
body weight, waist circumference, shoulder diameter, muscle mass percentage, 
body mass index, and Super-G points, as well as minor differences in body fat 
percentage.

Table 1: Descriptive statistics for boys

Variables N Mean Min Max SD
Body height 23 170.05 153 179.8 7.32
Body weight 23 60.07 39.5 79.8 10.99
Thigh circumference 23 55.47 46.3 68.3 6.57
Waist circumference 23 75.83 64.2 87.6 6.67
Chest circumference 23 89.73 78.7 102.5 6.99
Shoulder circumference 23 93.99 80.8 132.4 11.03
Muscle mass percentage 23 29.94 18.64 41.14 5.48
Fat mass percentage 23 6.56 2.3 16.2 3.54
Body mass index 23 20.86 16.65 26.49 2.68
Body fat percentage 23 9.46 7 10.8 1.03
Super-G performance 23 105.96 19 325 85.84



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Table 2 shows the descriptive statistics for body composition and super-G 
performance in girls, with the most considerable within-group differences in 
body weight, thigh circumference, fat mass percentage, chest circumference, 
and super-G points, as well as minor differences in body height, body mass 
index, and muscle mass percentage.

Table 2: Descriptive statistics for girls

Variables N Mean Min Max SD

Body height 19 165.07 159.4 174 3.87

Body weight 19 57.88 46.5 74.8 7.29

Thigh circumference 19 57.12 48.2 71.1 5.42

Waist circumference 19 76.01 64.7 86.6 5.55

Chest circumference 19 93.56 81.9 104 5.9

Shoulder circumference 19 88.25 82.5 96.9 4.83

Muscle mass percentage 19 25.38 21.74 31.83 2.52

Fat mass percentage 19 11.45 5.1 19.3 3.91

Body mass index 19 20.82 17.44 24.74 2.23

Body fat percentage 19 13.48 12.1 15.4 0.92

Super-G performance 19 131.95 58 360 74.87

Comparison between the genders shows differences in body height, with 
girls averaging 165.1±3.9 cm compared to boys at 170.1±7.3 cm, and more 
variation in the boys’ height. Body weight differences are also noted (boys 
60.7±10.99 kg, girls 57.9±7.3 kg). Thigh circumference is higher in girls 
(57.1±5.4 cm) than in boys (55.5±6.6 cm), which is somewhat surprising given 
the expectation of greater lower limb muscle mass in boys. Waist circumferen-
ce shows no significant difference (boys 75.8±6.7 cm, girls 76.0±5.6 cm). Boys 
have a smaller chest circumference (89.7±7 cm) than girls (93.6±5.9 cm) due 
to gender differences in body constitution. Boys’ shoulder diameter is more 
significant (94±11 cm) than girls’ (88.3±4.8 cm), with more variation in boys 
due to more significant biological differences in this age group.

Boys generally have a higher muscle mass percentage (29.9±5.5%) than girls 
(25.4±2.5%), with more significant variation in boys. Conversely, girls have a 



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higher fat mass percentage (11.5±3.9%) than boys (6.6±3.5%). Consequently, 
the body fat percentage is higher in girls (13.5±0.9%) than in boys (9.5±1%). 
These results are expected to reflect the increased muscle mass in boys during 
puberty and the slightly increased fat mass in girls. The boys’ body mass index 
is 20.9±2.7, while the girls’ is 20.8±2.3, indicating no significant gender diffe-
rences. Higher muscle mass positively affects overcoming physical exertion, 
which is considerable in alpine skiing, especially in the speed disciplines.

Table 3: Correlation of body composition variables with the boys’ super-G per-
formance (r - Pearson correlation coefficient; r2 - determination coefficient)

Variables r r2 p

Body height 0.499 0.249 0.015

Body weight 0.650 0.422 0.001

Thigh circumference 0.550 0.302 0.007

Waist circumference 0.433 0.187 0.039

Chest circumference 0.593 0.351 0.003

Shoulder circumference 0.503 0.253 0.015

Muscle mass percentage 0.711 0.505 0.000

Fat mass percentage 0.274 0.075 0.206

Body mass index 0.494 0.244 0.017

Body fat percentage 0.497 0.247 0.016

In Table 3, the Pearson correlation coefficients and determination coeffi-
cients show the relationship between the body composition variables and 
Super-G performance. For boys, the highest and most significant correlations 
(p<0.05) were found with body weight (r=0.65; r2=0.422), thigh circumference 
(r=0.55; r2=0.302), chest circumference (r=0.593; r2=0.351), and muscle mass 
percentage (r=0.711; r2=0.505). Moderate and significant correlations (p<0.05) 
were observed with shoulder circumference (r=0.503; r2=0.253), waist circum-
ference (r=0.433; r2=0.187), body height (r=0.499; r2=0.249), body mass index 
(r=0.494; r2=0.244), and body fat percentage (r=0.497; r2=0.247). The lowest 
correlation was with fat mass percentage (r=0.274; r2=0.075), which was not 
statistically significant (p>0.05).



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Table 4: Correlation of body composition variables with girls’ super-G perfor-
mance (r - Pearson correlation coefficient; r2 - determination coefficient)

Variables r r2 p
Body height 0.272 0.074 0.26
Body weight 0.299 0.089 0.214
Thigh circumference 0.321 0.103 0.181
Waist circumference 0.461 0.212 0.047
Chest circumference 0.419 0.175 0.075
Shoulder circumference 0.392 0.153 0.097
Muscle mass percentage 0.438 0.192 0.06
Fat mass percentage 0.218 0.047 0.37
Body mass index 0.287 0.082 0.233
Body fat percentage 0.469 0.220 0.043

The results in Table 4 show that only waist circumference (r=0.461; 
r2=0.212) and body fat percentage (r=0.469; r2=0.22) significantly correla-
ted (p<0.05) with the girls’ Super-G performance. No statistical significance 
(p>0.05) was noted in chest circumference (r=0.419; r2=0.175), shoulder cir-
cumference (r=0.392; r2=0.153), muscle mass percentage (r=0.438; r2=0.192), 
and other variables with the lowest correlations.

Table 5: Multiple linear regression analysis of body composition variables with 
boys’ and girls’ U16 super-G performance

Gender r r2 SEE t p
Boys 0,854 0,729 60,456 0,801 0,439
Girls 0,77 0,593 71,607 0,694 0,507

Legend: r – correlation coefficient; r2 – determination coefficient; SEE – standard error of the estimate; 
p – statistical significance of the regression model.

The relationship between the whole set of body composition variables and 
U16 Super-G performance is shown in Table 5. No statistical significance 
was found in either regression model (boys: p=0.439; girls: p=0.507). A high 
correlation was noted between the body composition variables and Super-G 



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performance in both genders, explaining 73% of the boys’ and 59% of the girls’ 
performance. In both genders, it can be concluded that individual variables do 
not have a significant impact on competitive performance. This is also the rea-
son why individual predictors are not specifically presented in Table 5.

DISCUSSION

Alpine skiing is one of the most complex and specific sports, influenced 
by numerous factors (Ferland & Comtois, 2018; McKnight, 2018). This study 
examined the relationship between physical characteristics and young alpine 
skiers’ Super-G performance. Selected parameters (body height, body weight, 
thigh, waist, chest, and shoulder circumferences, muscle mass percentage, fat 
mass percentage, body mass index, and body fat percentage) are crucial, alon-
gside skiing technique, motor skills, talent, and environmental factors, in influ-
encing Super-G performance.

Significant correlations were found between the body composition variables 
and Super-G performance in both U16 boys and girls. For the boys, perfor-
mance correlated with body weight, thigh circumference, chest circumference, 
and muscle mass percentage. Lower correlations were noted with body height, 
body mass index, and body fat percentage. Among the variables, muscle mass 
percentage has the highest coefficient of determination, explaining 50% of the 
variance with the variable super-G performance. Higher muscle mass enables 
better force development during turns, a critical factor in competitive success, 
consistent with Bertozzi et al. (2024). For girls, waist circumference, chest cir-
cumference, muscle mass percentage, and body fat percentage showed the hi-
ghest correlations with performance. Lower correlations were noted with thigh 
circumference, shoulder diameter, and body height. In girls, body fat percenta-
ge has the highest coefficient of determination, explaining 22% of the variance 
with the variable super-G performance. The fat mass percentage did not corre-
late with competitive success, contrary to findings that fat mass percentage is 
linked to speed discipline success in women (Vermeulen et al., 2017).

These results align with other studies in some instances. Bandalo and Lešnik 
(2012) found that body constitution significantly impacts younger male ski-
ers’ competitive success, with taller and heavier boys achieving better results. 
Lešnik (1999) emphasized the importance of body weight and control in com-
petitive alpine skiing, which is explained by body voluminosity (body mass and 
circumferences). Bandalo and Lešnik (2012) noted that greater body weight 
in the U16 category significantly contributes to faster skiing between gates, 



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impacting competitive success. Greater body weight aids in speed acquisition 
during direction changes, providing a competitive advantage, as also noted by 
Bertozzi et al. (2024). Supej (2008) explained that body constitution influences 
faster sliding on the skis, as speed increases more in heavier competitors due 
to gravitational force, terrain slope, and friction forces with appropriate body 
positioning. However, excessive weight due to high-fat mass complicates body 
control, a key element in alpine skiing (Lešnik, 1999). Aktaş (2024) found that 
body weight, height, and body mass index negatively correlate with alpine ski-
ing performance in general.

Experts have emphasized the need to focus on activities that increase muscle 
mass and body weight in young competitors, appropriately adapted to their 
developmental stage. Skiing technique is also crucial. Snow training should 
prioritize refining proper turn technique over gate skiing. Effective body weight 
utilization and good skiing technique contribute significantly to competitive 
success. Furthermore, it is essential to avoid potential injuries through a correct 
approach to ski training for children and adolescents, as these injuries often 
have a decisive impact on the athlete’s competitive career (Kresal, Bračun, 
Tönig, & Amon., 2021).

A fundamental limitation of this study is the small sample size due to the 
limited number of competitors in this age category. The relatively few Super-G 
competitions in the season also limit the study, making generalizations difficult. 
Future research should replicate this study with larger samples, including older 
and younger age groups, and examine the relationship between physical cha-
racteristics and other alpine skiing disciplines.

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